Mechanical Drawing

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l'REl'ARED FOR THE USE OF THE STUDENTS
OF THE
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MASSACHUSETTS JNSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY,

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BOSTON, MASS.
BY
LINUS FAUNCE',
THmD EDITION, REIISED AND ENLARGED

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BOSTON:
PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHOR.
MAS�ACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECJ'!:NOLOGY.
1890,
COP�RIGHTED, 1887, BY LINUS FAUNOE
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W. J. SOHOFIELD, PRINTER, 105 SUMMER STREET, BOSTON.

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CONTENTS. ,
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Page.
CHAPTER I.-INSTRUMENTS AND THEm USES. • • • • · 5
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DEFINITIONS, TERMS, ETC. • • • • • • • 12
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11.- GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS. • • • • • • • 11
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IlL-INKING. • • • • •
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• • • • • • • • • 59
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T INTIN G. • • • • • • • • • • • • • 66
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IV. PROJECTIONS. • • • • • • • 69
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NOTATION. • • • • • • • • • • • • • 72
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PROJECTIONS OF STRAIGHT LINES. • • • 73
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SURFACES. • • • • • • 79
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SOLIDS. • • • • • • • • 85
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V - SHADOWS.
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• • • 100
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VI.- ISOMETRICAL DRAWING. • • • • • • • · 117
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OBLIQUE PROJECTIONS. • • • • • • • • 125
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VII.-WORKTNG DRAWINGS • • • • •• • • • • • 126
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VIII - EXAMPLES
•. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 132
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MECHANICAL DRAWING.
CHAPTER I.
INSTRUMENTS AND THEIR USES.

1. To do good work g ood instru ments a re essential. An
accomplished dra ftsma n may do fa ir work with poor instruments,
but the beginner will find it suffic iently ha rd to do c redita ble
work without being ha ndicapped by poor instruments. It is
also essen tial tha t the instruments should be kept in good order.
Th ey should be ha ndled ca refully , and wiped, before be ing put
away, with wa sh-leather or c hamois skin. This is espec ially
n eedful if the hands perspire perc eptibly.
2. PENCILLING. ' Dra wings should always be first ma de in

pencil, a nd inked afterwa rds if desired. The idea of penc ill ing
is t o locate the lines exac tly, and to ma ke them of the required
length. Acc uracy in a drawing can only be obtained by acc u·
rac y in the penc il c onstruc tion. There is a great tendency
among beginners to overlook this importa nt fac t, a nd to bec ome,
careless in penc il ling, thinking they will be a ble to c orrec t their
i nacc urac ies when inking. This i s a grea t mistake, a nd one to
5
6 INSTRUMENTS AND THEIR USES.
be especially avoided. This. accuracy can be obtain ed in pen cil

only by makin g very fine, light lin es, an d to this en d hard pen
cils, 6 H, should be used, an d they should be kept sharp. For
drawin g straight lin es the pen cil should be sharpen ed to ail at,
tb in edge, like a wedge. The compass pen cils should be sharp
en ed to a poin t. A softer pen cil, 4 H, sharpen ed to a poin t,
should be used in making letters, figures, etc.
It should be born e in min d that a 6 .H pen cil sharpen ed to a
chisel poin t will make a depression in the paper, which can
n ever be erased, if much pressure is put on the pencil ; hence,
press very lightly when using a hard pen cil, so as to avoid this
difficulty. If a drawin g is n ot to be in ked, but made for rough
use in the shop, or where accuracy of con struction (in the draw
in g) is n ot essen tial , or to be traced, a soft pen cil would prefer
ably be used, the lin es being made somew hat thicker, or heavier.
3. COMPASSES. In usin g the compasses the l ower part of

the legs should be kept n early vertical, so that the n eedle poin t
will make on ly a small hole in revolvin g, an d both nibs of the
pen may press equally on the p aper. In pen cilling it is n ot so
e ssen tial that the pencil poin t be kept vertical, but it is well to
learn to use them in on e way, whether pen cillin g or in king.
Hold the compasses loosely between the thumb an d fore
fin ger on ly, an d do n ot press the n eedle poin t in to the paper.
If it is sharp, as it should be, the weight of the compass will be
s uffi cient to keep it in place. While revolving, lean the com
pass very slightly in the direction of revolution , an d put a little
pressure on the pencil or pen poin t.
In removin g the pen cil or pen point to chan ge them, be very
careful to pull them out straight j do n ot bend them from side to
side, in order to get them out more easily, as it would enlarge
the socket an d con sequen tly spoil the in strumen t for a ccurate
wor k.
INSTRUMENTS A:ND THEIR USES. 7
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In drawin g a circle of larger radius than could be drawn with

the compass in its usual form a lengthening bar is used. In this
case steady the n eedle point with one hand and describe the
circle with the other.
The large compasses are too �,eavy an d clumsy to make small
.
circl es n icely, hen ce the bow compasses should be used in mak

in g all circles smaller than three- quarters of an in ch radius, or
thereabouts, dependin g on the stiff ness of the spring. Be ver y
careful to adjust the n eedl e poin t to the same len gth as the pen
cil or pen poin t. In chan gin g the radius of the bow compasses
or spacers, press the poin ts together, thus removing the pressure
from the n uts, before turn in g the n uts in either direction . The
screw thread will last much longer if this is don e. .
4. DIVID ERS OR SP.A.C ERS . These are used to lay off

distan ces from scales, or from other parts of a drawin g to a lin e,
. or to divide a lin e in to equal parts. In layin g off the same dis
tan ce several times on a lin e, keep on e of the poin ts of the dividers
on the line all the time, an d turn the instrument in an opposite
direction each time, so that the moving poin t will pass ailler
n ately to the right an d left of the lin e. Do n ot make holes in
the paper in doing this, as it is impossible to ink nicely over
the m ; a very slight pun cture is suffi cient.
5. T-SQU.A.RE. The T-square should be used with the head

again st the left-han d edge of the drawin g board (unl ess the per
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son is left-handed), an d horizontal lin es on ly should be drawn
with it. . Lin es perpen dicular to these should n ot be drawn by
using the head of the T-square again st an adjoin ing edge of the
boar d, as there is n o pain s taken to make these edges at right
an gles to each other, but they should be drawn by using the
trian gle in con nection with the T-square.
L in es should be dra wn with the upper edge on ly of the

T-squa re.
In ca se you wish to use the T-squa re a s a guide for the kn ife in
cuttin g pa per to size, do n ot use the upper edge a s a guide, but
turn the T-squa re over an d use the bottom edge. For, un less
you a re very ca reful, the knife will n ick the edge, which would
render it unfit to draw lin es with .
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6. TRIANGLES. To draw lines which shall be parallel to

another by means of the triangles. Let AB be the given lin e.
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Plac e either edge of either trian gle so a s to coin cide exa ctl y
wit h the given lin e. Pla ce the other triangle (or an y stra ight
edge) a ga inst on e of the other edges of the first triangle. Then ,
holding the secon d trian gle, or stra ight edge, securely in this
position with the left hand, move the first on e, still keepin g the
two edges in con ta ct. . An y lin e dra wn a lon g the edge which
originally coin cided with the lin e AB will be pa ra llel to it.
To draw lines which shall be perpendicular to another lYy means
of the triangles. Let AB be the given lin e. Pla ce the lon gest
side of the trian gle so a s to coin cide exa ctly with the given lin e.
INSTRUMENTS .AND THEIR USES. 9
P lace the other triangle (or any straight edge) against one of
the other edges of the first triangle. Then, holding the second
triangle securely in this position with the left hand, revolve the
first one so that its third edge is against the second triangle or
straight e dge. Any line drawn, along the edge which originally
coincided with the given line A B will be perpendicular to that
l ine.
The right- hand portion of the figure shows how the two tri
angles may be used, in connection with the T-square, to draw
J ines making angles of 15° and 75° with a given line (in this
case the line which coincides with the ed ge of the T-square) .
By turning the triangles over, these angles may be drawn in the
opposite direction.
Lines making angles of 30°, 45°, and 60° are drawn directly
by means of one triangle and T-square or straight edge.
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7. IRREGULAR CURVES. To trace an irregular cur ve through

a series of points, u se that part of the edge of the curve which
coincides with the greatest possible number of points (never less
than three), and draw the curve through these p oints, then shift
,
the curve so as to coincide with other p oints in the same way,

letting the instrumen t run back on a part of the curve already
d rawn, so that a continuous smooth curved line may be formed.
It requires conR id erable practice to draw irregular curves by
means of an instrument, the tendency being to make a series of
loops, on account 'of some of the points being c' overed up.
There is no better way to put in a curve in pencil than by doing
it free-hand, provided the hand and eye have been properly
trained. Of course the curve cannot be inked in free-hand ; the
irregular curve must be used ; but, bei ng no longer confined to
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points, it is not diffi cult.

10 INSTR UMENTS ANrnv THEIR USES.
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8. SCALES . As it is frequen tly impossible to make a draw-

ing on paper the rea.! size of the object, it is customary to reduce
the" actual measuremen ts by mean s of an instrumen t called a
scale, , that is, the drawin g may" be made t, t, i, n, etc., size,
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accordin g as " the relative size of the object an d drawin g may
reqUire.
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If it is desired to make a drawing 1- size, then 3 in ches Oil

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the drawin g will r epresen t on e foot on the object. It is fre
quen tly n ecessary to represen t in ches an d fraction s of an in ch,
hen ce divide the 3 inches in to 12 equal parts, and each of these
parts will represen t on e in ch on the object. I f eac h of the '1 2
parts is subdivided in to 2, 4, or 8 parts, each part would rep
resen t respectively t, 1-, or i of an in ch on the object. This
may be designated, scale, 3 in ches equal on e foot, or t size.
On the scale, on e in ch equal on e foot, th e un it, on e in ch, is
divided in to 12 parts to represen t in ches a s before. Thus, to
make a scale of an y un it to on e foot, it is simply n ecessary to
divide that un it into 12 parts to rep resen t in ches, subdividin g
these parts, as far as possible, to represen t fraction s of an in ch.
If the smallest division on a scale represen ts i of an in ch on
the object, the scale is said to read to i of an in ch.
The studen t will find on his trian gular scale ten different
scales, viz., ..j�, i, fll"' t, �, t, !, 1, It, and 3 in ches to the foot,
1" 111 1" 1" .1." l"
read·m g to 2", 1", 1", , '"2","2"' 4 , 4; , an d " �II 1f' respectI veIy.
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On some trian gular scales, the scale �"= l' is divided so as to

read to 3" in stead of to 2".
The double prime over a n umber or fraction mean s in ches,
the sin gle prime in dicates feet.
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The scale should never be used as a ruler to draw lin es with. "
9. NEEDLE POINT. Each studen t should procure a fine

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n eedle, break off the eye end, and force the broken en d in to a "
INSTRUMENTS AND THEIR USES. 11
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small, round piece of soft pine wood. This is to be used in

p ricking off measurements from the scale, marking the exact
intersection of two lines, etc. Here, a s in the case of the needle
p oint in the comp asses, it should not be forced into the pap er;
the fines t p uncture p ossible is s. ufli cient.
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10. DRAWING PAP ER. This p aper comes· in sheets of

standard sizes, as follows : -
Cap, . . . . 13 x 17 inches. Elephant, 23 x 28 inches.
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Demy, . . . 15 x 20 Co lumbia, 23 x 34
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Atla s , "
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Medium, . . 17 x 22 26 x 34
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Royal, . . . 19 x 24 Double Elephant,27 x 40

Super-Royal, . 19x 27 "
Antiqua rian , • 31 x 53 "
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Imperial, . . 22 x 30 Emperor, • • 48 x 68
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Whatman' s p ap er is considered the best. This p ap er is either

hot or cold pr essed, the hot p ressed being smooth and the cold
pressed rough. The rough p ap er is better for tinting work, t he
smooth takes ink lines better than the rough, but erasures show
much more distinctly on it, hence t he cold p ressed is better. £ or
general work; The names of the sizes of the p ap er given above
have no referenc e to quality. There is very little difference
in the two sides of the p ap er, but that one which shows the
maker' s name in water lines, when held up to the light, is con
sidered the right side.
11. THUMB TAOKS . These are used for fastening the p ap er

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to the drawing board when it is not necessary to stretch it.
12. The geometrical problems in the next chap ter are not
given with the view of teaching geometry, but to give the stu-
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dent practice in the accurate use of his instruments.

In order that the degree of accuracy of the execution of the
p roblems may be readily seen, these p roblems will not be inked.
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DIRECTIONS FOR MAKING PLATES.

13. The plat es on which t hese problems are t o be drawn
should be laid out 10" by 1 4" (and cut t his size when finished) ,
wit h a border line one inch from each edge. That port ion of
t he plate wit hin t he border line is t o be divided into 4 equal
rect angles, in each of which one problem is to be drawn, begin
ning wit h No. 1 ill t he upper left-hand corner rectangle, No. 2
in t he upper right, etc.
The problems should be drawn as large as t he size of t he
rect angles will permit , as t he larger they are the ea, sier it is to
obtain t he acc urate r esults which will be i nsisted upon.
The number of t he plat e is t o be print ed in Arabic numerals
in t he upper right -hand corner of the plat e, ab out one-eight h of
an inch above the border line, and t he student' s name in t he
lower right -hand corner, about on e� eight h of an i nch belo w the
border line.
P ROB. 1 , PROB. 2, et c., as t he case may be, is t o be printed
in the upper right-hand corner of each rect angle. The first
let ter of Prob. and the initial lett ers of the name should be
made flf of an inch high, and t he small lett ers i of an inch ·
high ; the numerals sh ould also be flf" high.
The lett ers and figure s should be made like those on page 1 6,
and they should be made as nicely as poss ible.
The small let ter s should be made with the same style of let
ter as t he init ials.
DEFINITIONS, TERMS, ETC.
1 4. In Geomet ry, space is des cr ibed in terms of it s three
dimensions, . length, breadth, and thickness.
A point has simply position without any dimension.
A line has only one dimen sion, viz., length.
A surface has two dimensions, lengt h and breadt h.
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A solid has three dimensions,- length, breadth, and thickness.

Lines are of several kinds, straight or right lines, curved
lines, and broken lines.
Parallel lines are everywhere equally distant from each other.
An angle is formed when tw.o lines meet or cross each other.
The vertex is the point where the tw o lines or stdes meet.
A right angle is on e where its two sides make an angle of 900
with each other.
An acute angle is less than a right angle.
An obtuse angle is more than a right angle.
A quadrant is an arc of 90°.
A plane figure is a plane b ounded on all sides by lines. If ,
the lines are st raight, the space which they contain is called a
rectilinear figure or polygon, and the sum of the bounding lines
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is the perimeter of the polygon.
Polygons are named according to the number of thei r sides,
thus : -
A triangle is a plan e figure of three sides.
A quadrilateral is a plane figure of four si des.
A pentagon is a plane figure of five sides. .
A hexagon is a plane figure of six sides.
A heptagon is a plane figure of sellen sides.
An octagon is a plane fi gure of eight sides.
A nonagon is a plane figure of nine sides.
A decagon is a plane figure of ten sides.
An undecagon is a plane figure of eleven si des.
A dodecagon is a plane figur e of twelve sides.
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A circle is a plane figure of an i nfinite number of sides, or a

plane figure bounded b y a curved line everywhere' equi- di stant
f rom its centre.
An equilateral triangle has all its si des and angles equal. '
An isosceles triangle has two of i ts sides and two of i ts angles
equal. ,
A scalene triangle has all its sides and angles unequal.

Quadrilaterals have a variety of names according to the '
relative posi tions of their sides, thus: -
A trapezium is a quadrilateral ha ving no two sides parallel.
A trapezoid is a quadrilateral having two only of its sides
,
parallel.
A parallelogram is a quadrilateral having its opposite sides
parallel. Parallelograms are nam ed as follows:-
. A square is a parallelogram having all of its' sides e qual and
its angles right angles. ,
A rectangle is a parallelogram having its opposite sides equal

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and its angles right angles.

A rhombus or rhomb is a parallelogram having all its sides .
equal, but the angles are not right angles.
A rhomboid is a parallelogram having its opposite sides equal,
but its angles not right angles. '
A polygon which has all its vertices on the circumference of
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a circle is said to be inscribed in the circle. The circle is cir-

cumscribed about t he polygon.
A polygon which has all its sides tangent to a circle is, said
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to be circumscribed about the circle. The circle is inscribe,d in

the polygon. .
A diameter is any line drawn thr ough the c entr e of a figure,
and terminated by the opposite boundaries.
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Th e long diameter of a polygon is the diameter o f its circum

scribed circle. This is also called a diagonal.. '
The short diameter of a polygon is the . diameter of its in-

scribed c ircle.
All polygons are supposed to be regular unless otherwise stated.
A polyhedron is a solid bounded entirely by planes.
The edges of a polyhedron are the lines of intersection of its
bo unding planes.
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The sides or faces of a polyhedron are the plane :fi gures com
posing its surface. .
A polyhedron is said to be regular when its faces are equal
and regular polygons, and each adjacent pair include the. sam e
angle. There are only :fi ve reg ular polyhedrons, viz, : -
The tetrahedron, bounded by four equal equilateral triangl es.
The hexahedron. or eube, bounded by six equal squares. The
octahedron, bounded by eight equal equilateral t riangles. The
dodecahedron, bounded by twelve equal pentagons. The icosa- . •
hedron, bounded by twenty equal equilateral triangles.

A prism is a polyhedron having two of its faces, called its
ends or bases, parallel, and the rest parallelograms.
A parallelopiped is a prism whose bases are parallelograms.
A pyramid i s a polyhedron having a p olygon for its base,
and for its sides it has triangles which ha ve a common vertex,
and the sides of the polygon for their bases.
The common vertex of the triangles is called the vertex, or
apex, of the pyramid.
The axis of a prism is a straight line joining the centres of
its ends; and the axis of a pyramid is the straight line from its
vertex to the centre of its base.
A right prism or pyramid has its axis at right angles to
its base. .
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Pri sms and pyramids are named from the form of their bases,
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as triangular, square, pentagonal, he xagonal , etc.
A cylinder is similar to a prism except that its bases are
cirC les.
A cone is simil ar to a pyramid except that its base is a circle.
All p risms, pyramids; cylinders, and cones are su pposed to be
right unless otherw ise stated.
16 INSTROMENTS AND THEIR USES.
A C:...,..
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CHAPTER II.
GEOMETRICAL POOBLEMS.
PROB. 1. To bisect a straight line AB, or arc of a circle AFB.

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. . With A and B as centres and any radius
)t;
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g reater t han one half AB draw arcs intersect
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ing in C and D. Joi n CD. CD is perpen

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'::i='� dicular to AB, and E and F are the middle
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" points required.
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NOTE. To draw a perpendicular to a line
at any point in it, as E in AB. Lay off equal distances EA
and EB on each side of E, and proceed as above •
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2. From a point C outside a straight line AB to draw

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PROB.
, a perpendicular to the line.
c With C as a centre and any convenient

ra dius cut AB in the points A and B. With
, ,-,-_+-_.... 8,..:.£\ ' A and B as centres and any radius draw arcs
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i ntersecting in D. Join C and D, a nd CD is
, I ,
the p erpendicular required.
J'il 17
18 GEOMflTRICAL PROBLEMS •
PROB. 3. To draw a perpendicular to a line AB from a point

, C nearly or quite over its end.
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Draw a lin e from C to meet AB in an y
poin t B. Bisect BC in D by Prob. 1. With
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, d radius DC draw the arc

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D as a cen tre an
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CAB meetin g AB in A. Join A an d C,
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and AC is the perpen dicular required.

''--.- NOTE. If a perpen dicul ar be required at
A, take an y poin t D as a cen tre an d radius DA an d draw an
arc CAB. Through B and D draw a lin e to meet the arc in C.
Join A and C, and AC is the perpen dicular required. ,
PROB. 4.
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To draw a perpendicular to a line AB from a point

A at or near its end.
.- r- With A as a cen tre an d any radius draw
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the arc CD. W ith cen tre D an d same radiu s
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cut C D in C. With C as a cen tre an d same
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, radius draw an arc" over A, an d draw a lin e

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through D and C, producin g it to meet t�is

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arc in E. Join A and E, an d A E is the per

pendicular required .
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PROB. 5. .A second method.

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With cen tre A an d an y radius draw an arc

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CDE. With cen tre C an d same radius cut this
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arc in Do· With cen tre D an d same radius draw
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arc E F. With cen tre E an d same radi us draw
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arc in tersecting EF in F. Join A an d F, and
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A__ AF i s the perpendicular required. '
GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS • 19
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PRon. To construct an angle equal to a given angle CAB.

6.
\
Draw any line as DE, and take any point in
\ it as D. With A as a centre and any radius
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cut the sides o� the given angle in B and C .
With centr e D " and same radius draw arc EF.
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With BC as a radius and E as a centre cut arc

EF in F. Join D and F, and FDE is the
angle requir ed.
NOTE. For accuracy of construction in drawing this prob
lem the longer the radius AB is the better.
PROB.7. Through a given point C to draw a line parallel to
-a giv'en line AB.
From C as a centre and any radius
\I /' draw the arc AD ; and from A as a centre,
,..-
\ ,/ \ with the same radius, draw the arc BC.
\�" B: With BC as a radius, and A as a centre,
draw an arc cutting the arc AD in D. Join D and C, which
is the line required.
PROB. 8.. To draw a line parallel to a given line AB at a
given distance CD from it.
-"1 '-, *'
.-= From any two points A and B on the line
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, as centres and with CD as a radius draw arcs

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,,<:,-rh E and F. A t A and B erect perpendif) ulars
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c, ,0 to meet the arcs in E and F. Draw a line
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through E and F, which is the line required.

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PROB� 9. To bisect a given angle BAC.

Wi th A as a centre and any radius draw the
B
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arc BC , cutting the sides of t he angle in B and
',?', C. With centres B and C and any radius
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• draw arcs intersecting in D. Draw AD, which

will bi sect the angle.
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GEOlVlETRICAL PROBLEMS •
PROB. 10. To divide a given line AB into any number oj

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equal parts. (In this case 6.)

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From A draw an in defin ite lin e AI, 2 5
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at an y an gle w ith A. B. At B draw Ba
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's- making t he angle ABe equal to the an gle

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BA5. With an y distan ce as a un it, lay off on
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I
11 ' 1
"0
...
l I
1\
'-XCI
f; .... the lin es fro m A an d B as man y - equal spaces
�
as the n umber of parts required less on e.
Join ie, 2d, 3e , etc., an d where these lin es intersect AB are the
poin ts of division requ ired. '
PROB. Another method. 11. To divide a line AB into (say)

five eqltal parts.
Draw Al . . 5 at any angle to AB, an d
�_ ""t'.
�; I I
.
I
.
.!�_ -t' II
lay off on it five equal spaces, usi
n g any col).-
,,; !
. : ; i ven ien t un it. Join a B, an d through the
poin ts 1, 2, 3, 4 draw lin es parallel to B5,
meetin g AB in poin ts a, b, e, an d d, which are the poin ts, of
-
division required.
•
PROB. 12. To divide a line AC into the same proportional

parts as a given divided line AB.
-
_
Draw from a poin t A the lin es AC an d

AB, making any angl e w ith each other. Jb in
, B an d C. Through the poin ts 1, 2, an d 3 on
I
-
,
AB draw lin es parallel to BC, meeting AC .
,
in poin ts a, b, an d e, the re quired poin ts of. - -
di vision .
•
GEOMETRICAl. PROBLEMS. 21
FROB. 13.
Second method.
/I;�
"i "
. L et M be the lin e to be divided in to parts
:/, \" proportion al to t he parts AI, 1 2, 23, an d 3B
," \,
/'::
I I I
\ \
, ,
of the lin e AB. Draw CD equal in len gth to
G�a/-,!' '',9.2'p M an d paralleLt o AB by F rob. 8. Draw lin es
, I : \ '\ through
I I " .#\ ... ..
...... AC an d B D to meet in E. Through

'A. J --"-"--
Z .M J - B' E draw lin es to 1, 2, an d 3, cutting CD in a,
.......
b, an d c, the required poin ts of division. CD can be placed at

- -
any dis tan ce f rom AB, provided the lin es AC an d BD in tersect

within the limits of the paper. . .
NOTE. If the part s on AB are equal, the parts on CD will

be equal. •
PROB. To draw on a given line AB as an, hypothenuse a

1 4.
right triangle with its sides having the proportion of 3, 4, and 5.
Divide AB by Prob. 1 1 into 5 equal parts.
With cen tre B an d a radius equal to t hree of
the parts draw an are , an d with cen tre A and
a radius equal to four of the parts cut this
,
,
,
/ arc in C. Join AC an d BC, an d ACB is

the required right tri angle .
•
PROB. To trisect a right angle CAB.

15.
•
With cen tre A an d an y radius draw the arc
- - '.
of the quadran t, cutting the sides in C an d B.

With cen tres C an d B an d the same radius cut
the arc in poin ts 1 an d 2. Join Al and A2.
NOTE. The an gle lAB is an an gle of 60°,
the con struction of which is apparen t.
22 GEOMETRIOAL PROBLEMS.
PROB. 16. To find a mean proportional between two lines M

and N.
Upon an indefinite line AB lay off AC equal
,
.. - - .. -
, to M, and CB equ al to N. Bisect AB in E

-
/
,
x
, 1\
by Prob. 1, and with centre E and radius EB
, I
draw a semicircle. At C draw CD perpen

"
dicular to AB (Prob. 5). CD is the mean
1-
\',
, ,
proportional re quired.
•
PROB. 17. To find a fourth proportional to {hree lines M,

I
N, and P.
, . Draw AB equal to M, and at any conve
-',
-
, nient angle draw AC equal to N. Upon
,
'" ,
--;.,---- "�f!
,
-
k:'
-
__ L AB produced make' BD equal to P. Join

N BC, and draw DE parallel to BC, to meet
p
AC produced in E. CE is the fourth pro
portional required.
PROB. 18. At a point A in a line AC to make an angle of

30°.
With any point B as a centre and radius
,
,- -
---
-
/ ,
•
AB draw a semicircle ADC. With centre C

'\•
, "
I I
I I
J ' , and same radius cut this arc in D. Draw

, :---,' AD. DA C 30°= •
PROB. 1 9. Having given the sides AB, M, and N of a tri

" angle to cQnstruct the figure.
With centre A and radius M draw an arc.
With B as a centre and radius N draw an arc
M
to cut the first arc at C. Join AC and BC.
N.
• •
. . ABC is the triangle required.

GEOMETRICAl, PROBLEMS. 23
,
PROB. 20. On a given side AB to construct a square.
Draw BP at right angles t o AB and equal

t o AB (Prob. 5). With A and D as cent res
and radius AB draw arcs intersecting in C.
Join AC and CD.
PROB. 21 . To construct a rectangle of given sides AB and M.

