2022 scheme-Applied Physics for EEE Stream Module-04 Maxwell’s Equations & EM waves BPHYE102/202

Module-04

Maxwell’s Equations and EM waves

Maxwell’s Equations and EM waves: Maxwell’s Equations: Fundamentals of Vector Calculus.

Divergence and Curl of Electric field and Magnetic field (static), Gauss’ divergence theorem
and Stoke’s theorem. Description of laws of Electrostatics, Magnetism, Faraday’s laws of EMI,
Current Density, Equation of Continuity, Displacement Current (with derivation), Maxwell’s
equations in vacuum, Numerical Problems EM Waves: The wave equation in differential form
in free space (Derivation of the equation using Maxwell’s equations), Plane Electromagnetic
Waves in vacuum, their transverse nature.

08 Hours

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2022 scheme-Applied Physics for EEE Stream Module-04 Maxwell’s Equations & EM waves BPHYE102/202

Maxwell’s equations, Electromagnetic (EM) waves

Introduction
The electromagnetic is a brief name for the subject that deals with the theory and
applications of electric and magnetic fields. To understand this better way, the discussion will
begin with a brief review of the vector algebra. This review contains basic vector operations, such
as divergence of a vector, gradient of a scalar, curl of a vector. Moreover, this vector operation
study will helpful to understand the Maxwell’s equations in better way. These Maxwell’s equations
have vast applications in day to day life such as TV receivers, car ignition systems, elevators and
mobile phones. For instance, it may sometimes be hard to see the fundamental electromagnetic
concepts on which their operation is based. If you know basic electromagnetic principle certainly it
is possible to design these devices and understand how they work.
Fundamentals of vector calculus:
Vectors: The physical quantity which is having both magnitude and direction are known as
vectors. Examples: The object having acceleration, velocity, force and momentum etc.,
Scalars: the quantities that have magnitude but no direction are
called scalars. Examples: Mass, Charge, density, temperature etc.,
Magnitude of a vector: The magnitude of a vector is defined by
taking care of length of the arrow (R) numerically equal to or

proportional to the magnitude of the vector F .

Direction of the vector: The orientation of F with respect to the coordinates is taken at the

inclination as described in the given situation. However, representing the direction of F is actually
achieved by assigning its direction to what we call a unit vector.
Unit vector: A unit vector indicates just the direction. Its magnitude

always remains unity. As shown in diagrammatically a vector F ,
its magnitude is taken care by R the distance between certain two
points and its direction in assigned by a unit vector â r drawn next to

R. Then the vector F is given by product of both the direction and

magnitude  F = Raˆ r
Base vector: The base vector are similar to unit vector but strictly
along the coordinates in the given co-ordinates system and pointing
always from the origin. In three dimensional coordinate systems we
can represent the base vector as â x , â y and â z along x, y and z co-ordinates.

Fundamentals of vector calculus

Scalar product or Dot product:
The scalar product or dot product of two vectors is defined as the
product of their magnitudes and of the cosine of the smaller angle
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between them.
     
That is A • B = A B cos then A B = a x bx + a y b y + a z bz

The dot product of two vectors is a scalar quantity.

Physical significance: The dot product is mathematically estimated and could be applied in physics
under suitable circumstances.
For example: the workdone is maximum when the displacement is along the force. Thus workdone

is defined as the dot product of force (F )


and displacement d () and is scalar quantity.
 
 w = F •d
Vector product or Cross product:
 
For a given two vectors A and B , their cross product is single vector
 
C whose magnitude is equal to the product of magnitude of A and

magnitude of B multiplied by the sine of the smaller angle between
them.
      
That is A  B = A B sin  where A  B = C
 
If we consider A = Ax aˆ x + Ay aˆ y + Ay aˆ z and B = B x bˆx + B y bˆ y + B y bˆz
Then the resultant cross product vector can be expressed as

aˆ x aˆ y aˆ z
  
A  B = C = Ax Ay Az
Bx By Bz

Physical significance: The cross product is processed through mathematics and could be applied in
physics under suitable circumstances.
For example: For a rotator body the moment of linear momentum is the
angular momentum. The angular momentum acts in a direction perpendicular

()

to momentum and the radius vector. Therefore angular momentum L is
 
given by the cross product of radius vector (r ) and linear momentum ( p )
  
and hence L = r  p .
surrounding the charge could be represented by vectors and hence is a vector field.

