NOTES BY PROF.

AISHA KANGOKAR 1

Title : Ability Enhancement Course BH.UAMMCAEC301

Name : Environment and Sustainability Studies. (AEC)

(2 credits and 50 Marks)

NAME: __________________________________

ROLL NUMBER:_________________
NOTES BY PROF. AISHA KANGOKAR 2

Module 1: Concept of Disparity 1

Gender inequality is the social phenomenon in which people

are not treated equally on the basis of gender. This inequality
can be caused by gender discrimination or sexism. The
treatment may arise from distinctions regarding biology,
psychology, or cultural norms prevalent in the society.
In the workplace

Income disparities linked to job stratification

Across the board, a number of industries are stratified across the
genders. This is the result of a variety of factors. These include
differences in education choices, preferred job and industry,
work experience, number of hours worked, and breaks in
employment (such as for bearing and raising children). Men also
typically go into higher paid and higher risk jobs when
compared to women. These factors result in 60% to 75%
difference between men's and women's average
aggregate wages or salaries, depending on the source. Various
explanations for the remaining 25% to 40% have been suggested,
including women's lower willingness and ability to negotiate
salary and sexual discrimination.
Professional education and careers
The gender gap has narrowed to various degrees since the mid-
1960s. Where some 5% of first-year students in professional
programs were female in 1965, by 1985 this number had jumped
to 40% in law and medicine, and over 30% in dentistry and
business school.Before the highly effective birth control pill was
available, women planning professional careers, which required
a long-term, expensive commitment, had to "pay the penalty of
abstinence or cope with considerable uncertainty regarding
pregnancy".This control over their reproductive decisions
allowed women to more easily make long-term decisions about
their education and professional opportunities. Women are
highly underrepresented on boards of directors and in senior
NOTES BY PROF. AISHA KANGOKAR 3

positions in the private sector.Gender inequality in professional

education is a global issue

Customer preference studies

A 2010 study conducted by David R. Hekman and colleagues
found that customers, who viewed videos featuring a black male,
a white female, or a white male actor playing the role of an
employee helping a customer, were 19 percent more satisfied
with the white male employee's performance.
Gender pay differences
Gender inequalities still exist as social problems and are still
growing in places. In 2008, recently qualified female doctors
in New York State had a starting salary $16,819 less than their
male counterparts. An increase compared to the $3,600
difference of 1999. The pay discrepancy could not be explained
by specialty choice, practice setting, work hours, or other
characteristics. Nonetheless, some potentially significant factors
like family or marital status were not evaluated.A case study
carried out on Swedish medical doctors showed that the gender
wage gap among physicians was greater in 2007 than in 1975.

Gender roles in parenting and marriage

Gender roles are heavily influenced by biology, with male-
female play styles correlating with sex hormones,[80]sexual
orientation, aggressive traits,and pain.Furthermore, females
with congenital adrenal hyperplasiademonstrate increased
masculinity and it has been shown that rhesus macaque children
exhibit preferences for stereotypically male and female toys.

Gender inequality in relationships

Gender inequality in relationships has been growing over the
years but for the majority of relationships, the power lies with
the male.[85] Even now men and women present themselves as
divided along gender lines. A study done by Szymanowicz and
Furnham, looked at the cultural stereotypes of intelligence in
NOTES BY PROF. AISHA KANGOKAR 4

men and women, showing the gender inequality in self-

presentation. This study showed that females thought if they
revealed their intelligence to a potential partner, then it would
diminish their chance with him. Men however would much
more readily discuss their own intelligence with a potential
partner. Also, women are aware of people's negative reactions to
IQ, so they limit its disclosure to only trusted friends. Females
would disclose IQ more often than men with the expectation that
a real true friend would respond in a positive way. Intelligence
continues to be viewed as a more masculine trait, than feminine
trait.
Attempts in equalizing household work
Despite the increase in women in the labor force since the mid-
1900s, traditional gender roles are still prevalent in American
society. Many women are expected to put their educational and
career goals on hold in order to raise a family, while their
husbands become primary breadwinners. However, some
women choose to work and also fulfill a perceived gender role
of cleaning the house and caring for children.
Change in Gender Equality
Gender equality started to drastically change in America when
women gained the right to vote in 1920. Women’s rights were
strengthened after this milestone including “the flapper which
symbolized the personal freedom trumpeted by the emerging
mass culture, including a freer approach to relationships with the
opposite sex.” After the first International Women’s conference
in 1975, women had more avenues to advocate for their rights
globally. In 1995, following the fourth International Women’s
Conference in Beijing China, “American women no longer
needed to stop their activism at the border or limit it to one
gender. They were now part of a truly global
community.”However, gender inequality is still ongoing today.
Some examples include women working longer hours than men,
women suffering from education inequality throughout the
world, being unable to express themselves freely, and being
underpaid for performing the same as men.
NOTES BY PROF. AISHA KANGOKAR 5

*Write a known case study about gender inequality

NOTES BY PROF. AISHA KANGOKAR 6

Special reference to violence against women, female

feticide
The natural sex ratio is assumed to be between 103 and 107
males per 100 females, and any number above it is considered
suggestive of female foeticide. According to the decennial
Indian census, the sex ratio in 0 to 6 age group in India has risen
from 102.4 males per 100 females in 1961,to 104.2 in 1980, to
107.5 in 2001, to 108.9 in 2011.
The child sex ratio is within the normal range in all eastern and
southern states of India, but significantly higher in certain
western and particularly northwestern states such
as Maharashtra, Haryana, Jammu and Kashmir (118, 120 and
116, as of 2011, respectively).[5] The western states of
Maharashtra and Rajasthan 2011 census found a child sex ratio
of 113, Gujarat at 112 and Uttar Pradesh at 111.

