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Fact Sheet on Volatile Organic Compounds

Technical Report · October 2017

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.19259.11044

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 Cancer Association of South Africa (CANSA)

Fact Sheet
on
Volatile Organic Compounds

Introduction
Organic compounds are chemicals
that contain carbon and are found in
all living things. Many volatile organic
compounds are classified as known
or possible carcinogens, irritants and
toxicants. Volatile organic com-
pounds, sometimes referred to as
VOCs, are organic compounds that
easily become vapours or gases.
Along with carbon, they contain
elements such as hydrogen, oxygen,
fluorine, chlorine, bromine, sulphur or
nitrogen.

[Picture Credit: Volatile Organic Compounds]

VOCs are organic chemicals that have a high vapour pressure at ordinary room
temperature. Their high vapour pressure results from a low boiling point, which causes large
numbers of molecules to evaporate or sublimate from the liquid or solid form of the
compound and enter the surrounding air, a trait known as volatility.

Volatile organic compounds are released from burning fuel, such as gasoline (petrol), wood,
coal, or natural gas. They are also emitted from oil and gas fields and diesel exhaust. They
are also released from solvents, paints, glues, and other products that are used and stored
at home and at work.

Examples of volatile organic compounds are gasoline (petrol), benzene, formaldehyde,

solvents such as toluene and xylene, styrene, and perchloroethylene (or tetrachloro-
ethylene), the main solvent used in dry cleaning.

Many volatile organic compounds are commonly used in paint thinners, lacquer thinners,
moth repellents, air fresheners, hobby supplies, wood preservatives, aerosol sprays,
degreasers, automotive products, and dry cleaning fluids.

Whether it is paints (water-based or solvent-based), cosmetics, disinfectants, glue, ink for

printers, marker pens, tobacco smoke or petrol from one’s lawnmower, volatile organic

Researched and Authored by Prof Michael C Herbst

[D Litt et Phil (Health Studies); D N Ed; M Art et Scien; B A Cur; Dip Occupational Health]
Approved by Ms Elize Joubert, Chief Executive Officer [BA Social Work (cum laude); MA Social Work]
October 2017 Page 1
compounds (VOC) are present in some of these items commonly used at home. Exposure to
VOC’s can cause both immediate and long term effects.

VOCs are numerous, varied, and ubiquitous. They include both human-made and naturally
occurring chemical compounds. Most scents or odours are of VOCs. VOCs play an important
role in communication between plants, and messages from plants to animals. Some VOCs are
dangerous to human health or cause harm to the environment. Anthropogenic (originating in
human activity) VOCs are regulated by law, especially indoors, where concentrations are the
highest. Harmful VOCs typically are not acutely toxic, but have compounding long-term health
effects. Because the concentrations are usually low and the symptoms slow to develop, research
into VOCs and their effects is difficult.
(Tox Town; Independent Petroleum Laboratory; Wikipedia; Chin, et al., 2014).

Products used at home or work that can release VOCs into the air
when used and stored
Examples of Household Products Possible VOC Ingredients

Fuel containers or devices using gasoline, kerosene, fuel oil BTEX (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, xylene),
and products with petroleum distillates: paint thinner, oil- hexane, cyclohexane, 1,2,4-trimethylbenzene
based stains and paint, aerosol or liquid insect pest
products, mineral spirits, furniture polishes

Personal care products: nail polish, nail polish remover, Acetone, ethyl alcohol, isopropyl alcohol,
colognes, perfumes, rubbing alcohol, hair spray methacrylates (methyl or ethyl), ethyl acetate

Dry cleaned clothes, spot removers, fabric/ leather cleaners Tetrachloroethene (perchloroethene (PERC),
trichloroethene (TCE))

Citrus (orange) oil or pine oil cleaners, solvents and some d-limonene (citrus odour), a-pinene (pine odour),
odour masking products isoprene

PVC cement and primer, various adhesives, contact Tetrahydrofuran, cyclohexane, methyl ethyl ketone
cement, model cement (MEK), toluene, acetone, hexane, 1,1,1-
trichloroethane, methyl-iso-butyl ketone (MIBK)

Paint stripper, adhesive (glue) removers Methylene chloride, toluene, older products may
contain carbon tetrachloride

Degreasers, aerosol penetrating oils, brake cleaner, Methylene chloride, PERC, TCE, toluene, xylenes,
carburettor cleaner, commercial solvents, electronics methyl ethyl ketone, 1,1,1-trichloroethane
cleaners, spray lubricants

Moth balls, moth flakes, deodorizers, air fresheners 1,4-dichlorobenzene, naphthalene

Refrigerant from air conditioners, freezers, refrigerators, Freons (trichlorofluoromethane,

dehumidifiers dichlorodifluoromethane)

Aerosol spray products for some paints, cosmetics, Heptane, butane, pentane
automotive products, leather treatments, pesticides

Upholstered furniture, carpets, plywood, pressed wood Formaldehyde

products
(New York State: Department of Health).