At B draw BD perpendicular to AB by
Prob. 5, and equal t o M. Wit h A as a cen
tre and radius equal t o M draw an arc, and
from D as a cent re and a radius equal to AB
M
cut this arc in C. Join AC and CD.
P ROB. 22.
On a given diagonal AB to construct a rhombus
of given side A C.
Wit h centres A and B and radius AC draw
•
, ,
I •
arcs intersect ing in C and D. Join AC, AD,
• •
. -�
'
BO, and BD.
.
On a given base AB to construct a regular
•
PROB. 23.
pentagon.
With c entres A and B and radius AB
draw circles int ersecting in 1 and 2. Join
...... f' .. 10;:
.... ...
t
•. -
.. , •
, ,,
"
• �
..
,
..
\,i',
1 and 2. With centre 2 and same radius
,
...
I
•
'1\0 .,
t v draw t he circle 3A5B4. giving points

' ,I'
" "
"t
", \
3 and 4. Produce 35 t o ° and 45 to
, � t
,:�.
, � '1 " \
.�
I •
A; 1f'l'"
_
,-
E . With cent res C and E and radius
...f
/ 1 � t ' J '"
, ..
. I
. ,. I \ .
' '
•
,"" , ' ��''\ \

AB draw arcs intersecting in D. Draw
' \ .
,• I "
.
....
I p�'" to
'f' " '\ 'I\
';;
BCDEA.
sr.....
,
..
;".4
'
. -. ' " ..
-. .. - ..
NOTE. This is an approximate method.

24 GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS.
PROB. 24. To construct a regular hexagon of given side AB.

; I;l With A and B as centres and radius AB draw
,
,/ \/ \ arcs intersecting in O. With centre 0 and

- -'
f:- ---;.-li.:: -----:' radius AB draw a circle, and lay off BC, CD,
\,/ '; ,: etc., each equal to AB. Join the point.s B, C,
'
A -�
... I '
\
'
D, E, F, and A.
__ -
-
NOTE. The radius of any circle goes around the circumfer-·

ence as a chord six times exactly.
PROB. 25. On a given base AB to construct q regular poly- .

gon of any number of sides (in this case 7).
,,
"
J
/- With ---
centre A and radius AB draw a
: \ semicircle and div ide it at points 1, 2, 3, 4,
�..,;,
" ,
"
, \
(\
I �- ,-�,'lu,
L' / \ etc., into as many equal parts as there are
" '-,.u. �� / sides in the required polygon, Draw a line
_
h
/ \
""
f-r-�-�:- ;;i'{ -' f rom the second pom
",,
"I,
"
"'
II
, "
v"'" I
' t 0f d'IVlSlO n 2 t0 A
'
I
--�
. , •
:;r 2A is one side of the required polygon.

�.
Bisect AB and A2 by perpendiculars, by
Prob. 1, meeting in D. With D as a centre and radius DA
draw the circle BA2, etc. Apply AB as a chord to the circle
as many times as there are sides in the polygon.
PROB. 26.
On a given "line AB to construct a regular poly
gon of any number of sides. An approximate method.
Bisect A B, and produce the bisecting
,
line indefinitely. With centre" A and "
radius AB draw the arc BC, cutting the

bisecting line in C. Divide the arc BC
I I
,
,
, into six equal parts, in points 1, 2, 3, etc.
To construct a pentagon. With centre
C and radius C1 draw an arc, cutting
the bisecting line in a point below C,
•
GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS. 25
,
which is the centre of the circle circumscribing the pentagon. If

the polygon is to have more sides than six, set up from C on the
line Cab as many parts of the arc CB as added to six make
the number of sides of the required polygon; thus, for a seven
sided polygon set up one divisio�, as Ca; for an eight- sided set
up two divisions as Cab, and so' on. a, b, c, d, etc., are the cen
tres for the circumscribing circles of the polygons, each side of
which is equal to AB.
PROB. 27 . On a given bfse AB to construct a regular octa

gon.
At A and B erect . perpendi culars by
- - -
1;>rob. 5 to AB, and bisect the exterior right
angles, making the bisectors AC a nd BD
T-';�\r'-- each equal to AB. Draw CD, cutting the
_
,u \ perpendiculars in E and F. Lay off EF

'
-- - - f rom E to G and from F to H. Draw

.
--
an indefinite line through GH . Make GK, GL, HN, and HM '

each equal to CE or FD. Connect C, K, L, M, N, and D.
NOl'E. This may be done by Prob. 25. Check the con-
struction by seeing if AN, CM, BD. and KL are parallel.
CA, KB, etc. shoul d be parallel ; sa also AD, CN, and KM.
PROB. 28. To construct a regular octagon within a square

ABCD.
,
Draw the diagonals AC and BD. With A,

B, C, and D as centres and t he half of the
diagonal of the square as a radius draw the ,
arcs EF, GH, KL, and MN. Join the points
MG, FL, HN, and KE.
PROB. 29. The altitude AB of an equilateral triangle being

given, to construct the triangle.
Draw CD and EF, both perpen, dicular to
f:.. .--- .It
I
AB. With A as a centre· and any. radius
----
. describe the semicircle CGHD. With C and

D as centres and the same radius draw arcs
cutting the semicircle in G and H. Draw
AGE and AHF.
PROB. 30. Given the base AB of an isosceles triangle, and •
the angle at the vertex M , to draw the triangle.

0
With centre B and any radius draw a

semicircle cutting the base produced at C.
,
M ake the angle DBC equal to M by Prob.

r:�" ; --'}f,.. 6. Bisect ABD by Prob. 9. M ake the
t\ / \ angle FAB equal to EBA, and produce
A..-..L- \ -;!:�--. 'cL
......
AF and BE to.
meet in G.
PROB. 31. Within a regular hexagon ABCDEF to inscribe

a square,
Draw a diagonal AD. Bisect AD by
a perpendicular 213 (Prob. 1). Bisect .by
--- +'-
Prob. 9 the righ� angles 21A and 21D, and
,
produce the biseC tors to meet the sides of the
,
hexagon in points G, H, L, and K. Join G,
H, L, and oK. o
PROB. 32. On a given diagonal AB to construct a square.

,
Bisect AB in 0 (Pr ob. 1) ; and with centre
,
o and radius OA draw a circle to cut the

,
,
,
bisecting . line in C and D. Draw AC, CB,

,
,
BD, and DA.
,
o
GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS . 27
•
PROB. 33. Within a given triangle ABC to inscribe a square.
Draw A D perpendicular to and equal to AB.

From C draw C E p erpen dic ular to AB (Prob. 2).
v>,
.
,\
-
I ,
'
Draw DE cutting AC in F. From F draw FK
\ I
perpendicular to AB. M ake KH equal to KF,

I
"
and from H with radius HK cut BC in G. Join

FG and GH.
PROB. 34. About a g£ven circle FEG D to circumscribe an

equilateral triangle.
Draw the diameter DE. With centre E
and radius of the given circle draw the cir
cle AFG. Prolon g DE to A. With centres
D, F, and G an d radius DG draw arcs in ter
==-= . secting at B and C. Join the points A, B,
a nd C, and A BC is t he required triangle.
PROB. 35 . To circumscribe a ci· rcle about a triangle ABC.

By Prob. 1 bisect two of the sides AB
/
-.,/0 an d BC by perpendiculars meeting in O.
With cen tre 0 an d radius OA draw the

,
, f�
, , -
-
- Q<.', circle. .
- -
NOTE 1. I f any three points are given

- - -
,
�-' - .
not in the same straight line, a circle is

passed through them by joining the poin ts
and proceeding as above.
NOTE 2. If any circle is given , its centre is found by takin g
any three points in its circumferen ce, an d proceedin g as above.
I
PROB. 3 6. To inscribe a regular pentagon w1'thin a circle.

Draw any diameter AB, and a radius CD
/
,
perpendicular to it. Bisect BC in E. With
.
,
,
, ,
, ,
centre E and radius ED draw the ar(l DF.
, , ,
,
"
--c---r With centre D and radius DF draw the arc

,
FG. DG is the side of the required pen-

' .
tagon.
PROB. 37. To inscribe a regular hexagon within a circle.

Draw the diameter AB, and with centres A
• •
and B and the radius of the given circle

draw arcs COD and EOF, clltting the circum
ference in C, D, E, and F. Join AD, DF,
FB, etc.
NOTE. Joining points A, E, and F gives
an inscribed equilateral triangle.
-
PROB. 38. To construct a regular polygon of any number of

sides, the circumscribing circle being given. .
/. : Draw any diameter AB and divide it

,
\ ,
into as many equal parts as there are sides
\ in the required polygon (in this case 5).
� , � � JJ With A and B as centres and radius AB
,
, I' •
- -
\, :\>.>" .-
-. .- . --- -.-
- -
� .
draw arcs intersecting in C. Draw a line

\ ';. . �. y / from C through the second point of di-
/
.
'
\. vision of AB to meet t he circumference

\ : / in D. AD is one side of the required
'" \ ,/
, I /
polygon. Lay off AD as a chord as many

".
;:J.'!'
, ,
times as there are sides in the required

polygon (in this case 5).
NOTE. This is an approximate method.
PROB. 39.
To circumscribe a regular hexagon about a circle.
Draw the diameters AB and CD perpen
dicular to each other. Divide each quadrant
into thirds, by Prob. 15, at points E, F, etc.
Join B and ¥" cutting CD in G. With G
as a centre and radius GE draw arc ED,
cutting COD in D. With centre 0 and
radius OD cut the diameters produced in points R, K, C, L, and
M. . Join points R, D, M, L, C, and K.
NOTE. Practically the 60 ° triangle placed on a T-square
whose blade is parallel to CQD will give RD, DM, etc., hy
making it tangent to the circle at E, F, etc. KH and LM are
drawn by'the T-square.
PROB. 40 . To circumscribe a square, also a regular octagon,
about a circle.
E . •
I-
Draw the diameters AB and CD at right
,
_ .
/,
__
/ .
... angles to each other. With centres A, B, C,
I "
I
,
,
I /
"
- -�-��---- D and D and radius OA describe arcs intersect-

/
•
. " ing in points E,

'
F, G, and R. These points con-
,. I /
I '
:
,
,
I,..
/
nected give
I
I
a square about the circle. Inscribe
-' '-'R an octagon in the square by Prob. 28.
,
. d,"-
PROB. 41. To draw a tangent to a circle B from a point A

without it.
"'-'F�'"
Draw AB and bisect ·it in D. With
/1 /1\.
//
\'"
centre D and radius DA draw a semi-

II
I
I
,
'
I!f
-- - �Q.-- circle cutting the given circle in C and E.
--
I ---
,
,
\'
-- -
Join AC. By joining AE a second tan-

I
,E
•
,_/.. gent is found, equal to AC.

NOTE. To draw a tangent to a circle from a point C on the
circumference. Join BC, and at C draw AC perpendicular to
BC. For the tangent is perpendicular to the radius at the point
of tangenc,!!,
30 GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS •
FROB. 42. To draw a tangent to the arc of a circle when the

centre is not accessible.
. c
Let C be the point upon the given arc,
\ _ ____ L .:. : AB, at which the tangent is to be drawn.
_ "
Lay off equal distances upon the arc from

C to A and B. Join A and B. Through C draw a line par
allel to AB by Frob. 7.
,
FROB. 43. To draw a tangent at a given point A on a circle

when the preceding method is not applicable. •
From A draw any chord AB. Bisect AB in

. "l.
,
""---:'/
�
C, and the arc ADB in D by Frob. 1. With
'
-t'F
,
A as a centre and a radius AD draw' the.. arc

"
" ,
'
... ,
, EF. With D as a centre and radius DF draw
'
,
.
, ,
,
,
, ,
, ,
an arc cutting EF at E. Join AE.
-'
"
"
.
FROB. 44. To draw a tangent to two given circles, A and B.

Through A and B dra w a line.
Make DH equal to the radius BF.
-' Draw the Circle A-HC, and from B
- -
_
draw the tangent BC by Frob. 41.

Draw AC and produce it to E. Make
the angle FBK equal to CAH. Join EF. .
•
·FROB . 45. To draw a tangent to two given circles which

shall pass between them.
Join A and B, and draw AD and BC
r :�<' - -,\ perpendicular to AB. Draw DC, cut-
_ _ _ _ :-��--- ", . ' ting AB in E. Draw a tangent from
\ E by Frob. 41 to the given circles.
! Join the tangent points F and G. FG
is the required tangent.
, '
PROB. 46. To draw a circle tangent to a given line AB at
a given point B in it, which shall also pass through a fixed
point C without the line. ,

•
.... '0
Draw BD perpendicular to AB, at the
/f\ . c point B. J:oin CB, and draw a perpen-
..t-: '1,-,. / dicular to it at its middle point, Prob. 1.
... �" I \ , '<"
: /� ".
" '<
,
/;'
•
The intersection of this perpendicular and
•
1/
�
",/�.:::
I
. ',' BD gives D the centre required.

',.,..
PROB. 47. To draw a circle oj a given radius AB, which

shall be tangent to a given circle C, and also to a straight line
DE.
Draw GH parallel to DE, by Prob.
8, at the distance AB. With a radius
_, eM, equal to the radius of circle C
plus ,AB, draw an arc to meet GH in
O. With the centre 0 and radius AB
,
A B draw the required circle.

' NOTE. If two cirples are tangent, the straight line connect
ing the centres passes through the point of tangency. This
point it is very important to locate precisely in all cases of tan
gency.
PROB. 48. To draw a circle tangent to a given circle D, and

also tangent to a given line AB, at a given point B on the lirte. ,
. . Draw Be perpendicular to AB, and
,
,
.
, , make BC equal to the radius of circle D.

.
\1.�:, _ _ _ _
•
�;.�/
Join DC, and at its middle p oint
a perpendicular to meet BC in E, the
draw
'�7. " }(
':
, / "' .: required centre.
.�
"
-)� -
: c
'
•
NOTE. By laying off BC above the
line AB, and proceeding as above, another circle is found
below AB.
32 GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS. •
PROB. 49. To draw a circle tangent to a given drcle. A at a

given point E on the circle, and to a given line BC.
. Draw AE and produce it. At E
! draw a perpendicular to AE, meeting
'6\, .1).;- --" i..,-
.. - ,_ .i<, BC in B. Draw the bisector of the
.
/'<, ·_-·t '<:v / ' angle EBC, meeting AE produced

... /0'''-- in D. DE is the radius required.
'
........
.. .; ,
NOTE. By bisecting EBM another
-
circle, whose centre is G, is fouild, .
enclosing the circle AE. •
•
PROB. 50. To draw a circle of given radius R tangent to

two given lines, AB and CD. -
Draw the lines GE and AE

parallel respectively to AB and
CD, at the given distance R from
£/
-
•
them by Prob. 8, meeting in E .
•
- - - - - -7 - -
-<1; ,
- - - �- -�
,
....
With E as a centre and radius

.
--
•
,
v '
'
,
equal to R describe a circle, which .-'

,
,
will be tangent to the given lines.

•
PROB. 51. To draw any number of circles tangent to each

other, and also to two given lines AB and AD.
\I Bisect BAD by AC, Prob. 9. Let
,
... one of the circles he BED, drawn by

'. c . taking ' C as a centre, and a radius
- - -- � ---
\/ equal to the perpendicular CD from

1/ C to AD. At E draw EF perpendic-
ular to AC. With centre F and ra
dius FE draw the arc DEG, cutting AD in G. A,t G make
GH perpendicular to AD. H is a centre required. . Repeat
the process.
•
GEOMETRIC AI, PROBLEMS. 33
PROB . To draw a circle through a given-point D and

52.
tangp,nt .to two given lines AB and AC.
--:::-'-'- ' '' _ _ _ D '

Draw AD. Bisect BAC by AE.
" \ ,' - - From any point K, on AE ·as a
� ' ''' � T - _ _ _
":( -
centre, draw a circle tangent to AB
- '"
and AC, and cutting AD in H.

- -
Draw HK. At D draw DE, mak

ing the angle ADE equal to AHK.
E is the centre of the required circle.
PROB. To draw a circle of a given radius R tangent to

53.
two given circles A and B.
•
Through A and B draw indefinite

lines, and make DE and FG each
A"�1
" ��
equal to R. With A and B as centres,
,
, '
',,'
I .
.
and radii AE and BG, draw arcs cut-

''G,''
, .
, ,
ting each other at C, which will be the

... ,
I
. �t
..
- c .
. centre of the required circle.
,
'.
•
R
, , •
NOTE. These arcs will intersect in

a second centre on the other side of the given circles.
•
PROB. To draw a circle through a point C, and tangent

54.
to a given circle A, at a point B in its circumference.
,
"
.
/_,-,:,,_ /
Draw AB and produce it indefinitely.
l,� Join BC and bisect .it by a perpendicular
, - .
----A- --- �--- --:f� meeting AB produced in D, which will

be the centre of the required circle.
,
PROB. 55. . Given two parallel straight lines AB and CD, to

draw arcs of circles tangent to them at B and C, and passing
through E, which is anywhere on the line BC.
-....'" c
..'..../
-3,�
••
At B and C erect perpendiculars.
•
.
..
'
." ,
,,
� ,
, .
"
.. ..
i+......... ' I Bisect BE and CE by perpendiculars

,
'I
I ,
I ... , �n /� '
(Prob. 1), meeting the perpendiculars
,,'<.
· "
I
... ",
•
.,
'
"1
· from B and C in F and H, the. re-
,--
.�t.-
I ,' .... ,
quired centres. Draw the arcs BE

"
and CEo
NOTE. This is caned a reversed curve.
,
, -
PROB. 56. To draw a circle tangent to two given circles A

and B at a given point C in one of them.
�,
, "� .
Draw a line indefinitely through-
" -,f;,: A and C. Make CD and OE each
� ',
. 1 ,
E
\ ..
I
equal to the radius of circle B.
'
I
,
" ...
A� " <.' -- and

.. >
Join BE and BD. - Bisect BE
.. /
...
, ... .(/,
,
F.r _-...'... BD by perpendiculars meeting AC

\ "
./
,
,
,
, ;;' � J
.
I
,
,
" ,
produced in F and G, the centres

"8
"
"
of the required circles.

NOTE. The tangent points should
be determined accurately.
PROB. 57. Same as Prob. 56. A second method.
Draw a line through A and C
indefinitely. Through B draw DE
parallel to CA, cutting circle B in
,
Kf-o ...... " D and E. Draw CD to F �nd CE,,

I ,
I .... ... ...

I .. :--.. cutting circle B in H. Through B I ' ',
I
...
...
, ' . it
\
'
I ...
I
-".;,.
.... ...
and H draw BRK, cutting CA in
I
--
-\- -!t
I
f ,
- y.'
\
--
- -
K, one centre required. Through
,-./ ...
.. I
"'-.2---' __
B and F draw FBL, cutting CA in

'
L, another centre required.

GEOlVIETRICAL PROBLEMS. 35
,
PROB. 58. Same as Prob. 56. PROB. 59. Same as Prob. 5 6.

Method of Prob. 57.
--�
0.. /
c-
,
... ...
I, _ .�
1 /"
A .-- - � - - ..
..
... ...
I
, I
: ; I
.... I
,(
,
p- .. ... ,
,
r..
�7
.
I>
.. .. �
<'
,
'--
... �
' "'" �
- - .. . .. .. - - - - - -.(- ,
...
..t . 1"' - - - - -
.... ' .
, . ,
.
..
,
, .
PROBS. 60 and 61. Same as Prob. 5 6. Method of Prob. 57.
, '
'
B
, , '
,
11' \
� :rv \ "
.. ... -'II
A"
... ..
- - � \
\
"
t...1
�� ... ... ,
\
- ... .. ... ,�\ \ ',

..
-
- -
PROB. 62. To inscribe a circle within a triangle ABC.

Bisect two of the angles of the triangle,
,
'.'C
.._- ;;;1< say A and B, by Prob. 9. The bisectors
. '
. meet in D, the centre of the required circle.
A perpendicular from D to either side is the
•
required radius.
36 . GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS.
PROB. 63. Within an equilateral triangle ABC to .inscribe

·
three equal circles, each tangent to two others, and to two sides
. ,
.
of the triangle.
Draw the bisectors of the angles A, B,
I
• and C, cutting the sides in D, E, and F.
With centres D, E, and F, and radius DF, ••
draw arcs cutting the bisectors in H, L,

and K, the required centres.
•
•
•
PROB. 64. Within an equilateral triangle to draw three egual .

circles, each tangent to two others and to one side of the triangle.
Bisect the angles A, B, and C. Bi
sect the angle DAB by AG. G is the
I
:
� centre of one of the required circles.
With the centre 0 of the triangle as a
_.'i>., centre, and radius OG, draw a circle
,
cutting AD in H and BE in K. With

. .
.
centres G, H, and K, and radius GF,

draw the circles G, H, and K.
•
PROB. 65. Within an equilateral triangle ABC to draw six

equal circles which shall be tangent to each other and to the sides
of the triangle.
Inscribe the three circles K, H, and
G by Prob. 64. Draw LGM parallel
to AB, MHN parallel to BC, and
LKN parallel to AC. The points L,
M, and N are the centres of the other
three circles.
. PROB. 66. Within a square ABCD to draw jour equal cir

cles each tangent to two others and to two sides oj the square.
Draw the diagonals AC and BD, and
the diameters EF and GH. Draw EH,
HF, FG, and GE, cutting the diagonals
E ->""'"""(- in the points M, N, 0, and P, which will
,
'< M
,
,
, "
,
, ,
,/ . be the centres of the req aired circles.
'' The radius OR is found by joining 0
/ ,
,
'',
/
'
/ ,
and P.
PROB. 67. Within a given square ABCD to draw JOU?' equal

circles each tangent to two others and to one side oj the square.
. Draw the diagonals AC and BD, and
the diameters EF and GH. Bisect the
angle OAB by AK, cutting EF in K.
With radius OK and centre 0 draw a cir
cle cutting the diameters in the points L,
M, N, and K, the required centres.
PROB. 68. Within a square ABCD to draw jour equal semi-

•
circles, each tangent to two .sides of the square, and their diame-
ters jorming a square.
Draw the diagonals and diameters. Bi
sect FC and BH in L and K. Draw LK,
cutting GH in M. Set off SM from S on
the diameters to N, 0, and P. Join t!J.e
points M, N, 0, and P. The intersections
of these lines with the diagonals give the
required centres, 1, 2, 3, and 4.
38 GEOMETRlUAL PROBLEMS.
•
PROB. 69. Within a square ABCD to dra-w four equaZ semi-

circles, each tangent to one side of the square and their diameters
•
•
forming a square. .
Draw the diagonals and diameters. Draw .
ER, RF, FG, and GE, cutting the diago.-

nals in the points K, L, M, and N. The
,
, lines joining these points cut the diameters
•
,
in points 1, 2, 3, and 4, the required cen-

- �-
tres.
•
•
PROB. 70. To dra-w -within a given circle ABO three equal

circles tangent to each other and the given circle.
Divide the circle into six equal parts
by diameters AE, DC, etc. (Prob; 24).
Produce any diameter, as AE to G, mak
ing EG equal to the radius of the given
'" circle. Join CG. Bisect the angle OGC
1,-<' ---:� by GH, intersecting OC in H.
- --
� -----
-:.. With
centre 0 and radius OR draw the circle HKLM. K, L, and
M are the centres of the required circles .
.
PROB. 71. To dra-w -within a given circle ACDB four equal

circles -which shall be tangent to each other and the given circle.
Draw the diameters AB and CD at right
angles, and complete the square FRED.
Draw the diagonal FE and bisect the angle
FED by EG ; FD and EG meet in G.
; With centre F and radius FG draw a cir- .
cle cutting the diameters in G, R, K, and

L, the required centres.
GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS.
-
39
PROB. 72. Within a given circle AFD . . C to draw six

. .
equal circles tangent to each other and the given ci)·cles.

A
,
Draw the diameters AB, CD, and EF, di.

viding the circle into six equal parts (Prob.
-
24, Note) . :, Divide any radius as OB into

three equal parts (Prob. 1 1 ) , at points F and
. G. With centre 0 and radius OF draw a cir
cle giving the centres F, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 required:
. - - -t A circle of the radius FB may be drawn

from centre 0 tangent to the six circles.
NOTE. The above is a special method. The general method,
to draw any number oj equal circles in a given circle, tangent to
each other and the given circle, is to divide the circle by diame-
,
ters into twice as many equal parts as circles required. From

B, the extremity of any one of these diameters, draw a tangent
ST, Prob. 41, Note. Produce the diameters on each side of
AB to meet the tangent in S and T. Bisect the angle T. The
bisector meets OB in F, the centre of one of the required cir
cles. Or F may be obtained by making TM equal to TB, and
at M drawing a perpendicular to OT, meeting OB in F. With
centre 0 and radius OF draw a circle cutting the diameters in
points 1, 2, 3, 4 etc., the centres required.
•
PROB. 73. About a given circle to circumscribe any number

of equal circles tangent to each other and the given circle.
-;--- Divide the circumference of the given
\
circle by diameters into twice as many parts
as circles required. From the extremity B
__ _ _ow
of any diameter draw a tangent SBT (Prob.
41, Note), and produce the diameters on
each side of OB to meet SBT in S and T.
Produce OT, making TN equal to TB.
Make NR perpendicular to TN, meeting
40 GEOMETRICAT. PROBLEMS.
OB produced in R, the centre of one of the required circles.

The other centres are at the intersection of a circumference
drawn with radius OR and centre 0, and every other diameter
produced.
-
PROB. 74. Within a given circle AD . . . B to draw any nttm-
ber of equal semicircles tangent to the given circle, and their diam-
eters forming a regular polygon. '
In the given circle let OA and OB
..
be two radii at right angles. Divide the
•
, "
,
"
I given circumference, commencing at B,

, '
,
-
, iJ>.. t
," \'\ ...
I
-t'
, ' "
0 ,
- , - - ./- - -� � ...- I
into twice as many parts as semicircles
...
•
..... ...
_ \.... -I-
I ... ... ,.... .... . \ I
-
.... ,
f '
I I required, and draw diameters to tile
, - ... - - -to-
I ", ..... , '\
I
- -- ' -
points of division. Join BA. BA cuts
,-
"
,
" the first diameter to one side of OB at
r ,
I"
.. 1
....
__
G. G is one end of two adjacent diam-

eters required. Lay off OG from 0 on every other diameter in
points H, K, etc. Join HK, KG, etc. 1, 2, 3, etc., are the
centres of the required semicircles. . .
PROB. 75. To divide a circle into any number ofparts which

shall be equal in area.
Let the number of parts be foul'. Divide
a diameter into twice as many equal parts
.
as areas required, in this case eight, by
points 1, 2, 3, 4, etc. With 1 and 7 as cen
_
_
tres and radius 01 describe a semicircle on ,
. ' opposite sides of the diameter ; with centres

2 and 6 and radius 02 do the same thing,
.and so continue taking each point ,as a centre and the distance
from it to the end of the diameter as a radius.
•
PROB. 76. To divide a circle into concentric rings having

equal areas.
Divide the radius DC into as many
equal parts as areas required (Prob. 11) in
, . I,
,
points 1, 2,' 3, etc. On CD as a diameter
o I
,
draw a semicircle, and at the points 1, 2,
-
3, etc. draw lines perpendicular to CD,

meeting the semicircle in points A, B, etc.
With centre C and radii CA, CB, etc.
draw concentric ' circles, which will divide the given circle as
required.
•
PROB. 77. A chord AB and a point C being given, to find .