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Describe the vector operator and explain the concept and curl with physical
significance? 8M (Jan /Feb 2021)

Vector operator () :

In mathematics vectors operator is denoted as del () operator. If the system is in Cartesian

coordinate, the operator is represent as per the equation  = (aˆ x ) +  aˆ y +  (aˆ z )( )
x y z
Where â x , â y and â z are base vectors.
There are three ways in which  operator can act, such as Gradient, Divergence and Curl.
1. Gradient: Consider a scalar function V. The operator  acting on the scalar function V is given
V
by V = (aˆ x ) + V aˆ y + V (aˆ z )
( )
x y z
The gradient V points along the maximum variation of the function V and the magnitude of
V gives the rate of change in the maximal direction.
Physical significance:
Let us consider a positive point charge in space. Let the potential set up by the charge in the
surrounding be V and is a scalar quantity. The potential decreases as the distance from the charge
increases. Thus the gradient of potential results in the electric field strength which is a vector
quantity. It can be written as
 V
E=− aˆ r the negative sign indicates the decreasing potential.
x
In terms of three dimensional Cartesian co-ordinate the above equation can be written as
 V
(aˆ x ) + V (aˆ y ) + V (aˆ z ) = −  (aˆ x ) +  (aˆ y ) +  (aˆ z )  V

E = −
 x y z   x y z 

 E = −V
Thus the electric field strength is defined as negative of gradient of potential also known a grad V.

2. Divergence:
The divergence of vector field is a scalar quantity. The divergence of a vector field is
 
mathematically written as  • E . The vector field E is represented E = E x aˆ x + E y aˆ y + E y aˆ z . Also
from the definition of  , the divergence can be written as
    
 • E =  (aˆ x ) + (aˆ y ) + (aˆ z )  (E x aˆ x + E y aˆ y + E y aˆ z )
 x y z 
E y
(aˆ y ) + E y (aˆ z ) 
  E
 • E =  x (aˆ x ) +
 x y z 
Physical significance: The divergence of a vector function is it measures how much the vector E
spreads out (diverges) from a point of consideration.

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For example: If we consider a positive charge in space the field lines diverge and hence it is
positive divergence. For a negative charge the field lines converge and hence it is negative
divergence. If the field lines or parallel then it is zero divergence.

Positive divergence Negative divergence Zero divergence

Describe the vector operator and explain the concept and curl with physical
significance? 8M (Jan /Feb 2021)

3. The Curl: The curl of a vector function is measure how much field curls around the point
of consideration
For example: Consider a wire carrying electric current. This produces a magnetic field surrounding
the wire. Consider a point on the wire. The magnetic field lines curl around the point. Higher the

value of H around the point stronger will be the curl. If the field lines purely parallel then it
represents zero curl around the point.

Three different types of Integrations:

Line, surface and volume integral
a) Linear or Line integral:

Consider a linear path from P to Q of length L in a vector field A .
The line could be thought of consisting small elementary lengths
dl. Consider one element at M. at M draw a tangent. Let the

tangent make an angle  with A . Then we have the dot product
   
A • d l = Adl cos . If we integrate the dot product A • d l
between the limits P to Q it becomes line integral.

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Q
 
That is line integral of the path PQ =  A • dl
P
If the path of integration is a closed curve of length L, then
 
Line integral =  A • dl
L

where 
L
symbol for closed contour integral

b) Surface integral:

Consider a surface of area S in a vector field A . The surface area consists of infinitesimal
elementary surfaces having area ds. Let â n a unit vector normal to
ds at point M. in vector field, the elementary surface ds acts as a
 
vector ds which can be written as ds = ds • aˆ n . Then if flux
 
through the elementary surface is written as A • ds

If the surface is closed one, the flux of the field A throughout the
 
surface S can be written as =  A • ds . In this case the unit
S

vector â n must be chosen in the outward direction. Then the total

 
( )
 
flux becomes  =  A • ds   =  A • aˆ n ds
S S

c) Volume integral:
Consider a volume charge distribution in which charges are
continuously distributed. Let V be the volume through which
the charges are distributed. Consider an elementary volume dv
at point M. let the charge density at M is  v and it is scalar

quantity. Then the volume integral of  v over the total volume

V can be written as   v dv .
V

Explain the terms gradient of a scalar, divergence and curl of a vector. Derive Gauss
divergence theorem. 7M (MQP-1 2018-19)
OR
Explain divergence and curl. Derive Gauss divergence theorem.8M or 9M (MQP-2 2018-19
(July 2019, Jan 2019, Jan 2020, Sep 2020)