Common Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) in the Home

The most common indoor VOC emission sources include consumer products (e.g., cleaners,
solvents, mothballs), building materials (e.g., floor and wall coverings, carpet, insulation,
paint, wood finishing products), combustion processes (e.g., smoking, cooking, home
Researched and Authored by Prof Michael C Herbst
[D Litt et Phil (Health Studies); D N Ed; M Art et Scien; B A Cur; Dip Occupational Health]
Approved by Ms Elize Joubert, Chief Executive Officer [BA Social Work (cum laude); MA Social Work]
October 2017 Page 2
heating), personal care products (e.g., shampoo, soaps), attached garages, dry-cleaned
clothing, and municipal tap water. Products can release VOCs while using them, and, to
some degree, when they are stored.

The indoor sources of VOCs mentioned above produce a range of VOCs. Building materials,
such as hardwood, plywood, laminate floorings, adhesives, paints and varnishes are most
commonly associated with formaldehyde, benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylenes
emissions. Consumer products such as, laundry products and cleaners release, on average,
15 different VOCs, with the ethanol, acetone, and acetyaldehyde being among the dominate
chemicals. Fragranced products (e.g., products that smell like lemons or pine), give off
VOCs called terpenes (e.g., limonene, α-pinene) among other VOCs. Terpenes chemically
react with ozone (also found in indoor air) and can generate a range of secondary pollutants,
including formaldehyde and ultrafine particles.

Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) found in Household Products:

 Paints (both water-based and solvent-based), paint strippers and other solvents
 wood preservatives
 aerosol sprays
 cleansers and disinfectants
 moth repellents and air fresheners
 stored fuels and automotive products
 hobby supplies
 dry-cleaned clothing
 pesticide

Other products, including:

 building materials and furnishings

 office equipment such as copiers and printers, correction fluids and carbonless copy
paper
 graphics and craft materials including glues and adhesives, permanent markers and
photographic solutions.
(Myatt, 2015; United States Environmental Protection Agency; Paint Quality Institute).

Harmful Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)

Known harmful Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) include:

Volatile Organic Compound Sources Health Effect

Acrolein Burning of organic matter. Causes DNA damage in p53 tumour suppression genes.
Tobacco smoke. Inhibits DNA repair.
Combustion of petrol.
Combustion of biodiesel.
Naphthalene Pesticides (moth balls). Reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen.
Paradichlorobenzene Pesticides (moth crystals). Irritation of the skin, throat, and eyes.
Toilet bowl deodorizer. Effects on the liver, skin, and central nervous system
Room deodorizers. (CNS).
Causes kidney tumours in male rats and liver tumours in
both sexes of mice.
Classified as possible human carcinogen.