.
other points in the arc of the circle passing through A, B, and C

.
without using the centre.
Draw AB, AC, and BC. Suppose
•
four more points are required. With

•
,
,
any radius and centres A and B draw

. .
the arcs DE and FG. · Make CAE

-
'
-.
, equal to CBA, and GBC equal to
CAD. Divide the arcs DE and FG
"
,
"
,
into the same number of equal parts,

one more than the number of points required. Number the
points 1, 2, 3, 4, from D toward E, and from G toward F.
Draw lines from A and B through these points, and those pass,
ing tbrough like-numbered points meet in points on the arc
ACB. To construct a point on the curve below AB lay off
GO equal to G1 on the arc FG, and D9 equal to D1 on the arc
ED. Lines through 0 and B, ' and A and 9 ' meet in K, a point
on the curve. ,
42 GEOMmTRICAL PROBLEMS.
•
PROB. 78. On a chord AB to construct the supplementary

arc to ACB, without using the centre, C being a point on the arc.
Join AC, AB, and BC.
Make BAD and ABF each
equal to ACB. With A and
B as centres; and any radius,
'. draw arcs HD an.d KF. Di
\
. } vide the arcs DR and KF
.-�>\ into the same number of equal
parts (say five) by the points
1, 2, 3, etc. Number the
points as shown. Draw lines from A through 1, 2, 3, etc. to
meet lines through the same numbers drawn from B. The lines
through like numbers meet in points on the required arc.
PROB. 79. To construct any number of tangential arcs of

circles, having a given diameter. .
Suppose three (four) arcs are re
....
quired. Upon the given diameter
as a base draw an equilateral triangle
ABC (square ABCD). With each
vertex as a centre, and a radius of
•
half a side, draw arcs of circles tangent to each other, as shown.

•
PROB. 80. .At a point C on a line AB to draw two arcs of

circles tangent to AB, and to two parallels AD and BE, form
ing an arch.
A Make AD equal to AC. and BE equal to BC.
. c At C make CG perpendicular to AB, and at D and
"
,;;
O - -,tl
"
-
. .
E draw the perpendiculars DF and GE, meeting

'
,
.
,
,
CG in F and G, the required centres.
,
"
<;w
,
,
•
'= ..
. ..... .
_ __ _ __ _
•
GEOMETRICA.L PROBLEMS. 43
c =[��" .,.,./
. 0
parallels are required, lay off Al five
-
: times. With A as a centre and A5 as

radius draw an arc cutting CD in point e. Join Ae. With
centre A and radii AI, A2, A3, etc., cut Ae in a, b, c, etc.
Through a, b, c, etc. draw parallels to AB and CD.
PROB. 82. To draw through a point C a line to meet the

inaccessible intersection of two lines, AB and DE.
,' , � . �, F
From C draw any lines CA
; \c ! \f ' /f /? and CD to the given lines.
! /F J / If' J �' " Join AD, AC, and CD. Make
,
\
\' fI \ f BE parallel to AD, . BF par·
:/
t / ,; l
.6 f " 'b
,-
. i. allel to AC, and EF parallel
'
to CD. The intersection of EF and BF gives a point F in

. the required line. Draw through C and F.
PROB. 83. To draw a perpendicular to a line AB, which

shall pass through the inaccessible intersection of two lines, AE
and CD.
Produce AB to cut the lines in A and C.
From A draw a perpendicular to CD, and
,
I
I \ from C a perpendicular to :A.E ; these per·

I
,
,
pendiculars meet in O. Draw BO perpen·
dicular to AB. OB passes through the
intersection of CD and AE.
•
.
,
PROB. 84. To draw an involute of a square ABCD.

Produce the sides as shown. With
I
I ",
, centre C and radius CD draw the arc DE.
,
A� �
I
With centre B and radius BE draw the arc
.J!
- - - -k - <C
- - ....
..
_ _ _
, './
... - -
EF. With centre A and radius AF draw

the arc FG, etc.
I
I NOTE. Suppose a line to be wrapped •
. ' around and in the direction of the perim-

eter of any plane :figure. Let ' the line be unwound, keeping
it alwaJs straight in the process of unwinding. , Any point in
. the line describes an involute. The involute of polygons is
cOI!lposed of arcs of circles, as in Prob. 84.
•
•
PROB. 85. To draw the involute of a circle.

Divide the circumference into. any num
-'-- I ,
-
her of equal parts, as at A, B, C, D, etc.,

'.
.�
•
I
t
o
o
•
:' and draw radii to these points. At A, B, •
/ C, D, etc. draw tangents. Let the curve

.
I '
..
...
, •
• ,
-- start at A. On the tangent at B lay off a

#'
... "
"
. .. ..
..
,
"
distance from B to 1 equal to one of the

... .
.
- - -
. ' . � ....
' .,
,
,
, ,
, .
,
.
parts into which the circumference is di

•
vided. On the tangent at C lay off a distance equal to two

"
parts to 2. On the tangent at D three parts to 3 ; from E four
parts to 4, etc. The curve through these points, 1, 2, 3, 4, etc.,
is the involute of the circle.
PROB. 86. To draw a spiral composed of semicircles, the

radii being in arithmetical progression.
Draw an indefinite line, BAC. On the line
take any two points, A and B, as centres.
- With A as a centre and radius AB draw a
-
semicircle, With B as a centre and radius BC

draw a semicircle, and so on, using A and B
as centres, and taking the radii to the end of
the diameter of the last-drawn semicircle.
. PROB. 87. To draw a spiral composed of semicircles, whose

radii shall be in geometrical progression.
Let the ratio be 2. Let AB be the radius of
the first circle, A its centre. Draw the semicir
cle BLC. With B as a centre and radius BC
---
draw the semicircle CMD. With C as a cen

tre and radius CD draw the semicircle DNE.
D is the next centre, the diameter DE of the last-drawn circle
becoming the radius for the next circle. So proceed.
PROB. 88. To draw a

spiral of one turn in a given circle.
Divide the circle into any num
ber of equal parts, say twelve, by
•
the lines OA, OB, OC, etc., and a
,
.
,
,
radius OA into the same number
, ,\
-
-
,
-
,' ,t-,, \I \j, '

-
- ,
-
, of equal parts by the poin ts 1, 2,
.
I ....
I ,
T I
,
i, ' J
.... 3,
I 4, etc.
,
With I 0 'as
I I
ll. centre
.
! ,' /
,
, I ,
I I \
and radius 01 draw an arc cutting
" I
,
._.'
OB in M ; with centre 0 and radius

02 an arc cutting OC in N ; with
centre 0 and radius 03 an arc cut
ting OD in point P, etc. Through M, N, P, etc. draw the curve.
NOTE. Thisis " the spiral of Archimedes."
,
\
PROB.. 89. '

To draw in a given circle a spiral of any num-
ber of turns, say two.
..-- .- -: t - - - Draw radii dividing the circle
/' 81 - - -
...
\.
...
6r - - ... .."' into any number of equal parts.
, 4r" -
... ...
... ... "

.. ,
. A." ... ...
"
.
1-
...
,
..·
-
Divide any radius, as OA, into as
'
... ... ... ... '"

,
'J ... ...
� '0: - _ .
8 r - ...,..."" ... \'"
...
<.,
... \ �
"' , \ \\ many equal parts as turns in the

\ \
".
\ \
\
.. ... ... 4-;' l' �

6r- ... ,
I I I I I _ I spi�al, and, divide each part into

lD - - - - - 1" - - - - - � l .,
1 I
....... '"
, -1 -, -1
\
<:
..
,-'
I
, I ,
,
' _ L '"'\ "',
'
as many equal portions in points
I
I
I I /
� I ' y,/ ' l

.. I
I /
\...
\ " /
'-
' " /
,
..
" ,I 1, 2, 3, 4,
/ etc. as .the circle is di-
.. � ,
\ /,1
I
:-..
' / ,....
,' l' , .... J' I
... " - _ J- _ " " ( ' -' vided into. With �entre 0 and
.-
,
, - _ .L. _ _
- '
,
,
,
/
--
01, 02, 03, etc. as radii, draw

,
,
,
arcs to meet the radii OB, OC, ,
OD, etc., respectively, in points of the required curve.

,
PROB. 90. Given the axes AB and CD of an ellipse to draw '

the curve, and at any point on the curve to draw a tangent. • , ,
, Place the axes AB arid C D

....... at right angles to and bisecting
, -'
--- each other at O. With centre

C and radius ' OA cut AB in
F and F', which are the foci.
Between 0 and F', or F, take,
any point G, dividing AB into
two parts. With centres F and
F' and radius AG draw arcs on either side of AB. With the
same centres and radius BG draw arcs intersecting those drawn
with radius AG, at points L, M, N, and P, which are points on
the curve. Take any other point, T on AB, and repeat, the
above operation ; and so on until as many points as are neces
sary are found. Through the points draw the curve. FM
'
plus F'M equals AB. Let M be the point at which the tangent
is required. Produce FM and draw the bisector of the angle
SMF'. MR is the tangent required.
NOTE. For drawing the ellipse and similar curves through

a series of points the so-called French Curves are to be used.
,NOTE. The major axis is sometimes called the transverset
and the minor the conJugate, axis .
. ' .
PROB. 91. ,To draw an ellipse by means oj a trammel, the

axes being given.
Let the semi-axes be OA and OB. Mark
off on the straight edge of a slip of paper
or card MP equal to OA, and NP equal to
OB. Keep the trammel with the point N
always on the major axis, and the point IVI
•
on the minor axis, and P will be a point in

the curve. Find as many points as necessary, and draw the curve.
. PROB, 92. To draw an ellipse, having given the axes.

Let the semi-axes be OA and OB. With
radii OA and OB and centre 0 draw circles.
Draw any radii, OM, ON, etc. Make MP,
NT, etc. perpendicular to OA, and HPt
--
.
•
KT, etc. parallel to OA. P, T, etc. are
I
, points on the curve.
I
,
PROB. 93. To draw an ellipse, having given the axes.

_. -::- �
Place the axes at right angles at their
\�,��>:_�
-
- _:, , centres, and on them construct a rectangle,

, _ _ - _____
\'�'/,:--,:X::iz one half being shown in BDEC. Divide

- - - -
" { " '>" OA and DA into the same number of

_
_
{\ ' " ''

'
,
I \ v
"'- '
,
equal parts by points 1, 2, 3, etc. Draw
I
- ,
I \ > .. ..
....
....'\
' \ ,," . ,
I """ , ... -t lines through C and 1, 2, 3, etc. to meet '

....
,I ""
'(" �- t
.....
.- - -------- -- t lines trom B drawn to 1, 2, 3, etc. ou AD.

I , ,,,,
. ' '' r _ '''';
I, ,,, .oi
....
...
,
- •
_ _ _
,-- -
P, Q, R, etc. are points ou the curve.

' __ _ _
-
48 '
•
GEOMETRLCAL PROBLEMS.
-
\
•
PROB. 94. To draw a curve approximating to an ellipse • .
,
•
Draw the squares ABDC and BEFD, and

-- --
/ - :-:-
t ___
- - -, their diagonals, intersecting in G and H.
-
'
I / I ', .
: ,9;, i ,�, : With centres G and H and radius GA draw

. '--=- - >t� - - -' the arcs AC and EF. With centres B and
D and radius DA draw the arcs CF and AE.
PROB. 95. To draw on a given line, AB as a maJor axi�, a

curve approximating an ellipse. '
- - -k - Divide AB into three equal parts (Prob.
.
..
.. /, '.�\ :
,\ 1 1
11) by points C and D. With centres C and
- - _ ft " .:.1) . _ .11 D and radius CA draw two circles intersect-
' ..
'\
,;;1
I ,'
_ _
'I'
' F. Through C and D draw

'
\
,/ "'..J. ' , ing in E and ' - .
. . . J" . ECG, EDH, FCK, and FDL, meet.ing the

- .
. circles in points G, H, K, and L. With centres E and F and

radius EG draw the arcs GH and KL, completing the curve.
PROB. 96. Given the major and minor axes of an ellipse, to

draw the curve approximately.
Let CA be the semi-major axis, and BC the
\
.. "*,'{-.
. '
�"
I ....
,
... , semi-minor axis. Join A and B. Make CD
I ,
•
�,!
"
equal to BC, and BE equal to AD. B isect

t "
,- - .,.. t- - - -"C.- o- -'
...
I'!. ,
"'i
....
A
AE by a perpendicular, meeting BC pro
/'
, - k- -
'
I '\
duced in F. With centre F and radius FB
, " draw the arc BH, and with centre G and
, ,
n
. ,
, radius GH draw the arc HA.

NOTE. One quarter of the whole curve is only shown, leav
ing to the student the construction of the full ellipse.
PROB. 97. Having the axes given, to draw a curve of tan

gential arcs of circles approximating to the elHpse.
AO is the semi-major axis, and OB
p
'\
/ <:.-�
_
/
_ =-- :tt , ,�
, / 18 -, .::�,
_ _ �
the semi-minor axis. Draw a rectangle
'�\
t /' ' " I . "
1' / " /�
I )< ,:
\ I
,
with the axes as sides. AOBC is one-
--
A-.::: �,-\.q·-Jff -- "t From C draw CMP perpendicular to
L quarter of the rectangle. Draw AB.
';--'��l
\,�I ,: AB, and meeting BO produced in P.
\1 ', Make OE equal to OB. On AE as a
t
,\
diameter draw a semicircle AKE. Pro-

duce OB to K. Make OL equal to BK. With centre P and
radius PL draw the arc LN. Make AD equal to OK, and
with centre M and radius MD draw the arc DN, meeting LN
in N. Draw NMR and PNS. With centre M and radius MA •
draw AR ; with centre N and radius NR draw RS, and with

centre P and radius PS draw an arc from S through B. Repeat
.
in each of the quadrants.
PROB. 98. To draw a parabola when the abscissa AB and

the ordinate BC are given. .
p- .--J-�. Draw the rectangle ABCD, and divide
, - - /- - I
/ AD and DC into the same number of
...
....
.
".
: equal parts. Through the points of divis-

�
,
___ ion on AD draw parallels to AB, and

� _ _ '
: from A draw lines to the points on DC.

! The first line above AB meets the line
,
,
L__ ____ _____ _ _

t
_
from A to the first point of division from
D in a point P on the curve. The second parallel to A meets
the second from A to DC and so on. P, Q, R, and C are points
in the curve. Repeat the same below AB.
\
it '
-
PROB. 99. To draw a parabola when the directrix AC and

the focus D are given, and to draw a tangent at any point L on
-
the curve.
This curve is such that its apex' E
,
I
is always half way between A and D,
, ,
, ,
,
, ,
and the distance from D to any point
,
,
I
upon the curve, as F, is always equal
•
I
,
,
to the horizontal distance from F to
,
, , •
,
I , ,
I
,
,
the directrix.
1 Thus DF equals FG,
,
I
, and DH equals HR, et.c. ,
D draw BDA perpendicular to

This is the axis of the curve. Draw parallels to AC through
any points in AB, and with centre D and radii equal to the hori- '
zontal distances of these parallels from AC cut the correspond
ing verticals, which will give points on the curve.
To 'draw the tangent at L. Draw the ordinate LN, meeting
AB in N. Produce BA to the right. , Make ET equal to EN.
Draw LT, the tangent required.
PROB. 100. To draw an hyperbola when the diameter AB,

the abscissa Be, and the double-ordinate DE are given.
_ _ _ � - - !=_- .';l- -!'j- Complete the rectangle
", __'.• __ _ : ....
: : ,' BCDF, and divide CD and
,
:--. ... .. ... ' I

'
"' ... , 1.1

!J:
I ' ,'
"
" , '�
�
I I
'
I ,
I
•
I
..
I
I
\ I
I
... •
..
I 0,
..
.... - It'
,
�
--
,
_
- -
I
- - - .
,
I
,
,
,
,
,
,I
,
,
,
_ _ _ _ _ _ ..
,
_.l
.
'
curve as indicated. ,
PROB. 101. To draw an oval on the diameter of a gwen

•
circle.
Let AB be the diameter. Draw the circle
ACB. Make OC perpendicular to AB. Draw
,
the lines BCD ' and ACE indefinitely. With

centres A and" B and AB as a radius draw the
B arcs BE and AD. With centre C and radius
CD draw the arc DE.
NOTE. The centres A and B may be taken anywhere on
the line AOB produced. ,
PROB. 102. Upon a given line AB to draw an oval.

A Bisect AB at C, and draw
the perpendicular CD. "" With
B as a centre and radius AB
describe an arc AD. Bisect
the quadrant AE in F.
Through F draw BFG. AG
is the first part of the curve.
Bisect CB in H, and draw
B RD. HD intersects BG in
K, which is the second centre. Bisect EL in M, and draw
KMN. GN drawn from K as a centre and radius GK is the
second part of the curve. Bisect CR in 0, and dr'aw DO. P
the intersection of DO and KM is the third centre. From P
"
" ,
through E draw PET. NT drawn from P as a centre and

radius PN is the third part of the curve. From E with a
radius ET,carry the curve to the line DC, and repeat the opera
tion for the other half of the curve. Draw a semicircle on the
diameter AB for the other part of the oval.
•
GEOMR;TRICAL PROBLEMS.
CYCLOIDS, EPICYCLOIDS, ETC.

The cycloid is the path described by any point in the circum
ference of a circle when the circle rolls along a straight line.
An epicycloid is the path described by any point in the cir
cumference of a circle when the circle rolls along the outside of
another circle.
A hypocycloid is the path described by any point in the cir
cumference of a. circle when the circle rollS along the inside of
another circle.
The rolling circle is called the generatrix, or generating cir
cle, and the line (straight or curved) on which it rolls is called
the directrix.
Every point in the tire of a wheel which rolls along the
ground in a straight line describes a cycloid.
Hence it is easily seen that in one revolution or turning
around of the circle, or wheel, the circumference will roll out
into a straight line, whose length will be equal to the circum
ference of the circle. To lay off the circumference on the
straight line, either calcul ate its length or divide the circle into
equal arcs, and lay off on the straight line as many divisions as
there are arcs in the circle ; each division on the straight line
being equal to the length of one division on the arc.
The arc is more than the chord, so a distance greater than
the chord must be taken, and this is .obtained by judgment or
by approximation. By dividing the arc into a number of smaller
arcs, so that the chord practically coincides with the arc, · the
small chord being laid off as many times as there are small arcs,
a length of straight line is obtained very nearly equal to the
. arc gIven.
•
• GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS • 53
PROB. 103. To construct a cycloid.

Let AB be the directrix, and AD
I
� the generating circle. Divide the
I
I
�--
I
_.5
.!.
It" .- _ .f!
: Jt
rolling circle into any number of
I 1\ •
_ _
-'-
equal parts, say 12, and lay off
I
I
- ,
' " '
I ,
•
these lengths of arcs along AB,

-
-'
giving points a, b, c, etc. Through
1, the centre of the generating cir
cle, draw a line parallel to AB.
This is the line of centres. On
this lay off 12, 23, 34, etc., equal to Aa, ab, etc., and with
centres 2, 3, etc. draw the generating circle in all its posi
tions tangent to AB . at points a, b, c, etc. Draw through the
points of division on the rolling circle parallels to AB, to meet
the different positions of the rolling circle in points P, R, S, T,
and U. These parallels are drawn in the figure from points
p, r, s, t, and u. Repeat the process for the other half of the
curve.
Another method is to take the chords of the arcs, Bp, Br, Bs,
etc., and with centres a, b, c, etc. cut the respective circles · in
•
points P, R, S, etc. The chord aP equals Bp ; bR equals Br ;

cS equals Bs, etc.
This method is better for the part of the curve APR, as the
intersections are more clearly defined.
NOTE. When the number of divisions of the rolIing circle
is large the curve may be drawn by arcs of circles by taking a .
as a centre, and radius aA, and drawing from A to P. Pro
duce Pa and Rb to meet, giving the centre for arc PR ; Rb and
Se meet at the centre of arc RS, etc.
PROB. 104. To construct an exterior epicycloid.

: Let R-A be the rolling circle on
: the outer circumference of the direct
: ing circle. Divide R-A into any
I'
: number of equal parts (say 12), and

lay off these parts on Aab, etc.,
giving points a, b, c, d, etc.
With the centre of the directing ·
circle as a centre, draw an arc from
R giving the line of centres R123
etc. Draw from the centre of the
directing circle radial lines through
a, b, c, d, etc., meeting the line of centres in points 1, 2, 3, etc.,
the centres of the different positions of the rolling circle. With
centres 1 , 2, 3, etc. and radius RA draw the several positions
of the rolling circle. With the centre of the directing circle
as a centre, draw arcs through the points of division of the cir"
cle R-A to meet the several positions of the rolling circle in
points C, D, E, F, etc., which are points on the curve. Draw
through C, D, E, F, etc.
The points of the curve may be obtained by drawing from a
as a centre and radius equal to the chord of one division of R-A
an arc to meet the second position of the rolling circle in C ;
from b with radius equal to the chord of two divisions an arc
to meet the third position in D ; from · c with radius equal to
•
the chord of three divisions to meet the fourth position in E,

etc. . As in the case of the cycloid this method is better for the
•
part of the curve ACD. Or from a lay off on the rolling cir-
cle tangent at a one part of R-A (in this case n) ; on the one
tangent at b two parts of R-A ; on the one tangent at c three
parts, etc.
PROB. 105. To construct a hypocycloid.

.
I
See the curve on the interior of
:
I
the directing circle in figure. Aa,

_ _ L
: ab, be, etc. are equal parts of the

I
: circumference of the rolling circle.

. •
I R123, etc. is the line of centres.

I
I The process and directions, together
I
I
'- - � - - � with the letters and figures used, are
I I
I I
I the same as for the epicycJoid.
I
. NOTE. When the diameter of the
•
rolling circle is equal to the radius
of the directing circle the hypo
cycloid becomes a straight line .
PROB. 106. To construct an interior epicycloid.

" ', Let the circle A-C roll on B-CMN.
... � ' ,
"';:<:- , ' -'0 On the circumference of B-C lay off \
... .... , \ \ ,
, \
, , ,
� \ \ equal arcs CM, MN, NO, etc. Draw

:
' \
" \ 1 "'
" "'- T � ... '
I from M, N, 0, etc. radial lines
I
I
.
. ,
/' , \ , � � "
�
I ' ..
I
�
I
r " ,, \, I J �A,
' � I ' through B, and make MD, NE, OF j J ,.
--F'� - - :�'*tr_- --!� -o, I

' , . I
.. .
,
, ....
I
, . " , , I
..
! I ,
each equal to the radius CA. With
... �
1:, ' " - , , , J
.. ,' \, ...
I
'b--l.A-....
I '
.. .. � ,
, I" :.', centres D, E, F, etc. draw the cir

"-� ' �'/. '-
, ,
cles tangent at M, N, 0, etc.

� �
Lay
off 1\'11 equal to CM, giving point 1 ;
from N lay off two divisions each
equal to MC, giving point 2 ; from
° lay off three spaces, giving point 3, etc. 1, 2, 3, etc. are
points of the curve.
PROB. 1 07. To draw a scrollfor a stair-railing.

Th� circle ABCD is the eye of the scroll.
Draw the diameters AC and BD at right
angles. Draw the chord AD, and bisect
it in 6. Draw a line 65 parallel to AC.
Bisect AE in F. Bisect EF ill 3. Make
E4 equal to E3. Draw 32 and 45 paral
.
- leI to BD, and 21 parallel to AC. From
6 draw an indefinite line parallel to BD
and produce 65, 21, etc. From point 1
,
. with radius 1B draw the arc BH. From

,
2 and radius 2H draw HJ, and so on. The arc BR of the inner
curve is drawn from P with radius PB ; the arc RS is drawn
,
from 6 with radius 6R.

,
PROB. 1 08. To construct a spiral, its greatest diameter AB

being given. .
Divide AB into eight equal parts

by points 1, 2, 3, etc. On 45 as a
IC
diameter draw a circle CDEF. This
circle is the eye of the spiral. In
scribe a square CDEF, as shown i n
the enlarged drawing of the eye. Draw
the central diameters of the square,
12,10 and 1 1,9. Divide these diame
ters into six equal p' artll, and number ,
as shown. With 1 as a centre and ra-

,
dius 1 H draw an arc HK to meet a horizontaf produced from

2 through 1. With 2 as a centre and radius 2K draw the arc KL
to meet a vertical through 3 and 2. With centre 3 and radi us 3L
draw arc LM meeting a horizontal produced through 4 and 3.
•
With 4 as a centre and radius 4M draw arc MN to meet a line ••
drawn through 5 and 4 at N, and so proceed.

The curve may be commenced by tv.king 1 2 as a centre and
radius 12 A and drawing from without toward the centre.
..
,
PROB. 1 09. To describe an Ionic volute.

