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Welding
Principles and Practices
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Welding
Principles and Practices
Fifth Edition
Edward R. Bohnart
WELDING: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES, FIFTH EDITION
Published by McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121. Copyright © 2018 by McGraw-
Hill Education. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Previous edition © 2012, 2005,
and 1981. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored
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ISBN 978-0-07-337386-7
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Bohnart, Edward R., author.

Welding : principles and practices/Edward R. Bohnart.
Fifth edition. | New York : McGraw-Hill Education, [2017] | Revised edition of:
Welding : principles and practices/Raymond J. Sacks; earlier editions published
under the title: Theory and practice of arc welding. | Includes index.
LCCN 2016052223| ISBN 9780073373867 (alk. paper) | ISBN 0073373869 (alk. paper)
LCSH: Welding.
LCC TS227 .S22 2017 | DDC 671.5/2—dc23 LC record available
at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016052223
The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. The inclusion of a website
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Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii
U N IT 1
Introduction to Welding and Oxyfuel 1

Chapter 1 History of Welding 2 Titanium-Making in the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Unique Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
The History of Metalworking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Effects of Welding on Metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Welding as an Occupation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Industrial Welding Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Chapter 4 Basic Joints and Welds 112
Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Types of Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Chapter 2 Industrial Welding 13 The Four Weld Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Weld Size and Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Fabrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Weld Positions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Maintenance and Repair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Strength of Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Industries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Common Weld and Weld-Related Discontinuities . . . 125
Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Chapter 3 Steel and Other Metals 34
Chapter 5 Gas Welding 137
History of Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Oxyacetylene Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Raw Materials for the Making of Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
The Smelting of Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 General Cylinder Handling, Storage, and Operation
Steelmaking Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Safety Concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Metalworking Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Welding Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Metal Internal Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Supporting Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Physical Properties of Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Safety Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Effects of Common Elements on Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 General Safety Operating Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Types of Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
SAE/AISI Steel Numbering System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Chapter 6 Flame Cutting Principles 166
ASTM Numbering System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Unified Numbering Designation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 Oxyacetylene and Other Fuel Gas Cutting . . . . . . . . . 166
Types of Cast Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 Oxygen Lance Cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Aluminum-Making in the World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
v
Chapter 7 lame Cutting Practice:
F Heavy Steel Plate and Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Jobs 7-J1–J3 178 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Review of Flame Cutting Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Cutting Different Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 Chapter 9 Braze Welding and Advanced
Gas Welding Practice:
Cutting Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Jobs 9-J39–J49 232
Surface Appearance of High Quality Flame Cuts . . . 186
Arc Cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 Braze Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Practice Jobs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 Welding Cast Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
Job 7-J1 Straight Line and Bevel Cutting . . . . . . . . . 193 Welding of Aluminum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Job 7-J2 Laying Out and Cutting Odd Shapes . . . . . 197 Welding Other Metals with the
Job 7-J3 Cutting Cast Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 Oxyacetylene Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 Hard Facing (Surfacing) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Chapter 8 Gas Welding Practice:
Jobs 8-J1–J38 203 Chapter 10 Soldering and Brazing
Sound Weld Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 Principles and Practice:
Jobs 10-J50–J51 250
The Oxyacetylene Welding Flame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Setting Up the Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 Soldering and Brazing Copper Tubing . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Flame Adjustment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 Soldering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Closing Down the Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 Practice Jobs: Soldering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 Torch Brazing (TB) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Practice Jobs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 Practice Jobs: Brazing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Low Carbon Steel Plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
U N IT 2
Shielded Metal Arc Welding 277

Chapter 11 hielded Metal Arc Welding
S Functions of Electrode Coverings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
Principles 278 Composition of Electrode Coverings . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
Process Capability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 Identifying Electrodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
Operating Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 Electrode Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
Welding Power Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 Specific Electrode Classifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Machines for Shielded Metal Arc Welding . . . . . . . . . 283 Packing and Protection of Electrodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Multiple-Operator Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
Power Supply Ratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
Cables and Fasteners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290 Chapter 13 hielded Metal Arc
S
Electrode Holders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 Welding Practice:
Jobs 13-J1–J25 (Plate) 330
Other Electric Arc Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
Personal Safety Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 Approach to the Job . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
Learning Welding Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
S Practice Jobs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
Electrodes 300
Job 13-J1 Striking the Arc and Short
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 Stringer Beading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Shielded Metal Arc Welding Electrodes . . . . . . . . . . . 301 Job 13-J2 Stringer Beading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
vi Contents
Job 13-J3 Weaved Beading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343 Job 14-J38 Welding a Single-V Butt Joint
Job 13-J4 Stringer Beading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 (Backing Bar Construction) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
Job 13-J5 Weaved Beading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347 Job 14-J39 Welding a Square Butt Joint . . . . . . . . . . 416
Job 13-J6 Welding an Edge Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349 Job 14-J40 Welding an Outside Corner Joint . . . . . . 418
Job 13-J7 Welding an Edge Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350 Job 14-J41 Welding a T-Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
Job 13-J8 Welding a Lap Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352 Job 14-J42 Welding a Single-V Butt Joint
Job 13-J9 Welding a Lap Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354 (Backing Bar Construction) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
Job 13-J10 Stringer Beading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
Job 13-J11 Stringer Beading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
Job 13-J12 Welding a Lap Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359 Chapter 15 hielded Metal Arc
S
Job 13-J13 Welding a Lap Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361 Welding Practice:
Job 13-J14 Welding a T-Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363 Jobs 15-J43–J55 (Plate) 428
Job 13-J15 Welding a T-Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
Job 13-J16 Welding a T-Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367 Practice Jobs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
Job 13-J17 Welding a T-Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369 Job 15-J43 Welding a Single-V Butt Joint . . . . . . . . 429
Job 13-J18 Stringer Beading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370 Job 15-J44 Welding a T-Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
Job 13-J19 Weaved Beading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372 Job 15-J45 Welding a T-Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
Job 13-J20 Weaved Beading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374 Job 15-J46 Welding a Lap Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
Job 13-J21 Welding a Lap Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375 Job 15-J47 Welding a Lap Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
Job 13-J23 Welding a T-Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380 Job 15-J49 Welding a T-Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
Job 13-J24 Welding a T-Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382 Job 15-J50 Welding a T-Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385 Job 15-J52 Welding a Coupling to a
Flat Plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
S
Job 15-J53 Welding a Coupling to a Flat Plate . . . . . 449
Practice: Jobs 14-J26–J42 Job 15-J54 Welding a Single-V Butt Joint
(Plate) 388 (Backing Bar Construction) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
Job 15-J55 Welding a Single-V Butt Joint . . . . . . . . 452
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
Practice Jobs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
Job 14-J26 Stringer Beading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
Job 14-J27 Weave Beads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
Job 14-J28 Welding a Single-V Butt Joint
(Backing Bar Construction) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393 Chapter 16 Pipe Welding and Shielded
Job 14-J29 Welding a T-Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395 Metal Arc Welding Practice:
Jobs 16-J1–J17 (Pipe) 469
Job 14-J30 Welding a Single-V Butt Joint
(Backing Bar Construction) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
Job 14-J31 Welding a Square Butt Joint . . . . . . . . . . 399 Shielded Metal Arc Welding of Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
Job 14-J32 Welding an Outside Joint Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
Corner Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400 Codes and Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
Job 14-J33 Welding a Single-V Butt Joint . . . . . . . . 403 Practice Jobs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
Job 14-J34 Welding a T-Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406 Tools for Pipe Fabrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
Job 14-J35 Welding a T-Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
Job 14-J36 Welding a T-Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
Job 14-J37 Welding a T-Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
Contents vii
U N IT 3
Arc Cutting and Gas Tungsten Arc Welding 521

Chapter 17 rc Cutting Principles and Arc
A Chapter 19 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
Cutting Practice: Jobs 17-J1–J7 522 Practice: Jobs 19-J1–J19
(Plate) 593
Arc Cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522
Learning Arc Cutting Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding of Various Metals . . . . . . 593
Practice Jobs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535 Joint Design and Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604
Job 17-J1 Square Cutting with PAC . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538 Setting Up the Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 607
Job 17-J2 Bevel Cutting with PAC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538 Safe Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 608
Job 17-J3 Gouging with PAC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538 Arc Starting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 609
Job 17-J4 Hole Piercing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539 Welding Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611
Job 17-J5 Shape Cutting with PAC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539 Practice Jobs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613
Job 17-J6 Gouging with CAC-A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628
Job 17-J7 Weld Removal with CAC-A . . . . . . . . . . . 544
Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546 Chapter 20 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
Practice: Jobs 20-J1–J17
Chapter 18 Gas Tungsten Arc and Plasma (Pipe) 630
Arc Welding Principles 549
Joint Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 631
Gas Shielded Arc Welding Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549 Porosity in Gas Tungsten Arc Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 635
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554 Practice Jobs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 635
TIG Hot Wire Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 650
Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590
U N IT 4
Gas Metal Arc, Flux Cored Arc, and Submerged

Arc Welding 655
Chapter 21 as Metal Arc and Flux Cored Arc
G Care and Use of Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 722
Welding Principles 656 Welding Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 726
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 656 Process and Equipment Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 727
GMAW/FCAW Welding Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665 Practice Jobs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 727
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 702 Gas Metal Arc Welding of Other Metals . . . . . . . . . . 745
Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 706 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 749
Chapter 23 Flux Cored Arc Welding Practice

Chapter 22 as Metal Arc Welding Practice
G (Plate), Submerged Arc Welding, and
with Solid and Metal Core Wire: Related Processes: FCAW-G Jobs
Jobs 22-J1–J23 (Plate) 708 23-J1–J11, FCAW-S Jobs
23-J1–J12; SAW Job 23-J1 751
Operating Variables That
Affect Weld Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 708 Flux Cored Wire Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 751
Weld Defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 717 Flux Cored Arc Welding—Gas Shielded
Safe Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720 Practice Jobs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 763
viii Contents
Flux Cored Arc Welding—Self-Shielded . . . . . . . . . . 768 Chapter 24 as Metal Arc Welding
G
Flux Cored Arc Welding—Self-Shielded Practice: Jobs 24-J1–J15
(Pipe) 790
Practice Jobs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 769
Automatic or Mechanized Industrial Applications of GMAW
Welding Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 771 Pipe Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 790
Submerged Arc Welding Semiautomatic Use of Equipment and Supplies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 792
Practice Job . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 780 Welding Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 794
Choice of Welding Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 784 Practice Jobs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 795
Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 785 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 811
U N IT 5
High Energy Beams, Automation, Robotics,

and Weld Shop Management 815
Chapter 25 igh Energy Beams and
H Training, Qualification, and Certification . . . . . . . . . 887
Related Welding and Cutting Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 889
Process Principles 816
Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 889
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 816
High Energy Beam Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 817 Chapter 28 J oint Design, Testing,
and Inspection 891
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 828
Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 830 Joint Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 892
Code Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 898
Chapter 26 eneral Equipment for
G
Nondestructive Testing (NDT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 902
Welding Shops 832
Destructive Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 920
Screens and Booths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 832 Visual Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 936
Work-Holding Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 833 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 943
Preheating and Annealing Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . 845 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 947
Sandblasting Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 846
Spot Welder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 846 Chapter 29 Reading Shop Drawings 949
Hydraulic Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 847
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 949
Power Squaring Shears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 850
Standard Drawing Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 952
Small Hand Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 851
Types of Views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 962
Portable Power Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 853
Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 967
Machine Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 860
Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 868
Chapter 30 Welding Symbols 978
Chapter 27 utomatic and Robotic
A Fillet Welds and Symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 980
Arc Welding Equipment 870
Weld-All-Around Symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 983
Arc Control Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 872 Groove Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 983
Arc Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 875 Edge Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 986
Controller Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 881 Combination Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 986
Robotic Arc Welding Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 882 Contour Symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 986
Robot Ratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 885 Applications of Welding Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 987
Robot Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 886 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 988
Contents ix
Chapter 31 Welding and Bonding of Plastics 994 Appendixes
Know Your Plastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 995 A: Conversion Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1058