Researched and Authored by Prof Michael C Herbst

[D Litt et Phil (Health Studies); D N Ed; M Art et Scien; B A Cur; Dip Occupational Health]
Approved by Ms Elize Joubert, Chief Executive Officer [BA Social Work (cum laude); MA Social Work]
October 2017 Page 3
Acetaldehyde Tobacco smoke. Acetaldehyde is highly toxic, mutagenic and carcinogenic.
Water-based paint.
Unvented combustion
appliances.
Leakage from wood stoves,
furnaces, and fireplaces.
Benzene Tobacco smoke. Benzene is a well-established cause of cancer in humans.
Some furnishings The International Agency for Research on Cancer has
Paints classified benzene as carcinogenic to humans (Group 1).
Coatings Chronic exposure to benzene can reduce the production of
Wood products. both red and white blood cells from bone marrow in
Stored gasoline. humans, resulting in aplastic anaemia.
Vehicle operation. Both B-cell proliferation and T-cell proliferation are reduced
Evaporation from hot by benzene.
engines in attached Benzene is a moderate eye irritant and a skin irritant.
garages. Acute occupational exposure to benzene may cause
narcosis: headache, dizziness, drowsiness, confusion,
tremors and loss of consciousness.2 Use of alcohol
enhances the toxic effect.
Formaldehyde Some manufactured wood IARC has concluded that formaldehyde is
products used as building "carcinogenic to humans" based on higher risks of
materials, in cabinets, and nasopharyngeal cancer and leukaemia
in furniture, e.g., medium
density fibreboard, particle
board.
Plywood with urea
formaldehyde resin.
Urea formaldehyde foam
insulation (no longer used
but still present in some
buildings).
Tobacco smoke.
Unvented combustion
appliances.
Personal care products.
Acrylonitrile Manufacture of acrylic and Suspected human carcinogen
modacrylic fibres. Genotoxic
Raw material in the Causes tumours in rats
manufacture of plastics
(acrylonitrile-butadiene-
styrene and styrene-
acrylonitrile resins),
adiponitrile, acrylamide,
and nitrile rubbers and
barrier resins.
1,3-Butadiene Large amounts of 1,3- There is sufficient evidence in humans for the
butadiene are released into carcinogenicity of 1,3-butadiene. 1,3-Butadiene causes
the air by industrial cancer of the haematolymphatic organs.
sources. There is sufficient evidence for the carcinogenicity of 1,3-
Automobile exhaust is a butadiene in experimental animals.
constant source of 1,3- There is sufficient evidence for the in experimental
butadiene release into the animals.
air. There is strong evidence that the carcinogenicity of 1,3-
Cigarette smoke. butadiene in humans operates by a genotoxic mechanism
Smoke of wood fires. that involves formation of reactive epoxides, interaction of
Forest fires. these direct acting mutagenic epoxides with DNA, and
resultant mutagenicity.
The metabolic pathways for 1,3-butadiene in experimental
animals have also been demonstrated in humans.
1,3-Butadiene is carcinogenic to humans (Group 1)
Ethylene oxide Release to air from some Under the Guidelines for Carcinogen Risk Assessment
agricultural fumigation. (U.S. EPA, 2005), ethylene oxide is carcinogenic to
Car exhaust. humans by the inhalation route of exposure, based on
strong, but less than conclusive on its own, epidemiological
evidence of lymphohaematopoietic cancers and breast
cancer in EtO exposed workers, extensive evidence of
carcinogenicity in laboratory animals, including
lymphohaematopoietic cancers in rats and mice and
mammary carcinomas in mice following inhalation
exposure, clear evidence that EtO is genotoxic and
sufficient weight of evidence to support a mutagenic mode
of action for EtO carcinogenicity, and strong evidence that
the key precursor events are anticipated to occur in

Researched and Authored by Prof Michael C Herbst

[D Litt et Phil (Health Studies); D N Ed; M Art et Scien; B A Cur; Dip Occupational Health]
Approved by Ms Elize Joubert, Chief Executive Officer [BA Social Work (cum laude); MA Social Work]
October 2017 Page 4
 humans and progress to tumours, including evidence of
chromosome damage in humans exposed to EtO.
Propylene oxide Adhesives and sealant Propylene oxide is reasonably anticipated to be a human
chemicals. carcinogen based on sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity
Flame retardants. from studies in experimental animals.
Fuels and fuel additives.
Viscosity adjustors.
Anti-Freeze Products.
De-icing Products.
Laundry and dishwashing
products.

Nicotine-derived nitrosamine Tobacco smoke. Metabolically activated NNK and NNN induce deleterious
ketone (NNK) mutations in oncogenes and tumour suppression genes by
forming DNA adducts, which could be considered as
tumour initiation.
N-Nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) Tobacco smoke. It is toxic to the liver and other organs
Ingesting food that contains Is a suspected human carcinogen
nitrosamines, such as
smoked or cured meats
and fish.
Ingesting food that contains
alkylamines, which can
cause NDMA to form in the
stomach.
Drinking contaminated
water.
Drinking malt beverages
(such as beer and whiskey)
that may contain low levels
of nitrosamines formed
during processing.
Using toiletry and cosmetic
products such as
shampoos and cleansers
that contain NDMA.
Workplace exposure can
occur at tanneries,
pesticide manufacturing
plants and rubber and tire
plants.
Vinyl chloride Vinyl chloride is a chemical The International Agency for Research on Cancer has
intermediate, not a final determined that vinyl chloride is carcinogenic to people
product. EPA has determined that vinyl chloride is a human
Vinyl chloride is used in the carcinogen.
manufacture of numerous
products in building
construction, automotive
industry, electrical wire
insulation and cables,
piping, industrial and
household equipment,
medical supplies, and is
depended upon heavily by
the rubber, paper, and
glass industries.
Carbon tetrachloride Found in cleaning fluid (in The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC)
industry and dry cleaning has determined that carbon tetrachloride is possibly
establishments as carcinogenic to humans
a degreasing agent. The EPA determined that carbon tetrachloride is a
In households as a spot probable human carcinogen
remover for clothing,
furniture, and carpeting.
1,2-dichloroethane Used to produce vinyl 1,2-Dichloroethane is reasonably anticipated to be a
chloride monomer (VCM, human carcinogen based on sufficient evidence of
chloroethene), the major carcinogenicity from studies in experimental animals
precursor for
PVC production.
Used generally as an
intermediate for other
organic chemical
compounds.