.A
ri - - - - - - . '" .- - -- -
,
Let AB be the vertical
•
• •
,
, .
measure of the volute. Di-
: I
t
I
•
vide AB into seven equal
; parts, and from C, the lower
: : extremity of the fourth di-.
I
I vision, draw CF perpendic-
•
� __ _ _ � ::- ular to AB, of indefinite

,e
_ _ _ -
: length. From any point on

,
; CF as a centre, with a ra-

•
f ':
dius equal to one-half of
:
,
one of the divisions of AB,

'S
,J-_ --.
- • • • .--- -
draw the circle HIJK, form-
ing the eye of the volute. Draw the diameter HJ perpendicu
lar to CF. Draw the square HIJK, bisect its sides, and draw
the square 1 2 L M 11. Draw the dividing lines of the square
as shown in the smaller figure, and extend them. The divis
ions corresponding to 1 2 N are equal. The divisions OP and
RL are each equal to one-half of 1 2 N. From 1 as a centre
and radius 1H draw the arc HS ; from 2 as a centre and radius
2S the arc ST ; from centre 3 and radius 3T the arc TU ; and
so proceed in the order of the numerals .
. In drawing the inI;ler curves the dots on the diagonals in the
small figure indicate the centres. The division of the square
of which 1 2 N is one side, shows how these centres are found.
58 GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS •
FILLE:-r I (,--_..!:!B:.!:=!
E:A::D�
::.!:
,,
__,
OVOLO
!
I
" " "
CAVETTO
,
I ,
"
I
•
L '....-
.!I _
•
,
____ _ _ __ _
'
-----
. -------
--------------"-<;.:
--/� tr',-
•
,
,
" ,
I '
L _ � _ _'
'
TORUS I
I / SCOTIA
I ' I /
' I ,�/
..: �
'��------------�
1
-if.
1 ,
------
,
, I
' ...
" .
.
,
'
I
I
, I
"
/ I I
,
, , , I
I
.... .......
I
,
-, - - - j
,
,
''''''
/
I I I�
....
,
,
, '
_
... ,
_ _
,
I
"
I "
"
' I
,
,-
I
...,
,
..... ,
L
I
.... ,
. /
...,; ' __ _
CYMA RECTA
__ _ ___ _
CvMA RE.VERSA
-- - - - -
The Roman moldings are given above, the method of con

struction being evident. All the arcs are arc§ of circles, and
the angles are 450, except in the flatter form of the cyma recta,
where the line of centres is at 30°.
•
•
CHAPTER III.
INKING.
.
15. It is supposed that the student has now'become familiar

with the use of the instruments necessary for the construction
of a drawing in pencil, and has acquired a certain degree of
proficiency in handling them which is necessary for accurate
work. The next step is to learn to ink a drawing after it has
been pencilled.
Starting with a good pen, in good condition, and a smooth,
well-ground black ink, it only remains for the student to learn
to make a clean, sharp, even line. This may seem at first like
an easy thing to do ; nevertheless, the ability to make a good
ink line every time comes to most students very slowly, and
after a great deal of practice. Therefore, before beginning to
work on the plates, which are to be finished carefully and
handed in for inspection, it will save a considerable time and
paper to make lines against the triangle without regard to their
length, direction, or location, until the student is ' thoroughly
familiar with his pen and can make a fair line. Several hours,
if necessary, in this preliminary practice will be invaluable.
1 6. INDIA INK . . A special ink, called India ink, is always

used in making drawings. It comes either in the stick form,
and has to be ground as used, or in the liquid form. In the
59
60 INKING.
latter form it is held in solution by an acid which corrodes the

pen and eats into the fibre of the paper, so that if it is desired
to erase a line it is much more difficult than if made with the
ground ink. This ink is also very liable to rub off like soot.
The only advantage it has is the saving of time in preparation.
This kind of ink cannot be recommended for anything except
coarse, rough work. It should not be used for tinting.
To prepare the stick ink for use place a small amount of
water in the ink slab or saucer (the slab should be perfectly
ciean), then grasp the ink firmly and, with a rotary motion,
grind until the liquid is black and a little sluggish'in its motion .
After it has reached the point when it is black enough the
•
grinding should cease, as a continuation only makes the liquid

thicker, thus causing it to flow less freely from , the pen. The
liquid will look black in the slab after a very little grinding, but
the necessary consistency will not be reached for some time.
In order to determine when the proper point is reached make
a heavy line with the drawing pen on a piece of paper and wait
for it to dry : do not go over this line a second time. If the
ink has not been ground sufficiently, it will look pale after it is
dry, in which case more grinding is necessary. }f at any time
,
, the ink becomes too thick, it can be diluted by putting in more

water and mixing thoroughly. The stick should always be
wiped dry after using, to prevent its crum bling. Th� ground
ink should be kept covered as much as possible to prevent evap
oration, which would soon cause it to become too thick for use.
,
It is not advisable to prepare a large quantity of ink at once,

as the greater the amount the longer it takes to prepare it, and
,
freshly ground ink is preferable. If carefully covered, however,
it may be kept two or three days. In ea,se the ink becomes
dry in the saucer it should all be washed out, as it is almost
impossible to redissolve it entirely so that there will not be
INKING. 61
, little scales which get into the pen and cause the ink to flow
irregularly.
17. DRAWING PEN. This instrument, commonly caned a

right-line pen, is one of the mo�t important of the drawing
instruments, and it is very essential that it be of good quality.
The screw is used to adjust the distance between the nibs, in
order to make the line of the desired weight. The ink may be
placed between the nibs by means of a .brush or strip of paper,
but it is more convenient to dip the pen into the ink, being
careful to wipe the outside of the nibs before using.
While inking the pen should be held so that both nibs rest
on the paper evenly, and it should be inclined a little to the
right, or in the direction of the line, with its flatter side against
the triangle or straight edge, the end of the middle finger rest
ing against the side of the screw-head or against the side of the
pen just below the screw-head. A slight downward pressure is
necessary (the greater the rougher the paper), but do not press
against the ruler, as the lines would be uneven in thickness.
The ruler is simply a guide for the pen. The lines should
always be drawn from left to right (relative to the person and
not to the drawing). If it is desirable to go over a line a sec
ond time for any reason, it should be drawn in the same direc
tion ; never go backward over it.
In inking a curved line by means of the right-line pen and
irregular curve, it is necessary to constantly change the direc
tion of the pen so that the nibs shall always be tangent to the
curve. This requires considerable practice to do nicely.
In case the ink does not flow freely from the pen, moisten the
end of the finger and touch it to the end of the pen, and try it
on a piece of waste paper. If this fails the pen should be
wiped out clean and fresh ink; put in. In making fine lines the
62 •
INKING •
nibs of the pen are near to each other, consequently the ink
dries between them quite rapidly, hence it will be found advis
able to clean out the pen thoroughly quite frequently to insure
perfect lines. This is' one of the secrets of being able to make
good fine lines ; they should also be made more rapidly than
heavy lines ; the heavier the line the slower the pen should be
moved. Do not keep the point of the pen too near the straight
edge, as the ink is liable to flow against it, thus causing a blot.
Especial attention should be given to the care of the pens ;
they should always be carefully wiped after using, and should
. not be put away with any ink dried on them, nor allowed to
.
.
get rusty on the inside of the nibs. Any old piece of cotton
cloth will answer to wipe the pens and stick of ink on.
18. How TO SHARPEN THE PEN. To make good lines the

pen must be kept in first-class condition, that is, not only clean,
but sharp ; and every draftsman should be able to sharpen
his own pen.
The curve at the point of the nibs of "the pen should always
be a semi-ellipse, with its long diameter coinciding with the axis
of the pen ; . it should not be a semicircle, nor should it be
pointed. The student is advised to look carefully at the points
of his new pen, so as to get a correct idea of the proper curve
before it becomes changed by wear. When this curve becomes
changed by wear, or if, from any other cause, one nib is longer
than the other, the nibs should be screwed together, then, hold
ing the pen in a plane perpendicular to the oil.stone, draw it
back and forth over the stone, changing the slope of the pen
from downward and to the right to downward and to the left,
or vice versa, for each forward or backward movement of the
pen, so as to grind the points to the proper curve, making them
also of exactly the same length.
INKING. 63
This process, of course, makes the points even duller than

before, but it is a necessary step. Next separate the points a.
little by means of the screw, and then place either blade upon
the stone, keeping the pen at an angl€9 of about 15° with the
face of the stone, move it backward and forward, at the same
time giving it an oscillating motion, until the points are sharp.
Tl1is is quite a delicate operation, and great care should be exer
cised at first. The pressure upon the stone should not be very
great, and it is well to examine the point very often so as to be
sure and stop when each nib has been brought to a perfect edge,
otherwise one nib is liable to be longer than the other and
the pen will not work well, even if each nib is sharp of itself.
Although the points want to be brought to .a perfect edge,
they should not be sharp like a knife, as in that case they would
cut the paper. It will probably be necessary to try the pen
with ink to be sure that it is in good condition. Sometimes a
slight burr is formed on the inside of the blades ; this is re

moved by separating the points still farther, so as to insert the
knife-edge of the oil-stone between them and draw it carefully
through. One motion should be sufficient to remove the burr.
The pen should never be sharpened by grinding the inside of
the blades other than as just indicated.
•
19. INKING A DRAWING. In inking a drawing it is prefer

able to ink all the circles and arcs first, as it is easier to make
the straight lines meet the arcs than the reverse. Of a number
of concentric circles the smallest should be inked first. Here,
as in the case of the pencil compasses, the pen point should be
kept nearly vertical, the top of the compass being inclined a
little toward the direction of revolution, and there should be a

•
slight downward pressure on the pen point, but none on the

needle point.
64 INKING. ,
Where a large number of lines meet at a point ' care should

be taken to avoid a blot at their intersection. These lines should
be drawn from rather than toward the point, and each line
should ,be thoroughly d,y before another is drawn.
In case of two lines meeting at a point neither line should
stop before reaching the point, nor go beyond it. Either of
these defects gives a very ragged appearance to the drawing:
20. STRETCHING PAPER. For ordinary small line drawings

it is usually sufficient to fasten the paper to the board by means
of thumb tacks, but for large drawings, 01' those which are ' to
.
i
be tinted' at all, t is necessary to stretch the paper by wetting
it, and fasten it to the board with mucilage. To do this lay the
paper on the board, fold over about one-half an inch along each
edge of the sheet ; next wet with a sponge the upper surface
of the paper, except that portion folded over ; do not ?;ub the
surface of the paper, simply press the wet sponge against it' on
all parts ; apply the mucilage to one of the edges and fasten
that edge down, beginning at the middle and rubbing toward
either end ; do the same with the opposite edge next, giving a
,
slight pull to the paper as it is fastened down ; repeat this

process for the two remaining edges.
It is very important that the edges of the paper where the
mucilage is to be applied Bhould be kept dry, so that the muci
lage will be ready to act as soon as it can dry, and to facilitate
this the less mucilage you can use and accomplish the result
the better. If a large quantity of mucilage is used it will
moisten the edges of the paper so much that it will be likely
not to stick, as the body of the paper will dry as soon as the
edges, and therefore pull them up. The drying of the mucilage
can be hastened by rubbing the edge briskly with a piece of
thick paper under the fingers until it becomes hot. The board
· INKIN G. 65
should never be placed near the fire or radiator to hasten the

drying, as it would dry the paper before the mucilage set, caus
ing the edges to be pulled up. . The board should be left to
dry in a horizontal position, and all the superfluous water should
be removed with a sponge, so 1(s to avoid water marks in the
paper, which always show in tinted drawings. In some cases,
when the mucilage sets slowly, it may be necessary to moisten
the centre of the paper sometime after stretching, to prevent
.its pulling up the edges by drying too rapidly.
21. CORRECTING AND CLEANING DRAWINGS. Pencil lines

are removed by mean s of a piece of rubber. . When a mistake
'is made in inking, or it is desired to change a completed draw
ing, it becomes necessary to erase an ink line. This can be done
by means of a rubber ink eraser, the same as in the case of
pencil lines, except that much more rubbing is 'necessary. Ink
lines can also be removed, and more quickly, by means of a
knife ; in this case care should be taken not to use the point of
the knife, as V-shaped holes are made which will always show.
The flat portion of the knife should be used. After erasing an
ink line, the surface which has been made rough by scratching
should be rubbed down with some hard, perfectly clean, rounded
instrument before inking other lines over it.
A drawing can be cleaned by means of India rubber, or stale
bread Cl;umbled on t4e drawing and rubbed over it. Although
dirt can be removed from a drawing, it should be the aim of
the draftsman to keep it as clean as possible. Therefore, the
drawing should be kept covered when not being worked upon,
and, if the drawing is a large one, all except that portion which
,
is in use should be kept covered.

66 TINTING
•
•
TINTING.
22. Tinting may be done in colors or India ink, as desired.
The method of putting on the tint is the same in either case ; .
consequently, we will take up only the India-ink tint here.
If a drawing is to be tinted, t.he paper must be stretched as
explained in Article 20. Especial care should be taken to
keep the paper perfectly clean. That portion of the drawing
which is to be tinted must not be touched with the India rubber,
as the surface is thereby made rough and will not take a
uniform tint. Hence, in laying out the work penci1 1ines must
. •
not be made on the surface to be tinted.

.
23. PREPARATION OF THE TINT. Clean the ink slab, water

glass, and the brushes thoroughly, also be sure that there are
no scales on the stick of ink which could possibly come off
.
•
. Fill the slab about half full of water, and grind the ink as pre
viously explained until it is black, but not thick. Fill the water
glass about half full of clean water, and with a brush transfer
enough of the ink in the slab to the glass to make a light tint.
It is hard to get an ink . which is absolutely free from specks,
therefore, it is well to let the ink, after it is prepared in the
slab; stand a short time to allow these specks to settle to the
bottom ; then, in transferring the ink to the glass, do not plunge
the brush down to the bottom of the slab, thus taking up this
sediment, but let the brush fill from the surface of the li quid.
The mixture in the water glass is the one to be used for
tinting, and it is . better not to make it as dark as you wish i t
upon the drawing when finished, as it is much easier to put on
a light tint evenly than a dark one. The required depth of
shade can be obtaiued by successive washes. . Let each wash dry
thoroughly before putting on another. A smoother effect can
usually be obtained, especially on a large surface, by going over
TINTING. 67
the surface to be tinted with clean water first, and then letting .
it dry.
24. LAYING ON THE TINT. Having laid out the surfaces

to be tinted, incline the board so as to slope like an ordinary
desk ; then dip your brush into the tint you have mixed, and
take up as much of the liquid as it will carry, begin in the upper
left-hand corner of the surface and draw it along the upper
boundary, holding the brush nearly vertical, and leaving quite a .
puddle as you proceed. Lead this puddle gradually downward
by going across the surface from left to right, about a quarter
of an inch at a time, dipping the brush frequently in the tint,
so as to keep the puddle about the same size all the time ; it
<
should not be large enough to run down at any point. This

puddle should not be left standing at any place any longer than
is absolutely necessary, as it is very apt to leave a streak ;
therefore, having commenced on a surface, finish it as quickly
as possible, do not let anything interrupt you.
When you get to the bottom dry your brush on a piece of
blotting paper, and with the dry brush take up the superfluous
tint,. as you would with a sponge, until i t looks even.
In laying on the tint do not bear on with the brush, as the
brush marks would be liable to show, but use the point only,
just touching it to the paper so as to wet it, and the tint will
follow along of itself (the board being properly inclined).
In following the boundaries of the surface to be tinted let
the brush be pointed towards the boundary from the inside of
the surface.
This gives what is called a flat tint, and is used to represent
surfaces which are parallel to the plane of projection.
25. For representing surfaces which are oblique to the plane
of projection a graduated tint is necessary. There are two
methods of doing this, the French and the American.
68 TINTING.
I
The French method consists in dividing the surface into small

divisions (these divisions should be indicated only, not drawn
across the surface), laying a Hat tint on the first space, and
when this is dry laying another Hat tint on the first two spaces.
Proceed in this way until the whole surface is covered, com
mencing at the first space each time. By this method the
shading shows streaks of tint of different depths, but are almost
unnoticeable if the divisions are taken quite small.
The American method is most used, and is called shading by
softened tints.
",
There are two ways of doing this :
1st. By mixing a small amount of dark wash at first, and
starting as if you were to put on a Hat tint, and then, by re
peated additions of clean water, going over a little more surface
at each addition, gradually" make the dark tint lighter until you
are using almost pure water.
2nd. Divide the surface into divisions, as in the French
method, only not so many j put on a flat medium tint on the
first space, but, instead of taking up all the tint from the bot
tom edge of the surface, leave a slight amount, touch the brush
" to some clean water and apply it to the lower edge of the pud-
dle, thus making a lighter tint, and bring ilown this new tint a
short distance ; repeat this a few times until the tint has prac
tically no color. Be careful to remove the most of the tint from
the brush each time before touching it to the clear water. This
work must be done even quicker than the ordinary Hat tint. Use
as little tint or water in the brush as you can and not have it dry
in streaks. Let this dry, and then repeat the process, commenc
ing at the top and going over two spaces with the Hat tint and
softening off the lower edge, and so on, commencing at the top
. each time. Usually the tint should be softened out in the length
of one division. If this shading is done perfectly, there will be
a gradual change i� the tint from beginning to end.
•
CHAPTER IV.
PROJECTIONS. •
26. ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION, or Descriptive Geometry,

is the art of representing a definite body in space upon two
planes, at right angles with each other, by lines falling perpen
dicularly to the planes from all the points of the intersection of
every two contiguous sides of the body, and from all points of
Its contour.
•
27. These planes are called coordinate planes, or the planes

of projection, one of which is horizontal, and the other vertical.
H and V, Fig. 1, represent two such planes and their line of
intersection GL is called the ground line.
28. We shall only take, in this book, just enough of the
elementary prh;l.Ciples of projections to enable the student to
make working drawings of simple objects.
29. Since solids are usually made up of planes, planes of
lines, and lines of points, if we thoroughly understand the prin
ciples involved in the projections of points, we ought to be able
to draw the projections of lines, of planes, and of solids. The
only difference being that, with a large number of points, the
student is liable to get them confused. To avoid this liability
it is advisable, at first, to number the points of a solid and their
. corresponding projections as fast as found lightly in pencil� and
erase them after the problem is finished. Do not try to draw

69
70 PROJECTIONS. ,
the object all at once ; it is impossible ; one point at a time is

all that can be drawn by anybody, and in this way the most
complicated objects become simple, even though it may take a
long time to complete the drawing.
30. The projection of any point in space on a plane is the
point at which a perpendit:ular drawn from the given point to the ,
plane pierces the plane.
This perpendicular is called the proJecting line of the point.
Thus, in Fig. 1, ah is the projection of the point a on ' the plane
H, and a,v of the same point on the plane V. These are called
respectively the horizontal and vertical projections of the point
a ; aah is called the horizontal proJecting line of the point a,
and aa,v the vertical proJecting line of the same point.
The horizon tal projecting line aah is perpendicular to H, by
definition, the plane V is assumed perpendicular to H, hence
aah is parallel to the plane V, and aa,v is equal in length to
ahb. Also the vertical projecting line, for the same reason, is
parallel to H, consequently aah is equal in length to a,vb.
From the definition it is readily seen that each point in a line
perpendicular to a plane will have its projection on that plane
in one and the same point ; hence one projection of a point
does not definitely locate its position in space.
31. From the preceding article the following principles may
be noted : -
First, the perpendicular distance from the horizontal projec
tion of a point to the ground line is equal to the perpendicular
distance of the point in space from the vertical plane ; or,
briefly,the horizontal proJection of a point indicates the distance
of the point in space in front of V, but it conveys no idea of its
'
distance above H.
Second, the perpendicular distance from the vertical projec
tion of a point to the ground line is equal to the perpendicular
•
•
PROJECTIONS. 71
distance of the point in space from the horizontal plane ; or,

-
briefly,the vertical projection of a point indicates the height of

the point in space above H, but it conveys no idea of its dis
tance in front of V.
32. If from the points a,v ,' and al', Fig. 1, perpendiculars
should be erected to each coordinate plane, they will intersect
at the point a in space ; and as two straight lines can intersect
at only one point, there is only one point in space which can
have ah and a,v for its projections. Hence two projections of'
a point are always necessary to definitely locate its position in
�ace. ,
33. ' It is evident that it would be very awkward to make
our drawings on planes at right angles to each other ; hence
the vertical coordinate plane is supposed to be revolved back
'Ward about its line of intersection GL with the horizontal
plane until it forms one and the same surface with the hori
zontal plane, which may be considered to be the plane of the
paper.
In this revolution all points in the vertical plane keep the
same distance from the ground line, and their relative positions
remain unchanged. Thus, a,v revolves ' to aV, a"b being equal
to a,vb, and as a,vb was perpendicular to GL before revolution
it will be so after revolution, and will form one and the same
straight line witha"b.
Therefore, the two projections of a point must always be on.
one and the same straight line, perpendicular to the ground line.
Now, if we draw a line across our paper and call it GL, all
that portion in front of this line will represent the horizontal
plane, and that portion behind . it will represent the vertical
plane, and the point a located as in Fig. 1 is represented by its
projections on the plane of the paper as shown in Fig. 2.
72 PROJECTIONS�
34. A point situated upon either of the coordinate planes has

for its projection on that plane the point itself, and its other pro
Jection is in the ground line. .
This is readily seen by referring to Fig. 1 ; CV and c" are the
projections of a point on H, and d,v and dh of a point in V.
These points are represented on the plane of the · paper as
shown by the same letters in Fig. 2.
NOTATION.
35. We will designate a point in space by a small letter, and
its projections by the same letter with an h or v wfltten above ;
thus ah represents the horizontal and a'" the vertical projection
of the point a. This point may be spoken of as the point a,
or as the point whose projections are aVah•
The horizontal coordinate plane will be designated by the
capital letter H, the vertical by the capital letter V.
Construction lines are those which .are made use of simply to
obtain required results.They are . not a necessary part of the
drawing, and when left on a drawing are intended to show the
individual steps taken.
To this end the student is expected to ink in all construction
lines illustrating the special subject in · hand until especially
directed not to do so. That is, while on the subject of projec
tions it is not desired to have the geometrical construction lines
inked in, but only those which refer to projections. When on
. .
the subject of shadows only those which show how the shadow
is found are required. .
These lines should be inked in with a light, short dash . not
more than n of an inch long, and as light as the student finds
he can make easily.
AIl lines representing the projections of single lines, or edges
of planes or solids, if visible, are inked in with a full, continu-
"
PROJECTIONS • 73
. ous line, a little heavier than the construction lines ; if iuvisible,

they should be made with short dashes the same length as the
construction lines, but the same thickness as the visible lines,
so as to distinguish them from the construction lines.
The true length of a line when found should be inked in
with a long and short dash, about the same thickness as the
ordinary full line. When the true length of a line is given, it
is put in like an ordinary construction line.
Indicate an isolated point by drawing a small cross through it.
In working drawings which are practical applications of
projections horizontal projections are usually called plans,
and vertical projections are called elevations. Therefore, they
will be used synonymously throughout this book.
The student should distinguish between the terms vertical
and perpendicular. Vertical is an absolute term, and applies
to a line or surface at right angles to the plane of the hori�
zon while perpendicular is a relative term, and applies to any
line or surface which is at right angles to any other line or
surface.
If one point is farther from V than another, the first is said
to be in front of the second point. Hence, if I say that a line
slopes downward, backward, and to the left, it signifies that the
line occupies such a position that the lower end is nearer V
"
than the upper, and also that it is on the left of the upper end.
Fig. 6 shows the projections of such a line.
PROJECTIONS OF STRAIGHT LINES.

"
36. A straight line is determined by two points, therefore

it is only necessary to "draw the projections of each end of a
" straight line and join them, and we have the projections of the
line. If the line is curved, it becomes necessary to draw the
projections of several points and join them with a curve .
•
74 PROJECTIONS.
37. If we lay a fine wire, ab, Fig. 3, on a horizontal plane,

and also parallel to a vertical plane, its horizontal ptojection
will be the wire itself, that is, ahbh is its horizontal projection,
equal in length to the wire itself, parallel to GL, and at a dis
tance from it equal to the distance of the wire from V.
The vertical projection of the end a will be at aV in the
ground line, and of b at bv also in the ground line, since each
end is on H (Art. 34). Hence the vertical projection of the
line will coincide with GL between aV and bv, and avbv is its
vertical projection. avbv is equal in length to a"bh, hence is
equal to the actual length of the wire. '
Now, suppose the wire to be revolved from left to right about
a horizontal axis, through the end a, keeping the line parallel
to V. If a pencil were attached to the end b at right angles
to the line, so that its point touched V at bv, it would trace a
circular arc bVevdv, etc. (of which aV is the centre and avbv, or
the true length of the line, is the radius) on the vertical plane
as the wire is revolved ; the end a would, of course, not move.
After the wire has been revolved through an angle of 300 its
vertical projection will be at aVev, and it must be equal in length
to the real length of the wire. ah will be the horizontal pro
jection of the fixed end of the wire. Since the wire is parallel
to V, every point in it is at the same distance from V, hence
their horizontal projections must all be the same distance from
GL, that is, in a line parallel to GL ; the horizontal projec
tion of the end e must also be in a line through eV perpendicu
lar to · G L, hence at eh where this parallel and perpendicular
. intersect ;
,
aheh, then, is the horizontal projection of the wire
after it has been revolved through an angle of 300 •
.
. For the same reason avdv and ahdh are the two projections
of the wire after being revolved through an angle of 450•
Similarly, aVeV and aheh are its projections after revolving
through an angle of 600• '
•
PROJECTIONS. 75
When the line has been revolved through 90° it becomes per
pendicular to H, and its vertical projection is aVfv, perpendicu
lar to GL, and its horizontal projection is a point, ah, as might
have been seen from the definition of the projection of a point.
38. The same reasoning appFes if we take the wire lying
against V and parallel to H and revolve it about a vertical axis
through the end a, as in Fig. 4. The projections are given for
the line lying against V, and making angles of 30°, 45°, 60°,
and 90° with V, being parallel to H in each position .
. 39. The following principles may be noted from the pre
ceding articles : -
1st. A line situated in either plane is its own proJection on
that plane, and its other proJection is in the ground line.
2nd. If a right line is perpendicular to either plane of pro
Jection, its proJection on that plane will be a point, and its pro
Jection on the otller plane will be perpendicular to the ground
.line and equal in length to the given line.
3rd. When a line is parallel to either coiirdinate plane its
proJection on that plane will be parallel to the line itself, and
equal to the actual length of the line in space, and its proJection
on the other plane will be parallel to the ground line.
4th. If a line is parallel to both planes, or to the ground line,
both proJections will be parallel to the ground line, and equal to
the actual length of the line.
. 5th. If a line is oblique to either coordinate plane, its pro
Jection on that plane will be shorter than the actual length of the
line itself.
6th. If a line is parallel to one coordinate plane and oblique
to the other, its proJection on the plane to which it is parallel is
equal to the tnle length of the line in space, and the angle wh1:ch
this proJection makes with the ground line is equal to the true
size of the angle.the line in space makes with the plane to which
it is oblique.
76 PROJECTIONS.
7th. The projection of a line on a plane can never be longer

than the line itself.
8t�. If a point be on a line its projectiuns will be on the
projections of the line.
9th. If a line in different positions makes a constant angle
with a plane its projections on that plane will all be of the same
f
length, without regard to the position it may occupy relative to
the other plane. ' .
40. If two lines intersect in space their projections must
also intersect, and the straight line joining the points in which
the projections intersect must be perpendicular to the ground
line ; for the intersection of two lines must be a point common
to both lines, whose projections · must be on the horizontal and
vertical projections of each of the lines, hence at their inter-
.
sections respectively.
41. If two lines are parallel in space their projections upon
the vertical and horizontal planes will be parallel respectively.
If one projection only of two lines are parallel, the lines in
space are not parallel.
42. Any two lines drawn at pleasure, except parallel to each
other and perpendicular to the ground line, will represent the
projections of some line in space.
43. PROB. 1. To draw the projections of a line of a defi-

nite length and occupying a fixed position in space. .
Let it be required to draw the projections of a line 1" long,
which makes an angle of 30° with H, and whose horizontal
projection makes an angle of 45° with GL, the lower end ofl
the line being i" above H and i-" in front of V. . .
It is first necessary to place the line in such a position that