Characteristics of Plastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 998 B: Illustrated Guide to Welding Terminology . . . . . 1071
Welding as a Method of Joining C: Welding Abbreviation List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1086
Plastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 999 D: Major Agencies Issuing Codes,
Inspection and Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1010 Specifications, and Associations . . . . . . . . . . . . 1088
Practice Jobs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1014 E: Sources of Welding Information . . . . . . . . . . . . 1090
Tack Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1015 F: Metric Conversion Information
Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1024 for the Welding Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1092
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1093
Chapter 32 Safety 1026 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1109
Safety Practices: Electric Welding Processes . . . . . . 1027
Safety Practices: Oxyacetylene Welding
and Cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1043
Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1052
x Contents
Preface
Welding: Principles and Practices, 5e, is both a revision Welding is an art, technology, and engineering sci-
and an expansion of the Theory and Practice of Arc Weld- ence. It requires the skillful manipulation of the weld
ing, which was first published in 1943. The previous edi- pool, a thorough knowledge of welding processes, and
tions have enjoyed success during the years as a major the characteristics of the type of material being used.
text used in the training of welders by industry and the Students can be assured of success if they are willing
schools. to spend the time required in actual practice work and
This book is designed to be used as the principal text the study of the principles presented in this text until
for welding training in career schools, community techni- they thoroughly understand their significance. Faithful
cal college systems, technical junior colleges, engineering adherence to this course of study will enable them to
schools, and secondary technical schools. It is also suit- master the current industrial material joining and cutting
able for on-the-job training and apprenticeship programs. processes thoroughly.
It can serve as a supplementary text for classes in build-
ing construction, metalworking, and industrial technology
programs. The Fifth Edition of Welding: Principles
Welding: Principles and Practices, 5e, provides a and Practices includes:
course of instruction in welding, other joining processes,
and cutting that will enable students to begin with the Photos and Diagrams
most elementary work and progressively study and prac- An exhaustive photo and art research program was
tice each process until they are skilled. Both principles launched to ensure that the latest edition of W elding:
and practice are presented so that the student can combine Principles and Practices, 5e, showcases the latest
the “why” and the “how” for complete understanding. advances in technology, techniques, and equipment.

The chapters have been arranged into sections to fa- As a result of this research, Welding: Principles and
cilitate training programs with reduced contact time seg- Practices, 5e, contains hundreds of colorful new photos
ments. Each section maintains the twofold approach of and diagrams that accurately illustrate modern welding
Welding Principles, in which students are introduced to practices. In addition to the new images, many classic
fundamentals that will enable them to understand what is images—photos and diagrams that have been featured
taking place in the application of the various processes, throughout several editions—have been updated to ap-
and Welding Practices, where they learn the necessary pear in four-color.
hands-on skills.
Welding: Principles and Practices, 5e, presents the fun- Videos
damental theory of the practice in gas, arc, gas-shielded To complement the visual updates to the main textbook
and self shielded processes, welding, brazing, soldering, and to provide even more learning opportunities for
and plastic welding processes. The various applications students, brief video clips have been added to the On-
of these processes are covered such as manual, semiau- line Learning Center at www.mhhe.com/welding. The
tomatic, mechanized, automatic, and robotic methods. videos cover a variety of topics including gas metal arc
Current industrial practices are cited with use of various welding, shielded metal arc welding, and orbital weld-
national welding codes and standards. The content is based ing. An icon appears in the textbook whenever video
on the SENSE program of the American Welding Society on a particular topic is available. The videos are em-
along with other leading welding authorities. bedded within the updated PowerPoint slides on the
xi
Instructor’s Side of the Online Learning Center, and current AWS Standards. The terminology is current so
students can watch them by accessing the Student’s students know the most recent terms to use when they
Side of the Center. begin to practice. Additional information on many dif-
ferent topics including, safety, lead welding, arc wan-
Updated Content dering, gas metal arc braze welding, and more are also
Every chapter complies with current AWS SENSE included in the text.
Welding Process Certification and with the most
xii Preface
Acknowledgments
Throughout the two-and-a-half-year process of revising Technical Editors

Welding: Principles and Practices, 5e, many individuals
Richard Bremen Troy Miller
and organizations contributed their thoughts, counsel, and
Barstow Community Central Community
expertise to the project.
College College
I would also like to express thanks to the instructors
who reviewed this textbook, thereby ensuring that it is
clear, focused, accurate, and up-to-date. Finally, I would like to thank all of the individuals and
corporations that aided in the extensive photo research
program necessary for this edition. Because of your help,
Welding: Principles and Practices, 5e, contains hundreds
Reviewers of new and updated color photos and art pieces.
Brian Bennett Owen Owens
Hill College Everett Community • ACF Industries
College • Agfa Corporation
Jeffrey Carney • Allegheny Ludlum Corporation
Ferris State University David Parker • American Welding Society
Renton Technical • Ansul/Tyco Fire Protection Products
John Christman
College • Arch Machines
Ivy Tech Community
College Dean Rindels • Arcos Corporation
Western Nebraska • Atlas Welding Accessories
William Galvery Community College • Baldor Electric Company
Orange Coast • BHP Billiton
College Gary Senff • Binzel-Abicor
Central Community • Black & Decker, Inc.
Larry Gross College–Columbus
Milwaukee Area • Bluco Corporation
Campus • Boeing
Technical College
Rodney Steele • BUG-O
Paul Housholder Northwest Community • Bunting Magnetic Company
West Kentucky College • Caterpillar, Inc.
Community and • Circlesafe Aerosol/Circle Systems, Inc.
Technical College Pete Stracener
• Clausing Industrial, Inc.
South Plains College
Roger Johnson • CM Industires, Inc.
Scott Community Robert Williams • Combustion Engineering Company
College Owens State Community • Computer Weld Tech., Inc.
College • Contour Sales Corporation
James Mosman • Crane Company
Odessa College • CRC-Evans Pipeline International, Inc.
• D. L. Ricci Corp
• Dakota Creek Industries
xiii
• De-Sta Company • Mathey Dearman
• DoAll Company • McGraw-Edison
• Donaldson Company • Metal Fabricating Institute
• Drader Manufacturing • Micro Photonics, Inc.
• Dreis and Krump Manufacturing Company • Miller Electric Mfg. Company
• Dukane • Milwaukee Electric Tool Corporation
• E.H. Wachs Company • Mine Safety Appliances Co.
• Editorial Image, LLC • Mitutoyo
• Elderfield and Hall, Inc. • Modern Engineering Company
• Electro-Technic Products, Inc. • Motoman, Inc.
• Empire Abrasive Equipment Company • NASA
• Enerpac, Inc. • National Welding Equipment Company
• Enrique Vega • Navy Joining Center
• ESAB Welding and Cutting Products • NES Rentals
• Fibre-Metal Products Company • Newage Testing Instruments, Inc.
• Foerster Instruments • Nooter Corporation
• Fox Valley Technical College • North American Manufacturing Company
• Fronius International GmbH • Northeast Wisconsin Technical College
• G.A.L. Gage Company • NovaTech
• Gasflux Company • Pandjiris
• General Electric Company • Phoenix International
• General Welding & Equipment Company • Pipefitters Union, St. Louis, MO
• Gentec • Piping Systems, Inc.
• Gullco • Plumbers and Pipefitters Union, Alton, IL
• Haney Technical Center • Praxair, Inc.
• Heritage Building Systems • Prior Scientific
• Hobart Brothers Company • Rexarc
• Hornell, Inc. Speedglas • Robvon Backing Ring Company
• Hossfeld Manufacturing Company • Rogers Manufacturing Inc.
• Howden Buffalo, Inc. • Schuler AG
• Hypertherm, Inc. • Seelye, Inc.
• IMPACT Engineering • Sellstrom
• Industrial Plastics Fabrication • Servo-Robot Corporation
• Interlaken Technology Corp • Shaw Pipeline Services
• ITW Jetline—Cyclomatic • Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors’
• Jackson Products Company National Association
• Jackson Safety, Inc. • Smith Equipment
• John E. White III • South Bend Lathe Co
• Kaiser Aluminum & Chemical Corporation • St. Louis Car. Company
• Kamweld Products Company • Stanley G. Flagg & Company
• Kromer Cap Company, Inc. • Sypris Technologies, Inc.—Tube Turns
• Laramy Products Company, Inc. Division
• Lenco dba NLC, Inc. • Team Industries, Inc.
• Lincoln Electric Company • TEC Torch Company
• Lockheed Martin Aeronautics • The Welding Encyclopedia
• MAG IAS, LLC • Thermacote Welco
• Magna Flux Corp • Thermadyne Industries, Inc.
• Magnatech Limited Partnership • Tim Anderson
• Malcom • Tony DeMarco
• Manitowoc Company, Inc. • Torit Donaldson Company
• Manufactured Housing Institute • TransCanada Pipelines Ltd.
xiv Acknowledgments
• UA Local 400 Union Recognition
• United Association
• United States Steel Corporation Recognition is due the United Association of Plumb-
• Uvex Safety ers and Pipe Fitters National as well as the locals in
• Wegener Kaukauna, Wisconsin, St. Louis, Missouri, and Alton,
• Welding Engineering Company, Inc. Illinois; the International Association of Bridge,
• Wells Manufacturing Company Structural, Ornamental, and Reinforcing Iron Workers;
• Widder Corporation and the Sheet Metal Workers International Association.
• Wilson Industries, Inc. Their focus on skill training for the workforce in qual-
• Wilson Products ity, productivity, and safety ensures that the practices
• Wisconsin Wire Works presented in the text are current.
• Woodard/CC Industries
• Wyatt Industries
• Zephyr Manufacturing Company
About the Author

Edward R. Bohnart (AWS-SCWI, and former CWE, The American Welding Society has recognized Ed
CWS, CWSR, CRAW-T, and AWS Certified Welder) Bohnart with the National Meritorious Award, George
is the principal of Welding Education and Consulting E. Willis Award, and Plummer Memorial Educational
located in Wisconsin. He launched his consulting business Lecture Award. The Wisconsin State Superintendents
after a successful career with Miller Electric Manufac- Technology Education Advisory Committee has acknowl-
turing C
ompany, where he directed training operations. edged him with the Technology Literacy Award. The state
He is a graduate of the Nebraska Vocational Technical of Nebraska Community College System has appointed
College in welding and metallurgy and has studied at both him Alumnus of the Year, and the Youth Development
the University of Nebraska at Omaha and the University Foundation of SkillsUSA has honored Bohnart with the
of Omaha. SkillsUSA Torch Carrier Award.
Bohnart was selected in the 2011 Class of Counselors of Ed has been active on the Edison Welding Institute
the American Welding Society, and he is also an AWS Dis- Board of Trustees and on the American Institute of Steel
tinguished Member and national past President. He remains Constructions Industry Round Table. He has served on the
active with the SkillsUSA organization and is past chair of industrial advisory boards for Arizona State University,
the AWS Skills Competition Committee, which conducted The University of Wisconsin–Stout, Fox Valley Techni-
the USOpen Weld Trials to select the TeamUSA welder for cal Colleges, and the Haney Technical Center industrial
the WorldSkills Competition. He was the United States of advisory boards.
America’s Welding Technical Expert for the WorldSkills He has lectured at a number of major institutions, such
Competition from 1989 to 2009. Bohnart chaired the AWS as the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Colorado
C5 Committee on Arc Welding and Cutting Processes and School of Mines, Texas A&M, Arizona State University,
remains on the committee as an advisor. and the Paton Institute of Welding, Kiev, Ukraine.
Acknowledgments xv
Walkthrough
Welding: Principles and Practices, 5e, is a classic textbook that introduces students to the fundamentals of welding
theory and practice. This comprehensive book covers several welding processes—shielded metal arc welding, arc
cutting, and robotic welding, for example—and it also provides practice jobs for students, further enabling them to
develop a strong technical understanding of welding. This edition features a new, colorful design with modern photos
and engaging illustrations throughout!
Chapter Objectives provide students and

1
instructors with an outline of the new material
History of Welding
that will be presented in the chapter.
Welding is usually the best method to use when fasten-
ing metal. If you want to build something made of metal,
you can fasten the parts by using screws or rivets, bending
the parts, or even gluing the parts. However, a quality,
long-lasting, attractive, safe product is best fabricated
by using one of the many types of prevailing welding
processes.
The History of Metalworking