Gauss divergence theorem:


Consider a vector field D . Consider a point P in the vector field. Let  v be the density of charges at

the point P. then the divergence of the field D is given by

 • D =  v − − − −(1) It is Maxwell’s one of the equation.

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Statement:
The Gauss divergence theorem states that “the integral of the
normal component of the flux density over a closed surface of any
shape in an electric field is equal to the volume integral of the
divergence of the flux throughout the space enclosed by the
Gaussian surface”.

Mathematically 
 
D • d s =   •

D ( )
dv − − − −(2)
S V
Proof: consider a volume V enclosed by as a Gaussian surface S. Let a charge dQ be enclosed by a
small volume dv inside the Gaussian surface. If  is the density of charges and may vary inside the
volume V, then the charge density associated with volume dv is
dQ
v =  dQ =  v  dv
dv
Thus the total charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface is

Q =  dQ =   v  dv
V V

( )

Substituting for  v from Maxwell’s first equation  v =  • D

(
We get Q =   • D  dv

)
V
 
According to Gauss law of electrostatics i.e.,  =  D • ds where  is total flux
S
 
 Q =  D • ds
S
Thus from these two equation for Q we get
( )
  

S
D • d s =   • D dv
V
Hence Gauss divergence theorem proves.
The Gauss divergence theorem relates the surface integral and volume integral.

Stokes’ theorem:
Further, Stokes, theorem relates surface integral with line integral. (That is circulation of a vector
field around a closed path).

Statement: The surface integral of curl of F throughout a chosen

surface is equal to the circulation of the vector F around the boundary
of the chosen surface.

 (  F ) ds =  F  dl
   
That is mathematically
S

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Theorems of Electrostatics, Electricity, magnetism and Electromagnetic induction:

Gauss law in electrostatics or Gauss flux theorem:
Consider a region in space consisting of charges. Let a
surface of any shape enclose these charges and is called a
Gaussian surface. Let q be the charge enclosed by a
closed surface S. The closed surface could be considered

to be made up of number of elementary surfaces ds. If D
is the electric flux density at ds then the surface integral
gives the total electric flux over the surface S could be obtained as
 
 =  D • ds =  q where  is total flux and  q = q1 + q 2 + ......
S
By using this gauss law, Maxwell applied the concept of divergence and arrived at his first law.
That is he derived Gauss divergence theorem.

Gauss law of Magneto statics:

Consider a closed Gaussian surface of any shape in a magnetic
field. The magnetic field lines exist in closed loops. Hence for
every flux line that enters the closed surface a flux line emerges
out elsewhere. Thus for a closed surface of a magnetic field the
total inward flux is equal to total outward flux. Thus the net flux through the Gaussian surface is
zero.
  
Thus mathematically 
S
B • d s = 0 here B magnetic flux density

Now apply Gauss divergence theorem then

( )
  

S
B • d s = 
V
 • B dv = 0

Hence it could be written  • B = 0
This is one of the Maxwell’s equations

Amperes law:

Statement: The circulation of magnetic field strength H along a closed path is equal to the net
current enclosed (Ienc) by the loop.
 
Mathematically   dl = I enc
H
By applying Stokes theorem
( )ds = I
 

S
  H enc − − − −(1)

Then equation for Ienc could be obtained as

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
I enc =  J  ds − − − −(2)
S
From above equation
 (  H )ds =  J  ds
  
S S

  H = J
This is Amperes circuital law and also a one of the Maxwell’s equation.

Biot-Savart law:
Consider a portion of a conductor carrying current I. let dl be
infinesimally small elemental length of the conductor at M.