Reasons for female foeticide

Cultural preference
One school of scholars suggested that female foeticide can be
seen through history and cultural background. Generally, male
babies were preferred because they provided manual labor and
success the family lineage. The selective abortion of female
fetuses is most common in areas where cultural norms value
male children over female children for a variety of social and
economic reasons.
Disparate gendered access to resource
Some of the variation in birth sex ratios and implied female
foeticide may be due to disparate access to resources. As
MacPherson (2007) notes, there can be significant differences in
gender violence and access to food, healthcare, immunizations
between male and female children. This leads to high infant and
childhood mortality among girls, which causes changes in sex
ratio.
NOTES BY PROF. AISHA KANGOKAR 7

Public goods provisions by female leaders (majority vs.

minority spillover goods)
Minority goods provided by female leaders in India help to
alleviate some of the problems of disparate gendered access to
resources for women.Public goods are defined as non-
excludable and non-rival, but India lacks a system of public
goods and has many problems with access to clean water or
roads.Additionally, many of the "public goods" exclude females
because families choose to prioritize their male children's access
to those resources. In India, previous research has found
that women leaders invest in public goods that are more in line
with female preferences, in particular water infrastructure,
which leads to a reduction in time spent on domestic chores by
adolescent girls.
Dowry system
Even though the dowry system legally ended with the Dowry
Prohibition Act of 1961, the impossibility of monitoring
families and the prevalence of corruption have led to its
continuance all over India.A dowry is a payment from the
bride's family to the groom's family at the time of marriage. It is
often found in "socially stratified, monogamous societies that
are economically complex and where women have a relatively
small productive role
India's weak social security system
Another reason for this male preference is based on the
economic benefits of having a son and the costs of having a
daughter. In India, there is a very limited social security
system so parents look to their sons to ensure their futures and
care for them in old age. Daughters are liabilities because they
have to leave to another family once they are married and
cannot take care of their parents
NOTES BY PROF. AISHA KANGOKAR 8

Portrayal of women in media

Mass Media (Radio, Cinema, TV, Print, Electronic, Social,
Digital,..) is ‘Pratibimba’ – reflection or image of Indian
womanhood from different generations (C. M. Agrawal, 2005).
Indian women do differ in very many aspects within themselves
in India and among others in abroad-East or West. In general
they are similar to the extent to perform multifarious gender-
based roles and duties in family and society. They customarily
play the roles of the mother, wife, sister, daughter, and of a ‘girl’
or ‘woman’ in her lifetime. Since time immemorial, she is like a
governess in performing duties, she is like a maid-servant in
service, she is like a mother in feeding, she is like an ever
beautiful fairy as a life partner, she is like a true companion in
religious rites, she is like silence of the earth in forbearing all
exploitation.

In the words of Rabindranath Tagore (1892), Indian women in

their history may have not been alwaysfeminine Rambha, but
masculine Chitrangada. In the famous epic dance drama based
on Mahabharata, the Princess of ManipuraChitrangada says
toArjuna “I am neither Goddess to be worshipped, nor yet the
objectof common pity to be brushed aside, like a moth with
indifference. If you desire to keep me by your side in the path of
danger and daring, if you allow me to share the great duties of
your life, then you know my true self.”

Variations in the status of women in India are found intime to

time with reference to the cultural milieu, family structure and
social structure-caste, class, property rights, socio-economic-
politico-religious institutions, etc. Her gradual participation in
various walks of life has influenced the progressive evolution of
values and attitudes towards ‘women’ by society and its
members. Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru rightly observed that “In
order to awaken the people, it is the woman who has to be
NOTES BY PROF. AISHA KANGOKAR 9

awakened. Once she is on move, the family moves, the village

moves, the nation moves.”

Mass media depicts both of these binary opposite portrayals of

women in India, however with more inclination towards
traditional gender stereotypes.Women in Indian society are in
general victims of patriarchy and male domination, whereby
women are obliged to play subservient roles. Mass media does
not only reflect the conservative values of our society, but it also
influences and protects societal attitudes and public opinions. It
controls communications and contents to justify totalitarian or
democratic social values and practices existing or changing in
our society. Mass media can be agents or gender discriminatory
socialization process, as well as agents of progressive social
learning depending on community/society, culture, religion,
economy and polity. In some society mass communication on
crime, brutality, sex and sadism are restricted or being telecast
as a part of capitalist (money-making) entertainment industry.
While in some societies mass communication brings new
opportunities, experiences, ideas and perspectives to view the
world and society and people in a new angle.

Women and Media Relations

Mass communication is extremely important for women’s

development and empowerment, which is the significant
responsibility of the mass media. Growth of media is also
related to the growth of women’s education and their entry into
employment. Today print, electronic and social media play vital
roles in effectively conveying message that needs to be
conveyed publicly and privately on the issues like controlling
population growth, spread of literacy, income generation and
savings, improving quality of life through health, nutrition and
sanitation – in all women play crucial roles at home and
community. Portrayal of women by Indian media is by and large
symbolically negative and tokenistic positive. In general, media
NOTES BY PROF. AISHA KANGOKAR 10

does not address serious issues about exploitation and unequal

treatment to women in different spheres but is keen in reporting
sex related incidents by way of sensationalizing news and
images of atrocities on women.Thus instead of highlighting the
exploitation of woman they end up becoming one of the reasons
in increase of violence as their coverage more often than not
tend to glorify the crime against women,rather than protection of
women by creating a safer home, family, neighbourhood,
community and society. Although the images of women vs. men
as reflected by the different mass media in the country are not
very different but quiet similar in feeding and
reinforcinggender-based stereotypes. The mass media are
therefore morally and legally bound to avoid sensationalisation
of news of any sort, especially related to women. (Justice G.N.
Ray).