Metalworking began when primitive people found that
they could shape rocks by chipping them with other
rocks. The first metal to be worked was probably pure
Overview Chapter Objectives copper because it is a soft, ductile metal that was widely
available. Ductile means easily hammered, bent, or
You are about to begin the learning process of preparing After completing this chapter, you will be able to: drawn into a new shape or form. Excavations in Egypt
yourself for a position in one of the fastest growing indus- and in what is now the United States indicate the use
1-1 Explain the history of metalworking and welding.
tries in the world of work—the welding industry. of copper as early as 4000 b.c. and before 2000 b.c.,
1-2 Explain the development of modern welding. respectively. More than 4,000 years ago copper mines
Welding is the joining together of two pieces of
metal by heating to a temperature high enough to cause 1-3 Give details of the mission of welding in the industrial on the peninsula of Sinai and the island of Cyprus were
softening or melting, with or without the application
of pressure, and with or without the use of filler metal.
Any filler metal used has either a melting point approxi-
process.
1-4 Describe the diverse welding processes.
1-5 List the various welding occupations.
Photos and Diagrams worked. Welding began more than 3,000 years ago when
hot or cold metals were hammered to obtain a forge weld.
Forged metals, bronze and iron, are mentioned in the Old
mately the same as the metals being joined or a melting
point that is below these metals but above 800 degrees
Fahrenheit (°F).
1-6
1-7
Define welder qualifications and characteristics.
Express the duties and responsibilities of a welder. For the first time, Testament.
Archaeologists have determined that bronze was
developed sometime between 3000 and 2000 b.c. Iron
1-8 Recognize welder safety and working conditions.
color photos have been

New methods, new applications, and new systems have became known to Europe about 1000 b.c., several thou-
1-9 Identify trade associations and what responsibility sand years after the use of copper. About 1300 b.c. the
continued to develop over the last few decades. Continu-
they have in the welding industry.
ing research makes welding a dynamic leader in industrial Philistines had four iron furnaces and a factory for pro-
1-10 Establish goals to keep you up to date in the field. ducing swords, chisels, daggers, and spearheads. The
high degreeThe
processes. industry has made tremendous
by theirprogress in
added to every chapter

of craftsmanship developed workers. proved more successful. Repair welding was the pri-
a short
By periodcentury
the eighth of time.theFurthermore, it has madesteel
Japanese manufactured a major
by mary goal of the inventors. Egyptians began to make iron tools and weapons during
contribution
repeated toward
welding andraising
forgingtheandstandard
controlledof living of the
the amount Bare metal electrode welding was introduced in 1888 the period of 900 to 850 b.c. After 800 b.c. iron replaced
ofAmerican
carbon inpeople.
steel byBythesimplifying andThey
use of fluxes. speeding up indus-
produced the by N. G. Slavianoff, a Russian. His discovery was first bronze as the metal used in the manufacture of utensils,
trial processes
famous Samuraiand
ronmentally
and
hybrid power
making
sword with ait blade
possible to develop
of excellent
sound industries like wind and solar power,
superior workmanship.
vehicles, plants to produce organic
envi-
quality
fuels,
recognized in Western Europe in 1892. C. L. Coffin was
one of the pioneers of the welding industry in the United of Welding: Principles armor, and other practical applications. A welded iron
headrest for Tutankhamen (King Tut) was crafted around
1350 b.c.
The blast furnace was developed for melting iron about States. In 1889 he received a patent on the equipment and
and Practices.
andyears
the continued development in nuclear, fossil fuels along
a.d. 1000 to 1200. One such furnace was in the process for flash-butt welding. In 1890 he received addi- The famous Damascus swords and daggers were made
with continued
Province space exploration
of Catalonia and utilization,
in Spain. The fourteenth itand hasfif-
in- tional patents for spot-welding equipment. In 1892, work- in Syria about 1300 b.c. These were sought after because
creased
teenth the world’s
centuries sawsupply of goods, Fig. in
great improvements 1.1.the design of ing without knowledge of Slavianoff’s work, he received of their strength and toughness. Their keen edge was
blast furnaces. The first cast iron cannon was produced in a patent for the bare metal electrode arc welding process. likely capable of severing heavy iron spears or cutting the
the early 1600s. By the turn of the century welding was a common method most delicate fabric floating in the air. The swords were
About the middle of the eighteenth century, a series of repair. At this time welding was given added impetus made by forge-welding iron bars of different degrees of
Fig. 1-1 Use of natural energy sources (green energy) such
of2 inventions in England revolutionized the methods of by the development of the first commercial oxyacetylene as solar, wind turbines, and bio-fuels like ethanol are get- hardness, drawing them down, and repeating the process
industry and brought on what later came to be known welding torch by two Frenchmen, Foresche and Picard. ting a tremendous amount of interest in the way of research, many times.
as the Industrial Revolution. Our present factory sys- Bare electrode welding became the prevailing elec- development, and real applications. As they continue to de- The working of metals—copper, bronze, silver, gold,
tem of mass production was introduced. An American, tric arc welding method used in the United States until
velop, other issues will need to be dealt with, such as ROI. and iron—followed one another in the great ancient civi-
Welding plays a very important role in the manufacture of lizations. By the time of the Roman Empire, the use of
Eli Whitney, developed the idea of interchanging parts about 1920. these green energy sources. (top) © Fotosearch/PhotoLibrary;
in the manufacture of arms. By the beginning of the Bare metal electrode welding was handicapped because iron was common in Europe, the Near East, and the Far
(middle) © Mark Dierker/Bear Dancer Studios; (bottom) © McGraw-Hill
nineteenth century, the working of iron with the use the welds produced by these electrodes were not as strong Education/Mark A. Dierker, photographer East. The Chinese developed the ability to make steel
of dies and molds became commonplace. Early in the as the metal being welded and the welding arc was very from wrought iron in a.d. 589. The Belgians were respon-
twentieth century, Henry Ford was involved in devel- unstable. In 1907 Kjellberg, a Swedish engineer, received sible for most of the progress made in Europe, due to the
oping the assembly line method for manufacturing a patent covering the electrode-coating process. The coat-
automobiles. ing was thin and acted only as a stabilizer of the arc rather
than as a purifier of the weld metal. It produced welds that
Early Developments in Welding were little better than those made with bare electrodes. In
About Welding boxes delve into the history of welding

History of Welding Chapter 1 3
At the beginning of the nineteenth century, Edmund 1912 Kjellberg received another patent for an electrode
Davy discovered acetylene, a gas that was later used in with a heavier coating made of asbestos with a binder of
oxyacetylene welding, heating, and cutting. The electric sodium silicate. See Fig. 1-2. Benardos patented a process
to offer students a greater understanding of the field.

arc was first discovered by Sir Humphry Davy in 1801 in 1908 that has come into popular use in the past few
while he was conducting experiments in electricity. He decades. This is the electroslag process of welding thick
was concerned primarily with the possibilities of the plates in one pass.
These boxes also contain interesting facts about welding

use of the arc for illumination. By 1809 he had demon- Welding technology and its industrial application
strated that it was possible to maintain a high voltage progressed rather slowly until World War I. Prior to
arc for varying periods of time. By the middle of the that time it was used chiefly as a means of mainte-
nineteenth century, workable electrical-generating de- nance and repair. The demands of the war for an in-
vices were invented and developed on a practical basis.
These inventions were the forerunner of the present arc
welding process.
creased flow of goods called for improved methods of
fabrication. processes and machinery.
Fig. 1-9 Workers using a crane to lift a cask filled with highly
radioactive fuel bundles at a Hanford, Washington, nuclear facility.
Fig. 1-10 A large amount of art metalwork is done with welding
processes. © Leon Werdinger/Alamy Stock Photo
The construction of this type of vessel relies heavily upon welding.
The first documented instance of fusion welding was © U.S. Department of Energy/AP Images
done by Auguste de Meritens in 1881. He welded lead
battery plates together with a carbon electrode. Two of
his pupils, N. Benardos and S. Olszewski, saw the pos- The welder must perform certain basic tasks and pos-
SHOP TALK
sibilities of this discovery and experimented with the arc A BO U T WELD IN G sess certain technical information in order to perform the
powered by batteries that were charged from high volt- welding operation. In making a gas weld, the welder at- Medical Alert
Shipbuilding taches the proper tip to the torch and adjusts the weld-
age dynamos. After four years of work, they were issued The technology of medical heart pacemak-
Through 1945, some 5,171 vessels of ing regulators for the proper volume and pressure of the ers continues to change. Some pacemakers are less likely
a British patent for a welding process using carbon elec-
Shop Talk boxes are

all types were constructed to American Bureau of gases. The welder must also regulate the flame according to be prone to interference by electromagnetic fields.
trodes and an electric power source. Applications of the Shipping standards during the Maritime Commission to the needs of the job. People who weld and have pacemakers are safer if there
process included the fusion welding of metals, the cut- wartime shipbuilding program. At this time in shipbuild- For electric arc welding, the welder must be able to reg- are other people nearby to help if they have problems.
ting of metals, and the punching of holes in metal. Al- ing history, welding was replacing riveting as the main ulate the welding machine for the proper welding current Waiting 10 seconds between each weld may be a good
filled with tips on how

though they experimented with solid and hollow carbon method of assembly. strategy for those with pacemakers.
and select the proper electrode size and type, as well as
rods filled with powdered metals, the solid electrodes the right shielding gas.
Welding requires a steady hand. The welder must hold
pressure vessels requiring 4-inch plate to the delicate
to weld safely and

the torch or electrode at the proper angle, a uniform dis-
tance from the work, and move it along the line of weld at welding of silver and gold, the welds are of the highest
4 Chapter 1 History of Welding quality and can be depended upon to meet the require-
a uniform speed.
During the welding process, the welder should use vi- ments of the job.
effectively.
sualization skills to form a mental picture of how the weld The following welding occupations require a high
will be created. Although much of the work is single pass, school education:
welds made on heavy material often require a number of • Welding operator
passes side by side and in layers according to the specified • Welder fitter
weld procedure. • Combination welder
Welders must also be able to cut metals with the • Master welder
oxyacetylene cutting torch and with the various cut- • Welding supervisor
ting procedures involving the plasma arc cutting ma- • Welding analyst
chine. Flame cutting is often the only practical method • Inspector
for cutting parts or repairing steel plate and pipe. • Welding foreman
Plasma arc cutting is used to cut all types of metals. • Welding superintendent
Proper use of an electric or pneumatic grinder will save • Equipment sales
many hours in the welding process. • Sales demonstrator
The master welder is a master craftsperson, Fig. 1-10. • Sales troubleshooter
Such a person is able to weld all the steels and their al- • Welding instructor
loys, as well as nickel, aluminum, tantalum, titanium, • Robotics welder operator
zirconium, and their alloys and claddings. From heavy • Job or fabrication shop owner
xvi History of Welding Chapter 1 9

example, the ability to join metals with nonmetallic ma-
terials is the subject of much effort. As industry expands
and improves its technology, new welding processes will
play an indispensable part in progress.
Currently, five welding associations provide guidance
and standards related to the welding industry.
• American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
• American Petroleum Institute (API)
• American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
• American Welding Society (AWS)
• American Bureau of Shipping (ABS)
Welding as an Occupation
A student needs to learn all phases of the trade. Welding,
reading drawings, math, and computer knowledge will se-
cure a successful career. Many qualified welders are cer-
tified by the AWS, ASME, and API. The tests are difficult
Job Tip boxes present students with useful career
advice, helping them see beyond the world of school and
and require many hours of practice.
Because welders hold key positions in the major indus-
tries, they are important to the economic welfare of our Fig. 1-5 Welding is generally considered a nontraditional
country. Without welding, the metal industry would be occupation for women. However, it can be a very lucrative and
seriously restricted; many of the scientific feats of the past
and the future would be impossible. As long as there are
in-demand skill for those women choosing this career path. A proce-
dure is being used setting up a plasma arc gouging operation.
© Andersen Ross/Iconica/Getty Images
getting them to think about their future as professional
metal products, welders will be needed to fabricate and
repair them.
Keep in mind that the field of welding can offer you

welders.
prestige and security. It can offer you a future of continu-
J O B TIP ous employment with steady advancement at wages that
are equal to other skilled trades and are better than aver-
Job Hunting age. It can offer you employment in practically any indus-
Looking for a job is a job! When you begin, try you choose and travel to all parts of the world. It is
make a list of what you plan to do in the next week. As- an expanding industry, and your chances for advancement
sess what kind of job you want. As you complete items on are excellent. Welders have the opportunity to participate
your list, you not only will be closer to your goal, but you
in many phases of industrial processes, thus giving them
also will be in control of the job-hunting process and will
be less stressed. the broad knowledge of the field necessary for advance-
ment to supervisory or technical positions.
Welding is gender friendly, Fig. 1-5. Thousands of