.
its true length and the true size of the angle it makes with one
of the coordinate planes are shown, and these are only shown
•
PROJECTIONS. 77
when it is parallel to one'of the coordinate planes. In this case

it must be placed parallel to V, as the angle the line makes
with H is shown in projection in its true size only when the ·
line is parallel to V (Art. 39-6th). aV and a", Fig. 5, are the
a" being t" above GL and a"
projections of one end of the line,
f' below it. Through a" draw a"b," at an angle of 30° with
G,L and 1" long ; through a" draw ahb," parallel to GL, b," be
ing found by dropping a perpendicular from b," (Art. 37). The
two projections of the line, when parallel to V, are thus found
to be a"b," and a"b,h•
Now let us suppose the end a of the line to be fixed and the
whole line to be revolved through an angle of 45° about a ver
tical axis through this point, the line keeping the same angle
with H. The horizontal projection will not change in length
(Art. 39-9th), but will move through an angle of 45°, and will
be found at ahbh• . It is evident that in this revolution, so long
as the angle with H does not change, every point in the line will
remain at the same height above H. The point a does not move,
being in the axis. We have seen that b,h moves bl! .. b" must,
to
therefore, be somewhere o n a perpendicular through bh, and,
since the points do not change their heights, it must also be on
'
a line through b," parallel to GL, hence at their intersection b".
Join a" and bv and we have a"b" and alibI! as the required pro
jections of the line.
44. If this line were revolved through 15° more, the point
bl! would go to e", and b" to e", and a"e" and a"e" would be the
projections of the line making an angle of 30° with H, and
whose horizontal projection made an angle of 60° with GL.
,
. If it were revolved still 30° more, the two projections would

be a"d" and ahd", each being perpendicular to the ground line.
When a line is in this position, i. e., has its two projections i n
a line perpendicular to GL, it is said to be in a profile plane,
78 PROJECTIONS.
a profile plane being understood to be one that is perpendicular

to both V and H.
When a line is oblique to only one of the coordinate planes
it is said to make a simple angle ; when it is oblique to both of
them it is said to make a compound angle. .
45. If the angle that the line made with V had been given,
it would have been necessary to have first placed the line par
allel to H, and then to have revolved it about an axis through
one end perpendicular to V, in which case the length of the
vertical projection would not change, and the pqints would not
change their distances from V.
,
In Fig. 6, avbv and ahbh are the two projections of a line 1"
' loI!g, making an angle of 45° with V, and whose vertical pro
jection makes an angle of 60° with GL. The principles and
explanation for this construction are the same as for Prob. 1 ,
if the horizontal and vertical planes are supposed to be �er
changed.
46. NOTE. In drawing the projections of any line making
a compound angle with 'the planes of projection, it is always
first necessary to place it in such a position as will show its true
length and the true size of the angle it makes with one of the
coordinate planes, i. e., parallel to one of the coordinate planes.
47. PROB. 2. To find the true length of a line given by its

projections, and the angle it makes with either plane of projec-
twn.
•
Let avbv and ahb\ Fig. 7, be the projections of the given line.
The true length is only shown when it is parallel to one of the
coordinate planes, hence this line must be revolved about an
, axis through either end until it is parallel to one of the planes.
If it is revolved about a vertical axis through a until it is par
allel to V, the point a does not move, bh moves to b,\ bv is found
PROJECTIONS. 79
at b,v (where a perpendicular through b,h intersects a horizon tal

through bV), and av b is the true
," length. Also, the angle which
avb,v makes with G L is equal to the true size of the angle the
line makes with H.
If it had been required to find the angle this line made with
•
V, it would have been necessary to have revolved the line about

a horizon tal axis until it became parallel to H. Assuming the
axis through the end b, Fig. 7, aV moves to a,v, ah to a,\ and
a,hoh is the true length of the line (which of course should equal ·
aVo v), and
, the angle it makes with GL is equal to the true size
of the angle the line makes with V.
48.NOTE. The angles which the vertical and horizontal
proJections of a line make with GL are greater than the angles
which the line in space makes with H and V respectively, except
when the line is parallel to one of the planes.
49. Before studying farther the student should be sure that
he thoroughly understands the foregoing principles, as the whole
subject of projections depends upon them, and it is utterly use·
less to try to go on unprepared.
.
PROJEOTIONS OF SURFACES.
'
50. Plane surfaces are bounded by lines, therefore the prin

ciples which govern the projections of lines are equally appli-
cable to these surfaces.
,
51. If we suppose a rectangular card abed, Fig. 8, placed

with its surface parallel to V and perpendicular to H, each edge
being parallel to V, they will be projected on V in lines equal
and parallel respec tively, hence the true size of the card itself
is shown in vertical projection. Two of the edges ao and cd,
being perpendicular to H, are projected on that plane in ' the
pointsa" and d" respectively. The other two edges, ad and be,
are parallel to H as well as V, hence they will be proj ected in
80 PROJECTIONS •
their true length on H, and, since one is vertically over the

other, they will both be horizontally projected in the same line
ahd". •
Now, if the card is revolved about one of its vertical edges

.
as an axis, like · a door on its hinges, the vertical edge which.

coincides with the axis does not move ; the other vertical edge
moves in the arc of a circle. The horizontal projection of the
card will still be a straight line of the same length as before.
Let the card be revolved through 60° ; ah does not move ; d"
moves in the arc of a circle, of which ah is the centre and ahdh
the radius·, to d," ; ahd,h is the horizontal projection of the card
in its new position ; the vertical projection of the edge cd in
this position is found at e ,vd v, , vertically above d/', and aVbvc,vd,v
is the vertical projection of the card after being revolved
through an angle of 60°. ,
If the card should be revolved through 30° more, i. e:-,).)O°
in all, its surface will be at right angles with both coordinate
planes, and its two projections will be found at avbv and ahe", in
one and the same straight line perpendicular to GL.
52. If the card be place� on H, with one of its edges par
allel to V, a"lJ'chd", Fig. 9, will be its horizontal and avbv its
vertical projection. If this card be rtvolved about one of its
edges which are perpendicular to V as an axis, like a trap-door
on its hinges, through an angle of 30°, avb,v and ahb,"c,"d1• will
be its two projections. If it be revolved through 60° more, or
90.° in all, its projections will be . aVeV and ahd", which are just
the same as avbv and aheh in Fig. 8, as they should be, since the
.
cards are the same size in the two figures and they occupy the
same relative position in each, i. e., they are in a profile plane.
53. .. The following principles may be noted : - ,
1st. When a plane surface is perpendicular to another plane

its p1'ojection on that plane will be a line.
PROJECTION S. 81
2nd. When · a plane surface is parallel to either coordinate

plane, its proJection on that plane will be equal to tlte true size
•
of the surface and its other projection will be a line parallel to

GL.
3rd. When a plane surface is perpendicular to one plane and
oblique to the other, the angle which its projection on the plane to
which it is perpendicular makes with the ground line is equal to
the angle the surface in space makes with the plane to which it is
oblique.
4th. q a plane surface, in different positions, makes a con
stant angle with a plane, its projections on that plane will all be
•
of the same size.
54. PROB. 3. To draw the two projections of a plane sur

face, or card, of a certain size, and malcing a compound angle
with the coiirdinate planes.
Let the card be of the size shown in Fig. 9, and suppose it
to make an angle of 30° with H, and its horizontal projection
an angle of 45° with G L.
Draw the horizontal projection a"b"c"d" of the card equal to
its true size ; avbv will be its vertical- proJection. Revolve avbv
through an angle of 30° to a1Jb:, and a1Jb/ will be the vertical
project.ion of the card when it makes an angle of 30° with H
and is perpendicular to V ; a"b,"c,hd" is its corresponding hori
zontal projection.
The angle with H is still to be 30° after the card has been
revolved to its desired position, hence its horizontal projection
will be the same size. Therefore, make ahb,hc,"d", Fig. 10,
equal in size to ahb I·c hd",
, ,
Fig. 9, and making the desired angle
.
. with GL. In this revolution, as long as one edge rests on H

and the angle remains constant with H, every point keeps the
. same height above H, therefore the vertical projections of ah
82 PROJECTIONS.
and dh, Fig. 10, must be found at a" and d" ; also of b,h and c,h
at b," and c,", whose heights above GL are equal to the height
•
of b,", Fig. 9, above GL.

. The other parallelograms in Fig. 10 represent the projections
of the same card at different angles with H, the horizontal pro
jections making the same angles with GL.
55. ahbhchdh and a"dvbvcv, Fig. 11, represent the projections
of the same card when it is lying on H with one of its diago
nals parallel to V, and a"d,"b,vc,v and ahb,hc,hd,h are its projec
tions after being revolved about an axis perp,endicular to V
through the corner a through an angle of 45°. Fig. 12 repre
sents the projections of this card when, besides making an angle
of 45° with H, the horizontal projection of the diagonal makes
an angle of
.
30° with GL. The steps to obtain this are. ,exactly .
the same as in Figs. 9 and 10, hence the explanation will not
be repeated. �
56. PROB. 4. To draw the projections of a regular pentag

onal card, the diameter of the circumscribed circle being gi'ven,'
in two positions. 1st, when it is perpendicular to V and making
an angle of 60° with II, one of its edges being perpendicular to
V ; 2nd, when, besides making an angle of 60° with H as in 1st
position, it has been revolved through an angle of 45°.
The pentagon must first be drawn in its true size and posi
tion ; a"b.'·c,hd,�e,h, Fig. 13, equal to the actual size of the card,
is its horizontal projection, c hd"
, J
being perpendicular to GL,
",
and, a"b,vc,v is its vertical projection. Revolve avb,vc,v through

an angle of 60° to avbvc" ; each point moves in the arc of a cir
cle with a as a centre, and avbvcv will be the vertical projection
of the card when in the 1st position . asked for ; a"bhc"dheh is
its corresponding horizontal projection.
For the 2nd position revolve the plan just found through 45°
Plate 1.
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PROJECTIONS. 83
to the position a"bh, etc., shown in Fig. 1 4 ; a"b"c"d"e" wiu be

the corresponding vertical projection.
57. Cards of any shape and size, and occupying any position,
,
may be drawn in the same way, care being taken to locate one
poin t at a time.
The first step must always be to place the card parallel to one
of the coih·dinate planes.
58. If the angle the card made with V had been given, it
would have been necessary to have first placed the card parallel
to' V and then to have revolved it, through the angle it made
•
with V, about an axis perpendicular to H, in which case the

Jength of the horizontal projection, which is a straight line,
would not change; and the several points would not change their .
respective distances from H.
In the second revolution, which changes the angle with the
coordinate planes from simple to compound, the vertical projec
tion must be revolved and the corresponding plan found. The
angle with V being the same the vertical projection does not
change its size ; the distances of the points in front of V remain
the same after revol ution as before, hence are found at the
•
same distances from GL respectively.
59. To draw the prqjections of a circular card

PROB. 5.
making a compound angle with the coordinate planes.
Let the diameter of the card be given, the angle it makes
with V, and the angle through which the vertical projection is
to be revolved.
A circle may be considered as a polygon of an infinite num
ber of sides, hence we can take as many points as we.. please on
the circumference of the circle, and each one moves according
to the principles just described.
•
84 l'lWJECTIONS.
Place the card parallel to V; a circle, avb,vc:, etc., Fig. 15,

equal to the actual size of the given circle, is its vertical pro-
. .
jection, and a"b,"c,", etc. is its horizontal projection.

Revolve the card through the required angle about a vertical
axis through a ,. a"bhch, etc, is its horizontal, and aVb"c", etc. is
its vertical projection.
The card is next to be revolved through a certain angle, still
keeping the same angle with V. The size of the vertical pro-
•
jection will, therefore, not change. Hence, revol ve the vertical

projection found in Fig. 15through the required angle to the
position a"bVc", etc., Fig. 1 6. None of the poi� ts change their
distance from V, consequently a"bhch, etc. is the horizontal pro-
jection of the card, found as in the last problem. ,
. 60. ·
Fig. 1 7 shows · a somewhat shorter method of drrwing
•
the projections of a circular card making a simple angle with •

•
the coordinate planes ; in this case it makes an angle of 30°

with V and is perpendicular to H. ahbhch, etc., making 30°
with GL, is its horizontal projection. Suppose the card revolved
about its horizontal diameter ae until it is parallel to H. It
will then be shown in its true size at ahb,c" etc. ; b,bh, c,c", etc.
will show the actual distances of the points b, c, etc. from the '
horizontal diameter ; aVe" will represent the vertical projection
,
of the horizontal diameter about which the card is revolved.

Of course, bv must be found somewhere in a line through l!',
perpendicular to GL, therefore, lay off tbV equal to b,b", and bv
.
is a point of the required vertical projection ; CVs is made equal
.
to c,ch, d"r to d,dh, etc. Other points may be found in the same
way .
•
.
, It is evident that n,b", m,ch, etc. are respectively equal to b,bh,
c,c", etc., hence it is only necessary to revolve the semicircle
and the distance b,b" is laid of f on both sides of the diameter
aVe", giving the two points b" alid n".
PROJECTIONS. 85
PROJECTIONS OF SOLIDS.
61. A cube is a solid bounded hy six equal faces, and when
it is placed so that two of its faces are parallel to H, and two
•
others parallel to V, its two projections are avbvevf" and a"b"c"d\

Fig. 18. The top and bottom, being parallel to H, are hori
zontally projected in one and the same square, ahbhchdh, which
is, of course, equal to the exact size of these faces, and their
vertical projections are a'bv and eVf'V respectively (Art. 53-2nd) ;
the front and back faces being parallel to V are vertically pro
jected in one and the same square, a'bve"jv, which is . also equal
to the exact size of these faces, and their horizon tal projections
are a"bh and chd" respectively (Art. 53-2nd) ; the left and right
hand faces are perpendicular to both V and H, therefore their
vertical projections are aVeV and b"j", and their horizontal pro
jections are a"d" and bItch respectively (Art. 53-1st).
. The plan shows two dimensions of the cube, the length and
breadth , and the elevation two dimensions, the length and thick
ness ; therefore, the three dimensions of the solid being shown
in their true size in the two projections the object is completely
represented. In this case . it does not matter which projection
is drawn first, as they each show'two dimensions in their true
size.
•
62. SHADE LINES. In outline drawings it is customary to.

put in shade lines, i. e., lines heavier than. the others ; they give
relief to the drawing, and, when properly placed, are of assist
ance in reading it.
Shade . lines, or edges, are those edges which separate light
•
from dark surfaces.

The rays of light are generally assumed to come from over
the left shoulder in the direction of the diagonal of a cube, the .
.,
person supposed to be facing the cube, and the cube to be in

the position shown in Fig. 18. That is, the ray of light enters
86 PROJECTIONS.
the cube at the upper, front, left-hand corner, whose projections

are and leaves it at the lower, back, right-hand corner,
aV and ah,
whose projections are jV and eh ; the diagonal j oining these
points will represent the actual direction of the conventional
ray of light, and its projections aVjV and aheh are the projec
tions of this ray. The different rays of light are all supposed
to be parallel to each other.
It is evident from the figure that both projections of the rays _
of light make angles of 45° with GL. The student should

distinctly understand that, although the project�ons of the ray
-
of light make 45° with GL, the actual angle it makes- with V
or H is quite different. To find this angle apply the princi
ples of Art. 47 to Fig. 18, and we get a = 35° 15' 52'As its
actual size. -
63. In the cube, Fig. 18, the top, front, and left-hand faces
are light, and the bottom, back, and right-hand faces are dark,
and the shade lines are, therefore, e"fv, which separates the
front from the bottom, bVjV, which separates the front from the
,
right-hand face, bheh, which separates the top from the right-
hand face, and e"d", which separates the top from the back face.
The two other shade edges which separate the left-hlJ.nd face
from the back and bottom faces are not seen in either projec
tion, since the top and front edges of the left-hand face are in
the same plane and nearer the eye.
It is for this same reason that the shade lines mentioned
above are seen only in one projection, i. e., eVjV is a shade line ;
it is seen in elevation, but in plan is hidden by the upper front
edge of the cube avb"-ahb".
64. It will be noticed that the right-hand and lower edges
are shaded in elevation, and the right-hand and upper in plan.
From this many draftsme� ha,ve adopted the arbitrary rule to
shade the right-band and lower lines .in elevation, and the right-
PROJEOTIONS. 87
hand and upper in plan. This rule is really applicable in but

few cases, except when the object is of rectangular section and
so placed' that its surfaces are perpendicular to one or both of
the coordinate planes.
Other draftsmen shade the right-hand and lower lines in both
This is also applicable only in the cases
•
plan and elevation.

stated above, besides being obliged to change the direction of
the ray of light in plan and elevation, or imagine the object
revolved while the ray of light remains fixed.
Others still follow the rule given in Art. 62, except that they
only put in shade lines where the dark portion of space adja
cent to the line in question is visible, and they change the direc-
,
'
tion of the ray of light, or, what is practically the same thing,
revolve the object. By this method the plan and elevation are
shaded alike, but the right-hand line is not necessarily a shade
line, while the left-hand line is necessarily not a shade line.
The method taken up in this book, and the one it is expected
that the student will follow in this course, is not given because
it is the one most generally in use, or because it is the e'asiest,,
quite the contrary ; but because it is, in the opinion of the
writer, the only method which can \be followed consistently
throughout a course of projections, shadows, isometric, and work-
ing drawings. ,
65. PROB. 6. To draw the two projections of a right square

prism with its base on H and its vertical faces oblique to V.
Fig. 19. <
It is evident that the vertical faces will not be projected on

•
V in their true size, the height only of the prism being shown
in its real length, and also that the two ends, being parallel to
H, will be projected on that prane in their true size. ' Hence,
draw the square a"b"c"d" equal to the ends of the prism, with
88 PROJECTIONS.
its edges making the same angles with GL as. the vertical faces
make in space with V. Through the corners· an, bit, c", and d"
draw the perpendiculars a"e", b"f", etc., making each ·e qual in
length t� the height of the prism. a"b"d"c" will be the vertical
projection of the upper base, e"f"n"m" of the lower base, and
a"c"m"e" the vertical projection of the whole prism.
In this case the top and two front faces ar� light, while the
bottom and two back faces are dark ; hence, in plan the lines
ahd" and chdlt, which separate the top from the two back faces,
are shade lines ; in elevation they are behind the two front edges
ab and be, consequently are not seen.
.
The element'ae seprorates
the left front from the left back face, hence is a shade line, and
.
a"e", its vertical projection, is accordingly made heavy ; its hori

zontal projection is simply a point ; the element cm also sepa
rates a light from a dark surface, and its visible projection c"m"
should be made heavy. The edges if and fm separate the two
front faces from the bottom, and their visible projections e"f"
and f"m" are also made heavy.
66. PROB. 7. To draw the two projections of a right regu

tar pentagonal prism standing with its base on H, with one of
its faces parallel to V. Fig. 20.
Her,e, as in the last problem, it is necessary to draw the hori
zontal projection first, as it shows the pentagonal end in its true
. .
size and position. ahbhc"dhe" is its horizontal projection, and

aVd"nVjV, found as in the last problem, is its vertical projection.
From the shade lines shown · in the figure it will be noticed
,
that the line cd, which separates the light top from the dark ·
right-hand face, is visible in both projections,
. hence it is made
heavy in both.
A prism of any number of sides standing on H can be drawn
in the same manner.
PROJECTIONS. 89
67. PROB. 8. To draw the two projections oj a right regu

lar hexagonal prism with its axis perpendicular to V. ' Fig. 21.
Here it is necessary to draw the vertical projection first, and
construct the horizontal projection from it according to the
principles noted in the last two problems.
68. From an inspection of Figures 18 to 21 it is evident that

the 45° triangle can be used to determine positively the light and
dark faces only when these faces are perpendicular, or nearly
so, to one or both of the coordinate planes.
In Fig. 18 the triangle can be used in boch plan and eleva-
•
tion, since ev�ry face is perpendicular to at least one of the

coordinate planes. In Figs. 19 and 20 the faces are perpen
dicular to H only (except the top, which is, of course, known to
be light) , hence the 45° triangle can only be used in the plan.
In Fig. 21 the faces are perpendicular to V only (except the
front end, which must be light), hence the triangle can only be
used in elevation.
,
,
69. PROB. 9. To draw the two projections ()J a right cylin-

der standing on its base. Fig. 22.
.
Its horizontal projection will be a circle equal to the end of
the cylinder (Art. 65). Its vertical projection will be repre
sented by avbvdvcv, aVcV being the vertical projection of the top,
bvdv of the bottom, avbv and cvdv of the extreme left and right
-
hand elements, or the contour lines as they are called.

By applying the 45° triangle it is evident that the shade line
in plan will be the half circle m"cl'oh, between the points where
the triangle is tangent to the circle. The element cd is not a
shade line, as it does not separate a light from a dark surface.
The shade element would be or, but as it is not drawn of course
it cannot be shaded.
90 PROJECTIONS •
The bottom of the cylinder is dark, and

,
strictly
.
the line bvr'l'
,
would be heavy, leaving the portion rvdv as light ; but, since it

is practically impossible to stop the "hade line at the point rV
and make a good-looking line, I should disregard this short piece
and shade the line the whole length_ Similarly, on top there
will be a short piece between Ov and CV that would strictly be
shaded, but for the same reason I would disregard this and make
the whole top a light line. / .
The absence of the shade line cvdv in the vertical projection

enables us to tell at once that the object is ' cylindrical even
before we look at its plan. "
' t
. A cone is like a cylinder, except that its elements all intersect •
in a common point called the vertex, while in the cylinder- they

are all parallel . Fig. 51 represents the two projections of a cone.
. 70. PROB. 10. To draw the two projections of a righ(regu

lar hexagonal pyramid with its base resting on H. Fig. 23.
As we look directly down upon a pyramid, in this position
we shall see all of its sloping faces, and consequently the edges
which se'parate these faces. We shall also see the edges which
separate these sloping faces from the base, i. e., the. outline
of the base. In this case the base is parallel to H, hence its
outline is shown in plan equal to the real size of the base.
Therefore, the regular hexagon, a"bhchdhehf", is the horizontal
projection of the outline of the base. Now, since ' in a right
pyramid the base is perpendicular to the axis, it will be easily
seen that the horizontal projection of the vertex of the pyramid
must be at 0\ the centre of the hexagon .
Drawing lines from to each corner of the hexagon, the .
0"
horizontal projection of the pyramid is completed. The points
in the base are, of cours.e, vertically projected in GL, the ver
tex at OV at a distance above GL equal to the altitude of the
PROJECTIONS. 91
pyramid. Joining 0" with a",bv,c", etc. we have its vertical pro
jection . .
The shade lines of a pyramid are not lound directly by means
of the 45° triangle, as we have been able to do previous to this,
on account of the faces not being perpendicular to either coor
dinate plane. If we try to use the triangl e as in the case of
the prism, we would have said that the three faces, fhoha",
ahohbh, and bhohch were light, and the three remaining faces
dark, but this is not the case. For let us suppose that the alti
tude of this pyramid is so small that each of the faces of the
pyramid makes an angle with H less than 35° 1 6' (the angle
the ray of light makes with H ) . It is evident that all of the
sloping faces will be light, and the bottom being dark the shade
lines would go entirely around the base; Now, if we consider
the altitude to increase, we shall soon reach the point when the
face o"dJ'e!' will become dark, all of the rest remaining light,
If
•
and the shade line would change from dheh to ehoh and o"d".
the altitude be still further increased, we next get the case
shown in the figure where the face fhoheh becomes dark, and the
shade lines would change from e"f" and ehoh to fhoh. If the
altitude should be still further increased, the face chohdh would
presently become dark also.
Of course the other three faces would never become dark
while the pyramid rested on its base, even if the vertex were
extended to infinity, in which case we should simply have a
prism. In cases like this, or where any surface is oblique to
both V and H, it is necessary to find the shadow of the object,
thus determining which surfaces are light and which are dark.
71. In Fig. 24 a"b"f"e" is the elevation and a"bhc"d" is the

plan of a rectangul�r prism, with two of its faces parallel to each
of the coordinate planes. The plan shows its length and width,
92 PROJECTIONS •
a
.
and the elevation its length and thickness. If side elevation

is desired, it will show the width and thickness. To get this
the object must be projected onto a plane at right angles to the .
•
two coordinate planes, i. e., the profile plane, and this plane
revolved about its intersection with V, as an axis, to . coincide
with V. POR is such a plane, resting against the end of the
prism, PO being its intersection with V and OR its intersection
with H. ,. / '
In this revolution none of the points change their heights

above H, nor their distances from the axis PO, hen�e th� rect-
o
angle b,vc,vi,'vm,v will represent this side elevation , it being of

course the same height above GL that the front elevation is,
and the distance that
,
c,·m,· is from the axis PO will be equal to

the distance the back of the prism is in front of V.
'
The shade lines in the end elevation are shaded th� 'same way
as in the front elevation ; the ray of light is supposed to · come
from over the person's left shoulder when he is facing the pro- .
file plane, i. e., the ' vertical projection of the ray oj light is the
same jor all eleva,tions. '
o
72. PROB. 1 1. To draw the plan and two elevations oj a

•
square prism with its axis parallel to and at a definite distance

jrom both V and H, all oj its jaces being oblique to both V and
H. Fig. 25.
The end elevation is the only view of the prism which shows
one of its surfaces in its true size and position relative to the
coordinate planes, hence this view must be drawn first.
Locate the point 0· at a perpendicular distance above GL
equal to the height of the axis above H ; through 0· draw two
lines at right angles to each other, making angles with GL equal
to those made by the long faces of the prism with H respect
ively ; lay off on each of these lines, on both sides of oV, a dis-
•
PROJECTIONS. 93
tance equal to half the side of the square ; through these points
draw lines parallel to the lines through oV, and the square a,vb,vc,v
d,v thus formed will be the end elevation of the prism in its cor-
• •
rect posItIOn .
•
To locate the axis the correct distance from V draw POR,

which represents the profile plane, perpendicular to GL and at
a horizontal distance to the right of oV, equal to the distance of
the axis in front of V.
In the last problem the end view was constructed from the
plan and front elevation ; in this problem we construct the plan
and front elevation from the end view by simply reversing the
steps.
The horizontal lines, aVev, b"fv, cVmv., and dVn,v, drawn through
a,v, b,v, c,v, and d,v respectively, and each equal in length to the
length of the prism, will be the front elevation of the different
elements of the prism ; joining these ends the front elevation of
the prism is complete.
From 0 along OR lay off Oml>, OP', etc. equal to the hori
zontal distances of c,v, b,v, etc. from PO. Through these points
mh, fl>, etc. draw the horizontal lines mhch, fhlJ" etc., each equal
in length to the length of the prism, and joining the ends the
plan of the prism, ahchmheh, will be complete.
The long faces of the prism being perpendicular to V in the
end view, the shade lines for that view may be found directly
by using the 45° triangle, as shown by the arrows. In revolv-
,
ing the prism. from the position shown in end view to that in
the front view, the front and back ends change from light to
dark and from dark to light respectively, but the long faces are
light or dark in the front view and plan according as they are
light or dark in the end view (provided the projection of the
right-hand end is represented, which will be seen to the left of
the front view).
94 PROJECTIONS.
. .
73. PROB. 1 2. To draw the two projections of a regular
pentagonal prism, with its axis parallel to H and oblique to V,
and its lower lift-hand long face making a definite angle with H.
.
Fig. 26. ' , •
Here, as in the last problem, it is necessary to dJ:aw the view

of the end of the prism when its axis is perpendicular to V, so
as to show it in its true size and position with regard to H.
a,"b,"c,"d;ve," is its end view, the edge a,"b," making an apgle with
GL equal to the angle t.he lower left face makes with H. In
the last problem the prism was revolved through" an ' angle of
90° to its actual position, but in this it is revolved through a
smaller angle. The steps being otherwise just the same, the
explanation will not be repeated.
. The shade lines in this case may also be found, as in the last
••
problem, by using the 45° triangle on the end view.
74. Let us now suppose a case where the edge c,"d,", Fig.
26, ma�es an . angle of 40° with H and in the same direction.
It is evident that when the axis ' of the prism is perpendicular
to V the surface which is projected in c,"d," will be light. Now,
e
if the prism be revolved through 45° so that its axis makes an
angle of 45° with V, in the same direction as shown in Fig. 26,
it is also evident that the surface, which makes an angle of 40°
with H, will now be dark, and the shade lines would therefore •
change. If the prism be revolved through 45° more in the

same direction, its axis would be parallel to V, and the surface
" .
in question would
.
. then be light. That is, the surface when
perpendicular to V would be light, but as it was revolved par-
allel to H, at some in termediate position before it had revolved •
45°, it would become dark, changing to light again at some inter-

mediate position between 45° and 90° of revolution.
The same thing would occur if the face in question made any
. , ,
•
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PROJECTION S . 95
angle with H between 35° 1 6' and 45°. The foregoing reason
ing would apply equally well to the under face a,vb,v, except that
this one would be dark where the corresponding upper one
would be light.
Therefore, if a surface of a prism, as in the last problem,
o
makes an angle with H between 35° 1 6' and 45°, that surface
becomes doubtful in all its positions when the axis of the prism is
oblique to V, and the sltadow of this surface would have to be
cast to determine positively whether it is light or dark.
If the surfaces make angles with H, not included between
the above limits, the 45° triangle on the end view would deter
mine tbe light and dark surfaces for all the oblique positions
of the prism, as well as when the axis is perpendicular to V or
parallel to V and H.
75. Fig. 27 represents the two elevations and. plan of a hol
low cylinder whose axis is parallel to V and H. Here the end
elevation would naturally be drawn first, as in the last two prob
lems, but it is not strictly neeessary, as both of its projections,
when parallel to V and H, are the same, and the distance apart
of the contour elements is equal to the diameter of the base.
The student should note carefully the shade lines in the figure,
o
especially in the end view.