Women’s Relations with Print Media (Newspapers and

Magazines)

It is true though that media has brought changes in society but in

a very subtle manner by throwing light on and publishing certain
gender insensitivemisbehaviours and delinquency against
women as never before. But mass media more often perpetuate
the gender stereotyped images of woman as a householder and
an inseperablepartner to the traditional India value system.
Usually, women’s issues and problems are neglected on the
front page of a newspaper unless it is a gruesome murder (e.g.
Arushi-case) or a case of rape (e.g. Nirbahaya-case), which
media even fail to handle sensitively by irresponsible and
sensational reporting and characterassassination of the woman
victim. In fact, on pages in the newspaper dedicated for women
do not usually address relevant topics on women’s development
or empowerment, but contains elaborated reporting on beauty
tips, cooking recipes, fashion statements, advertisement of
products and services to beautify women. It is unfortunate that
there is lack of sensitivity among the newspapers against
NOTES BY PROF. AISHA KANGOKAR 11

ostracization towards women of multiple dimensions ofsocio-

cultural-economic-politico-religious problems. Media should
focus on these issues proactively and positively to help the
society and people to handle the issue with greater sensitivity
and empathy. Limited coverage on women’s problems, needs
and interests also derive lack of attention from policymakers to
address critical issues like – adverse sex ratio; infant and
maternal mortality; violence against women;health and disease;
effects of poverty, unemployment and hunger on women and
their families. On the contrary, newspapers arefilled-in by
pictures and interviews of cinema actresses, models, video
jockeys (VJs/DJs), the rich women and their hobbies. Many of
the women’s magazines create ‘visibilising women’ (Kirit K.
Shah & Radhika Seshan, 2005) through ‘bodies and sexuality’ –
by only fashion, glamour, beauty aids, weight reduction,
cookery and sharpening tools for ‘feminine instincts’ and
‘attractiveness’ to keep men and in-laws happy. Comparatively,
there arelimited coverages and articles on career opportunities,
health awareness, entrepreneurship, legal aid, counselling
services, childcare services and financial management for
women. Case studies show that newspapers give no importance
to development issues of women andonly publish 5% and 8%
respectivelyof women related issues on the main page and
remaining are placed inside (as quoted by Justice G, N. Ray).
However, a large proportion of the research findings publishedin
major newspapers are sensationally packaged to draw attention
of the readers and converting more sales of its issues without
judging the relevance and authenticity of the published facts.
Therefore, in the public interest print media should owe
responsibility for full disclosureof the information on research
and facts being published for the readers to take it seriously and
act upon it.
NOTES BY PROF. AISHA KANGOKAR 12

Women’s Relations with Electronic Media (Radio, Television,

Advertisements and Films)

In the radio transmissions, television serials, advertisementsand

movies women are invariably and always the central characters.
Women are largely portrayed as the pleasure of sexuality and
sensuality; confirming gender-base roles and division of labour
at home and society; or as innocent victims/violatorsof social
attitudes and mindsets towards gender discrimination. Whereas,
men characters are portrayed with confidence, power and
authority; taking leadership and making decisions; or caught in
unfavourable circumstancescreated by one of the women in his
life. Film and Television culture repeatedly portray men in need
of sexual satisfaction on the screen and in reality; for which men
are even prepared to oppress women in different ways including
eve-teasing, physical assault, rape, pushing them into the sex
trade, even abandoning them, etc. Women are not only
portrayed for feminine beauty and artistic portrayal; but more
often for infusing sex appeal andentering into the arena of
‘obscenity,’ (Charu Gupta, 2001)which is in so much increase in
Indian electronic media.Television and films distortrealities,
glorify wrong-doings on women and inculcate the culture of
wrong-doing by common men across different sections of
society – whether it is due to age, caste, class, ethnicity, religion,
etc. Very often radio and television channels transmit and
telecast talk shows on women related subjects driven by popular
market forces – like girls’attraction towards bad boys, women’s
preference for men with cars and money, women’s genetic
liking for beauty and shopping, and so on. There are very few
talk shows on the complex issues relating to women’s equality,
development and empowerment. What it means is that women
are now included as new research subjects, unfortunately mostly
in less significant and petty areas, ignoring their potentiality to
usher new possibilities for a social change and women’s
upliftment.
NOTES BY PROF. AISHA KANGOKAR 13

This distance between women and media deprives women’s

individual right to information and knowledge. The distance
also keeps women groping in the dark on the blatant misuse and
distortion of the truth–‘gender equality and equity’. Issues
pertaining to development and empowerment of women are
rarely given time and space, clarified and emphasized
adequately in electronic media. Without effective and
informative communication regarding services and benefits
available through legislation, government schemes, banks and
voluntary organizations; women can hardly take advantages of
those for their own development and empowerment. Thus, the
electronic media has greater roles and obligations in this regard.
Electronic media should project the working woman in the
unorganized sector as worker and not merely as performing the
duties of a wife/daughter. Women being significant earners in
Indian economy, they must be projected as producers and not
merely consumers. The media should make deliberate attempts
to not only project the problems of women in poverty, but
should monitor in such a way that conflicting role models are
not depicted, nor derogatory references to their work are made.
To improve content and coverage, coordinated efforts for
increased interaction between NGO’s, social activists, women’s
social action group, research organizations, institutes of mass
communication, and the media personnel and women journalists
should be brought together (Justice G, N. Ray).Unless there is
any social movement in the electronic media on the changing
social perception of women, it will be difficult to restrain
obscenity and thereby confirming women’s lower status in
society
EXAMPLES:
However, few efforts have been taken intermittently and not
consistently to break the gender-stereotypes of ‘female-bodies
and male-gaze’ in Indian masala-movies to raise women’s social
status and social mobility in India. Feminist Directors like Raj
Kapoor (Awara), Satyajit Ray (Aparajito, Devi), Rituparno
Ghosh (Dahan), Aparna Sen (Paroma), Sai Paranjpe
(Katha,ChashmeBaddoor), Deepa Mehta’s (Fire), Mahesh Bhatt
NOTES BY PROF. AISHA KANGOKAR 14

(Tamanna), RajkumarSantoshi (Damini), Ketan Mehta (Mirch

Masala), Sashi Deshpande (Zebeida), Mahesh Manjrekar
(Astitva), PremaKaranth (Phaniyamma, Bandh Jharokhe), Jag
Mundhra (Provoked), Jeethu Joseph (Drishyam), GauriShinde
(English Vinglish) (Jasbir Jain &Sudha Rai, 2002). Similarly
few advertisements more recently have attracted our attention
like Hero Honda (Why Should Boys have all the Fun?–
Breaking Stereotypes), Bharti Airtel (The Boss– Work-life
Balance), TVS Scooty (Scooty Tips – Women’s Safety),
Fair&Lovely (Equal-Equal – Gender Equality), Lloyd (Unisex
Washing Machine – Equality in Household Work), and so on.