Industrial Welding Applications
women are employed throughout the industry. Many women Welding is not a simple operation. The more than 90 dif-
find the work highly satisfying and are paid well at a rate ferent welding processes are divided into three major
equivalent to that of men. types: arc, gas, and resistance welding. A number of other
Welding is done in every civilized country in the world. types such as induction, forge, thermit, flow welding, and
You may wish to work in the oil fields of the Near East or brazing are used to a somewhat lesser extent.
in our own country. You may wish to work in some jungle Resistance welding includes spot welding, seam weld-
area of South America or Africa, constructing buildings, ing, flash welding, projection welding, and other similar
power plants, pipelines, or bridges. Our many military processes that are performed on machines. These welding c. Stainless steel 21. Which of the following is not a trade association re-
installations throughout the world offer jobs for civilian areas are not the subject of this text. Because of the special- d. All of these lated to the welding industry? (Obj. 1-9)
workers. Employment opportunities for welders are plen- ized nature of the machines, operators are usually taught 16. Which of the following lists classifications of weld- a. AWS
tiful in all parts of the United States. on the job. They are semiskilled workers who do not need ing occupations? (Obj. 1-5) b. ASME
CHAPTER 1 REVIEW
a. Combination welder, welder fitter, welding in- c. AUPS
spector, welding instructor, welding engineer d. API
History of Welding Chapter 1 7 b. Choice
Multiple Junk yard welder, wanna-be welder, art welder, 22.1890–1900
b. Establishing goals such as ______ will help secure
Choose thestick welder
letter of the correct answer. c. 1930–1942
your achievement as a skilled welder. (Obj. 1-10)
c. Inside welder, outside welder, underwater d. 1950–1965
a. Join a professional organization
1. When did humans learn the art of welding?
9. Usingb.American
(Obj.welder,
1-1) upside-down welder NonstopWelding
classroom workStandards,
Society
namec.four popularequipment
welding processes in use
a.d.Early
Flat1990s
welder, vertical welder, horizontal welder, Friendly
overhead welder today.d.(Obj. 1-2)vocation
Trade
b. Around the birth of Christ
17.c.Which of the following is not a welding occupation? a. SMAW, GTAW, GMAW, ESW
Between 3000 and 2000 b.c.
b. MCAW,
Review CAW, EBW, OHW, LBW, ARTW
Questions
d.(Obj. 1-5)started between World Wars I and II
Welding
c. SSW, ROW, FLB, AAW
a. Certified
2. Name welding
four metals inspector
that were used by early metal- Write the answers in your own words.
d. GLUEW, STKW, GASW, MIGW
b. Pilot(Obj.
workers. technician
1-1) 23. Is welding a recent industrial process? Explain.
10. When was a patent issued for the GTAW process?
a.c.Copper,
Instructor
bronze, silver, gold (Obj. 1-1)
(Obj. 1-2)
Chapter Review sections, located at the end

b.d.Zinc, pewter,editor
Technical aluminum, lead
a.24.1936
Name four metals that were used by early metal-
18.c.Welders
Silver, mercury, vanadium,
are required to passgold
periodic qualification b. 1942workers. Which metal was the first to be worked?
d.tests
Castestablished
iron, steel, by
brass, tin ______. (Obj. 1-6)
various c. 1948(Obj. 1-1)
3. Which
a. Codemetal was probably the first to be worked by
authorities
of every chapter, feature multiple-choice and

d.25.1965
When did the manufacture of steel begin? (Obj. 1-1)
early metalworkers?
b. Training (Obj. 1-1)
agencies 11. When
26. Inwas whata patent issued
country wasfor
thethe GMAW
patent for process?
electric arc weld-
a.c.Pewter
Insurance companies (Obj. ing
1-2)first issued? (Obj. 1-2)
b. Gold
d. Both a and c a. 1936
short-answer review questions. Each review also

c. Copper 27. What invention gave electric arc welding its greatest
19.d.IfTin
you are a competent welder, you need to know b. 1942
c. 1948
boost? (Obj. 1-2)
______
4. When wasskills.
fusion(Obj. 1-7)as we know it, first
welding, 28.1965
d. Name four important welding processes. (Obj. 1-4)
a. Drawing
developed? (Obj. 1-1)
includes an Internet Activities section, in which

12. 29. Isis itwelding?
What true that(Obj.
industry
1-3) uses MIG/MAG welding only
a.b.InMath
1888 by a Russian
for specialtwo
a. Hammering applications because
pieces of metal of itsuntil
together instability?
b.c.InLayout
1892 byskills
C. L. Coffin
Explain.
they become(Obj.
one 1-4)
c.d.InAll
1881of by
these
Auguste de Meritens
b.
30.Using rivets or screws to attach metal
students are asked to perform Internet research on

20.d.Job
In 1930
hazardsby Hobart
can be & Devers or eliminated by the
minimized Name 10 occupational classifications in the welding
c. Bending
industry.and(Obj.
shaping
1-5)metal
use of arc
5. Electric ______.
welding(Obj. 1-8)
using an electrode was devel- d. Joining together two pieces of metal by heating
a. Protective
oped around what clothing
period? (Obj. 1-1) 31. Name three welding occupations that require a col-
to a temperature high enough to cause soften-
a.b.1880–1900 lege degree. (Obj. 1-5)
a variety of welding-related topics.

Face shields ing or melting, with or without the applica-
b.c.1930–1942
Adequate ventilation 32.tion
Which welding
of pressure andprocess
with or contributed most
without the use ofto alumi-
c.d.1750–1765
All of these num
filler welding? (Obj. 1-10)
metal
d. 1950–1965
13. Welding is ______ and there are many jobs avail-
6. In what country was a patent first issued for electric able for both men and women. (Obj. 1-3)
arc welding? (Obj. 1-1) a. Gender friendly
a. France b. Nonskilled
INTERNET
b. China
ACTIVITIES
c. Easy learning
c. Russia d. Filler type
d. United
Internet StatesA
Activity 14. In electric arc welding, which of the following does
7. Whatoninvention
Search the Webgave the electric
for books aboutarc weldingatpro-
welding England’s Cambridge
the welder International
not have to regulate? (Obj. 1-4)
cess its
Science greatest boost?
Publishing. Make(Obj.
a list1-1)
of books that sounds interesting to you.control
a. Cruise
a. Covered electrodes b. Welding current
Cementation Process
One of three
b. Oxyacetylene
Internet Activity Bgas mixture c. Electrode
Skip Car One Cementation is the oldest method of steel- c. Workable electric generating devices
or four stoves
for heating air. making. It consists of heating wrought iron Using the Internet, search for safety and health guidelines for
d. welding
Shieldingand gaswrite
d. Both
a report on ayour
and cfindings. You may want to try the American Welding Society’s
Hot Gas to
with carbon in a vacuum. This increases 15. Even with the proper equipment, which of the fol-
Scrubbers 8. Oxyacetylene
Web welding was developed around what
site: www.aws.org. lowing would be very difficult to weld? (Obj. 1-4)
the carbon content of surfaces and edges
Coke period? (Obj. 1-1) a. Aluminum
Brick which can then be hardened by heating and
Checker Ore a. 1720–1740 b. Magnesium
Work Limestone quenching. The metal is not molten during
Air is H Refractory steelmaking. Hence impurities are not re-
heated o Skip Incline
as it t
Brick Lining moved from the iron, and only the surface of
rises B
l the metal is affected. It is probable that most 12 Chapter 1 History of Welding History of Welding Chapter 1 11
through
hot a
s of the steel of ancient times was produced in
brick
work.
t Molten Slag
this way.
Molten
Air Iron Tuyere
Coke
Bins
Ore and
Limestone A later improvement of this process was
Hot Blast
the stacking of alternate layers of soft, carbon-
Bins
from
Turbo
Blower free iron with iron containing carbon. The lay-
ers were then heated so that the pieces could
Hot Iron Slag Car
Skip be worked. The layers of soft and hard metal
Car
Car Two strengthened the internal structure of the steel.
Much of this steelmaking was centered in Syria
Fig. 3-10 Schematic diagram of a blast furnace, hot blast stove, and
skiploader. Ore, limestone, and coke are fed in at the top of the furnace.
Preheated air, delivered at the bottom, burns the coke and generates
during the Middle Ages, and the steels became
known as the famous Damascus steels, used
widely for swords and spears of the highest
Video Link Icons, new to this edition and interspersed throughout the
textbook, direct students to the Online Learning Center at www.mhhe
gases and heat required to separate iron from the ore. Source: American quality.
Iron & Steel Inst. The steel made by this process was further
improved by the crucible process that came into
production. The number of furnaces probably will con- use in the eighteenth century.
tinue to decrease as the production rate for leading fur-
naces exceeds 3,000 net tons per day. Crucible Process
The crucible process was revived in England during the
.com/welding. There, they can watch videos of the welding processes
being discussed in the chapter.
Steelmaking Processes early 1740s. Steel produced by the cementation process
was melted in a clay crucible to remove the impurities.
You have read that steel was used in a primitive form While fluid, the slag was skimmed off the top. Then the
for several thousand years. However, this early steel was metal was poured into a mold where it solidified into a
not strong nor did it have the variety of properties neces- mass that could be worked into the desired shape. In the
The Online Learning Center contains updated versions of the

sary for extensive use. It was produced by the cemen- United States graphite crucibles, with a capacity of about
tation and the crucible processes. In recent times two 100 pounds of metal, were used in a gas-fired furnace.
major developments have made it possible to produce This process produced a steel of uniform quality that was
large quantities of steel with a variety of properties at a
Instructor’s Manual, Test Bank questions available in EZ Test and for

free of slag and dust.
competitive cost.
The first of these developments was the Bessemer Electric Furnace Processes
furnace invented in 1856 in both Europe and the United
Electric furnaces are of two types: (1) the electric arc
use with ExamView, and the PowerPoint slides—now with videos of

States. The second was the open hearth furnace which was
type and (2) the induction furnace. The first electric
invented 12 years later in the United States. Figure 3-11,
arc furnace had a capacity of 4 tons. It was put into
pages 50–51 shows the modern steelmaking process from
operation in France by the French metallurgist Paul
raw materials to finished product.
welding processes and scenarios. Visit the center at

Heroult in 1899 and introduced into the United States
in 1904. The modern furnace, Fig. 3-12, page 52, has a
charge of 80 to 100 tons. A few furnaces hold a charge
of 200 tons and produce more than 800 tons of steel in
www.mhhe.com/welding.
For video on steelmaking operations, please visit
www.mhhe.com/welding. 24 hours. These large furnaces are made possible by
the increase of electric power capacity, the production
Steel and Other Metals Chapter 3 49
xvii
This page intentionally left blank
U N I T
1
Introduction to Welding
and Oxyfuel
Chapter 1
History of Welding
Chapter 2
Industrial Welding
Chapter 3
Steel and Other Metals
Chapter 4
Basic Joints and Welds
Chapter 5
Gas Welding
Chapter 6
Flame Cutting Principles
Chapter 7
Flame Cutting Practice: Jobs 7-J1–J3
Chapter 8
Gas Welding Practice: Jobs 8-J1–J38
Chapter 9
Braze Welding and Advanced Gas Welding Practice:
Jobs 9-J39–J49
Chapter 10
Soldering and Brazing Principles and Practice:
Jobs 10-J50–J51 1
1
History of Welding
Overview Chapter Objectives