Consider a point P near the conductor. Let MP be the vector
joining the element with the point and of length r with r̂ being the

unit vector.  is the angle made by MP with the element.
Biot Savart law states the magnitude and direction of the small magnetic field at P due to the

elemental length dl of the current carrying conductor is the magnitude of the magnetic field dH is
1. Proportional to the length of the element dl
2. Proportional to the current through the element J
3. Proportional to the sine of the angle  , (sin  )

4. Inversely proportional to the square of the distance r .
Idl sin 
Mathematically, dH 
r2
Idl sin  1
dH = here is the proportionality constant.
4r 2
4

 Idl  rˆ
The above equation could be expressed in the vector form as dH = . This is Biot- Savart
4r 2
law

State and Obtain Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction in. 4M (Jan/Feb2021)

Faraday’s laws of electro-magnetic induction:

Faraday has experimentally revealed that, whenever there is a change in magnetic flux linked with
the circuit an emf (e) is induced and is equal to rate of change of magnetic flux.
Then Lenz found that, the direction of magnetic field due to the current flow is such that it opposes
the change causing it. That is, it decreases the magnetic field if the magnetic flux is increasing and
increasing the magnetic field if the magnetic flux decreasing.
By combining these two results Faraday has stated a law “the magnitude of the induced emf in a
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circuit is equal to the rate of change of the magnetic flux through it and its direction opposes the
flux change”.
Mathematically the induced emf is written as
d
e=− where  is flux linked with the circuit for a single turn coil.
dt
d
If the coil having N number of turn then emf induced across the coil is e = − N .
dt

Current density, equation of continuity and displacement current:

Current density (J):
In the discussion of Ampere’s law, we understood the current density as the current per unit area of

cross section. If  v is the charge density and v is the velocity of charge flow, then current density
 
can be written as J =  v v
Equation of continuity:
In all processes involving motion of charge carriers the net
charge is always conserved and is called the law of
conservation of charges.
Let us consider a volume V. let the charge flow into and out
of the volume V. then the equation for the law of
conservation could be written in the integral form as
  
S • ds = − t V  v dV − − − −(1)
J
 
 v is volume density of charge and J = NeV =  vV is the current density. The –ve sign indicates
that the current density is due to decrease in positive charge density inside the volume.
( )
  
Then using Gauss divergence theorem, we know  J • ds =   • J  dV − − − −(2)
S V
Therefore, equation (1) can be written as
(
V  •

J) 
 dV = −   v dV
t V

( )

   • J  dV = −  v dV
V V
t
 
dV cannot be zero  • J = − v
t
This equation is known as law of conservation of charges.

Discussion on equation of continuity:

In case of DC circuit for steady current the inward flow of charge
is equal to the outward flow through a closed surface and hence
 v 
= 0 . Then equation of continuity becomes  • J = 0 .
t
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
In case of AC circuit containing capacitors the equation  • J = 0 fails as follows. During the
positive half cycle, say the capacitor charges. If we imagine a closed surface enclosing the
capacitor plate and the attached conductor there will be inward flow to the closed surface but not
outward flow. Thus in order to rescue the equation of continuity Maxwell introduced the concept of
displacement current density.

Maxwell-Ampere’s law:
Introducing the concept of displacement current for time varying circuit Maxwell suggested
correction to the Amperes law.

That is According to Gauss law  • D =  v

Differentiate above equation with

 respect to time
  D  v

t
(•D = v ) t

t
=
t
− − − − − (1)
 
The equation of continuity is given by  • J = − v
t

  D 
Therefore equation (1) will become  • J = −   

  t 

  D 
  •  J + =0

 t 

   D 
Hence for time varying circuits  • J = 0 does not hold good and instead   •  J +  = 0 has
 t 
to be used.