Women’s Relations with Socialand Alternative Media(Puppet

Show, Folk Art, Street Play, Theatre) Alternative media (puppet
show, folk art, street play, theatre, awareness camp, etc.)is being
used since generations as the tools for voice and empowerment
of women and other marginalised and deprived sections of
society. The success of ‘KhabarLahariya’ – a group of eight
women belonging to backward class driving change in
conservative Bundelkhand region under the support and funding
ofNGO to encourage women to fight for their own rights. Such
kind of popular initiatives are more required at grassroots level
so as to empower every woman in our country.
However, modern innovation in information and communication
technology (ICT) has changed our world with social network
sites – You Tube, Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, LinkedIn,
Blogs, Skype, WhatsApp, Face Time, LINE, etc. – are all instant
connectors to our family, friends, acquaintances, or even
unknown persons. Modern and younger generations find
connections with similar minded individual/group, relationships
and happiness in virtual world with the feeling of fulfilled
satisfaction of being taken care or being heard or being ‘liked’
24/7 in a lonely real-time life. Social networks live virtual life in
reality. ‘Selfie’ and narcissim, emotional exploitation and sexual
abuse are the critical failures of social media. However, social
media is powerful in supporting the social cause and movement,
without the fear of being identified and victimised for
NOTES BY PROF. AISHA KANGOKAR 15

supporting and fighting for rights and justice (for example, Rice
Bucket Challenge, 2014; Sexual Harassment in the Indigo Flight,
2015; etc.).

TOPIC 2: Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act,

1986

This portrayal and labelling of women in mass media has led the
National Commission for Women (NCW) to recommend
amendment in the Indecent Representation of Women
(Prohibition Act), 1986. The NCW includes new technologies
like SMS, MMS, electronic media, social media, posters, TV
serials, advertisements, films, audio-video records, etc., in order
to stop perpetuating stereotypes of women in public space.
According to NCW, “women are either being portrayed
as Sita (Goddess in Ramayana) or as Kaikayee (Villain in
Ramayana) and there seems to be nothing in between the two
extreme characters being shown in mass media. Divorces,
adultery are highlighted frequently, where characters break the
law without repercussion.” NCW stresses that the negative
images or just portraying reality is not enough; infact, it can
often be harmfulapathy and passivity to society, women and
children. This should be avoided and replaced by depicting the
positive images or success stories of women in all walks of life
and public and private spheres. It is more purposeful and
essential to publish and produce programmes that talk about
income generating schemes for women, other than widely
propagated typical ventures of “womanly jobs” -papad-making,
sewing, embroidery, pickles making, etc. Non-traditional and
innovative skills should be stressed in the mass
media transmission and telecast to break the social myth that
women are suited to certain kinds of jobs or gender-specific
roles and division of labour only.
NOTES BY PROF. AISHA KANGOKAR 16

Positive portrayal of women in media is a step towards

enhancement of women’s empowerment and facilitate drastic
reduction in cultural biases as well as gender biases in society,
community and family. Joshi Committee recommends:
1. The women’s issue one of the utmost significance to the
country as a whole and there is need for a widespread
understanding that the nation cannot progress, as long as
women are left behind as the lesser half of society. Therefore,
the improvement of women’s conditions, status and image must
be defined to be a major objective for media channels.
2. The Government must at the earliest formulate clear
guidelines regarding the positive portrayal of women on
television. This portrayal must take note of women in all facts
of their lives: as workers and significant contributions to family
survival and the national economy: it must further endeavour to
integrate women on terms of equality in all sectors of national
life and the development process. These guidelines must
emphasis that the “women’s dimension” must from an integral
part of all programmes and not be merely confined to Women’s
Programmes, nor to isolated attempts to discuss women’s issues.
3.The number of commercial formula films screened must be
drastically reduced, the cheap song-and-dance sequence to be
eliminated and the content of such programmes carefully
scrutinized in terms of their portrayal of women.
4. Women must not be portrayed in stereotyped images that
emphasis passive, submissive qualities and encourage them to
play a subordinate secondary role in the family and society.
Both men and women should be portrayed in ways that
encourage mutual respect and a spirit of give and take between
the sexes.
5. The foreign exchange resource should be spent on importing
worthwhile educative programmes, particularly those that show
the roles, lives and struggles of women in neighbouring and
other Third World countries so that a greater understanding and
a shared perspective on problems is built.
NOTES BY PROF. AISHA KANGOKAR 17

6. It is necessary to ensure that a large number of rural women

gain access to information. Therefore, in the placement of
community Radio and TV sets preference should be given to
the meeting place of Mandals; MahilaMandals should also be
involved in the community viewing arrangement.”