You are about to begin the learning process of preparing After completing this chapter, you will be able to:
yourself for a position in one of the fastest growing indus-
1-1 Explain the history of metalworking and welding.
tries in the world of work—the welding industry.
1-2 Explain the development of modern welding.
Welding is the joining together of two pieces of
metal by heating to a temperature high enough to cause 1-3 Give details of the mission of welding in the industrial
softening or melting, with or without the application process.
of pressure, and with or without the use of filler metal. 1-4 Describe the diverse welding processes.
Any filler metal used has either a melting point approxi- 1-5 List the various welding occupations.
mately the same as the metals being joined or a melting 1-6 Define welder qualifications and characteristics.
point that is below these metals but above 800 degrees 1-7 Express the duties and responsibilities of a welder.
Fahrenheit (°F).
1-8 Recognize welder safety and working conditions.
New methods, new applications, and new systems have
1-9 Identify trade associations and what responsibility
continued to develop over the last few decades. Continu-
they have in the welding industry.
ing research makes welding a dynamic leader in industrial
processes. The industry has made tremendous progress in 1-10 Establish goals to keep you up to date in the field.
a short period of time. Furthermore, it has made a major
contribution toward raising the standard of living of the
American people. By simplifying and speeding up indus-
trial processes and making it possible to develop envi-
ronmentally sound industries like wind and solar power,
hybrid power vehicles, plants to produce organic fuels,
and continued development in nuclear, fossil fuels along
with continued space exploration and utilization, it has in-
creased the world’s supply of goods, Fig. 1.1.
2
Welding is usually the best method to use when fasten-
ing metal. If you want to build something made of metal,
you can fasten the parts by using screws or rivets, bending
the parts, or even gluing the parts. However, a quality,
long-lasting, attractive, safe product is best fabricated
by using one of the many types of prevailing welding
processes.
The History of Metalworking

Metalworking began when primitive people found that
they could shape rocks by chipping them with other
rocks. The first metal to be worked was probably pure
copper because it is a soft, ductile metal that was widely
available. Ductile means easily hammered, bent, or
drawn into a new shape or form. Excavations in Egypt
and in what is now the United States indicate the use
of copper as early as 4000 b.c. and before 2000 b.c.,
respectively. More than 4,000 years ago copper mines
on the peninsula of Sinai and the island of Cyprus were
worked. Welding began more than 3,000 years ago when
hot or cold metals were hammered to obtain a forge weld.
Forged metals, bronze and iron, are mentioned in the Old
Testament.
Archaeologists have determined that bronze was
developed sometime between 3000 and 2000 b.c. Iron
became known to Europe about 1000 b.c., several thou-
sand years after the use of copper. About 1300 b.c. the
Philistines had four iron furnaces and a factory for pro-
ducing swords, chisels, daggers, and spearheads. The
Egyptians began to make iron tools and weapons during
the period of 900 to 850 b.c. After 800 b.c. iron replaced
bronze as the metal used in the manufacture of utensils,
armor, and other practical applications. A welded iron
headrest for Tutankhamen (King Tut) was crafted around
1350 b.c.
The famous Damascus swords and daggers were made
in Syria about 1300 b.c. These were sought after because
of their strength and toughness. Their keen edge was
likely capable of severing heavy iron spears or cutting the
most delicate fabric floating in the air. The swords were
made by forge-welding iron bars of different degrees of
Fig. 1-1 Use of natural energy sources (green energy) such
as solar, wind turbines, and bio-fuels like ethanol are get- hardness, drawing them down, and repeating the process
ting a tremendous amount of interest in the way of research, many times.
development, and real applications. As they continue to de- The working of metals—copper, bronze, silver, gold,
velop, other issues will need to be dealt with, such as ROI. and iron—followed one another in the great ancient civi-
Welding plays a very important role in the manufacture of lizations. By the time of the Roman Empire, the use of
these green energy sources. (top) © Fotosearch/PhotoLibrary;
iron was common in Europe, the Near East, and the Far
(middle) © Mark Dierker/Bear Dancer Studios; (bottom) © McGraw-Hill
Education/Mark A. Dierker, photographer East. The Chinese developed the ability to make steel
from wrought iron in a.d. 589. The Belgians were respon-
sible for most of the progress made in Europe, due to the

high degree of craftsmanship developed by their workers. proved more successful. Repair welding was the pri-
By the eighth century the Japanese manufactured steel by mary goal of the inventors.
repeated welding and forging and controlled the amount Bare metal electrode welding was introduced in 1888
of carbon in steel by the use of fluxes. They produced the by N. G. Slavianoff, a Russian. His discovery was first
famous Samurai sword with a blade of excellent quality recognized in Western Europe in 1892. C. L. Coffin was
and superior workmanship. one of the pioneers of the welding industry in the United
The blast furnace was developed for melting iron about States. In 1889 he received a patent on the equipment and
the years a.d. 1000 to 1200. One such furnace was in the process for flash-butt welding. In 1890 he received addi-
Province of Catalonia in Spain. The fourteenth and fif- tional patents for spot-welding equipment. In 1892, work-
teenth centuries saw great improvements in the design of ing without knowledge of Slavianoff’s work, he received
blast furnaces. The first cast iron cannon was produced in a patent for the bare metal electrode arc welding process.
the early 1600s. By the turn of the century welding was a common method
About the middle of the eighteenth century, a series of repair. At this time welding was given added impetus
of inventions in England revolutionized the methods of by the development of the first commercial oxyacetylene
industry and brought on what later came to be known welding torch by two Frenchmen, Foresche and Picard.
as the Industrial Revolution. Our present factory sys- Bare electrode welding became the prevailing elec-
tem of mass production was introduced. An American, tric arc welding method used in the United States until
Eli Whitney, developed the idea of interchanging parts about 1920.
in the manufacture of arms. By the beginning of the Bare metal electrode welding was handicapped because
nineteenth century, the working of iron with the use the welds produced by these electrodes were not as strong
of dies and molds became commonplace. Early in the as the metal being welded and the welding arc was very
twentieth century, Henry Ford was involved in devel- unstable. In 1907 Kjellberg, a Swedish engineer, received
oping the assembly line method for manufacturing a patent covering the electrode-coating process. The coat-
automobiles. ing was thin and acted only as a stabilizer of the arc rather
than as a purifier of the weld metal. It produced welds that
Early Developments in Welding were little better than those made with bare electrodes. In
At the beginning of the nineteenth century, Edmund 1912 K jellberg received another patent for an electrode
Davy discovered acetylene, a gas that was later used in with a heavier coating made of asbestos with a binder of
oxyacetylene welding, heating, and cutting. The electric sodium silicate. See Fig. 1-2. Benardos patented a process
arc was first discovered by Sir Humphry Davy in 1801 in 1908 that has come into popular use in the past few
while he was conducting experiments in electricity. He decades. This is the electroslag process of welding thick
was concerned primarily with the possibilities of the plates in one pass.
use of the arc for illumination. By 1809 he had demon- Welding technology and its industrial application
strated that it was possible to maintain a high voltage progressed rather slowly until World War I. Prior to
arc for varying periods of time. By the middle of the that time it was used chiefly as a means of mainte-
nineteenth century, workable electrical-generating de- nance and repair. The demands of the war for an in-
vices were invented and developed on a practical basis. creased flow of goods called for improved methods of
These inventions were the forerunner of the present arc fabrication.
welding process.
The first documented instance of fusion welding was
done by Auguste de Meritens in 1881. He welded lead
battery plates together with a carbon electrode. Two of
his pupils, N. Benardos and S. Olszewski, saw the pos-
sibilities of this discovery and experimented with the arc A B OU T WEL DIN G
powered by batteries that were charged from high volt-
age dynamos. After four years of work, they were issued Shipbuilding
a British patent for a welding process using carbon elec- Through 1945, some 5,171 vessels of
all types were constructed to American Bureau of
trodes and an electric power source. Applications of the Shipping standards during the Maritime Commission
process included the fusion welding of metals, the cut- wartime shipbuilding program. At this time in shipbuild-
ting of metals, and the punching of holes in metal. Al- ing history, welding was replacing riveting as the main
though they experimented with solid and hollow carbon method of assembly.
rods filled with powdered metals, the solid electrodes
4 Chapter 1 History of Welding

increased through the early 1930s. One of the first high
frequency, stabilized a.c. industrial welding machines was
introduced in 1936 by the Miller Electric Manufacturing
Company. The a.c. welding machines have since become
popular because of the high rate of metal deposition and
the absence of arc blow.
World War II spurred the development of inert gas
welding, thus making it possible to produce welds of high
purity and critical application. A patent was issued in
1930 to Hobart and Devers for the use of the electric arc
within an inert gas atmosphere. The process was not well
received by industry because of the high cost of argon and
helium and the lack of suitable torch equipment.
SH OP TA L K
Beams
Beams used in bridges must be
welded on both sides. In automated systems, a
second station can handle the reverse side, or a
turnover station is used to get the beam back to be
sent through a second time.
Russell Merideth, an engineer for the Northrop Air-

craft Company, was faced with the task of finding
an improved means of welding aluminum and mag-
Fig. 1-2 The ability to make multipass welds such as this one, on nesium in the inert atmosphere. Because of a high
plate and pipe, led to the growth of the industry. Welds are sound burnoff rate, the magnesium procedure was replaced
and have uniform appearance.
by a tungsten electrode, and a patent was issued in
1942. Later in 1942 the Linde Company obtained a
license to develop the gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW)
At the end of World War I, welding was widely ac-
[or tungsten inert gas (TIG)] process, also known as
cepted. Research on coated electrodes through the 1920s
HELIARC, used today, Fig. 1-3. The company perfected a
resulted in electrode coatings and improved core wire.
water-cooled torch capable of high amperage.
This significant development was the main reason for the
rapid advancement of the stick welding process. This term
has now been superseded by the term shielded metal arc
welding (SMAW). The development of X-raying goods
made it possible to examine the internal soundness of
welded joints which indicated a need for improved meth-
ods of fabrication.
The Development of Modern Welding

During the postwar period the design of welding machines
changed very little. Since welding was first done with di-
rect current (d.c.) from battery banks, it was only natu-
ral that as welding machines were developed, they would
be d.c. machines. In the late 1920s and during the 1930s, Fig. 1-3 An aluminum weld made using the TIG process. The
considerable research was carried on with alternating cur- welding of aluminum is no longer a problem and can be done with
rent (a.c.) for welding. The use of a.c. welding machines the same ease as that of steel.