(  
)   D 
Also in Amperes circuit law J =   H J has to be replace with  J + 
t 


( )
  D
Thus Maxwell Ampere law can be written as   H = J +
 t
D
The term is displacement current.
t

What is displacement current? Obtain the expression for displacement current. 6M (MQP-1
2018-19,MQP-2 2018-19)

Displacement current:
Displacement current density is a correction factor introduced by Maxwell in order to explain the
continuity of electric current in time-varying circuits. It has the same unit as electric current
density. Displacement current is associated with magnetic current but it does not describe the flow
of charge.
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Obtain the expression for displacement current. Mention four Maxwell’s equations in
differential form for time varying fields. 8M (Jan 2020)

Expression for displacement current:

Consider an AC circuit containing a capacitor as shown in the
figure.
The displacement current in terms of displacement current

 D 
density is given by I D =   • A − − − −(1)
 
 t 
Here A is the area of the capacitor plates.
Then electric flux density D is given by D = E − − − −(2)

Also E is the electric field strength written as E = − − − −(3)

V
d
Where d is the separation between the capacitor plate and V is the applied potential
Then V = VS e − − − −(4 )
jwt

By considering equation (3) and (4), the equation (2) can be written as

D= VS e jt − − − −(5)
d
Substitute equation (5) in equation (1)
  
I D =  VS e jt  • A
t  d 
After executing differentiation the displacement current is written as

jA
ID = VS e jt − − − −(6)
d

Maxwell’s equations:
Using the laws and theorems discussed in this chapter, four Maxwell’s equation for time varying
fields could be written as:

1. Gauss law of electrostatics  • D =  v

( )
 H
2. Faraday’s law   E = −
t

3. Gauss law of magnetic fields  • B = 0

  D
4. Maxwell-Ampere law   H = J +
t
Similarly fpur Maxwell equation static field could be written as

1.  • D =  v
(  E ) = 0

2.

3.  • B = 0

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 
4.   H = J
These equation are used to study electromagnetic waves

Electromagnetic waves
Introduction
The existence of electromagnetic waves was predicted by Maxwell theoretically using the point
form of Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic induction. As per Faraday’s law a time varying magnetic
field induces electric field which varies with respect to space and time. The reverse is also evident
from the equations. Thus electromagnetic wave is the propagation of energy in terms of varying
electric and magnetic field which are mutually perpendicular direction and perpendicular to the
direction of propagation.

State and Explain Maxwell’s equation. Derive wave equation in terms of electric field using
Maxwell’s equations for free space. 8M (July 2019, Jan 2019)
OR
Give the four Maxwell’s equations in differential form in vacuum and hence derive the EM
wave equation in terms of electric field using Maxwell’s equations. 8M or 10M (MQP-1 2018-
19, Sep 2020)

Wave equation for electromagnetic waves in vacuum in terms of electric field using
Maxwell’s equation:
Consider a two curl Maxwell equations

( )
 B
 E = − − − − −(1)
t 
  D
 H = J + − − − −(2)
t
Substitute D = E and B = H in above equation, where  is absolute permeability and  is
absolute permittivity. 
( )
 H
  E = − − − − −(3)
t
  E
 H = J + − − − −(4)
t

To derive wave equation in terms of electric field, the term H has to be eliminated.
Therefore, apply curl on both sides for equation
 (3)

    E = −
(
  H )
− − − −(5)
t
According to vector analysis
A  (B  C ) = B( A  C ) − C( A  B)
( )
  
Thus     E =    E −  E − − − −(6 )
2

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
According to Maxwell equation we know   D =  v ,
 
Since D = E , the above relation can be written as   E = v


Substitute   E in R H S of equation (6)
   
    E =  v  −  2 E − − − −(7 )
  
Substitute equation (7) in equation (5)
( )

 v     H
  −  E = − 
2
− − − −(8)
   t
Now substitute equation (4) in equation (8)
    E 
 v  −  2 E = −   J +  
   t  t 

 2E J  
The above equation can be re written as  E −  2 = 
2
+  v  − − − −(9)
t t   
In the above equation the LHS represents a propagation wave. The RHS represents the source of
origin of the wave. Here  and  are absolute permeability and absolute permittivity of isotropic
homogeneous medium.

For the case of propagation of electromagnetic wave in space (that is J = 0,  v = 0 ) the equation

(9) can be written as

 2E
 E −  2 = 0 − − − −(10)
2

t
The above equation represents the electromagnetic wave equation in free space.