TOPIC 3: Roles and Challenges of Women Journalists

A policy for equal participation of women both in the public and
private sectors of the media is a neccessity to ensure women’s
adequate and effective representation, for ‘gendering’ of mass
media and prohibiting indecent portrayal of women. With the
growing field of Mass Media, Visual Communication and
Journalism, a significant number of women journalists are
becoming successful due to their gender-sensitivity and
analysing skills to report and conduct programmes
disseminating various issues and problems of women and
children. However, women in media face greater risks both in
the urban and rural areas, because of more or less rigid social
outlook and greater resistance to social change and new trends.
As a result, media women have to work without support from
family and society in isolation at the ground levels. There are
higher number of cases of sexual assault and harassment on
media women at work. Media profession also demands odd
hours of work making the women vulnerable to male
chauvinism and family alienation. There is rapid proliferation
and expansion of the electronic and social media through
satellite channels and information and communication
technological advances, popularity of the FM on the radio,
notwithstanding growth of the print media – now there is greater
scope for absorption of both men and women (young and old) as
journalists in the industry. Hence, the society must prepare itself
to make arrangements of adequate security to the vulnerable
section of women in the media so as to promote their
participation at all levels.
NOTES BY PROF. AISHA KANGOKAR 18

6 Unbelievable Facts About How Badly Women Are

Represented in Media

1. Women only make up around 20% of expert news sources.

Unconscious bias, tight deadlines, lack of women’s leadership
across industries, and cultural challenges all affect
journalists’ ability to include women experts. Experts also get put
in boxes by ingrained cultural beliefs.

2. Only 24% of the people in newspaper, television, and radio

news are women.
The Global Media Monitoring Project (GMMP) conducted in
2015 the largest study on the portrayal, participation, and
representation of women in the news media spanning 20 years
and 114 countries, and found that less than a quarter of news
sources are women. When women are featured in the news,
meanwhile, they are more likely to speak on their personal
experience, popular opinion, or to provide eyewitness accounts.

3.Only 4% of traditional news and digital news stories

explicitly challenge gender stereotypes.
Reinforcing stereotypes is harmful because it limits all people's
capacity to develop their skills, pursue the professional careers of
their choice, and have agency over their lives.

4.Women are only the subject of political and governmental

coverage 16% of the time.
The lack of women’s representation in politics is global. Women
were three percentage points less visible in political coverage in
the GMMP’s 2015 study than they were five years prior.

5.Only 6% of news stories highlight issues of gender equality

or inequality.
The lack of attention given to gender equality issues reflects the
minimal exposure women’s stories receive in the media in
general.
NOTES BY PROF. AISHA KANGOKAR 19

If the inequalities that women face aren’t publicized, many people

might have a hard time believing that there are even issues that
need to be addressed. Women also are led to believe that their
experiences aren’t valid if the challenges and barriers they
encounter are ignored. Highlighting gender equality gains,
meanwhile, can also provide society with the hope that the world
is moving in the right direction.

6. Women reporters are only responsible for 37% of stories.

When women have a seat at the table they are more likely to
advocate for other women. A lack of representation in newsrooms
and media companies means that women receive fewer
opportunities to share the stories of other women and the issues
that impact their lives. Women journalists are also twice as likely
to challenge gender stereotypes in their reporting than male
journalists. Some persons with disabilities die up to 20 years
earlier than those without disabilities.

*Write a case study on the Portrayal of women in media in

India
NOTES BY PROF. AISHA KANGOKAR 20
NOTES BY PROF. AISHA KANGOKAR 21

Appreciate the inequalities faced by people with

disabilities
The World Health Organisation and the World
Bank estimate that one billion people experience some form of
disability. Of those, it is estimated that 93 to 150 million are
children. According to Plan International these children are 10
times less likely to go to school than other children and when
they do attend school, it is likely to be in a segregated setting.
The Global Partnership for Education estimates that 90% of
children with disabilities in low and lower-middle income
countries do not go to school. In 2016 the UN reportedthat less
than half of the world’s six million refugee children were in
school whilst in a report on the education of Syrian refugee
children, Human Rights Watch identified that refugee children
with disabilities faced particular and ongoing barriers to school
enrolment.

Historically, children with disabilities have been excluded from

the general education system and placed in ‘special schools’. In
some cases, they are separated from their families and placed in
long-term residential institutions where they are educated in
isolation from the community, if they are educated at all. Both
practices persist in many regions, for example, Eastern Europe
has the highest number of institutionalised children in the world
and a child with a disability is almost 17 times more likely to be
institutionalised than other children (UNICEF, 2012).

Children with disabilities have very low rates of initial

enrolment. Even if they do attend school, children with
disabilities are more likely to drop out and leave school early
without transitioning to secondary school and beyond (GCE,
Equal right, equal opportunity report, 2014). Children with
disabilities are also at increased risk of school violence and
bullying, preventing the safe enjoyment of their right to
NOTES BY PROF. AISHA KANGOKAR 22

education (UNESCO, School violence and bullying: Global

status report, 2016).

These facts and figures reflect the impact of the significant

ongoing barriers to education faced by many people with
disabilities, which include:

lack of accessibility, both in terms of physically inaccessible

school buildings and unsuitable learning materials

discrimination and prejudice which prevents people with

disabilities from accessing education on equal terms to others

exclusion or segregation from mainstream school settings (also

referred to as ‘regular schools’)

inferior quality of education, including in mainstream settings

where children with disabilities have been ‘integrated’ into the
existing non-inclusive system

Human rights law seeks to directly tackle these issues by placing

obligations on states to respect, protect, and fulfil the right to
education of people with disabilities, through the
implementation of ‘inclusive education’

Persons with disabilities have twice the risk of developing

conditions such as depression, asthma, diabetes, stroke, obesity
or poor oral health. Persons with disabilities face many health
inequities

Some challenges are:

Attitudinal:These barriers include stereotyping and stigma,

prejudice and discrimination.

Communication: These barriers may be experienced by people

who have impairments that impact their communication.
NOTES BY PROF. AISHA KANGOKAR 23

Physical.

Policy.

Programmatic.

Social.

Transportation.

*Discuss a case study on Appreciate the inequalities faced by

people with disabilities
NOTES BY PROF. AISHA KANGOKAR 24

Module 2: Concept of Disparity 2

Communalism refers to the belief in the primacy of one's own

religious community over others, often leading to conflict and
violence between different religious groups. It can also refer to
the political ideology and movements that promote this belief.

1.What are the different connotations of Communalism?