GTAW welding was first done with rotating d.c. weld-
ing machines. Later, a.c. units with built-in high fre-
quency were developed. In about 1950, selenium rectifier
type d.c. welding machines came into use, and a.c.-d.c.
rectifier welding machines with built-in frequency for
GTAW welding became available in the 1950s. Since that
time the Miller Electric Manufacturing Company has de-
veloped the Miller controlled-wave a.c. welder for critical
welds on aircraft and missiles. Now many manufacturers
of welding machines produce square-wave a.c. machines.
The use of aluminum and magnesium increased at a
rapid rate as a result of (1) the development of GTAW
welding, and (2) the desirable characteristics of reduced
weight and resistance to corrosion. As the size of weld-
ments increased, thicker materials were employed in
their construction. It was found that for aluminum thick-
nesses above 1/4 inch, GTAW welding required preheat- Fig. 1-4 Two different sized production fillet welds on steel
ing. Since this was costly and highly impractical for large made with the flux cored arc welding process. © Edward R. Bohnart
weldments, a number of welding equipment manufactur-
ers engaged in the search for another welding process.
In 1948 the U.S. patent office issued a patent for the gas and are used to fill a particular need. Other methods are
metal arc welding (GMAW) process. The GMAW term evolving that may significantly change the way welds will
superseded the earlier terms of metal inert gas (MIG) and be made in the future.
metal active gas (MAG). The following processes involve the use of the
The GMAW process concentrates high heat at a focal electric arc:
point, producing deep penetration, a narrow bead width, a
•• Arc spot welding
small heat-affected zone, and faster welding speeds result-
•• Atomic-hydrogen welding
ing in less warpage and distortion of the welded joint and
•• Electrogas
minimum postweld cleaning. The use of GMAW has in-
•• Plasma arc welding
creased very rapidly; it is now used in virtually all indus-
•• Stud welding
tries. A GMAW or similar process is responsible for over
•• Submerged arc welding
70 percent of welds being performed today. In the early
•• Underwater arc welding
1950s the gas shielded flux cored arc welding (FCAW)
process was developed, Fig. 1-4. It was referred to as Other specialized processes include:
“dual shield” as it had a flux but also required external
•• Cold welding
gas shielding. Late in the 1950s self-shielded flux cored
•• Electron beam welding
wires were introduced. And in the early 1970s all posi-
•• Explosive welding
tion flux cored wires became available. Metal cored wires
•• Forge welding
came along shortly after this. The solid wire, metal cored
•• Friction welding
wire, and flux cored wire use nearly the same equipment;
•• Friction stir welding
however, since flux cored wires produce a slag that covers
•• Laser welding
the entire weld, it is considered a separate process.
•• Oxyhydrogen welding
During the 1980s and continuing today, rapid changes
•• Thermit welding
are evolving in the welding industry as engineers devise
•• Ultrasonic welding
more advanced filler metal formulas to improve arc per-
•• Welding of plastics
formance and weld quality on even the most exotic of ma-
terials. Even though our history is vague in the areas of Today there are over 90 welding processes in use. The
welding and filler metal development, it has shown that demands of industry in the future will force new and im-
advancements are inevitable and will continue, such as proved developments in machines, gases, torches, elec-
exotic multiple gas mixes, state-of-the-art electrodes, on- trodes, procedures, and technology. The shipbuilding,
board computers, hybrid processes, and robotic welding. space, and nuclear industries conduct constant research for
Some processes were developed for limited applications new metals, which in turn spurs research in welding. For
6 Chapter 1 History of Welding

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more actively and are in this sense more subject to injury from excess
of uric acid and allied products. Birds at this age, confined and in
process of fattening are thereby exposed. Overfed, obese, lazy, old
house dogs are under similar causative conditions.
Lesions. The most prominent lesions in birds are chalky
concretions of urates on the articular ends of the bones and in the
structures around the joints including even the tendons, with more
or less inflammatory exudate and even necrosis, invading the bony
tissue and articular cartilage. Abscesses may be present usually
outside the bursa. Birds suffer especially in the tarsal, metatarsal and
phlangeal joints, but often also in the corresponding joints of the
wing, and less frequently in the joints of the trunk, and in the
internal organs,—kidneys, liver, lungs, serosæ,—and skin. In these
last, miliary chalky concretions and encrustations are found. In
Brückmüller’s case in the dog the chalky deposits of urates were
found mainly on the epiphyses of the ribs, but also on the joints of
the limbs.
Uric acid is always abundant in the blood of birds, and Roberts has
shown that biurate of soda (the usual form of precipitate) is insoluble
in blood serum, synovia and other body fluids when in excess of
1:10,000.
Symptoms. In birds the febrile and constitutional symptoms have
not been carefully observed so that the objective symptoms in the
affected joints have been mainly relied on. There is extreme
tenderness marked by standing on one limb, or resting on the breast,
and hence moping apart from the flock. When made to rise, the
affected limb may be used to steady the body, or even to walk, with a
limp, though in bad cases the sound limb only may be used. The
affected joints are swollen, soft, hot, extremely tender, pitting on
pressure, and later the seat of nodular yellow masses, usually hard,
but sometimes fluctuating and in size from a pea to a hazel nut. The
superimposed epidermis is thick, dry and scaly, falling off in flakes.
At a more advanced stage the concretions may burst through the
skin, discharging a buffy, granular, debris containing crystals of
urates of ammonium or calcium, or of uric acid. Later still are
ulcerous sores, involving the disintegrating urate nodules and the
necrotic bones and cartilages. The deposits deflect the bones from
their normal direction, causing not only nodular swellings on the
toes but much crookedness and distortion. As in man the disease is
essentially chronic and advances slowly, with anæmia, emaciation,
debility and at times diarrhœa.
Diagnosis depends largely on the recognition of the excess of
urates in the deposits. These appear under the microscope as fine
acicular crystals, which in the harder portions have a concentric
arrangement. A portion of the concretion may be moistened with a
few drops of nitric acid and evaporated to dryness. To one part of the
residue is added, by means of a pipette, a drop of aqua ammonia, and
to another caustic soda. The ammonia develops a beautiful purple
red color, and the soda a blue or purplish blue ring (Murexide test).
In tubercular joints, which are common in birds, the caseated nodule
is made up of cells and granular debris, with tubercle bacilli, and
though cretaceous particles may be present they fail to give the
microscopic and color appearances of uric acid.
Treatment. This must be largely preventive. The rich albuminoid
feeding and close confinement must be modified especially in the
older birds, and eliminating agents must be given in the drinking
water. The Carlsbad combination (sodium sulphate 22; potassium
sulphate 1; sodium chloride 9; sodium bicarbonate 18) may be used.
Powdered colchicum ¼ gr. once or twice daily during an attack, or
piperazin ½ gr. twice a day. Locally, abscesses should be opened,
and like any sores or ulcers, treated with antiseptics (Salicylate of
sodium 75 grs., glycerine 2 ozs.; or piperazin solution 2:100).
SCURVY: SCORBUTUS.
Definition. Susceptible animals: pigs, dogs. Causes: unwholesome salt meat, lack
of fresh food, vegetables, potassium, bad environment, unvarying diet, lack of free
range, putrescent food, foul water, infection; non-recurrence. Lesions: blood black,
diffluent, little rigor mortis, excess of sodium, petechiæ and extravasations, red
marrow, softened, swollen, bleeding, ulcerating gums. Symptoms: Anorexia,
prostration, debility, tardy movements, petechiæ, loss of bristles, ulcers, gum
lesions, joint swellings, blood extravasations. Diarrhœa. Prognosis unfavorable.
Treatment: correct unwholesome environment and food, wash, rich food partly
green or animal, iron, bitters, arsenic, mouth wash (potassium chlorate), for
suckling milk. Butcher.
Definition. Scurvy is a subacute or chronic trophic disorder

characterized by debility, inanition, anæmia, swelling and bleeding
of the gums, gingival ulceration, dropping of the teeth, and petechial
or more extensive hæmorrhages and exudations in the skin, serosa,
and solid tissues.
Animals susceptible. In past times man has suffered extensively in
connection with unwholesome food and environment, on long sea
voyages, on uninhabited islands, in military campaigns, in besieged
cities, in famines, when restricted to one article of food, etc. Among
the lower animals, pigs especially suffer, when kept in close, foul
quarters and fed a monotonous and insufficient ration. Dogs suffer
under similar conditions, and probably other animals would if
equally badly used.
Causes. Formerly it was attributed to an exclusive diet of salt meat
and bread; to excess of sodium, and deficiency of potassium salts; to
the absence of fresh vegetables; to tainted food, etc. A broader
generalization shows the Eskimo living on a pure meat diet, the
Mongolian on rice alone, the Congoese on plantains, and without
scurvy. Yet it cannot be denied that these various conditions
undermine the general health, and prepare the system for those
faulty states of nutrition which are seen in scurvy. In pigs the food
and environment are usually chiefly at fault, the subjects have been
kept closely confined in foul buildings, in a hot, moist atmosphere,
and with an uniform diet of maize or other unvarying and
insufficient ration. It does not appear when there is a free access to a
spacious yard or open field, and when the monotonous diet can be
varied by a variety of slugs and other invertebrates. Röll attaches
great importance to a putrid condition of the aliments (putrescent
swill). Benion has found it mainly in obese swine, the forced feeding
and intestinal fermentations manifestly operating as factors. Corrupt
drinking water has proved a manifest factor among men living in
camps, and pigs above all other animals are subjected to this cause.
Benion says it occurs in the advanced stages of measles (cysticercus
cellulosa).
It is evident that unwholesome conditions of life such as the above,
contribute strongly to the affection, yet probably no one of these is by
itself an effective factor. Its rapid extension among men and animals,
that are huddled together in close, filthy quarters suggests an
epizootic or infective element, and Cornevin, Hess and others
attribute the disease in pigs to the germ of erysipelas. Stengel has
produced purpuric disease in animals by inoculation of the
extravasated blood from human scurvy patients. Müller and Babes
found a slender bacillus and streptococci in the tissues of scorbutic
gums. The bacillus was present in the mouth of non-scurvy persons.
Boruträger found cocci in the spleen. Berthensen alleges that after
complete recovery the disease does not attack the same person a
second time, which, if confirmed, will go far to establish a
bacteridian origin. There is considerable presumption of the
existence of a microbian cause, the efficiency of which is dependent
on the unhygienic conditions above stated, while these unwholesome
conditions are equally nonpathogenic in the absence of the microbe.
Lesions. The blood is black and incoagulable or clots loosely, rigor
mortis is slight, changes may be found in the number and character
of the white and red blood globules, but are not constant, there is
usually an excess of sodium salts and deficiency of potassium ones,
and there is marked petechiation of the skin, mucosæ and serosæ.
The bone marrow may be abnormally red and the bones fractured at
the epiphyses, or carious. The addition of the gum lesions makes the
case characteristic. The gums are softened, swollen, red and uneven,
with hæmorrhagic discoloration, erosions, necrotic areas and ulcers.
Symptoms. Anorexia or fastidious appetite, prostration, debility
and sluggish indifferent movements, are followed by the local lesions
on the skin and gums. On the skin appear petechiæ, and
extravasations, which often implicate the bristles, so that they may
be shed or pulled out with ease, the bulbs appearing dark and
bloodstained (bristle rot). These may be followed by necrotic
sloughs, and deep ulcers that are slow to heal. The gums are red and
swollen, with hæmorrhagic spots, and bleed on the slightest touch.
Erosions, sores and ulcers are not uncommon, the tongue is dry and
furred, and the mouth exhales a fœtid odor. The teeth may become
loose in their sockets. Swelling of the joints, from hæmorrhage or
effusion, may be noticed, and lameness or stiffness from muscular or
intermuscular extravasation. Blood effusions into the anterior or
posterior chamber of the eye have been noticed and paralytic or
comatose symptoms from similar effusions on the brain. In the
absence of improvement the patient becomes more and more
debilitated and exhausted, and death may be preceded by profuse
exhausting diarrhœa.
Prognosis is unfavorable in advanced cases, and when the faulty
regimen cannot be corrected.
Treatment. The first consideration is to correct the unwholesome
conditions of life, purify the building and its surroundings, and allow
a free range on a pasture. Subject each patient to a thorough soapy
wash, and if possible allow clean running water in which a bath may
be taken at will. Access to green food and invertebrates (slugs, larvæ,
etc.) is important, or a varied diet of grain, middlings, bran, roots,
fruits, tubers, cabbage, silage, etc., must be furnished. Iron and
bitters (mix vomica, gentian,) are useful and sometimes small doses
of arsenite of soda solution, or cream of tartar are useful. Acorns or
horsechestnuts are recommended. For the mouth a wash of
potassium chlorate, soda biborate, or potassium permanganate may
be resorted to. Friedberger and Fröhner advise for the dog extract of
meat in wine.
In the case of fat pigs it is more profitable to butcher at once, as
soon as early symptoms appear.
In pigs or puppies brought up by hand, as in babies, the true
course, is to discard milk substitutes and give sweet new milk,
preferably of the genus to which the patient belongs. The important
elements of cleanliness and outdoor life must not be forgotten.
GOITRE. BRONCHOCELE. ENLARGEMENT OF
THE THYROID.
Definition. A non-inflammatory enlargement of the thyroid gland,