Researched and Authored by Prof Michael C Herbst

[D Litt et Phil (Health Studies); D N Ed; M Art et Scien; B A Cur; Dip Occupational Health]
Approved by Ms Elize Joubert, Chief Executive Officer [BA Social Work (cum laude); MA Social Work]
October 2017 Page 5
Trichloroethylene As a solvent to remove There is sufficient evidence in humans for the
grease from metal parts carcinogenicity of trichloroethylene. Trichloroethylene
A chemical that is used to causes cancer of the kidney. A positive association has
make other chemicals, been observed between exposure to trichloroethylene and
especially the refrigerant, non-Hodgkin lymphoma and liver cancer
HFC-134a. There is sufficient evidence in experimental animals for the
Solvent for a variety of carcinogenicity of trichloroethylene
organic materials. Trichloroethylene is carcinogenic to humans (Group 1)
Used as a dry
cleaning solvent.
Chloroform Produced on a large scale Chloroform is reasonably anticipated to be a human
as a precursor to carcinogen based on sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity
Polytetrafluoroethylene from studies in experimental animals
(PTFE) – to make Teflon.
It is also a precursor to
various refrigerants.
Carbon tetrachloride Used as a solvent for oils, Exposure carbon tetrachloride can damage the liver,
fats, lacquers, varnishes, kidneys, and nervous system
rubber waxes, and resins, Carbon tetrachloride can cause cancer in animals
and a starting material in Carbon tetrachloride is possibly carcinogenic to humans
the manufacturing of
organic compounds.
(St Helen, et al., 2015; Koerselman & van der Graaf; World Health Organization; IARC;
United States Environmental Protection Agency; National Toxicology Program, Department
of Health and Human Services; Xue, et al., 2014; Wikipedia; Agency for Toxic Substances &
Diseases Registry; Berkeley Lab).

Other Health Effects of Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)

Health effects may include:

 eye, nose and throat irritation

 headaches, loss of coordination and nausea
 damage to liver, kidney and central nervous system
 some organics can cause cancer in animals, some are suspected or known to cause
cancer in humans.

Key signs or symptoms associated with exposure to VOCs include:

 conjunctival irritation
 nose and throat discomfort
 headache
 allergic skin reaction
 dyspnoea (difficult breathing)
 declines in serum cholinesterase levels
 nausea
 emesis (vomiting)
 epistaxis (nose bleeds)
 fatigue
 dizziness

The ability of organic chemicals to cause health effects varies greatly from those that are
highly toxic, to those with no known health effect.

As with other pollutants, the extent and nature of the health effect will depend on many
factors including level of exposure and length of time exposed. Among the immediate

Researched and Authored by Prof Michael C Herbst

[D Litt et Phil (Health Studies); D N Ed; M Art et Scien; B A Cur; Dip Occupational Health]
Approved by Ms Elize Joubert, Chief Executive Officer [BA Social Work (cum laude); MA Social Work]
October 2017 Page 6
symptoms that some people have experienced soon after exposure to some organics
include:

 eye and respiratory tract irritation

 headaches
 dizziness
 visual disorders and memory impairment

At present, not much is known about what health effects occur from the levels of organics
usually found in homes.
(United States Environmental Protection Agency).

Reducing the Risk of Exposure to Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)

 Avoid the use of air fresheners and room deodorizers, as these can result in eye,
nose and throat irritation
 Select products that emit low or no VOCs when choosing new carpets, flooring, office
furniture and paints.
 Choose low-VOC-emitting cleaners.
 Do not store chemical products in equipment rooms where they could contaminate
the heating, ventilation and air-conditioning system.
(National Safety Council).

Medical Disclaimer
This Fact Sheet is intended to provide general information only and, as such, should not be
considered as a substitute for advice, medically or otherwise, covering any specific situation.
Users should seek appropriate advice before taking or refraining from taking any action in
reliance on any information contained in this Fact Sheet. So far as permissible by law, the
Cancer Association of South Africa (CANSA) does not accept any liability to any person (or
his/her dependants/estate/heirs) relating to the use of any information contained in this Fact
Sheet.