Assimilationist: According to this dimension, members of

minority communities should give up their distinct cultural and
religious identities and assimilate into the dominant culture and
society. For example, The Hindu Code Bill applies to Sikhs,
Buddhists, and Jains in addition to Hindus.

Welfarist: This connotation refers to the belief that members of

minority communities should be provided with special welfare
and affirmative action programs to improve their socio-
economic status. For instance, the Jain community associations
utilize a welfarist approach by providing resources such as
hostels, scholarships, and employment opportunities for the
members of the community.

Retreatist: By following the retreat approach, minority

communities retreat into their own separate and distinct
communities, away from the dominant culture and society. It is
evident from the example of Bahaism, where members are
prohibited from participating in political processes.

Retaliatory: In retaliation, people retaliate against the dominant

culture and society in response to perceived injustices and
discrimination. For example, Assam Violence of 2012 between
the Bodos and Bengali-speaking Muslims.

Separatist: Separatists believe that members of minority

communities should form a separate state as an independent
country. For example, there was a separatist tendency,
NOTES BY PROF. AISHA KANGOKAR 25

especially in the 1980s, among religious fundamentalists in

Punjab for the demand of Khalistan as a separate country.

2.How did Communalism Evolve in India?

Communalism in India has evolved over a period of time and

has been shaped by various policies and incidents. Some key
incidents and policies that contributed to the evolution of
communalism in India include

Divide and rule: The British colonial policy of divide and rule
was a significant factor in the origin and evolution of
communalism in India. The British created divisions between
communities by playing them against each other, leading to
communal tensions and conflicts.

Partition of Bengal: The partition of Bengal in 1905 by the

British was also a significant factor in the origin of
communalism in India. The partition led to a Muslim-majority
province in the east and a Hindu-majority province in the west.

Communal Award: The Communal Award of 1932 was a policy

implemented by the British government that allocated seats in
the legislative assembly to different depressed communities
based on their population.

Appeasement policy of the British: The British government's

appeasement policy further increased communal tensions by
favoring one community over the other. This led to perceived
alienation and the rise of communal ideologies.
NOTES BY PROF. AISHA KANGOKAR 26

Causes of Communalism in India

The main causes of communalism can be complex and

multifaceted and vary depending on the specific context.
However, some of the main causes of communalism include:

Historical factors: British colonial policies, such as the divide

and rule strategy, led to the creation of communal divisions and
tensions between different religious communities in India.

Political factors: Political factors such as competition for power

and resources, as well as divisive political rhetoric, can
contribute to the rise of communalism. Some political leaders
and parties may use communal rhetoric to mobilize support and
gain power.

Socio-economic factors: Socio-economic factors such as poverty,

unemployment, and lack of access to resources can contribute to
communal tensions as different communities compete for scarce
resources.

Socio-cultural factors: Socio-cultural factors such as caste and

class divisions, as well as regional and linguistic differences,
can contribute to communal tensions. For example, the caste-
based reservation system in India has often led to communal
tensions between castes and communities.

Role of Media: The role of media in shaping communal

ideologies and spreading misinformation and hate speech can
contribute to the rise of communal tensions.

Religious factors: In some cases, religious factors such as

religious fundamentalism and extremist ideologies can
contribute to communal tensions. For example, religious
extremist groups and fringe elements can incite communal
violence against minorities.
NOTES BY PROF. AISHA KANGOKAR 27

4.Effects of Communalism in India

There have been several major occurrences of communalism in

India throughout history, some examples include

The Partition of India in 1947: One of the most significant

events in India's history, the partition led to the creation of
Pakistan and resulted in widespread communal violence and
displacement of millions of people.

Anti-Sikh Riots: In October 1984, the anti-Sikh riots broke out

after the assassination of Indira Gandhi, where more than 4000
Sikhs were killed in Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, and other parts of
India.

The Babri Masjid demolition in 1992: The destruction of the

Babri Masjid, a 16th-century mosque in Ayodhya, by a mob of
Hindu nationalists led to widespread communal riots across
India, resulting in the deaths of over 2,000 people.

The Gujarat riots of 2002: A series of violent communal riots in

the Indian state of Gujarat resulted in the deaths of over 1,000
people and the displacement of over 150,000 people.

Assam Violence 2012: Violence broke out due to ongoing

tensions between the Bodos and Bengali-speaking Muslims.
These tensions stemmed from competition for resources, land,
and political influence.

The Muzaffarnagar riots of 2013: A series of violent communal

riots in Uttar Pradesh resulted in the deaths of over 60 people
and the displacement of over 50,000 people.

The Delhi riots of 2020: A major communal violence broke out

in New Delhi, in February 2020. The violence resulted in the
deaths of over 50 people and injuries to hundreds more, as well
as the displacement of thousands of people.
NOTES BY PROF. AISHA KANGOKAR 28

Indian Fundamental Duties include abiding by the Indian

Constitution, respecting our flag, keeping a sense of respect for
the national anthem and protecting public property. In this
constitution, through the 42nd Amendment Act 1976, the
fundamental duties of citizens were listed.

1.How many Fundamental Rights are there in the Indian

Constitution?

There are six fundamental rights in the Indian Constitution.

They are mentioned below along with the constitutional articles
related to them:

Right to Equality (Article 14-18)

Right to Freedom (Article 19-22)

Right against Exploitation (Article 23-24)

Right to Freedom of Religion (Article 25-28)

Cultural and Educational Rights (Article 29-30)

Right to Constitutional Remedies (Article 32)

Fundamental rights of the Indian constitution are the basic rights

provided by the constitution of India to its citizens. These rights
are essential for the development of the personality of every
individual. They are also needed to preserve human dignity.

Fundamental Rights

There are six fundamental rights guaranteed by the Indian

Constitution. They are as follows:

Right to Equality

Right to freedom

Right against exploitation

NOTES BY PROF. AISHA KANGOKAR 29

Right to freedom of Religion

Cultural and Educational Rights

Right to constitutional Remedies

The fundamental rights of Indian constitution are given by

articles 12 to 35 of the constitution.