76. Fig. 28 shows the plan and two elevations of a pile of
blocks. The lower one is a rectangular prism, the second one,
which rests on the first, is the frustum of a square pyramid, and 0
the top one is a square pyramid. In this case it is necessary

0
to draw the. plan first and construct the two elevations from it,
-
according to the principles already explained.
It will �e observed that the group is considered as solid in
putting in shade lines, i. e., the edges which represent the perim
eter of the base of the pyramid, for example, are considered
o
as separating the sloping faces of the pyramid from the top
96 PROJECTIONS.
surface of the frustum on which it rests, ltnd: not from its base,
as in Fig. 23. Compare the shade lines of the pyramids in
Figs. 23 and 28. .. .
Since it is customary to tint drawings in which shadows are

cast, shade lines would not be put in on the same drawing.
Therefore, it is advisable to disregard the shadows altogethe7' in
putting in shade lines on line drawings, i. e., if a surface which
would be light from its position is made dark because some other
surface or body casts a shadow on it, treat the surface as Hght in
putting in shade lines. . '
•
77. PROB� 13. To construct the projections of a right h,ex-

agonal prism when its axis makes a compound angle with the
coordinate planes, the angle it makes with H, the angle the hori
zontal projection makes with GL, and the size of the prism being
given. Figs. 29, 30, and 31.
There are three distinct steps necessary in the construction
. of
this problem.
.
Since the axis is oblique to both planes the prism cannot be

drawn in the required position directly, but must be placed in
•
such a position as will show two dimensions. . Here the first

step is to draw the two projections of the prism when its axis
is · perpendicular to H and its faces make the required angles
with V (Art. 66). Fig. 29 represents the projections of the
prism in this position. •
Next draw the projections 'of the' prism after it has been
revolved in the proper direction, so that the axis makes the
• • •
correct angle with H, but is still parallel to V. . Fig. 30 repre-

sents the projections of the prism in this position. Since the
prism keeps a constant angle with V, its vertical projection does
•
not change its size (Arts. 39-9th and 53-4th). Hence, make
the vertical projection in Fig. 30 the same size as in Fig. 29,
PROJECTIONS. 97
with its position changed so that the elements make the correct
angle with GL. In this revolution no point changes its distance
from V. Therefore, to construct the " horizontal projection of
the prism in this second position, draw through each corner, as
aV, a v, etc., Fig. 30, lines perpendicular to GL until they inter-
, . "
sect horizontal lines drawn through the corresponding points,

"
as a" in Fig. 29. This completes the second step.
In the final position the axis is to make the same angle with
H as it does in the position just drawn. Hence the horizontal
projection must be the same size, however much it may be
revolved. In this revolution no point changes its height above
H. Therefore, draw the plan of the prism, Fig. 31, the same
size as that in Fig. 30, only ch:mging the angle the elements
make with GL the required amount. Then from each corner
of this plan, as ah,a,h, etc., draw perpendiculars to GL until
they intersect horizontal lines drawn through the corresponding
points, aV,a,v, etc., in Fig. 30. Joining these corners the ver
tical projection is completed.
If the angle the prism made with V and the angle the ver
tical projection made with GL had been given, the principles
would have been just the same, only you would have first drawn
it with its axis perpendicular to V, then revolved it about a
vertical axis until it made the required angle with V ; in this
case th� plan does not change its " size ; and, lastly, revolved the
vertical projection last found through the proper angle and con
structed the corresponding plan.
"
The shade lines in Figs. 30 and 31 can only be determined
positively by casting the shadows of the doubtful surfaces.
Frequently it is possible to tell which are the light and which
the dark surfaces without casting the shadows by conceiving the
solid in its position in space together with the ray of light, but
for the average student it would be little better than a guess
until he has had considerable practice in finding shadows.
98 PROJECTIONS. •
.
. Before taking up these cases where it is necessary to cast the
.
shadow in order to determine the · shade line, it will be neces-

•
sary to take up so much of the subject of shadows as will ena- ..

ble the student to find the shadow of an ordinary object on the
two coordinate planes. -,
,
78. PROB. 14. To construct .the projections of a right hep�

tago,nal pyramid when its axis makes a compound angle with the
coordinate planes, the angle it makes with H, the angle the hori
zontal projection makes with GL, and the · size of the pyramid
being given. '
A careful examination of Figs. 32, 33, and 34 will be suffi
cient to understand this problem, since the principles are exactly
•
the same as in the last problem.
79. PROB. 15. To draw the projections of a prism 1" square

and 1{" long, resting with one of its long edges on H, this edge
•
making an angle of 60° with V, backward and to the right, its

front end being 21" in front of V., the lower left-hand long
face making an angle of 30° with H.
Also, dmw projections of a regular hexagonal pyramid whose
altitude is 3", diameter of circumscr£bed circle about base is 1�".
The lower end of right-hand element of pyramid rests on H 1·1"
to the left of the point located in prism, and Ii" in front of V;
this element also rests on top edge ofprism at a point t" from its
front end. The axis of pyramid slopes downward, backward,
and to the left. The. two lower faces of pyramid make equal
angles with H. Fig. 62
The projections of the prism are drawn as already described
in Art. 73 ; the spaces ahdh, dhbh, and bhch are made respectively
equal to a d" d,b , and buc"
" "
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"
PROJECTIONS. 99
•
a compound angle with the coordinate planes, we have had given

the size of the object, the angle it made w�th V or H, and the
angle its other projection made with GL, and the object has been
drawn in three distinct positions. If the third position only is
wanted it is not essential that the first two be wholly drawn,
nor that they be made in separate figures. After the student
becomes familiar with this work, so that numerous lines do not
. .confuse him, a considerable part of the construction may be
omitted. In the figure all the necessary construction lines have
been left in.
Here neither the angle the pyramid makes with H, nor the
angle its horizontal projection makes with GL, are given, but
. the projections of two points f and e of one Of the elements are
given, which enables the projections of this element to be drawn
(indefinite in length). Revolve this line around until it is parallel
to V, and lay off on it in this position the true length of the ele
ment. This line will, of course, show the true size of the angle
this element makes with H, and the horizontal projection of
the indefinite line before rE:volution shows the angle it makes
with GL. All the necessary data are now obtained, and a care
ful stpdy of the figure should enable the student to understand
the rest of the construction.
80. It is evident that neither the height of an object above

•
H nor its distance in front of V affects, in the least, the size and
shape of its projections. Therefore, the GL is not at all essen
tial in drawing the projections of an object unless its distances
from V and H are given, which is not customary. In working
drawings the GL is never used. It is only used in elementary
projections as an aid in understanding the principles.
CHAPTER V.
SHADOWS.
81. The shadow of a body upon a surface is that portion of

the surface from which light is excluded by the body.
The source of light may be assumed at any point, but it is
customary to assume it so that the rays of light are parallel to
the diagonal of a cube, as already stated in Art. 62, in which
case its two projections make angles of 45° with G L. Although .
rays of light diverge in all possible directions from the source,
yet when this source is as far removed as the sun there is no
appreciable error in calling them all parallel.
82. The shadow of a point on any surface is where a ray of
light through that point pierces the surface.
'
Hence, to find the shadow of a point on a surface, draw a
line through the point to represent the ray of light, and find
where it pierces the surface.
83. To find the shadow of a point on H.
In Fig. 35 let b represent the point in space and R the ray of
light passing through this point. bv and bh will .be the two'pro
jections of the point b ; bVr and bht of the ray of light.
The shadow of the point b on H will be where R pierces H.
This point being in H will have its vertical projection in GL,
and its horizontal projection will be the point itself (Art. 34) ;
being in the ray of light its two projections must also be on
100
101
•
SHADOWS •
the projections of the ray of light (Art. 3 9-8th). Therefore,

produce, if necessary, the vertical projection of the ray of light
till it meets GL at r, and r will be the vertical projection Of the
point where the ray of light pierces H ; at r draw a perpendic
ular to GL and b�, where this perpendicular intersects the hori
zontal projection of the ray of light is its horizontal projection,
and is the shadow of the point b on the plane H.
This is shown in actual projection in Fig. 37.
84. To find the shadow of a point on V.
In Fig. 3 6 let a represent the point and R the ray of light
passing through it. aV and ah will be the projections of the
point a ; aVr and aht of the ray of light.
. The shadow of the point a on V will be where R pierces V.
This point being on V will have its horizontal projection in GL,
and it will also be in the horizontal projection of R, hence at
their intersection t ; the vertical projection of this point, and
the shadow on V, will be a� where a perpendicular drawn from
t to GL intersects aVr.
This is shown in actual projection in Fig. 38.
85. We have heretofore supposed that the coordinate planes
did not extend below or behind their line of intersection, but ·
they can just as well be considered as extending indefinitely in
both directions, as shown pictorially in Figs. 35 and 3 6. Then,
after the vertical plane has been revolved to coincide with the
horizontal plane, that portion of the paper above GL represents .
not only that portion of V which is above H, but that part of
H which is behind V ; also that portion of the paper below GL
represents that part of H which is in front of V and that part
of V which is below H.
Referring again to Fig. 35, we have already seen that R
pierces H at b� ; now, if we suppose R to be produced below H
indefinitely, it must pierce V at some point, since it is not par-
102 SHADOWS.
allel to V. This point is found in exactly the . same way as

,
already described in Art. 84. It does not make a ' particle of

difference whether it pierces V above or below H. ',Thit is,
every ray of light, unless parallel to V, will pierce V at some
point either above or below H, and since these points are all
in V their horizontal projections must be in GL. Of course,
the shadow of the point b falls on H, and does not actually fall
on V, but the point can be found where it would fall if H were
transparent, and it is frequently convenient to do this in finding
shadows of bodies in certain positions, as we shall soon see.
.
Fig. 37 shows this point b� in actual proje ction. It being

,
on that part of V which is below H, after revolution appears

below GL.
Referring again to Fig. 36, it is evident that R not only
pierces V at a�, but also pierces H at a:. a� being in H has
its vertical projection in GL. ,
Fig. 38 shows this point in actual projection. It being on

that part of H which is behind V, after revolution appears
above GL. .
86. The following rules are evident from the foregoing :
To find the shadow of a point on H, produce the vertical pro
jection of the ray of light to meet GL ; erect a perpendicular at
this point of intersection, and the intersection of this perpen
dicular with the horizontal projection of the ray of ligMwill be
the shadow required.
It should be carefully borne in mind that this last perpendic
ular may intersect the horizontal projection of the ray of light
! above or below GL, depending on the location of the point in
space ; that is, if the point be nearer H than V the intersectio,n
will be below GL, and the shadow will actually fall on H ; if
the point be nearer V than H the intersection will be aboye
GL, and the shadow will be imaginary.
SHADOWS. 103
•
To find the shadow of a point on V, produce the · horizontal

projection of the ray of light to meet GL ; erect a perpendicular
at this point of intersection, and the intersection of this perpen
dicular with the vertical projection of the ray of light will be the
shadow required. .
Here, also, the same caution as for the last rule is applicable.
But in this case if the point is . nearer V than H the intersec
tion is above GL, and the shadow actually falls on V ; if the
point is nearer H than V the intersection will be below GL,
and the shadow will be imaginary.
The following may also be noted : .
If the horizontal projection of the ray of light meets the GL
before the vertical projection, the shadow will actually falZ on V ;
if the vertical projection meets the GL before the hwizontal, the
shadow actually falls on H.
87. Fig. 39 shows how to find the shadow of a line parallel
to both V and H.
Fig. 40 shows the shadow of a line perpendicular to and
resting on H.
Fig. 41 shows the shadow of a line perpendicular to H but
.
not resting on H. In this case a part of the shadow falls on

each of the coordinate planes.
From these figures the following facts may be noted : -
1st. The shadow of a straight line on a plane surface · is a
straight line. •
2nd. The shadow of a line on a plane to which it is paral-

lel is a line parallel and equal to it in length.
3rd. The shadow of a line on a plane to which it is perpen
dicular coincides with the projection of the ray of light on that
plane, and (in case of the conventional ray) is longer than the
line itself.
4th. . The shadow of a line on a plane may be said to begin
104 SHADOWS.
where the line pierces that plane, either or both being produced
if necessary. .
5th. Since two points determine a straight line it is sufficient
to find the shadow of two points of it on a plane surface. In
case the direction of the shadow, or the point where the line meets
the plane surface receiving the shadow, is known, it is sufficient.
to construct the shadow of one other point only.
6th. . When the shadow of a line falls upon two surfaces which
?:ntersect, the shadows on the two surfaces meet at a common point
on ' their line of intersection. This is equally true whether the
•
two surfaces intersect at right angles to each other 'or otherwise.

•
•
88. PROB. 1 6. ' To find the shadow on V and H of a line

,
obliq�te to V and H, when one end is nearer H than V, and the

other is nearer V than H. Fig. 42.
Let avbv and ahbh be the two projections of such a line. The
end a being nearer H than V its shadow will fall on H (Art.
86), and will be found, as already described, at a�. The end b,
.
being nearer V than H, its shadow will fall on V, and will be

found at b:. Since the shadow of one end falls on H and of
the other on V, it is evident that the shadow of the line will
fall partly on H and partly on V, and also that a line j�ining
these two points could only be a line in space, and therefore
not the shadow required.
It is essential that the two points which determine the shadow
of a line should be on one and the same plane ; therefore, as we
have the shadow of one point of the line on each coordinate
plane, it is necessary to construct the shadow of another point
of the line on either of the coordinate planes. Any point could
be taken, but the ends being definitely projected it is more con
venient to use them. We have already found the shadow of a on
H to be a: ; the shadow of b on H is found at b�, in the same
•
SHADOWS • 105
way . . (This shadow we know does not actually fall on H, but

it serves our purpose, which is to get the direction of the shadow
of the line, just as well as ' if it did) ; a�b� is, therefore, the
shadow of the whole line on H, but only that part of it, a�c,
which falls below or in front of GL is actual shadow. We
•
have also seen that the shadow of b on V is b�, the shadow of a

on V is similarly found at a�, and a�b� is the shadow of the
whole line on V, but only that ' part of it, b�c, which falls above
or behind GL is actual shadow. . We, therefore, have as the
actual shadow of the line a�c on H and b�c on V, the portions
on the two planes intersecting in a common point, c, on GL as
already noted in Art. 87-6th. Since this is the case it is evi-
dent that it is not necessary to find the shadow of the whole
•
line on both V and H ; having found the point c where either

shadow crosses G L, join this point with the shadow of the end
which fans on the other plane.
89. Fig. 43 shows the shadow on V of a square card whose

•
surface is paranel to V. Since the edges of the card are parallel

to V their shadows will be parallel and equal each to each, and
consequently the shadow of the card will be equal and parallel
to the card itself. This will be true whatever the size or shape
of the card.
Therefore, the shadow of any plane figure on a surface to
which it is parallel 1�s a figure equal and parallel to it.
90. Fig. 44 shows the shadow on V of a square card whose
surface is perpendicular to V and parallel to H. Here the two
edges ab and cd are parallel to V, consequently their shadows
will be equal and parallel lines. The other two edges, ad and
be, are perpendicular to V, hence . their shadows coincide with
the vertical projection of the . ray of light, consequently make
angles of 45° with GL. .
106 SHADOWS.
91. Fig. 45 shows the shadow on both V and H of a square

card whose surface is perpendicular to both V and ;Fl, that is,
'
is in a profile plane. The edge cd is parallel to V, and is nearer
to V than H, hence its shadow is on V parallel and equal to
cd ; the edge ad is nearer to V than H, and is perpendicular to
V, hence its shadow is on V, and makes an angle of 45° with
GL ; the edge ao is parallel to V and perpendicular to H, the
upper end is nearer V than H, and the lower end is nearer H .
than V, hence its shadow is partly on V and partly on H ; that

portion which falls on V will be parallel to a"o", and that; por
tion which falls on H will make an angle of 45° with GL ; the
•
other edge oe is parallel to H and perpendicular to V, the front

end is nearer H than V, and the back end is nearer V than H,
hence its shadow will fall partly on V and partly on H ; that
portion which is on H will be parallel to Ohe", and that portion
which is on V will make an angle of 45° with GL. The .
shadow of the whole card on V is a�o�e�d�, of which only that
•
portion a�nme�d;, which is above GL, is visible. The shadow

of the whole card on H is a�lI;e�d�, of which only that portion
b�mn is visible. It is, of course, not essential to find that por
tion a:nme�d� of the shadow on H which is above GL.
92. Fig. 46 shows the shadow of a card lying in a profile
plane, all of its edges being oblique to both V and H. Each
point being found the same as all the preceding ones, no furth�r
explanation is necessary,
93. Fig. 47 shows the shadow of a circular card parallel to
H. The shadow on H we know must be a circle equal in size
to the card, therefore it is only necessary to find the shadow of
its centre o. This is found at o�. With this point as a centre
and a radius equal to that of the card describe the arc of a
circle mrn. Since a part of the circle is above GL it is evident
that that part of the shadow actually falls on V. To get this
SHADOWS • 107
.,
shadow take any points on · the circle, as a,b,c,d, etc., and find
their shadows separately, joining these points by a curved line.
The points m and n, where the circle described from o� as a cen
tre crosses GL, will, of course, be two · points on the curve.
This curve will be an ellipse, a,nd the shadow of a circle on a
plane to which it is perpendicular or oblique will be an ellipse.
94. As a solid is composed of planes, planes of lines, and
lines of points, it is evident that the shadow of the most com
plex body is obtained by finding the shadow of one point at a
time by the methods already given until the shadows of all the
points on the object which cast shadows have been found, so
that the student who finds himself now able to cast the shadow
of any single point on a given plane has practically mastered
the subject, and if such a one has any difficulty in finding the
shadow of any object the trouble is that he does not understand
. thoroughly the subject of projections.
•
95. Since the shade lines of a body separate its light from
its dark surfaces, tlte shadow of the shade lines will form the
boundary of the shadow of the body. Therefore, in finding
. the shadow of a body the shade lines should first be marked,
if it is in such a position that they can be found by means of
the 45° triangle, and the shadows of these lines give the shadow
of the whole object. If the object is ill such a position that
the shade lines cannot be found by means ·of the 45° triangle
directly, the shadow of every point on the object, except those
which it is known do not cast shadows, should be found sepa
rately, and then join those points which will enclose the largest
area. The shade lines can then be found from the boundary of
the shadow by finding what lines on the object cast these bounda1'y
lines.
9 6. PROB. 17. To find the shadow of an hexagonal prism

with · its two ends parallel to H. Fig. 48.
108 SHADOWS.
•
The shade lines of the prism in this . position are found

directly by means of the 45° triangle to be ab, be, cd, de, ef,
1m, mn, and an. It is only necessary to find the shadow of
•
each of these lines and join them in order, and the shadow is
completed. The first three and last three of these lines are
parallel to H, hence their shadows on H will be equal and par
allel respectively to the edges casting them. .
97. Fig. 49 shows the shadow of a square prism on V and
H, resting with its base on H and its long faces oblique to V.
The shade lines are found first here. . •
'•
98. Fig. 50 shows the shadow of a cylinder on V and H,

with its base resting on H. The shadow of any number of
points on the shade line between a and d can be found. . That
portion of the curve between a� and d� will be a semi-ellipse,
•
and the lines a�m and d�n must be tangent to this ellipse at the
v
pomts a. an d dV
•
s.
99. PROB. 18. To find the shadow of a right cone resting

with its base on H. Fig. 5 1 .
""
It is evident that, unless all the sloping part of the cone is
light, there will be two . elements of the cone which separate
light from dark surfaces, and also that these two elements meet
at the vertex and terminate at the other end in the base. · But
we do not know just where the light surface stops and the dark
surface begins, as we do in the case of the cylinder, so we have
to cast the shadow first.
The shadow of the vertex 0 is o� ; from o� draw two lines
. o�ah and O�bh tangent to the base of the cone, and these will be
the shadows of the two shade elements. We now see that oa
and ob are the dividing lines between the light and dark sur
faces, but since these lines do not coincide with the contour
elements od and oc, it is evident that neither od nor oc is a shade
line.
,
,
,
Plate 4,
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- 35 ---{},i Fig.4 4
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SHADOWS. 109
The bottom of the cone is dark and the sloping surface ohahchbh
.is light, hence the edge a"chbh is a shade line.
Note the difference in the shade lines on the cylinder and the
cone.
Do not shade the contour elements of a cylinder or cone.
1 00. We have seen that to find the shadow of a body three

things must be given, the body. casting the shadow, the surface
receiving the shadow, and the ray of light, and that these must
be given by their projections. The surface receiving the shadow
has for convenience so far been taken as one of the coordinate
planes, one -r>rojection of which is the plane itself and the other
is the ground line, but it is more frequently necessary to find
shadows of objects upon themselves and upon other objects in
the immediate vicinity. We have also seen that in finding
shadows on the coordinate planes we have only concerned our
selves with that projection of the surface which is a line, that
is, the GL. Hence, to find the shadow of an object on surfaces
other than the coordinate planes, we have only to find the line
which corresponds with GL and proceed according to the r,ule
already given (Art. 86).
To find this line, which we may call GL, observe the follow
ing rule : -
RULE FOR GL. The GL to be used in finding shadows is
always that proJection of the surface receiving the shadow which
is a line. This line may be straight, curved, or otherwise.
Of course, this rule is applicable only when one projection of
the surface is a line, i. e., when the surface is perpendicular to
one of the coordinate planes.
101. PROB. 19. To find the shadow of a stick of timber on

the top and front of an abutment on which it rests. Fig. 52.
110 I
SHADOWS.
The shade lines of the stick of timber are easily found to be

as follows : cd" d,d, de, and ej. First find the shadow on the
top surface of the abutment ; the vertical projection of this sur
face is the line avbv, which, according to the rule, is the GL to
be used. The shadow of d,d is dhd:, of de is d}e�, and of ef
(since ef is parallel to the top of the abutment) is a line through
e: parallel to e''fh. Next find the shadow on the front surface
of the abutment ; the horizontal projection of this surface is
the line ahbh, which must therefore be the GL for this surface.
The shadow of the shade edge ef will fall on. both the top
and front surfaces, which intersect in the line ab, therefore the
shadows on the two surfaces will mee t in a comm Ol� point m on
this line (Art. 87-6th). mV is, then, one point of the shaaow
of the edge ef on the front of the abutment. The point nV, for
the same reason, is one point of the shadow of the edge cd, on
this surface. Since these two edges are parallel they will cast
parallel shadows, hence it is only necessary to find the shadow
of one more point, and the shadow is determined. The shadow
of the point c is c� ; join this with nV, and through mV draw a
line parallel to c�nv, and the shadow is completed. · Of course,
any . other point might have been ta�en on the edge cd" or any
point on the edge ej.
The irregular line rhsh simply indicates that the abutment
extends backward farther than it was necessary to show. The
ragged end of the stick of timber indicates the same thing.
c
•
102. PROB. 20. To find the shadow of a stick of timber

on another stick of timber into which it is framed. Fig. 53.
It is evident that the sloping stick will cast a shadow on the
top of the horizontal stick. . The lower front and the upper back
edges cd and ab are the lines which cast the shadows, and mn is
the line to be used as GL. The shadow of the point a is at
SHADOWS • 111
.
a}, apparently on the elevation of the object, but in reality it is
where the shadow would be if the lower st.ick of timber were
sufficiently wide to receive it. It is frequently necessary to
imagine surfaces indefinite in extent for convenience in con
struction. The shadow of the edge ab begins where it leaves
the surface (Art. 87-4th), therefore, join a} and bh and that
portion of the line which falls on the surface of the stick will
. be all that is necessary ; through ch, the point where the lower
front edge cd pierces the top, draw a line parallel to bha�, and
the shadow is completed.
1 03. PROB. 21. To find the shadow of one oblique stick of

timber on another, both beingpamllel to V and lying against each
other. Fig. 54.
The shadoV\' will fall on the front and top of the back stick.
The ground line for finding the shadow on the front surface is
rs, and for the top surface is mn. Here, as in Prob. 1 8, the
horizontal projections of the points c" and d", where the shadow
leaves the front surface, will be points of the shadow on the top.
A careful examination of the figure will make further explana- •
tlOn unnecessary.
•
104. PROB. 22. To find the shadow of a straight wire

•
lying on top of a vertical cyNndrical wall on the wall and the

shadow of the wall on itself. Fig� 55.
Here the GL is a curved line, and is to be used just the same
as heretofore. There being no new principles the student should
be able to understand this problem from an examination of the
figure.
105. PROB. 23. To find the shadow of the head of a bolt

on its shank when the length of the bolt is parallel to both V
'
and H.
112 SHADOWS.
,
In Fig. 56 the head is hexagonal and the shank is cylindrical,

and in Fig. 57 the head is octagonal and the shank is hexagona1.
In cases like these it is evident that neither the plan nor ele
vation of the surfaces receiving the shadow is a line, but the end
view, or the projection on a profile plane, is a line, and accord
ing to the rule is, therefore, the GL to be used. mno is the GL
in Fig. 5 6, and mnor in Fig. 57. The only other new point to
be noticed is that the two elevations of the ray of light each
make an angle of 45° with a horizontal line, and slope in the
same direction. .
,
1 06. PROB. 24. To find the shadow of a chimney or tower

.
of a house on the roof. Fig. 58. '

The end view of the roof mn is the GL for this problem.
The shadow is found the same as in Figs. 56 and 57.
107. PROB. 25. To find the shadow of a stick of timber on

,
the top and sloping faces of an oblique pier. Fig. 59.