Plane electromagnetic wave in vacuum:

The plane waves are waves that posses’ variation only in the
direction of propagation and their characteristics remains
constant across planes normal to the direction of propagation. In
the case of electromagnetic waves propagating along x-axis, they
are referred to as uniform plane waves if the electric field is independent of y and z-axis, but is a
function of x-axis and time only. For such waves, there will be no field component along the
direction of propagation.
( )

The equation for plane electromagnetic waves in vacuum for electric field E and magnetic field
()

B represent as follows:
Consider a plane electromagnetic wave of wavelength  propagating in vacuum along +ve x-
direction. Let the electric field associated with the wave be oriented parallel to y-direction can be

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
represented as E y . Let A be its amplitude and there will be a magnetic field associated with the
  
wave and is oriented parallel to z-direction can be represented as B z . Then E y and B z at any time

instant t can be represent as

  2    2 
E y = A cos (x − Ct ) aˆ y and B y = A cos (x − Ct ) aˆ z where C is the velocity of
1
  C  
propagation of electromagnetic wave in vacuum. It will be approximately equal to velocity of light
in vacuum that is 3108 m s .
Since in electromagnetic waves these two fields are mutually perpendicular and propagate in phase
with proportional strengths then the velocity of propagation C can be represent by taking the ratio
 
of E y and B z in the above equation,

Ey  
That is C = where E y = E y and B z = B z
Bz
If we express C in terms of  0 and  0 then compare propagation of electromagnetic wave equation

with classical wave equation for an oscillating physical quantity F
 2E
That is electromagnetic wave equation  E −  2 = 0
2

 t
 1  F 2
And classical wave equation  F − 2 = 0 whare v is velocity of wave
2

v t 2
1 1
Then 2 =  v=
v 
As we consider for vacuum  =  0 and  =  0 and velocity as C
1
Then C =  3  108 m s
 0 0

Mention the conditions for three types of polarization of electric vector. 3M (MQP-1 2018-19)

Polarization of electromagnetic waves:

Transverse nature of electromagnetic waves:
The electric and magnetic variations are mutually perpendicular and perpendicular to the direction
of propagation is said to be electromagnetic waves are transverse in nature. These electromagnetic
waves also exhibit polarization. Consider an electromagnetic wave propagating along z-direction.
The electric and magnetic vibrations are confined to x-y direction. Then the electric field vector of
this electromagnetic wave makes an angel  with respect to x-axis. This electric vector could be

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 
resolved in to two components E x and E y along x and y axis respectively. Based on the magnitude

of the components and the phase difference between the components there are three kind of
polarization of electromagnetic waves. They are 1) Linearly polarized electromagnetic waves 2)
Circularly polarized electromagnetic waves and 3) Elliptically polarized electromagnetic waves.

1) Linearly polarized electromagnetic waves:

 
In case of linear polarization the amplitude of E x and E y may or may not be equal and they are in

phase. Thus, the projection of the resultant vector E on a plane will be perpendicular to the
direction of propagation. This direction of propagation is straight line. It is known as linear
polarization.

 
Condition: If E1 and E2 be amplitude of E x and E y . The  is the phase difference between the two
components.
 E 
For linear polarized wave  = 0  E y =  2  E x
 E1 
Since E1 and E2 remains constant the ratio will also be constant can be replaced by m.
 
 E y = mE x this is straight line equation form.

2) Circularly polarized electromagnetic waves:

 
Consider two components E x and E y to be of equal amplitude that is E1 = E2 . Let one of them has a

phase difference of 90 .

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 
Now at point A magnitude of E y is maximum, but the magnitude of E x is zero. Hence the resultant
 
field E is vertically upward. At point B, it is vice versa and E becomes horizontal. For an observer

along z-direction, the continuous rotation of the vector E without change in its magnitude from
vertical to horizontal position and it look like circle. Thus we say that the wave is circularly
polarized.
 
Hence it is defined as: in circular polarization the amplitude of E x and E y are equal in magnitude

and the phase difference is 90 . Thus the projection of the resultant traces a circle on the plane
perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
Condition for circular polarization is E x + E y = E1
2 2 2

3) Elliptically polarized electromagnetic waves:

 
In case of elliptical polarization the amplitude of E x and E y are unequal in magnitude and the

phase difference of 90 . Thus the propagation of the projection of E point from z direction looks
like elliptical. Thus it is known as elliptical polarization.
The condition for elliptical polarization
 
1. E x  E y

2. Phase difference  =
2
2 2
E   Ey 
Therefore it obey the mathematical relation of ellipse  x  +   = 1
 E1   1 E

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