Article 12 defines the State and article 13 defines the laws

inconsistent with or in derogation of Fundamental Rights.

The six fundamental rights of Indian constitution are discussed

in detail in the subsequent sections.

Right to Equality

The right to equality is given in the articles 14–18 of the Indian

constitution. The articles under the right to equality include the
following:

Article 14: Equality before law

Article 15: Prohibition of discrimination on grounds of religion,

race, caste, sex or place of birth.

Article 16: Equality of opportunity in matters of public

employment.

Article 17: Abolition of Untouchability.

Article 18: Abolition of titles: This article aims to abolish titles

such as Rai Bahadur, Raj Bahadur, Maharaja, Taluqdar,
Zamindar, etc., because using such titles does not give equal
status for all.

Right to freedom

The right to freedom is given in the articles 19–22 of the Indian

constitution.
NOTES BY PROF. AISHA KANGOKAR 30

Article 19: Protection of certain rights regarding freedom of

speech, etc.

Article 20: Protection in respect of conviction for offences.

Article 21: Protection of life and personal liberty.

Article 21-A: Right to Education

Article 22: Protection Against Arrest and Detention in certain

cases

Right against Exploitation

The right to freedom is given in the articles 23 and 24 of the

Indian constitution. They are:

Article 23: Prohibition of traffic in human beings and forced

labour:

Article 24: Prohibition of employment of children in factories,

etc.:

Right to freedom of Religion

The right to freedom is given in the articles 25 – 28 of the Indian

constitution.

Article 25: Freedom of conscience and free profession, practice

and propagation of religion

Article 26: Freedom to manage religious affairs

Article 27: Freedom as to the payment of taxes for promotion of

any particular religion

Article 28: Freedom as to attendance at religious instruction or

religious worship in certain educational institutions
NOTES BY PROF. AISHA KANGOKAR 31

Cultural and Educational Rights

The right to freedom is given in the articles 29 and 30 of the

Indian constitution.

Article 29: Protection of interests of minorities:

Article 30: Right of minorities to establish and administer

educational institutions:

Right to constitutional Remedies

The right to Constitutional Remedies gives the citizens the right

to approach the Supreme Court or the High Court to implement
the fundamental rights. The Courts can issue orders to the
government to implement the rights. The right to constitutional
remedies is given by articles 32-35 of the constitution.

Article 32: According to this article, the Courts can grant 5 types
of writs namely, Habeas Corpus, Mandamus, Quo Warranto,
Prohibition and Certiorari. Each of this writ is explained below:

Habeas Corpus: This writ is to direct the release of a person

detained unlawfully.

Mandamus: Using this writ, the court can direct a public

authority to do its duty.

Quo Warranto – to direct a person to vacate an office assumed

wrongfully.

Prohibition – to prohibit a lower court from proceeding on a

case.

Certiorari – the power of the higher court to remove a

proceeding from a lower court and bring it before itself.

Article 33: This article gives powers to the Parliament to restrict

or revoke (remove) the fundamental rights of the ‘Members of
NOTES BY PROF. AISHA KANGOKAR 32

the Armed Forces, paramilitary forces, police forces,

intelligence agencies and analogous forces

Article 34: According to this article, the fundamental rights can

be restricted when martial law (military rule) is implemented.

Article 35: This article provides authority to the Parliament to

make laws on Fundamental Rights

Fundamental Duties

Fundamental Duties are the moral responsibilities of the citizens

of India to help promote a patriotic spirit and to uphold the unity
of our country.

The fundamental duties were incorporated under Part IV-A of

the Constitution by The Constitution (42nd Amendment) Act,
1976.

Article 51(A) of the constitution describes 11 fundamental

duties.

It states that it shall be the duty of every Indian citizen:

(a) to abide by the Constitution and to respect its ideals and

institutions, the National Anthem and the National Flag;

(b) to cherish the noble ideals which inspired our national

freedom struggle and follow them;

(c) to uphold and to protect the unity, sovereignty, and integrity

of the Indian nation;

(d) to defend the country and render national service whenever

called upon to do so;

(e) to promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood

amongst all the people of India transcending religious, linguistic
and regional or sectional diversities; to renounce practices
derogatory to the dignity of women;
NOTES BY PROF. AISHA KANGOKAR 33

(f) to value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture;

(g) to protect and improve the natural environment including

forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife, and to have compassion for
living creatures;

(h) to develop the scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of

inquiry and reform;

(i) to safeguard public property and to abjure violence;

(j) to strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual as well

as collective activity so that the nation constantly rises to higher
levels of endeavour and achievement;

(k) who is a parent or guardian to provide opportunities for

education to his child or, as the case may be, ward between the
age of six and fourteen years.

Conclusion

Fundamental rights and duties are an important part of the Indian

constitution. There are six fundamental rights that include right to
equality, right to freedom, right against exploitation, right to
freedom of religion, cultural and educational rights, and right to
constitutional remedies. The fundamental rights are given in the
article 12 – 35 of the Indian constitution. These rights help in the
personality development of every citizen and protect his/her
dignity. Fundamental duties are the responsibility of the Indian
citizens towards the country. There are 11 fundamental duties
given in article 51(A) of the constitution.

The definition and meaning of tolerance is a fair and objective

attitude towards others and is usually a conscious effort from the
individual. It is the ability to encounter and endure something that
is different or contentious without voicing negative opinions.
NOTES BY PROF. AISHA KANGOKAR 34

Importance of tolerance:

 Accept religions differences – Victor Hugo observes that

‘Tolerance is the best religion’.
 Peoples religious practices and worship is a personal thing and
they have the right to believe in the religion they want. If there
is tolerance, there would be few quarrels on the basis of
religion.

 Brings community together – When individuals respect and

value religious differences and ethical beliefs, they are able to
learn from each other. Thus, it destroys prejudice and
encourages community building.