Since neither plan, elevation, nor end ·view of . these sloping
surfaces is a line our rule is no longer directly applicable, and
we may make use of an indirect method (the shadow can be
found directly by descriptive geometry methods) .
First find the shadow on top of the pier. The points ch and
e", where it leaves the top, will be two points of the shadow on
the left, front, sloping face (Art. 87-6th), CV and eV will be their
"
vertical projections ; in the same way dh and n will be two
points of the shadow on the right, front, sloping face, and dv
and nV will be their vez:tical projections. The shadow of the
lower front edge (the upper back edge could just as well have
been taken) on the ground is the indefinite line f"o". The
ground and the sloping face of the pier intersect, hence the
pointf", where the shadow would go under the pier, will be a
S HADOWS. .113
point of the shadow on the left, frolit face ; j'l) will be its verti
cal projection ; for the same reason 0" is a point of the shadow
on the l;ight, front face, and 0'1) is its vertical projection: Join
e"f", and through e" draw a line parallel to it ; also, n"o" and a
line through dh parallel to it. This completes the shadow on
. the plan. The shadow on the elevation is found by projection
from the plan.
If the pier had been So high that the shadow on the ground
would have been difficult to obtain, an imaginary horizontal
plane could have been taken at any convenient place, and the
shadow found on that, noting where it comes out from the pier.
. The dash and two dots line in plan and elevation represents the
two projections of the intersection of such an imaginary plane
with the pier. m"th is the shadow of the lower front edge of
the stick on this imaginary plane, which gives the points th and
mil as points of the shadow. The shadow is completed as before.
108. PROB. 26. To find the shadow oj any oblique line on

any oblique plane. Fig. 60.
First find the shadow on any horizontal auxiliary plane.
m'IJe'IJ will be the vertical projection of one such plane, and will
be the GL for this plane. The shadow of any point as a on
. this plane will be a� ; the shadow of any other point c·ould be
found in the same way, thus getting the shadow of the whole
.line, but the shadow of a line begins on a plane where the line
pierces the plane, and the line pierces this auxiliary plane at
the point b (b'IJ being where m'IJe'IJ intersects the vertical projec
tion of the line, and bh being perpendicularly below it on the
horizontal projection of the line), therefore, joining a: and bh
we have the shadow on the auxiliary plane. m'IJe'l) is the vertical
•
projection of the line of intersection of the auxiliary plane with

the card mnop ; its horizontal projection is, therefore, m"eh• The
-
114 SHADOWS.
lines ll'a: and mheh lie in the auxiliary plane, the line mheh also
lies in the plane of the card mnop, therefore, the point rh, where
these two lines intersect, is a point on the card, and must be one
point of the horizontal projection of the shadow required ; rV on
m"e" is its vertical projection. Assume any other auxiliary .
plane, as d"o", and another point, S"Sh of the shadow, will be
found in the same way. Draw an indefinite line through these
points r and s in both projections, and the shadow is finished.
Vertical auxiliary planes could have been taken instead of
horizontal with the same result. •
•
1 09. PROB. 27. To cast the shadow of an abacus on a con

ical column. Fig. 61.
Since neither projection of the surface receiving the shadow
is a line, this problem must be done by the indirect method as
used in the two preceding problems.
•
Find the shadow on any horizontal plane, as a"c". Its ver

tical projection ' is a"c", and is the GL for this shadow. This :
plane cuts the column in a horizontal circle, of which aYc" is
the vertical and ahbhch is the horizontal projection; The sp.adow
. . .
of the bottom edge of the abacus on this plane is the circle

dhaheh, drawn with l!:, the s�adow of 0 the centre of the abacus,
•
as a centre and radius equal to that of the abacus. This circle

•
cuts the circle ahbhch at the point an, which is one point of the
• •
horizontal projection of the shadow required. a", on the verti

cal projection of this auxiliary horizontal plane, is one point of ·
the vertical projection of the required shadow. . Any number
of other points can be found in the same way.
•
11 O. PROB. 28. To cast the shadow of the prism given as

in Fig. 62 on H and V, also of the pyramid on the prism and
on H.
•
• •
•
• •
Pla.te 5.
•
,
•
',F ig. 5 1 1 1
I I 56
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• •
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, Fig.·5 7
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. F ig. 53 I •
•
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,
SHADOWS • 115
•
The shadows of the prism on H and V and of the pyramid

on H require no explanation.
If the shadow of a line falls partly on two plane' surfaces,
A and B (no figure), which do not intersect (at that portion
under discussion), A being between the line and B, that part
•
which falls on A does not fall on B, and the shadow of the line
on B may be said to begin at the shadow of the point where
the shadow of the line leaves A, on B. Now, if B is horizontal
or vertical, and A is oblique to both V and H, the shadows of
the line and the plane A on B can be readily found ; and then
get the shadow of the line on A by the reverse of the above
process, that is, note where the shadow of the line and plane A
on B intersect ; find what point on A cast this intersecting
point, and that will be one point of the shadow of the line on A.
Now, referring to Fig. 62, we see that the shadow of the
pyramid and prism on H intersect at the four points 0., t�, x�,
and z:: ; the points on the prism (this being between the pyra
mid and H) which cast these shadows are rh, th, xh, and ztl
respectively (found by drawing a 45° line from the shadow to
the edge casting it), and they are, therefore, points of the
shadow of the pyramid on the prism.
The shadow on the upper edge of the prism may be found
by this same principle, that is, the shadow of this upper edge
on H is b:y� ; th!s intersects the shadow of the pyramid on H ·
at s� and '!is ; Sh aud yh are the points which cast these shadows,
hence they are points of the shadow required. Join r"sh, shth,
xhyh, and yhzh, and the horizontal projection of the shadow is
completed. Its vertical projection is foqnd by projecting each
one of these points on to the vertical projection of the prism.
The points Sh and yh could also have been found by castiIig the
shadow of the pyramid on an auxiliary horizontal plane through
the top edge of the prism ; O,�Sh and o,�yh are the shadows of
116 SHADOWS •
the two shade elements of the pyramid on such a plane ; they .

intersect the upper edge of the prism at the points Sh and yh;
which are the points required. A vertical auxiliary . plane
through this edge or the ' other edges of the prism might have
, .
been used with the same result.

CHAPTER VI. I
ISOMETRICAL DRAWING.
111. In all the previous constructions two projections have

been used to represent a body in space. In isometrical projec
tions only one view is used, the body being placed in such a
position that its principal lines or edges (length, breadth, and
thickness) are parallel to three rectangular axes, which are so
placed that equal lengths on them are projected on the plane
equal to each other., Thus we have the three dimensions of a
. .
body shown on one plane in such a way that each can be meas-
ured, thereby combining the exactness of ordinary projections '
and the intelligibleness of pictorial figures. It is used chiefly
to represent small Qbjects in which the principal lines are at
right angles to each other. In large objects the drawing would
look distorted.
1 12. If we take a cube situated as in Fig. 63, and tip it to
the left, about its lower left corner e until the diagonal cil is
.
horizontal, Fig. 64, and then tum it through an angle of 90°,

still keeping cg horizontal, we obtain Fig. 65. The vertical pro
jection in this figure is what is called an isometrical projection.
.
.
The edges . of a cube are all of equal length, and it will be

seen that they all make equal angles with the plane, hence they
wilT appear equal in projection, consequently the visible faces
must also appear equal. It will also be seen that the figure
117 •
118 ISOMETRICAL DRAWING.
can be inscribed in a circle, and that the outline of the isomet-

rical projection is a regular hexagon, hence, that those lines
which represent length and breadth make angles of 300 with a
horizontal, and those which represent thickness are. verticaL
113. The edges of the cube being inclined to the plane on
which they are represented ' appear shorter than they actually
are on the object, but since they are all equally foreshortened,
and since a drawing may be made to any scale, it is customary
to ignore this foreshortening, and make all the isoml'ltrical, lines
of the object equal to their true lengths. This will giv,e what
is called the isometrical drawing of the object, which will be
somewhat larger than the isometrical projection.
The vertical projection of the cube as shown in Fig. 65
represents the isometrical projection of the cube shown in Fig.
63, and Fig. 67 is the isometrical drawing of the same cube .
.
'.',
•
114. DEFINITIONS. cV, Fig. 65, is the isometric centre.

cvb", cvd", and eVe" are the isometric axes. Lines parallel to
either of the isometric axes, or edges of the cube, are isometric
lines, while any line not parallel to one of these axes is a non
isometric line. Planes parallel to the faces of the cube are
.
isometric planes, and those which are not parallel to one of these
faces are non-isometric planes.
•
115. DmECTION OF THE RAYS OF LIGHT. In isometrical •
drawing the rays of light are supposed to be parallel to a diagonal

of the cube, as in ordinary projections, only here it is parallel
to the plane of projection, and it is represented by a line making
an angle of 300 with a horizontal line. Any line parallel to
.
dj, Fig. 67, may represent a ray of light.
116. SHADE LINES. These are the same as in ordinary

projections, that is, they separate light from dark surfaces. In
IS0MI!JTRICAL DRAWING. 119
.
.
all rectangular objects the top, left front, and left back surfaces
· are light, while the bottom, right Iront, and right back surfaces ,
are dark. In Fig. 67 the edges ab, bc, ce, and el are the visible
shade lines. And all rectangular objects have their shade lines
in relative positions to those of the cube. As in ordinary pro
jections, in putting shade lines on . a group of objects touching
each other, the group is shaded as if it were one solid ; also, in
· outline drawing the shadows are disregarded in putting in shade
lines.
,
1 17. PROB. 29. To make the isometrical drawing of a cube.
Fig. 67.
With the centre c, and radius equal to the edge of the cube
draw a circle, and in it inscribe a regular hexagon, and draw the
'alternate radii cb, cd, and ce, and the drawing is completed.
Another method, which is applicable to any rectangular ob
·
ject, is to draw from
,
. any point as e lines ef, and el, each mak-
ing an angle of 30° with a horizontal, and the vertical line ce ;
on these lay off if, el, and ec equal to the true length of the edge
of the cube ; from the points f and l draw indefinite vertical
lines ; from c draw the lines cb and cd parallel to ef and el,
intersecting the verticals through f and l in the points b and d ;
from the points b and d draw lines parallel to cd and cb, meet
ing in a. This completes the drawing.
118. PROB. 30. To make the isometrical drawing of a rect

angular block, with another rectangular block resting . on its top
,
face, and a recess in its right front face. Fig. 66.

Construct the isometrical drawing of , the large block by the
second method of Art. 117 • .
To draw the small block it is first necessary to locate one of
its lower corners in the top face of the large one. This must
120 180ME:TRICAL DRAWING.
be done by means of two coordinates referred to two isometric .

.
.
lines as axes. The point e, in the top face of the large block,
. -
is i" from the side and -h,." from the end, therefore make af
equal to -r and ag equal to iV', then from f and g draw the
. .
isometric lines if and ge, intersecting in e, the point required.

The rest of the small block is drawn in the same way as the
large one. "
'
To make the recess in the front side . the point t is located

in the same way as the point e, and tx equal to the depth of
the recess is laid off as shown. The rest of the constlluction
is evident.
. .
•
119. Fig. 68 shows the isometrical drawing of a rectangular .

box, without cover, 1 5" long, 6" wide, and 4" high, outside
measurements, the boards being f' thick. The scale being
1t" 1'. The ends are nailed on to the sides, and the' bottom
,
=
, ,
.
is nailed to tbe sides and ellds. The visible joints are shown.
The dotted lines show the inner edges of ' the box Which are not
visible. .
120. Fig. 69 shows the isometrical drawing of a four-armed

cross. A careful examination of the figure will enable the
student to understand its construction, there being only iso-
metric lines involved.
,
121. PROB. 31. To make the isometrical drawing of ,the

pentagonal prism shown in Fig. 20. Fig. 70.
The edges of the base, not being at right angles to each other,,
are non-isometric lines, hence the base should first

, . be inscribed
in a rectangle. Let one side of the rectangle contain the edge
be, and . the other sides respectively contain the corners a, d,
,
and e. Make the isometrical drawing of the rectangle and

locate each corner of the base, a, b, c, d, and e, by laying off on
-
Plate 6.
•
..
,
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•
F ig.64 - - - - - �
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•
Fig.66
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•
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ISOMETRICAL DRAWING. 121
\
the sides of this rectangle the distance of each point respect

ively from the nearest corner of the circumscribed rectangle.
At these points draw vertical lines, and lay off on each of them
the true height of the prism and join the tops, completing the
drawing of the prism. It will be noticed that the non-isometric
lines on the drawing are not equai to their true length on the
•
object.
122. PR OB. 32. To make the isometrical drawing of an

_
oblique timber framed into a horizontal one, as given in Fig. 53.

Fig. 7 1 .
The horizontal timber is drawn as usual. To draw the oblique
one, these edges being non-isometric, two points have to be
.
.
located by means of coordinates. The point a is located by

making ad equal to the distance the lower end of the oblique
stick is from the end of the horizontal one. Any other point
b is found by making cd equal to the horizontal distance of the
point b from d, and be equal to its vertical distance from d. Join
-
ab, which gb·es the isometrical drawing of one edge of the ob-
lique timber. ' The other edges are, of course, parallel to this,
being drawn through the points e and f, which are located the
same as point e in Prob. 30.
•
123. PROB. 33. To make the isometrical drawing of the

skeleton frame of a box made in the form of the frustum of a
square pyramid. Fig. 72.
Let a square prism be circumscribed about the frustum. The
isometric of this prism is readily drawn, and is shown by the
dotted lines. The bottom edge of the frustum coincides with
the bottom of th� prism. The points a, b, c, and d are in the
- ,
upper face -of the prism, and are found as the point e is in
Ptob. 30.
•
Join ab, be, cd, da, af, bg, and de, and the main frustum is com
pleted. The other lines which change the frustum from a solid
.
to a skeleton need no explanation.
,
124. PROB., 34. To make an exact isometrical drawing of

a circular card, and also of any scroll or letter on its surface.
Fig. 74.
Let the circle and letter G be given as in Fig. 73. First,
circumscribe a square about the circle. Make the isometric
drawing of the square. . The centres of the sides of the square,
d, e, f, and g, give four points of the isometric of the circle.
Each point on the circumference of the circle, as a, b, c, etc.,
has two coordinates, by means of which the isometrical draw
ing of the points may be easily obtained. There will be four
points on the circle whose coordinates will be the s!!;me as those
for c, and eight points whose coordinates will be the · same as
those for a or b, or any point between d .and e. The more
poillts that are taken the more accurate will be the ellipse which
forms the isometrical drawing of a circle.
The letter is drawn in the same way by taking the two coor-
- .
dinates of several points on it.
125. PROB. 3�. To make an approximate construction of

the isome�rical drawing of a circle. Fig. 75. '
Make the isometrical drawing of the circumscribed square as
before ; d, e, f; and g will be four points. Draw the lines ag,
,
af, bd, and be, intersecting in the points c and 0 ; c will be the
centre of the arc between d and g ; 0 of that between e and f;
a of that between g andf; and b of that between d and e.
126. Fig. 76 shows the approximate construction of the

isometrical drawing of circles in each of the three visible faces
of a cube. No explanation is necessary. . .
.
ISOMETRICAL DRAWING. 123
The student should study this and Fig. 75, so as to be able to

make the isometrical drawing of a quarter of a circle in either
isometric plane without making the whole circle.
127. Fig. 78 shows the isometrical drawing of a bolt, an
hexagonal nut, and a circular washer as shown in Fig. 77.
128. Fig. 79 shows the isometrical drawing of the hollow
cylinder given as in Fig. 27.
129. PROB. 3 6. To divide the . isometrical drawing of a

circle into equal parts. Fig. 74.
At the middle point f of one of the sides nl of the isomet
rical drawing of the circumscribed square draw fo perpendicu
lar to nl, and make fo equal to the radius of the circle ; draw
ol and on ; with 0 as a centre and radius fo describe the arc
rfs ; divide this arc into any number of parts ; draw through 0
and these points of division lines to meet nl ; join these meet
ing points with t, the centre of the ellipse, and where these lines
intersect the ellipse will be the points of division of the isomet
rical drawing of one quarter of the circle.
The other quadrants can be divided in the same way.
ANOTHER METHOD. On the long diameter of the ellipse
draw the semicircle ckp ; divide this into any number of equal
parts ; through these points of division draw lines perpendicular
to cp ; where these lines intersect the ellipse will be the points
of division sought.
130. In isometrical drawing the shadow of a point on a plane

is where the ray of light through the point intersects its projec
tion on that plane.
. .. To find the shadow of the line dn on the top of the cube.
Fig. 67.
A ray of light through the point n is nns, its projection on
the top of the cube is dns ; these two lines intersect at the point
.'
ns, which is the. shadow of the point n on the top of the cube.
Join this point with d, and dns is the shadow of the vertical line.
dn required.
To find the shadow of the line do on the left,front face of tM
•
cube.
A ray of light through the point 0 is 00., its projection on the
face of the cube is dos ; these lines intersect at the point 08,
which is the shadow of the point on the left, front face of the
cube. Join this with d, and , dos is the shadow of the line,
required.
•
131. PROB. 37. To find the shadow of a cube on the plane

of its base. Fig. 67.
The shadow of the edge ec is ec8 ; of the back edge ac . is
cas ; of the point b is bs ; therefore, the shadows of . ab and be
are asbs and b8e. respectively, which completes the shadow re-
• •
�ired. _
132. In Figs. 71 and 78 the shadows cast by the objects on

each other and on the ground are shown.
133. To find the shadow of any point on any horizontal
isometric plane proceed as follows : Draw through the point a
vertical line, and make it equal in length (downward from the
point) to the height of the point above ' the plane receiving the
shadow ,. through the upper end of this line draw a line at 30°
to a horizontal in the direction of the ray of light ,. through the
lower end draw a hor1:zontal line ,. where these two last lines
intersect will be the shadow of the point.
To find the shadow of · a point on any vertical isometric
plane : Draw through the point a line at 30° to a horizontal,
backward and to the right, and make it equal in length (back-
125
•
ISOMETRICAL DRAWING.
ward from the point) to the perpendicular distance of the point

from the plane j through the front end of this line draw a line
parallel to the ray of light j through the back end draw a line at
60° to a horizontal, forward and to the right j where these two
last lines intersect will be the shadow of the point.
, '
OBLIQUE PROJECTIONS.
.
.
134. Oblique projections differ from isometrical projections

only in the position of the principal faces of the object. In
stead of being placed so that its principal faces make . equal
angles with the plane on which it is represented, one o£ them
is placed parallel to this plane, while the edges which represent
the remaining dimension of the object may be drawn at any
angle with a horizontal, for convenience usually at 30° or 45°.,
With this difference, all the statements and principles of iso-

metrical drawing are equally applicable to oblique projections.
135. Fig. 80 shows the oblique projection of a cube, the
shadow of lines on its top and front faces, .the shadow of the
cube on the plane of its base, and the manner of drawing the'
oblique projection of circles in the three faces of the cube.
The ellipse in the top face is drawn by the arcs of . circles, and
that in the right face by points located exactly by coordinates.
It will be noticed that the ray of light is parallel to the diag
onal df of the cube, and that its projection on a principal sur
face is parallel to the diagonal db or de of that surface.
136. Fig. 81 shows the oblique projection of the hollow
cylinder given as in Fig. 27, of which Fig. 79 is the isometri
cal drawing. Figs. 1, 35, and 3 6 are oblique proje.ctions of
models representing the principles . of projections and shadows.
CHAPTER VII.
WORKING DRAWINGS.
,
137. A working drawing is one which shows'alLthe dimen

sions of an object in such a way that the object could be repro
duced or constructed from the drawing. Two views at least,
plan or horizontal projection, and elevation or vertical projec
tion, are necessary ; but more frequently a third view, usually
an end view� is also necessary. Besides these views, one or
more sections depending upon the object are sometimes neces
sary to completely determine all of its dimensions .
•
138. If an object is cut through, in any direction, by an

imaginary plane, the projection of one part of the object on a
plane parallel to the cutting plane, the person supposed to be
facing this cutting plane, is called a section. Sections are taken
•
to show the form and dimensions of the' interior of a hollow

object, and also of some parts of solid objects which are not
completely determined by its plan and elevations. These im-
.
aginary cutting planes are usually taken either vertical or hori-

,
'
zontal, but it is sometimes necessary to take them in other

,
'
positions, but perpendicular to a vertical or horizontal plane.
All that part of the object which is cut by these imaginary
planes is cross-hatched, that is, is covered by parallel lines quite
,
near together. The direction of these lines should ,be either

30°, 45°, or 60°, and from -.h" to f' apart, depending on the size
126
Plate 7,
Fig. 7
,
fl., Fig.75
,
F ig. 76
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Fig. 72
Fig.71 .
•
•
WORKING DRAWINGS • 127
.
of the'surface to be cross-hatched, the smaller the nearer together.

They may be drawn in either direction.
In drawing a section, not only that part of the object which
is cut by the imaginary plane is repr�sented, but also the pro
jection of all parts of the object behind the cutting plane.
139. Fig. 82 represents the elevation, Fig. 83 the plan, and
Fig. 84 a vertical section through . the centre on the line AB,
of a stuffing-box gland. The side elevation was not necessary
in this case, as all the dimensions of the solid are shown with
out it. These figures are made one-half size.
140. It is not sufficient simply to draw the projections of the
·
object the correct size, but the dimensions of the solid should
all be clearly placed on the drawing, so that the workman, or
whoever has occasion to read the drawing, is not obliged to
uS,e the scale, thereby removing a great liability to error. These
dimensions should be put in .neatly, and should follow a certain
system. The method used in Figs. 82, 83, and 84 should be
carefully observed, besides which the following general direc
tions for putting in dimensions and representing special features
should be followed : -
In placing dimensions upon the drawing a line should be
drawn from one point to another, between which the dimension
· is to be given, and the actual dimension, or distance apart of
the points, is placed in the line, a space having been left for it
near the centre. ' These lines should be fine, and composed of
dashes about i" long with about -r spaces between them. When
the dimension is small of course the dashes must be. made
· shorter. Arrow heads are placed at the ends of · these line�,
the point of the arrow exactly touching the points or lines be
tween which the dimension is given, the arrow heads pointing
away from each other. When the dimension is very small the
, arrow heads may be placed on the outside of the lines instead
128 WORKING DRAWINGS.
of between them, and in that case should point toward each

.
other.
The arrow heads should be drawn free-hand, and not made
with the drawing pen. . The figures for, dimensions should also
be made free-hand, and should always be placed at right angles
to the dimension line, and should read from the bottom or right
hand side of the drawing. They should be put down in inches
and thirty-seconds, sixteenths, eighths, quarters, and halves, as
the case may be, thus, ll,,", not !i-". The fractions should be
·
reduced to their lowest terms, thus, �", not U". The dividing
line in the fraction should always be made parallel , to the direc
tion of the dimension line (see compound fractions, on page
1 6 the last way of making the fraction, that is, with the divid
·
,
ing line of the fraction oblique, unless very carefully made,

can be easily mistaken for ±t"). The inch marks should be
·
placed after the fraction, not between the whole number and
fraction.
·
The whole number should be made about i-" high, and the
total height of the fraction about /,,".
On rough castings measure to the nearest sixteenth, on ordi-
nary finished surfaces' take the nearest thirty-second, and on
·
fine finish and fits be as accurate as possible.

All dimensions up to twenty-five inches should be put down
in inches, thus, 15", 22�", and all above that in feet and inches,
· thus, 3'-2", or 3 ft. 2 in. . Students should be very careful to
get all of the important dimensions on, and also an ., overall "
dimension, so that the workman will :got be required to add a
number of dimensions- together. Important dimensions are
·
those which are necessary for the workman to construct the

piece. The dimensions should not interfere with each other,
and care should be taken not to have them cross each other in a
· circle.
W.ORKING DRAWINGS. 129
As a general thing do not repeat any dimensions ; that is, if

a dimension is given on one view do not repeat it on another.
In order that the drawing may be left as distinct as possible, .
it is frequently advisable t<> put the dimensions outside the figure,
or better, whlilre two or more views are given, put them between
the different views, as shown in .Figs. 82, 83, and 84 ; the .
widths being placed between the plan and elevation, and ' the
heights between the elevation and section, or between the two
•
elevations where an end elevation is given. To do this " exten-

sion " lines must be used. They should be composed of fine
dash lines, the dashes being about i" long, so as to be distin
,guished easily from the dotted lines representing the invisible
parts of an object. Where the dimensions do not interfere
with the drawing, as is the case in Fig. 84, it is better to put
them on the figure between the lines themselves, or as near as
possible.
. Give the diameter of a circle instead of the radius. When
only an arc is shown give · the radius, and draw a very small
circle about its centre, and let this circle take the place of an
arrow head. The dimension line should be drawn from the
edge of this circle and not from its centre.
In locating holes or bolts the dimensions should be given
from the outside of the piece to the centre of the hole or bolt,
and their distance apart is shown by giving the distance be
. tween centres. See Fig. 85. Holes are very often located
from the 'centre line of a piece, so that it is unnecessary to give
the dimension from the qutside of the piece.
The " centre " line should be composed of long and short
dashes, the long dashes being about t" long and the short ones
about t" long. . .
If the hoies are arranged in a circle, as in Fig. 86, give the

dmmeter of the circle passing through the centre of the holes.
,
130 WORKING DRAWINGS;
In drawing a bolt or screw represent the threads as shown in

Fig. 87 ; it is not necessary that the spaces should correspond
with the true pitch of the threads. In .order to obtain the cor
rect slant of the threads, a line drawn at right angles to the
axis of the bolt should pass through the point of a thread on
one side, and the centre of a space on the other. '
Always give that view of a square, hexagonal, or octagona�
bolt-head, or nut which shows the distance between its parallel
sides.
In placing the dimensions upon a bolt or screvr, always give
. . ..
the length of the unthreaded part in addition' to the length of

the bolt. The length of the bolt should be given from the ,
under side of the head to the extreme end. See Fig. 87.
In making a sectional view on ,a line passing lengthwise
through the centre of a shaft, bolt, or screw, it is generally
unnecessary to represent the shaft, bolt, or screw in section, as
the view is more clearly shown by leaving them in full. See
Fig. 89.
In drawings where bolts or screws are shown by dotted lines
do not dot in the threads, but represent them by double dotted
lines, as shown in Fig. 89.
Represent a tapped hole as shown in Fig. 90.
The line on which a section is taken, as .A.B, Fig. 83, should
be made the same as a centre line.
141. Although it is customary to represent a screw by
straight lines, as shown in Fig. 87, it is sometimes desirable to
make its actual projections, especially if the screw be a large
one.
The thread of a s,crew is a curve which is called a helix. A
cylindrical helix is generated by a point caused to travel around
,
a cylinder, having, at the same time, a motion in the direction

of the length of the cylinder, this longitudinal motion bear-
WO RKING DRAWINGS. 131
ing some regular prescribed proportion to the circular or angu

lar motion. The distance between any two points which are
nearest to each other, and in the same straight line parallel to
the axis of the cylinder, is called the pitch, in other words,
the longitudinal distance traversed by the generating point dur-
.
ing one revolution.
To draw the projections of a helix. Fig. 9 1 .
.
The plan of the helix will be . a circle. Divide this circle
into any number of equal parts, in this case twelve ; divide the
. pitch into the same number of equal parts. It is evident that
when the point has moved one-twelfth the distance around the
•
circumference, it has also moved in the direction of the axis

one-twelfth of . the pitch ; when it has moved two-twelfths the
distance around it has moved two-twelfths of the pitch ; there
fore, from the points of division, ah, bh, ch, etc., in the plan draw
vertical lines until they intersect horizontal lines drawn from
the corresponding division of the pitch. And these intersec
tions, aV, bv, cV, etc., will be points on the vertical projection of
the helix.
Fig. 92 shows a V-threaded screw in projection.
CHAPTER VIII. . . '
EXAMPLES. ,
. All polygons referred to in these Examples are regular polygons, unless other- .
•
wise stated.
1. Draw the two projections of a point It" from H and 1"

from V.
2 . Of a point lying in H and f' in front of V.
B. Of a point lying in V and 1" above H.
4. Of a line 1" long, parallel to both V and H, r above H
and 1" in front of V.
5. Of same line when it is perpendicular to V and It"
above H, its back end being t" in front of V.
6. Of same line when it is perpendicular to H and 1" in
fron t of V, its lower end being i" above H.
7. Of same line when it is parallel to H, 1" above H and
making an angle of BO° with V, its back end being t" in front
,
, of V.
8. Of same line when it is parallel to V, r in front of V
and making an angle of 600 with H, its lower end being f'
above H.
9. Of same line lying in H and making an angle of 450
with V, its back end being ·r in front of V.
10. Of same line lying in V, parallel to and 1" above H.
1 1 . Of same line when it is inclined at an angle of 600 with
132
, '''
Plate 8.
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, Fig.84 Fig�92
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Fig.,89 . Fig. 9 0 .
Fig. 85
. .
•
EXAMPLES • 133
•
.• �I; and whose horizontal projection makes an angle of 45° with

� 8-L, one end being -.t" above H and 1" in front of V. Line
"
'slopes downward, forward, and to the left.
12. ' Of same line when it makes an angle of 30° with V,
and whose vertical projection makes an angle of 60° with GL.
The line slopes downward, backward, and to the left, and passes
· through a point t'� from V and H.
13. Same as Ex. 12, except that line slopes downward,
forward, and to the left, and passes through a point ·r from H
and 1" from V., .
14. A wire l·r long projects from a vertical wall at 60°

with the surface, and is parallel to the ground and 1 " above it.
Draw plan and elevation. ,
15. Draw projections of a line If' long lying in a profile

plane and making an angle of 60° with H, sloping downward
and forward, and passing through a point ·r from V and It"
· from H.
1 6. Of same line lying in a profile plane and making an
angle of 30° with V, sloping downward and backward, and .
.
passing through a point ·r from V and H.
17. Same as Ex. 1 6, except that line slopes downward and
forward, and passes through a point t" from V and It" from H.
18. Draw projections of a line indefinite in length lying in
a profile plane and making an angle of 75° with H sloping
downward and forward, and passing through a point t" from V

and l·r from H. Locate a point on this line which shall be 1"
·
from the fixed point. Locate the point on the line where it
.
.
' pierces H.
•·· · 1 9. Find true length of a line given by its projections, as
follows : OM end is �-" from each plane and the other is 2"
'
above H, the horizontal projection of the line is l·r long and
; makes an angle of 30° with GL.
134 EXAMPLES •
20. Draw plan and elevation of an oblique line, one end

being above and in front of the other. Find its true length and
angle it makes with H. .
21. Of an oblique line, one end being behind and above the
other. Find its true length and angle it makes with V.
22. Of a line which slopes downward, backward, and to the
right. Find its true length by revolving parallel to V.
23. Of a line which slopes downward, forward, and to the
left. Find its true length by revolving parallel to H.
24. Of two lines which are parallel in space and slope
•
downward, forward, and to the right.