Whilst CANSA has taken every precaution in compiling this Fact Sheet, neither it, nor any
contributor(s) to this Fact Sheet can be held responsible for any action (or the lack thereof)
taken by any person or organisation wherever they shall be based, as a result, direct or
otherwise, of information contained in, or accessed through, this Fact Sheet.

Researched and Authored by Prof Michael C Herbst

[D Litt et Phil (Health Studies); D N Ed; M Art et Scien; B A Cur; Dip Occupational Health]
Approved by Ms Elize Joubert, Chief Executive Officer [BA Social Work (cum laude); MA Social Work]
October 2017 Page 7
Sources and References

Agency for Toxic Substances & Diseases Registry

https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/phs/phs.asp?id=280&tid=51
https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxfaqs/tf.asp?id=195&tid=35
https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxfaqs/tfacts30.pdf

Berkeley Lab
https://iaqscience.lbl.gov/voc-cancer

Chin, J., Godwin, C., Parker, E., Robins, T., Lewis, T., Harbin, P. & Batterman, S. 2014.
Levels and sources of volatile organic compounds in homes of children with asthma. Indoor
Air, 2014, Aug: 24(4):403-415. Published online 2014 Jan 13.doj: 10.1111/ina.12086.

IARC
https://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Monographs/vol100F/mono100F-26.pdf
https://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Monographs/vol106/mono106-001.pdf

Independent Petroleum Laboratory

http://www.ipl.co.nz/ipl-blog/volatile-organic-compound-voc-ipl-proctecting-staffs-health

Koerselman, W. & van der Graaf, M. 1984. Acrylonitrile: a suspected human carcinogen.
Int Arch Occup Environ Health. 54(4):317-24.

Myatt, T. 2015. Volatile Organic Compounds in the Home: Sources, Health Implications, and
Solutions.
https://www.honeywellpluggedin.com/sites/default/files/voc_in_home_white_paper.pdf

National Safety Council

http://www.safetyandhealthmagazine.com/articles/9834-controlling-voc-exposure-in-the-
workplace

National Toxicology Program, Department of Health and Human Services

https://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/ntp/roc/content/profiles/propyleneoxide.pdf
https://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/ntp/roc/content/profiles/dichloroethane.pdf
https://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/ntp/roc/content/profiles/chloroform.pdf
https://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/ntp/roc/content/profiles/naphthalene.pdf

New York State: Department of Health

https://www.health.ny.gov/environmental/indoors/voc.htm

Paint Quality Institute

http://www.paintquality.com/en/understanding-paint/water-based-vs-solvent-based

St Helen, G., Jacob, P. III, Peng, M., Kempsey, D.A., Hammond, S.K. Benowitz, N.L.
2015. Intake of toxic and carcinogenic volatile organic compounds from secondhand smoke
in motor vehicles. Cancer Epidemiol biomarkers Prev. 2014. Dec: 23(12): 2774-2782.
Published online 2014 Nov 14. doi: 10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-14-0548.

Tox Town
https://toxtown.nlm.nih.gov/text_version/chemicals.php?id=31

United States Environmental Protection Agency

Researched and Authored by Prof Michael C Herbst

[D Litt et Phil (Health Studies); D N Ed; M Art et Scien; B A Cur; Dip Occupational Health]
Approved by Ms Elize Joubert, Chief Executive Officer [BA Social Work (cum laude); MA Social Work]
October 2017 Page 8
 https://www.epa.gov/indoor-air-quality-iaq/volatile-organic-compounds-impact-indoor-air-
quality#Sources
https://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/iris2/chemicalLanding.cfm?substance_nmbr=1025
https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2014-
03/documents/ffrrofactsheet_contaminant_ndma_january2014_final.pdf

Volatile Organic Compounds

http://www.ipl.co.nz/ipl-blog/volatile-organic-compound-voc-ipl-proctecting-staffs-health

Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volatile_organic_compound
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N-Nitrosodimethylamine
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vinyl_chloride

World Health Organization

http://www.who.int/ipcs/features/benzene.pdf

Xue, J., Yang, S. & Seng, S. 2014. Mechanisms of cancer induction by toabbo-specific NNK
and NNN. Cancers (Basel). 2014 Jun; 6(2):1138-1156. Published online 2014 May 14. doi:
10.3390/cancers6021138.

Researched and Authored by Prof Michael C Herbst

[D Litt et Phil (Health Studies); D N Ed; M Art et Scien; B A Cur; Dip Occupational Health]
Approved by Ms Elize Joubert, Chief Executive Officer [BA Social Work (cum laude); MA Social Work]
October 2017 Page 9

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