independent of known microbes or parasitism.
Causes. Goitre is an endemic disorder in man and beast, though it
may occur sporadically during or after a debilitating disease, or in
animals that are overworked or out of condition. As occurring
endemically all accessory factors that undermine the general health
must be admitted as potent factors, though insufficient of themselves
to develop the malady in the absence of the specific cause. Thus in
Europe women suffer more than man, being more confined indoors
and being less muscular and vigorous. In New York the new born
offspring of ewes, kept in close confinement during winter, may be
all goitrous, while those of flocks, having a free run through the
whole season, escape. Gurlt has seen the same in goats. Apart from
debilitating diseases New York horses and cattle develop the greater
number of cases in winter, the period of confinement and idleness.
House dogs suffer more than hounds.
Poor diet has a similar effect. In Europe where the disease is very
prevalent in the underfed peasant population, it is rare among the
highly fed domestic animals. Bouley says it is excessively rare in
animals even in the localities in which it prevails in man, and though
mentioned by Lydtin, Johné, Haubner and others it is not as a
common affection. In New York and Pennsylvania on the other hand
it is rare in the well-fed human population, and very common in
horses, mules, cattle, sheep, swine and dogs. I have known
congenital goitre to prove fatal to a new born dromedary in Central
Park, New York. The long, severe winter, close confinement, and
impure air, doubtless as much as the spare diet contribute to this
prevalence among the animals in New York.
Intestinal worms and other parasitisms must be accepted as
secondary factors, the development of goitre often going on
simultaneously with the increase of the parasites.
Heredity is claimed as a cause by Möller and others, and doubtless
a weak constitution transmitted from parent to offspring, is more
susceptible. Apart from this the exposure of both to a common
specific cause is the main factor in its production.
Locality. This must be accorded a first position in the causation of
goitre, so far at least as it occurs endemically and enzootically. In
England it has prevailed, in man, on the limestone hills of
Derbyshire, and Gloucester (Cotswold); in Europe it is common in
the Alps, Pyrenees, Savoy, Styria, Silesia, in the Black Forest and in
the Rhone valley; in Asia it prevails in the Himalayas, the Altai
Mountains, the hills of China, and in the Punjaub; in South America
it is seen in the valley of the Oronoco; in North America in
Saskatchewan, Ontario, Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania, New York,
Vermont, Virginia and Alabama. A large number of these localities
lie on magnesian limestone or are supplied with water that has
percolated through this, so that at one time the excess of magnesia
and the lack of iodine were held to be the main causative factors.
This contention cannot be sustained in all cases, so that the
disposition is, at present, to attribute the disease to some unknown
poison. This unknown poison may be present in districts apart from
the magnesian limestone, yet the disease is so frequently seen upon
this formation that its presence must always be looked upon with
suspicion as a probable bearer of the poison, and waters bearing its
products are unsuited to the victims of goitre.
Pathological Anatomy. Sometimes the swelling of the gland which
appears during catarrh or pharyngitis will subside on recovery. In
other cases it remains as a distinct hypertrophy. This is usually an
increase of the parenchyma and dilatation of its follicles with an
albuminous fluid (hypertrophic goitre). This may affect one lateral
lobe or both. In other cases the fibrous tissue mainly increases and
the gland becomes hard and resistant (fibrous goitre). In other cases
the individual follicles become distended, and may even break into
each other forming a large cavity or several with liquid contents
(cystic goitre). In other cases there is a great increase of the vascular
network of the gland so that blood alone is obtained on puncture
(varicose goitre). Tumors of all kinds may be found in the gland,
thus encysted adenoma, sarcoma and melanoma in horses,
carcinoma in old dogs.
Symptoms. In horses there may be swelling of one lateral lobe of
the gland or of both, reaching individually the size of a hen’s egg or
the fist, or larger. Cadeac cites cases that weighed 4 lbs. In dogs,
cattle, sheep and especially in swine, the two lobes are much more
closely connected, and the disease affecting both, together with the
commissure, the whole may be resolved into one uniform swelling,
much larger than in the horse relatively to the size of the animal,
often covering the whole front of the neck, and extending into the
chest. Cadeac mentions cases in the dog in which the mass weighed 4
lbs.
The smaller swellings appear in the solipeds on the two sides of the
larynx, and in other animals more in front. They are mobile, but rise
somewhat with the larynx in swallowing, and are usually covered by
loose, movable skin. The consistency of the swelling varies; some are
soft, elastic or pitting on pressure, others fluctuate and still others
are firm and resistant. Old cases that have become calcified may even
feel bony. In dogs it will sometimes pulsate like an aneurism.
Functional secondary troubles are rare in solipeds. In the other
animals the goitre may compress the pharynx or gullet causing
dysphagia, or the larynx, trachea or recurrent nerves causing more or
less wheezing or dyspnœa. Asphyxia is not uncommon in new born
sheep, and goats, and Johné and the present writer have seen cases
in dromedaries. The soft embryonic tracheal rings had been so
compressed from side to side that respiration became impossible.
Honert records a case of asphyxia in an adult horse. Cases of roaring
in adult horses and mules and of asphyxia in adult dogs are also on
record. Warz records the obliteration of the jugular in a dog, and
Cadeac œdema of the lips and face.
The course of goitre is usually slow, extending over years, yet in
young dogs it may make a very rapid progress. It will often stand still
for a time, and later start a new growth under a fresh access of the
cause. Spontaneous disappearance is rare.
Prevention. This is especially important in localities in which
goitre is enzootic, and embraces careful attention to the general
health, the avoidance of overwork, exhaustion, indoor life, lack of
exercise, impure air, faulty feeding, starvation, and water from the
goitrous soils. Rain water is preferable.
Treatment. First remove the various causes, and secure the best
hygiene. If a change to a non-goitrous district can be had, avail of it.
Among medicinal agents iodine holds the foremost place. It may
be given internally as potassium iodide, alone, or along with tincture
of iodine, and applied locally as iodine ointment rubbed into the
skin, or tincture of iodine painted on the surface.
Of surgical measures the simplest and best is the injection of
iodine into the diseased thyroid. The nozzle of a hypodermic syringe
is inserted into the gland, preferably into the largest cyst or follicular
mass, and the liquid drawn off as fully as possible. It is then injected
with the following mixture: compound solution of iodine one part,
distilled water two parts. The amount may vary with the size of the
goitre. In cases of moderate size ½ dr. to 1 dr. is suitable. There is
usually some resulting inflammation, which may be met by a wet
compress around the throat. A second and third injection may be
made if necessary, when the effects of the preceding one have passed
off. In simple forms it is very successful. For dogs Möller
recommends from 5 to 15 drops of undiluted tincture of iodine at an
injection. In other cases he used a watery solution of papain (1:10) to
be left in for 48 hours. The thyroid was then soft and, on incision,
discharged its digested parenchyma as a milky fluid, and favorable
healing followed.
The removal of the diseased lobe has been successfully
accomplished in horses, the reservation of the other lobe, or even of
the connecting commissure, being sufficient to prevent the
occurrence of tetany. From the extreme vascularity of the organ it is
important to ligature the arteries before attempting the removal.
In the other domestic animals in which the commissure is
practically obliterated and the two lobes confluent in goitre, the
excision of the mass is liable to be followed by tetany, dropsy
(myxoedema), stunted development, anæmia or marasmus. If a
portion of the gland is left these results do not follow. Grafting of a
portion of healthy gland may correct the tetany. The hypertrophy of
the gland may sometimes be arrested by ligature of its nutrient
arteries, and without the dangers above named. This may be
combined with the internal and external use of iodine.
EXOPHTHALMIC GOITRE.
Definition. A complex disorder manifested by hypertrophy of the

thyroid, excessive bulging of the eye balls out of the orbits, cardiac
palpitations or tardy heart action and other nervous or trophic
disorders.
Cadiot records a case in a horse, in low condition, with painful
œdematous swelling of one fore foot, and swellings in other parts of
the body, great enlargement of the left lobe of the thyroid,
tumultuous heart action with beats 70 to 80 per minute, and strong
visible pulsations in the superficial arteries. There was no leukæmia
and no exophthalmia. The patient died on the third day.
Jeswejenko records that of a four year old English thoroughbred
which after a race showed anorexia, weakness, thirst, rapid pulse,
palpitations, conjunctivitis, enlarged thyroid and after fourteen days
exophthalmia with thyroid pulsations. It died in the fourth week,
anæmic and exhausted. A second case in a 7 year old bitch recovered
in three months under treatment with iodine.
Röder gives the case of a cow with palpitations, abnormally strong
pulsations, thyroid hypertrophy and double intense exophthalmia.
This persisted for four years.
RACHITIS. RICKETS.
Definition. Lesions and pathology; gastro-intestinal disorder, hepatic, splenic

and renal congestion and hypertrophy, lessened blood salts, dilated arteries,
hyperæmia of bone, deep red marrow, blue articular cartilage, softening of
epiphyseal cartilage and under the periosteum, with hyperplasia, decrease of lime
salts, bending of bone, loose periosteum; sclerosis in repaired cases. Causes:
appears as if infection, lack of lime salts in food, inconstant, free phosphorus,
glycero-phosphoric acid, lactic acid, oxalic, acetic and formic acids, heredity, bad
air, crowding, damp soils, cold, confinement, darkness, infection, toxic matters.
Symptoms: unthrift, thin neck, arched or hollow back, drooping pelvis, weariness,
stiffness, recumbency, limbs not plumb, tender, swollen puffed joints, enlarged
epiphyses, bent shafts, or spine, brittleness. Swine fed on potatoes or corn,
“snuffles”, breaking teeth, diarrhœa, bronchitis, skin eruptions, arthritis. Cattle,
epiphyseal swellings, bow legs, crooked back. Dogs, bow legs. Goats. Birds, knotted
thickening of bones, flexibility. Fever, colics, indigestion. Lameness shifting,
intermittent, relapsing. Paraplegia. Treatment, hygienic, vigorous breeding
animals, nutritious rations, rich in earthy salts, well balanced, from sound land,
rich abundant milk without excess of fat, avoid spoiled food, adapt cow’s milk to
foal or puppy, fresh air, sunshine, damp soils, antacids, lime water, laxatives,
bitters, phosphates, bone dust, phosphorus.
Definition. A constitutional disease of young animals, associated