•
25. Of a line 2" long, sloping downward, forward, and to

the right, one end being If above H and t" in front of V, the
other end t" above H and It" in front of V.
26. Draw plan and elevation of a rectangular �ard in X It"
which is perpendicular to H, parallel to V, and �" in front of
-
V ; its short sIdes are parallel to H and the lower one is i"
above H. Revolve this card forward about its left-hand edge
(like a door on its hinges) through angles of 30°, 45°, 60°, and
90°, and construct corresponding plans and elevations.
27. Of same card when it is lying on H with its long sides
parallel to V and t" in front of V. Revolve card about right
hand horizontal edge (like a trap-door on its -hinges) through
•
angles of 30°, 45°, 60°, and 90°, and construct corresponding

proJectIOns.
• •
28. Of same card when, besides making the angles of 0°,

30°, 45°, 60°, and 90° with H, as in last example, the hori
zontal projection of its long edges, in all its different posi
tions, makes an angle of 30° with GL backward and to the
right.
29. Of same card when it is parallel to V and t" �n front
of V, one of its ' diagonals being parallel to H. Revolve this
EXAMPLES.
•
135
card through an angle of 60° about a vertical axis, and construct

its corresponding projections.
30. Of same card ' when, besides making an angle of 60°
wiwith V, as in last example, the vertical projection of the diago
nal which was parallel to H makes an angle of 45° with GL .
31. Of a card i" square resting on H, with one diagonal
•
parallel to V and 1" in front of V, then raise left-hand end of

. diagonal until it makes an angle of 45° with H and construct
corresponding projections.
32. Of the same card when, besides making an angle of 45°
with H, as in last example, the horizontal projection of the
diagonal makes an angle of 30° with GL.
33. Same as example 32, except that the horizontal projec
tion of the diagonal makes an angle of 90° with GL.
34. Of an hexagonal card whose sides are f' long, when
one of its long diameters is parallel to V and 1" in front of V,
one end resting on H. The surface of the card is perpendicu
.
lar to V and makes an angle of 30° with H.
35. Of same card when its diameter, besides making an
angle of 30° with H, as in last example, has its horizontal pro- .
jection inclined at an angle of 60° with GL, and slopes down
ward, backward, and to the left.
•
36. Of a pentagonal card whose surface is perpendicular to

II and makes an angle of 45 ° with V, its left-hand edge being
perpendicular to H and resting against V. The diameter of
the circumscribed circle is Ii" .
37. Of same card when, besides making an angle of 45°
with V, as in last example, it has been revolved through an
. ' angle of 30°.
38. Of an octagonal card resting on one of its edges, with
its surface perpendicular to V and inclined at an angle of 60°
with H. The diameter of the inscribed circle is Ii" .
136
.
EXA.MPLES.
"
39. Of sattle card when it is inclined at same angle with H ·

as in last example, and the horizontal projection of the edges
which were perpendicular to V make angles of 45° with GL.
40. Draw the projections of a card It" square when its
.
. surface is perpendicular to V and ,makes an angle of 30° with

H, the H projection of the diagonal making an angle of 30° .
with GL, one end of the diagonal resting on H.

,
Revolve plan last found through an angle of 30° and con- . •
struct corresponding elevation.

41. Of an isosceles triangle situated in a profile plane, the
base making an angle of 15° with H, its back ·.comer being f'
above H and i" in front of V, and lower than its front corner.
The base of tria�gle is I·r and altitude 1".
42. Of an hexagonal card whose surface is perpendicular to
both V and H. Its long diameter is 1". Two of its edges are
.
perpendicular to H. Centre of card is 1" above H, and It" in

front of V. .
.
43. Of a card f' square lying in a profile plane. its lower

front edge slopes downward and backward, and makes an angle
of 30° with H. The lowest corner of card is t" from H, and
1" from V.
44. Of a circular card 3" in diameter, perpendicular to H
and making an angle of 30° with V, resting ' 011 H, back edge
1" from V.
45. Of same ' card after it has been revolved through an
angle of 45°, keeping the same angle with V as in last example.
46. Of a circular card 3" in diameter, perpendicular to H
•
and making an angle of 45° with V. Solve as explained in

Art. 60.
Shade lines are to be put in in all the examples where there are any.
.
47 . Draw plan and elevation of a cube of 1" edge resting

on H, t" in front of V, with two faces parallel to V. Find
•
EXAMPLES. 137
,.
•
the tr!Ie size of the . angle which the diagonal, which slopes
downward, backward, and to the right, makes with V and also
with H.
48.* ' Of a rectangular prism whose base is !" x 1" and
length is If' resting with its base against V, its lower l eft-hand
.
face making an angle of 60°. with H.

49. Of a cylinder resting with its base on H ; diameter of
cylinder is 1" and its length is If'. The axis is i" in front
of V.
50. Of a cone resting with its base parallel to and t" in
front of V. . The diameter of base is It" and the height of
cone is Ii".
51. Of a heptagonal prism resting with its base on H, one
of its faces making an angle of 15° with V. The diameter of
the circumscribed circle about base is 1" and the height of
prism is I!".
.
52. Of an octagonal pyramid resting with its base on H,
with two of the edges of the base making an angle of 30° with .
GL. The diameter of the circle inscribed in the base is If'

and the altitude is t".
53. Draw plan and two elevations of a square prism with
its axis parallel to both V and H ; the axis is 1" above H and
It" in front of V, base of prism is !" square, and the length is
If' ; the upper front long face makes an angle of 30° with H.
54. Draw plan and elevation of same prism with its surfaces
making same angle with H, when its axis is parallel to H and
makes an angle of 45° with V, backward and to the left.
55. Draw the plan and elevation of a regular triangular
prism 2" long, with its axis parallel to H, but making an angle
of 60° with V, backward and to the left. The axis is 1" above
" The base is supposed to be at right angles to the axis in all the prisms, pyra
mids, cylinders, and cones, lIDless otherwise stated.
138 EXAMPLES.
H, and its front end is 2i" in front of V. The lower right

hand long face of prism makes an angle of 150 with H. Diam
eter of circle circumscribed about base is 2".
56. Draw plan and two elevations of an hexagonal prism
.
2" long, diameter of circumscribed circle about base is If', the
axis is parallel to � and makes an angle of 300 with V, back
ward and to the left ; lower edge of prism rests on H, and the
lower right-hand face makes an angle of 1 00 with H.
57. Draw plan and two elevations of a circular cylinder,
3" in diameter and 2t" long, with a circular hole through it
,
If in diameter ; axis is parallel to both V and H�
58. Draw plan and elevation of same cylinder resting with
its base on H. ,
59. Of same cylinder when lying on H, with its axis par"

aIlel to H and making an angle of 600 with V.
60. Draw plan and two elevations of a pile of blocks
located as follows : the lowest one is 3" long, It" wide; and i"
•
thick, it rests with its wide face on H, its long edge making an
angle of 300 with V, backward and to the right ; on top of this
a second block rests, equal in width and thickness to the first
but 1" shorter ; on this. a third block rests, of the same width
and thickness as the others, but 1" shorter than the second ;
these blocks are plac,ed symmetrically.
61. Draw plan and elevation of a pyramid formed of four
equilateral triangles of 2" sides, when one edge of the base is
at 300 . with V.
62. Of an hexagonal prism standing with its base on H,
two of its faces making angles of 200 with Y, backward and to
. the left ; diameter of circumscribed circle about base is 8",
length of prism is 10". Scale 3"- 1', or i size.
63. Of same prism when . axis is parallel to V and makes
an angle of 600 with H and slopes downward to the left.
Scale 3" 1'.
• EXAMPLES. 139
64. Of same prism whim its axis, besides ' making an angle
of 60° with H, has its horizontal projection inclined at an angle
of 60° with GL ; axis of prism slopes downward, forward, and
,
,
to the left. Scale 3" 1 '.

=
65. Of a pentagonal pyr:amid resting with its base on H,

left-hand edge of base perpendicular to V, diameter of circum
scribed circle ] 6", height of pyramid 20". Find its .shadow.
Scale I·r= l', or i size.
66. Of same pyramid when its axis is parallel to ' V and
slopes downward to the left, making an angle of 75° with H.
Find its shadow. Scale I!" - I '.
67. Of same py�amid when its axis, besides making an
angle of 75° with H, has its horizontal projection inqIined at
an angle of 30° with GL, so that axis slopes downward, back
ward, and to the right. Find its shadow. Scale I·r = I'.
,
68. Of a cone resting with its base on H, diameter of base

20", height of cone 2'. Find its shadow. Scale I·r 1'.
69. Of same cone when resting with an element on H, with
its axis parallel to V. Find its shadow. Scale I'r' 1'. =
70. Of same cone with an element on H, and axis making

an angle of 45° with GL. Find its shadow. Scale I'r 1'.
71. Of same cone with an element on H, and axis lying
in a profile plane, sloping downward and backward. Find its
shadow. Scale If= I'.
72. Of the frustum of an octagonal pyramid resting with
' its base on H, . long diameter of lower base is 3" and of the
upper base is 2", the height of frustum is 3", the front left-hand
edge of base makes an angle of 15° with GL, backward to the '
left. There is a hole 1", square through the centre of frustum,
whose axis is coincident with axis of frustum ; two sides of the
!lole make angles of 7-!0 with GL.
73. Of same frustum when its axis is parallel to V and
makes an angle of 60° with H and slopes downward to the left.
c
140
,
EXAMPLES.
,
"
74. Of same frlistum whim its axis; besides making ali angle
of 60° with H, has its horizontal projection inclined at an angle
of 30° with GL, and slopes downward, forward, and to the left.
75. Of the skeleto!l frame of a box 3' long, 2' wide, and 2'
high, the joists being all 3" square. The frame rests on H
with its long sides parallel to V. ' Do not show joints in fram-
,
'
ing. Scale 1"-= 1'.

76. Of same frame still resting on H with its long sides mak-
ing an angle of 50° with V, backward to the left. Scale 1" = 1'.
,
7 7 . Revolve the elevation obtained in example 7 6 through

an angle of 30° (in either direction), and construct" correspond-
ing plan. Scale 1" =}'. •
78. Of a double cross standing on its base, one arm paral

lel to both V and H ; upright piece is 1'-8" square and 10'-8"
high, each arm is 1'-8" square and 7' long (out to out), their
top surfaces are 2'-8" below the top of upright., Scale �" = 1'.
79. Of same cross when its axis is parallel to V and makes
an angle of 60° with H. Scale �" = 1'.
80. Of same cross when its axis, besides making an angle
of 60° with H, has its horizontal projection inclined at an
angle of 60° with GL, sloping downward, forward, and to the
left. Scale !" = 1'.
81. Of a pyramid resting on its apex with axis perpendicu
lar to H and 2'-6" in front of V, its base is an ' equilateral tri
angle of 2'-8" sides and its altitude is 1 1" . The left-hand edge
of base is perpendicular to , V. Find its shadow. Scale i" = I'.
82. Of same pyramid when its axis is parallel to V and
makes an angle of 60° with H, and ' slopes downward to the
right. Find its shadow. Scale i" = 1'. ,
83. Of same pyramid when its axis, besides making an

angle , of 60° with H, has its horizontal projection inclined at
, an angle of 30° with GL, so that it slopes downward, forward,
EXAMPLES. 141
and to the left, its apex being 2'-6" from V, still resting on H.
Find its shadow. Scale i" 1'. ·
Draw projections of a line indefinite in length, sloping down-
•
ward, forward, and to the right, through a point 2' in front, and
6" to the right, of apex of �yramid. Line makes an angle of
75° with V, and its V projection makes an angle of 600 with
GL. Same scale. .
Find its shadow on H and V, and also on pyramid.
84. There is a solid formed of two equal square pyramids
of 2" base and 3" altitude, which are united by their bases.
Draw plan and elevation when the object rests with one of its
triangular faces on H, its axis being parallel . to V and 2t" in
front of V. Find its shadow.
85. Of same object sti.ll resting on one of its faces, when
the horizontal projection of the axis makes an angle of 45°
with GL, and slopes downward; backward, and to the right.
Find its shadow . .
· 86. . Draw. the plan and elevation of the frustum of a square
pyramid resting on its base, with two of the edges of the base
perpendicular . to V. Lower base is 3" square, upper base is
1" square, and the altitude is 2t" .
In the centre of each of the sloping faces there is a square
of 1" side, so placed that one of its diagonals is parallel to H.
· 87. Draw projections of a pentagonal prism whose length
is 2·r and radius of circumscribed circle about the end is i"; .
the prism rests with one of its long edges on H, which makes
•
•
an angle of 60° with V, backward to the left, and whose fr9nt

end is 3·r from V: The lower left-hand long face makes an
angle of 15° with H.
· Also, of a triangular pyramid resting on its base on H, with
its axis. 2" to the left of the point located in prism, and 4!,' in
front of V, diameter of circumscribed circle is 2", the altitude
142 EXAMPLES.
-,
of pyramid is 3f', right-hand edge of base is perpendicular to

V. Find shadow of prism on H and V, also of pyramid on H
-
and on prism.
88. Draw projections of a prism whose base is If' square
.
and length is 2i" . Prism rests on H on one of its long edges,

•
which makes an angle of 60° with V, backward and to the

right, and whose front end (of edge) is 3" from V. Lower
left-hand long face makes an angle of 30° with H.
Also, of an indefinite line sloping downward, forward, and to
the left, passing through upper corner of the front end- of
prism. Line makes angle of 75° with H, and its H projec
tion makes 30° with GL.
' Find shadow of prism on H and V, also of line on H and
V and on the prism.
89. Draw the projections of a solid as follows : A frustum ,
of a square pyramid rests with its base on H, two of the edges
of the base make angles of 30° with V, backward to . the right.
Lower base is 2" square, upper base is If' square, and its height
is 2-!". Axis of frustum is 2-f from V.
On top of this frustum is a square pyramid, whose base is
the same size as the top of frustum and coincides with it.
Heigh. of pyramid is 1". Find shadow of solid on V and H.
Draw projections of an indefinite line, sloping downward,
forward, and to the right, passing through upper front corner
of frustum, making an a.ngle of 30° with V, and whose V pro
jection makes an angle of 60° with GL Find shadow of li�e
• .
on V and H, and on the frustum and pyramid.

90. Find the shadow on H of a card �" square, parallel to .
H, and i" above H, two edges making angles of 30° with V.
Back corner of card is 1" from V.
9 1 . Of same card on H, when it is parallel to V, 2" in front
of V, two edges parallel to H, lowest edge tn above H.
EXAMPLES. 143
92. Of same card on V and H, lying in a profile plane, two

edges perpendicular to H, back edge ·r in front of V and low
est edge t" above H.
93. Of an hexagonal card, parallel to V, f' in front of V,
two edges parallel to H, centi:.e of hexagon It" above H, long
,
diameter 1". .
94. . Of same card parallel to H, Ii" above H, centre 1" in
front of V, two edges parallel to V.
95. Of a circular card, It" in diameter, parallel to V, 19."
in front of V, centre 1" above H.
96. Of an hexagonal card whose surface is perpendicular
to V and H, two of its edges perpendicular to H, centre of
hexagon t-r above H, In" in front of V, diameter of inscribed
circle 1". In constructing projections of hexagon revolve it
about a vertical axis through centre.
97. Of a cube of i" sides, parallel to V and H, I-r above
H, and t" in front of V.
98. Of a square prism standing on H, each face i" x If', .
. two faces parallel to V, i" in front of V�

99. Of same prism still standing on H, turned so that two
faces make angles of 30° with V, backward to the right, - r
from V.
, 100. Of a cylinder r in diameter and I·!" high, with base
resting against V, and axis 1" above H. .
101. Of a cone It" high, base f' in diameter, standing on

H, with axis It" in front of V.
102. Of a line located as in example 18. •
1 03. Of a line located as in example 25.

104. Of a card located as in example 41
•
•
105. Of a card located as in example 42.

106. Of a card located as in example 43.
144 EXAMPLES.
1 07. Fig. 93 shows plan and elevation of two rectangular

sticks, one on the other, resting on an abutment. Find the
.
shadow of the top stick on the top and front faces of the bot-
tom stick (Art. 1 03), also of the . two sticks on the top and front
faces of the abutment (Art. 101). ,.
lOS. Fig. 94 shows plan and elevation of two sticks framed
together. . Find shadow of the oblique stick on the top of the
horizontal one (Art. 1 02). . .
109. , . Change the head in Fig. 57 from octagonal to cylin
drical and make it 2" in diameter and i" thick, make long,
diameter of hexagonal
,
. shank 1i" , ' and length' of shank If'.
Find shadow of hea(/. on shank (Art. 1 05).
1 1 0. Fig. 95 shows two elevations of a roof and chimney.
Find shadow of chimney on roof (Art. 106).
1 1 1 . Fig. 9 6 shows plan and elevation of a square stick rest- '
ing on top of a hollow semi-cylinder. Find shadow of . semi
cylinder on itself, also of the stick on the top and inside of cylin-
.
der (Art. 104). [
1 1 2. Find shadow of wing wall on flight of steps as shown

in Fig. 97. " . ,
1 13,. Fig. 9,S shows two views of a round stick lying on a

molding. Find shadow of molding on the ground and Qn itself,
also of the stick on molding and on the ground. .
1 1 4. Fig. 99 shows , the plan of a pile of blocks of which
..the . lowest one ..is prismatic an(l ' H-" high, the middle one is the
frustum of a pyramid and is i" high, the top one is a pyramid
and is 2t" high. Find the shadow of the lowest one on the
ground ; of the middle one on the top of the lowest and on the
ground ; also ' of the top one on the top of each of the under
ones and on the ground.
1 15. Fig. 100 shows plan and eleY:;l.tion of 4 sticks framed
together. Find shadow of the group on itself and on the ground.
EXAMPLES. 145
•
116. · Fig. 101 shows plan and elevation of a fluted columr
•
Find shadow on itself.

Through point marked with a circle draw an indefinite line
which makes an angle ot 15° with H, and whose H projection
makes 30° with GL. The line slopes downward, forward, and
to the right. Find shadow of line on top and front Qf column.
1 17. Fig. 102 shows plan ' and elevation of a rectangular
stick resting on a pier. Find shadow of stick on pier (Art. 1 07).-
1 18. Make the isometric drawing and cast the shadows of a
cube of Ii" edge with a prism i" square and t" long cut out of
each corner, the length of prism in each case being vertical.
119. Make the isometric drawing of a box it" high by If
wide by 2!" ]ong ; the thickness of sides, bottom and cover is ft/'.
..
Let the cover be opened through an angle of 150°.
120. Make the isometric drawing of the group of blocks
framed together as shown in Fig. 1 03.
121. Make the isometric drawing of the upright block in
Fig. 103 with the gains cut entirely from the upright.
.
.
122. Fig. 105 shows the plan of the skeleton frame of the
frustum of a pyramid. . The height of the frustum is 2", and
the vertical thickness of the top and bottom pieces is t". Make
the isometric drawing of frustum.
123. Make isometric drawing of the square, circle, and
•
�llipse as shown in Fig. 107 by the exact method.

124. Make the isometric drawing of a cube of Ii" edge ·
with a cone of Ii" base and Ii" altitude projecting from each
face. Make circles by the approximate method.
125. Make the isometric drawing of a block It" wide by 2"
long by t" thick, with round corners of t" radius. Make cor.
ners by approximate method.
126. Make the isometric drawing of group of blocks referred
to in Ex. 114 as located in Fig. 99.
146 EXAMPLES.
. .
,
. 127. , Fig. 104 .shows plan of a carpenter's saw-horse. The

height of horse is 18" and the thickness of top piece is 3". Make
the isometric drawing ofthis horse . . Scale 1" 1'. .
12.8. Make the isometric drawing of double cross shown in
. - . . . -- - - - .
Fig. 1 06. . Plan and elevation are the saf!le.

•
129. Make the isometric drawing of the group as given in

Ex. 89.
,
,
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Fig. 93
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• •

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l'REl'ARED FOR THE USE OF THE STUDENTS

MASSACHUSETTS JNSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY,

THmD EDITION, REIISED AND ENLARGED

W. J. SOHOFIELD, PRINTER, 105 SUMMER STREET, BOSTON.

INSTRUMENTS AND THEIR USES.

2. PENCILLING. ' Dra wings should always be first ma de in

be especially avoided. This. accuracy can be obtain ed in pen cil

3. COMPASSES. In usin g the compasses the l ower part of

In drawin g a circle of larger radius than could be drawn with

circl es n icely, hen ce the bow compasses should be used in mak­

4. DIVID ERS OR SP.A.C ERS . These are used to lay off

5. T-SQU.A.RE. The T-square should be used with the head

L in es should be dra wn with the upper edge on ly of the

6. TRIANGLES. To draw lines which shall be parallel to

7. IRREGULAR CURVES. To trace an irregular cur ve through

the curve so as to coincide with other p oints in the same way,

points, it is not diffi cult.

8. SCALES . As it is frequen tly impossible to make a draw-

If it is desired to make a drawing 1- size, then 3 in ches Oil

On some trian gular scales, the scale �"= l' is divided so as to

9. NEEDLE POINT. Each studen t should procure a fine

small, round piece of soft pine wood. This is to be used in

10. DRAWING PAP ER. This p aper comes· in sheets of

Royal, . . . 19 x 24 Double Elephant,27 x 40

Whatman' s p ap er is considered the best. This p ap er is either

11. THUMB TAOKS . These are used for fastening the p ap er

to the drawing board when it is not necessary to stretch it.

dent practice in the accurate use of his instruments.

DIRECTIONS FOR MAKING PLATES.

INSTRUMENTS AND THEIR USES.

A solid has three dimensions,- length, breadth, and thickness.

A circle is a plane figure of an i nfinite number of sides, or a

A scalene triangle has all its sides and angles unequal.

A rectangle is a parallelogram having its opposite sides equal

and its angles right angles.

a circle is said to be inscribed in the circle. The circle is cir-

to be circumscribed about the circle. The circle is inscribe,d in

Th e long diameter of a polygon is the diameter o f its circum­

The short diameter of a polygon is the . diameter of its in-

hedron, bounded by twenty equal equilateral triangles.

PROB. 1. To bisect a straight line AB, or arc of a circle AFB.

ing in C and D. Joi n CD. CD is perpen­

2. From a point C outside a straight line AB to draw

c With C as a centre and any convenient

PROB. 3. To draw a perpendicular to a line AB from a point

, d radius DC draw the arc

and AC is the perpen dicular required.

To draw a perpendicular to a line AB from a point

, radius draw an arc" over A, an d draw a lin e

through D and C, producin g it to meet t�is

arc in E. Join A and E, an d A E is the per­

PROB. 5. .A second method.

With cen tre A an d an y radius draw an arc

PRon. To construct an angle equal to a given angle CAB.

With BC as a radius and E as a centre cut arc

, as centres and with CD as a radius draw arcs

through E and F, which is the line required.

PROB� 9. To bisect a given angle BAC.

• draw arcs intersecting in D. Draw AD, which

circl es n icely, hen ce the bow compasses should be used in mak

Th e long diameter of a polygon is the diameter o f its circum

ing in C and D. Joi n CD. CD is perpen

arc in E. Join A and E, an d A E is the per

draw a semicircle. At C draw CD perpen

PROB. 1 9. Having given the sides AB, M, and N of a tri

PROB. 27 . On a given bfse AB to construct a regular octa