 Respect each one’s ideas and thoughts – If we are tolerant, we

are able to respect and appreciate each one’s ideas and
thoughts and thus people can feel valued and respected.

 Peaceful world – While world leaders struggle with arms race,

and are trying to gain supremacy over the other, it is important
to promote tolerance. In order to avoid mass destruction,
tolerance will pave the way for a peaceful world

 Good relationship – Tolerance is required for good and long

relationships. If one is rigid in one’s thought process,
misunderstandings occur, and it affects relationships.
Tolerance saves relationships.

 Teamwork and coordination – Tolerance is very essential at

the workplace. With employees from different cultural, social
and religious backgrounds working together, things can get
challenging. Tolerance facilitates teamwork and coordination
among employees.
NOTES BY PROF. AISHA KANGOKAR 35

Seeds of Intolerance

In the absence of their own experiences, individuals base their

impressions and opinions of one another on assumptions. These
assumptions can be influenced by the positive or negative beliefs
of those who are either closest or most influential in their lives,
including parents or other family members, colleagues, educators,
and/or role models. In education, there exists school curriculum
and educational literature that provides biased and/or negative
historical accounts of world cultures. Education or schooling
based on myths can demonise and dehumanise other cultures
rather than promote cultural understanding and a tolerance for
diversity and differences.

Moral Virtue
People are naturally diverse; only tolerance can ensure the
survival of mixed communities in every region of the globe. The
appreciation of diversity, the ability to live and let others live, the
ability to adhere to one’s convictions while accepting that others
adhere to their’s, the ability to enjoy one’s rights and freedoms
without infringing on those of others’, tolerance has always been
considered a moral virtue. People must commit themselves to
promoting tolerance and non-violence through programmes and
institutions in the fields of education, science, culture and
communication along with outright injustice and violence,
discrimination and marginalisation.

Religious Tolerance

Gandhi read the scriptures and doctrines of all major world

religions with great interest and finally arrived at a conclusion that
they are all ‘more or less’ the same. The phrase ‘more or less’ was
a term he systematically used because he thought that no religion
could grasp God in its entirety. He put great stress on prayer, non-
violence and celibacy as ways of spiritual enlightenment and
believed that salvation was the ultimate goal of life. Gandhi’s
secular theories took on a special significance in the particular
context of the Indian national movement. The Indian society has
NOTES BY PROF. AISHA KANGOKAR 36

been traditionally plagued by the evils of caste and creed-based

discrimination. The caste-oriented stratification of the Indian
society has hindered all chances of national unification from the
early days of Indian society. The situation was complicated by the
presence of various religious groups within the country, who were
not ready to compromise any ground to reach a platform of
commonality. Gandhi preached tolerance of all religions. To him,
his religion was love and tolerance, his God were his principles to
which he adhered no matter how great the adversity was, and he
was a fighter – one who fought with truth and non-violence. He
believed violence could get you victory but it would only be
momentary. Instead, he believed in conquering the enemy with
love.

Gandian Approach to Peace and Conflict Relationship

Secularism for Gandhi was an absolute necessity to bring about

any form of constructive and all-encompassing political
movement. Gandhi preached his ideals of secularism and
religious tolerance across the length and breadth of the country.
He showed his consolidation to the Muslim leaders through the
support that Congress extended to the Khilafat movement. Gandhi
wrote extensively on the need of secularism in India, and made
speeches to the same effect all over the country. Tolerance is
extended to policies, conditions, and modes of behaviour which
should not be tolerated because they are impeding, if not
destroying, the chances of creating an existence without fear and
misery. The political locus of tolerance has changed: while it is
more or less quietly and constitutionally withdrawn from the
opposition, it is made compulsory behaviour with respect to
established policies. Tolerance is turned from an active into a
passive state, from practice to non-practice: laissez-faire the
constituted authorities. It is the people who tolerate the
government, which in turn tolerates opposition within the
framework determined by the constituted authorities.

Peace refers to absence of war. It is a state of being free from any

form of human conflict and violence. When there is peace in a
NOTES BY PROF. AISHA KANGOKAR 37

country, people are able to progress and there is development and

prosperity. This enables an improvement in the standard of living
of all citizens. Peace creates trust, tolerance and brotherhood
among people.
India is a country with a number of religions and religious beliefs
and practices as well as cultures and is an important example of
communal harmony to the world.

Importance of peace and communal harmony

 It improves economic performance of the country

 It helps to bring cooperation among people of different

communities

 It develops a sense of brotherhood and reduces communal

clashes

 It brings success in the lives of every individual

 It reduces crime in society

 It encourages innovation

 It ensure we live in a better world and create an even better

one for generations to come.

Crucial values in strengthening social fabric

This fabric comprises threads of many compound and

interconnected factors, including demographic factors and factors
related to economic conditions, behavioural patterns, social
institutions, tribes, social organizations, e.g. religious or
educational organizations and societal networks or associations
among people.Beliefs and sentiments of the people strengthen the
social fabric of society because they have a strong sense of
NOTES BY PROF. AISHA KANGOKAR 38

attachment, thereby making it a source of their identity with that

particular societal setting.

As a metaphor, we often speak of a "social fabric" to illustrate the

complexity of social connections in a society. From the
Cambridge English Corpus. Whether these views were anti-
family or not, 'weakening' or 'strengthening' of the social fabric, is
mostly a matter of semantics and of life-style preference.

1.What is the importance of social fabric?

The quality of the social fabric determines how effectively society
is able to organize its people to achieve inclusive, sustainable
prosperity. Divisions and rivalries can impede society from
reaching its goals.

2.What is the importance of social fabric?

The quality of the social fabric determines how effectively society
is able to organize its people to achieve inclusive, sustainable
prosperity. Divisions and rivalries can impede society from
reaching its goals.
.
NOTES BY PROF. AISHA KANGOKAR 39

*Discuss your view about the harmoney and tolerance with

peace in the world
NOTES BY PROF. AISHA KANGOKAR 40