with disorders of digestion, nutrition, assimilation, and
sanguification, and especially characterized by softening and
distortion of the bones.
Lesions and Pathology. Apart from the bones there does not seem
to be an absolute constancy in the lesions. There is usually, however,
a period of ill-health and faulty nutrition before the lesions in the
bones can be recognized. Thus, there may be gastric or intestinal
congestion, or catarrh, indigestions, constipation alternating with
diarrhœa, enlargement of the liver, spleen and kidney with
hyperæmia, and according to V. Jaksch, a diminution of the salts of
the blood. Beneke found that the arteries are dilated throughout the
entire body, but the heart does not always participate in this
distension. The arterial dilatation is very marked in the pulmonary
artery, yet the lungs are relatively small. In the bones there is a well
marked hyperæmia, most prominent beneath the periosteum, in the
cancellated tissue, the line of junction of the epiphysis and diaphysis,
and near the articulating surface. The contents of the cancelli are of a
deep red, and the color shines through the articular cartilage giving it
a bluish tinge. The shaft of the bone does not escape, but like the
epiphysis and epiphyseal cartilage may be soft and yielding to
pressure, and cut readily with the knife.
At both points the process of growth is increased and its area
extended, but it is not completed by the full deposition of earthy
salts, and the softening is not confined to the new tissues, but
extends into the subjacent bone as well.
The chemical composition of the bone is profoundly altered, the
organic basis, at times amounting to 65 per cent., as compared to
33.30 per cent in the normal bone. The softened bone, yielding under
the weight of the body, bends out of shape at the epiphyseal cartilage,
or even elsewhere, giving rise to bow legs, deviation of the joints
inward, or other distortion. The periosteum is red, thickened, the
seat of exudate and easily torn from the bone.
The bones are often thickened by new deposit under the
periosteum and especially at the junction with the epiphyses. Old
cases of distortion, the result of rickets, do not necessarily show a
deficiency of earthy salts, as these are restored in case of repair and
they may even be found in excess of the normal, increasing the
hardness of the bone.
Causes. This disease does not seem to have been recognized in
Great Britain until the beginning of the 17th century, the period of
England’s early activity on the sea, and the beginning of extensive
commerce and manufactures. From that time it has been
increasingly and extensively prevalent. Yet it has not been shown to
be propagated by any specific germ, nor to have extended in line with
the introduction and use of new food products like the potato. It
appears to be traceable rather to unwholesome conditions of life and
a reduction of the general tone and nutritive vigor.
A deficiency of earthy salts in the food has been a natural and
favorite explanation, and the ill-health that is thereby brought about
is often an important factor. Yet rachitis occurs independently of
such a condition.
In Roloff’s experiments, pigs fed on aliment deficient in lime salts,
suffered from bone softening, while the control animals on food rich
in lime salts remained well. The diseased animals further recovered
on a diet rich in lime. Voight, Chossat, Milne-Edwards, Lehmann,
Bousaingault, Heitzmann, etc., had similar experimental results, and
the effects were shown in goats, sheep and dogs, in curvature,
shortening, swelling of the costal cartilages and joints and contracted
pelvis. Growing pigs have often been found to suffer in this way when
placed on an exclusive diet of maize. The great improvement often
secured in feeding an excess of calcareous phosphates tends to
corroborate the hypothesis. Wagner found that food rich in lime
salts, and the administration of small doses of phosphorus, rendered
the epiphyses of the growing bones more compact. Kassowitz, on the
other hand, found that an excess of phosphorus caused absorption
from the bone substance and an irritable inflammation of the
osseous tissue. Schneidemühl has seen the disease in calves raised on
milk, poor in lime, the product of emaciated cows; in pigs getting
only potatoes and swill, and in puppies that were denied bones. It is
common in pigs on an exclusive diet of maize. Yet it is most
destructive in many breeding studs where the alimentation is rich
and generous. It must be admitted that as a concurrent cause, the
paucity of lime salts and phosphates is a powerful factor, and that in
supplying the bone ash, and improving the nutrition, these often
prove of great value. Their privation is, however, not an essential
condition of rachitis.
Free phosphorus. Ziegler and Kassowitz emphasize the hyperæmia
of the cancellated tissue, and Wagner shows that this condition can
be induced by excess of phosphorus, but this excess of phosphorus
has not been found in the blood in ordinary cases, and is not likely to
occur in a great number of young, at the same place and time,
irrespective of food, as has been shown in breeding studs in New
Jersey, in the South and West. In particular cases excess of
phosphorus may operate, but it cannot be looked on as universal or
essential.
The presence of glycero-phosphoric acid is alleged by Trasbot, but
there is no proof of its constancy in rachitis, nor would its presence
explain the real cause of the disease.
Lactic acid in the system. Lactic acid, in vitro, dissolves the
calcareous salts of the bones. Trasbot alleges that it opposes the
precipitation of lime in the form of tribasic phosphate, as found in
bone. Siedamgrotzky and Hofmeister found that the salts of the bone
were lessened under the administration of lactic acid. Heitzmann
and Baginsky showed that by restricting the lime in food and giving
lactic acid, by the mouth or subcutem, the lime salts in the bone were
lessened relatively to the organic basis. It should be noted that an
exclusive diet of buttermilk is liable to cause an attack of arthritic
rheumatism. Lactic acid is undoubtedly a coöperative factor in
certain cases, but though often found in the diseased bone and urine
of rachitic children (Ragsky, Morehead, Simon, Lehmann), it is not
shown to be constant.
Oxalic acid. Acetic acid. Formic acid. Beneke found oxalic acid in
the urine in many cases of rachitis and attributed to it the removal of
the lime salts. Others have made the same charges on acetic and
formic acids which are sometimes found in the diseased bone.
It is quite plain that the process of normal ossification is easily
disturbed, and that the same agent (lime, phosphorus) will assist or
hinder according as it is present in small or large amount, and that
certain chemical agents like organic acids may act injuriously even in
the presence of an abundance of bone salts.
Heredity. Rickety parents have often rickety offspring, the weak
somatic cells, failing in both cases to build healthy, strong tissues,
but as a rule also, both have been condemned to live in similar
unwholesome surroundings.
Unhygienic Conditions. Schneidemühl notes that in animals as in
man, bad ventilation, close impure air, crowding, damp impervious
soils, and cold, are found more or less in places where rachitis
prevails. By lowering the general health and tone, these debilitate the
tissue cells and impair nutrition and growth.
Confinement has a manifest influence. Rickets prevails in children
in the great manufacturing cities, where the exclusion of sunlight and
the breathing of impure air rob the system of its vigor. The children
of soldiers in India kept in close barracks are largely rickety, while
the more poorly fed native children outside escape. Wild beasts in
confinement are often rachitic, unlike their fellows of the forest.
Colts in confined stables suffer while those in the fields and yards
remain healthy. Swine in Sweden in close pens and fed on potatoes
alone suffer (Stockfleth).
Darkness usually coincides with confinement and it is noteworthy
that deep sea fishes, living in comparative darkness, have usually
cartilaginous skeletons.
Infection. Certain facts seem to point to a direct infection, as
coöperating with the debilitating conditions above named. The
advent of the disease in England about 1700: its frequency in English
swine on the European continent (Schneidemühl); and its enzootic
prevalence in different parts of America, give seeming support to the
doctrine.
Dr. W. L. Williams has seen it appear on an Illinois farm twenty
years after reclamation from virgin prairie, prevail for ten years and
then disappear. There was a remarkable coincidence of recurrent
ophthalmia, and disease of the bones and joints (navicular disease,
spavin, splints, ring bones, etc.).
In most of these cases the trouble occurred on low, damp or
impervious soils, agreeing with rickets in children, which avoids the
Alps or hilly districts, and abounds in valleys or bottom lands.
Symptoms. The colts show a lack of thrift and though there may be
no lack of growth or size, they have a rough coat, a poor development
of the neck, arching of the back and drooping pelvis. The chest may
seem to sink between the scapulæ. They move stiffly with swaying of
the limbs, or even staggering and are easily wearied or lacking in
endurance. They lie a great portion of their time or even persistently,
refusing to rise. When up they do not hold the limbs plumb, but
allow them to deviate one way or another in an unsightly way. There
is liable to be swelling of important joints of the limb, (knee, hock,
stifle, fetlock), which are tender to pressure and kept partly flexed.
The ends of the ribs are often enlarged. Bending of the long bones
(tibia or radius), and deviations of the back or sternum from the
straight line are significant. Thickening of the ends of the bones, or
in the region of the epiphyseal cartilages are largely diagnostic. The
bones are easily fractured. In swine fed on potatoes, corn, etc.,
besides the affections of the limbs, the thickening of the bones and
swelling of the joints, especially the hock and pastern, there is
enlargement of the nasal and maxillary bones so as to seriously
obstruct breathing (“Snuffles”). The teeth suffer and break readily
and in the general break down diarrhœa, bronchitis or skin eruption
appears and the subject falls into marasmus and perishes. In the
necropsy arthritis is commonly found. In cattle beside the epiphyseal
swellings, the bow legs and joint enlargements, the back becomes
crooked, vertically or laterally. The same general symptoms appear
in dogs in which bow legs are a very prominent feature. Goats suffer
badly and mostly remain recumbent.
Birds suffer most, showing knotty thickening of the bones of the
legs and wings, and flexibility of the bones generally but above all of
the keel of the sternum, which is usually badly distorted from sitting
on the perch.
In all alike there are usually a few days of fever, followed by
indigestion, colics, anorexia, and a general air of illness. Then appear
the lameness, stiffness and swelling of bones and joints. Any joint
may suffer, shoulder, elbow, knee, hips, stifle, hock, or fetlock. The
lameness may shift as in rheumatism, it may intermit, occurring
periodically, or it may advance uninterruptedly to a fatal issue.
Paraplegia is common and appears to be due at times to pressure on
the spinal nerves by the diseased vertebræ. Before this becomes
complete, the animal may walk with the whole digits and metatarsi
in contact with the ground, and the softened crumbling calcis may
project through the skin forming an unsightly sore which soon
becomes septic. The same happens at times to the point of the elbow.
Treatment. The most important, are the hygienic considerations.
Reject weak or cachectic animals from breeding, and those that have
been rachitic to a marked degree, as their progeny are likely to show
the same weakness. Change the ration giving one that is well
balanced and rich in nutritive matters and earthy salts. Clover,
alfalfa, and a generous grain diet may serve as an example for
herbivora, and a fair allowance of meat and bones for dogs. Food
from land that has apparently contributed to the disease in other
cases is best avoided. If the land is poor, sandy, or destitute of earthy
salts and phosphates, so much the more is it to be suspected and set
aside. In the case of sucking animals it should be seen that the milk is
rich and abundant, and that it is not too rich in fat, nor otherwise
calculated to disagree and induce indigestion. Above all soured or
otherwise fermented milk should be withheld, and any buckets or
troughs used in feeding should be regularly washed, scalded and
disinfected. In case colts, or dogs are being raised on cow’s milk it
may be requisite to dilute it with one-third its volume of barley
water, or solution of gum arabic, and to sweeten with sugar. Lime
water with each meal is valuable in counteracting acidity, and
fermentation, and in furnishing lime which may be absorbed in part.
In prevention and treatment alike, fresh air and sunshine must
never be neglected and in warm weather, an outdoor life, night and
day is of the greatest value. At the same time cold storms, damp
beds, or any condition which may induce chill must be excluded.
Close stalls, pens, or kennels must be absolutely forbidden.
Among medicinal agents antacids are often essential on account of
the acid condition of the ingesta, lime water will often suffice, but if
there is manifest constipation calcined magnesia three times a day
on an empty stomach so as to counteract costiveness will often serve
a good end. The atony of the bowel may be further met by small
doses of strychnia. Other bitters may be used if this has little effect.
Small doses of phosphate of soda, or bone dust have been long
lauded in the affection, and probably act beneficially as a tonic as
well as a food material. Phosphorus in minute doses tends to
increase the deposit of earthy salts and consolidate the bones. Large
doses induce hyperæmia of the epiphyseal ligament and even favor
fracture. A grain of phosphorus daily may be given in olive oil or
better in cod liver oil which acts as a valuable tonic. Dieckerhoff
recommends the intratracheal injection of the solution of
phosphorus in olive oil.
BRAN DISEASE: SHORTS DISEASE: BRAN
RACHITIS.
Miller’s horses. Bran and middlings as fodder. Torpid bowels, impaction,

indigestion, colic, early fatigue and perspiration, stiffness, lameness, epiphyseal
swelling, facial bones swell and soften symmetrically, teeth drop, dyspnœa. Ash of
bran. Treatment.
A curious form of rickets has been observed, especially in miller’s

horses as a result of an excessive consumption of bran or middlings.
It is characterized by torpor of the bowels, impaction, indigestions,
slight colics, early fatigue and profuse perspiration under slight
exertion followed by stiffness, lameness, enlargement of the bones in
the region of the epiphyseal cartilage (near knee or hock), or of the
bones of the face. The superior and inferior maxillary bones are
symmetrically enlarged, the teeth are shed, mastication becomes
difficult and there may be some dyspnœa and snuffling. This
resembles the “snuffles” in pigs on an exclusive diet of Indian corn or
potato and Friedberger and Fröhner seek to explain both, by the lack
of lime and phosphorus in the food. But wheat bran has 5.1 per cent.
of ash, and middlings 2.3 per cent. as compared with wheat flour 1.7
per cent. or oats 2.7 per cent. Putz on the contrary attributes the
disease to the excess of phosphorus in the bran acting as the free
phosphorus in lucifer match factories in causing necrosis of the jaw.
But the phosphorus in bran occurs as phosphate of lime which has
no such action on the bone and one must infer that the phosphoric
acid is set free by some acid developed perhaps in the intestinal
fermentations. This is, however, as yet unproved.
The treatment of this affection consists in the suspension of the
bran and the expulsion of offensive accumulations and products
from the bowels, followed by a course of tonics and the general
treatment for rickets.

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