Guide Energy Smart Housing Manual - 240723 - 085443

Energy Smart
Housing Manual
Your guide to creating an Energy Smart house

Energy Smart Housing Manual
© Sustainability Victoria 2020 BBE034
Authorised and published by
Sustainability Victoria,
Level 28, Urban Workshop
50 Lonsdale Street Melbourne
Victoria 3000 Australia
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and Word format on the internet at
www.sustainability.vic.gov.au
ISBN 978-1-920825-40-9 (Print)
ISBN 978-1-920825-41-6 (PDF)
Energy Smart Housing Manual should be attributed to Sustainability Victoria.
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Foreword
Foreword
Welcome to the Energy Smart Housing Manual.

This is your guide for designing and constructing a comfortable, energy efficient home.
Informed by research, data and insights the Energy Smart Manual has been developed
by Sustainability Victoria to provide homeowners, renters, designers, builders,
architects, thermal performance assessors and students with good design principles:
› to save money – making a better choice of your home’s orientation can reduce
heating and cooling requirements by 15%. ‘Air tight’ homes are cheaper to heat and
cool with high levels of insulation and draught proofing resulting in lower heating
and cooling – 60-70% lower energy bills.
› to be healthier to live in - with comfortable stable internal thermal temperatures,
warm in winter and cool in summer. Health risks for occupants are reduced with less
exposure to more extreme temperate ranges (high or low temperatures) and toxins
from poor indoor climate.
› to reduce greenhouse gas emissions – reductions of 5 to 8 1/2 tonnes per year can
be achieved when compared to a home built to meet current industry standards.
The Energy Smart Housing Manual contains advice on how to determine the best
orientation for a new home and how shading can assist in making an existing home
more comfortable. It also contains advice about windows, insulation, thermal mass
and how to prevent air leakage whilst maintaining healthy indoor air quality.
Victoria is home1 to 6.6 million people and it is expected to grow to between
9-11 million people by 20502. In 2018-19 Greater Melbourne grew by more than
113,000 people.
The Victorian Government has committed to zero net emissions by 2050, and to
achieve this goal it is critical that the forecast 2 million new dwellings built between
now and 2050, are affordable, comfortable and sustainable.
On behalf of Sustainability Victoria, I hope the Energy Smart Housing Manual provides
you with practical informative advice to ensure your home saves you money, is
healthier to live in and contributes to Victoria being zero net emissions by 2050.
Claire Ferres-Miles
Chief Executive Officer
Sustainability Victoria,
September 2020
1 ABS, 2020 “3101.0 - Australian Demographic Statistics, Jun 2019”

2 ABS, 2020 “3222.0 - Population Projections, Australia, 2017 (base) - 2066”
3
01 / Overview: Designing
an Energy Smart house
This section draws together the key
principles explained in later chapters and
shows how these principles impact the
way in which you design your house and
help enhance the energy efficiency of
your home.
4
01 / Overview: Designing an Energy Smart house
Below is a quick summary of the content of chapters 2-8:
02 / Sun, Climate and Comfort 06 / Thermal Mass

› Explains how sun position varies throughout the year and › Thermal mass is higher in dense heavyweight materials like
how you can examine this using software tools. bricks and concrete. This chapter explains how the thermal
› Shows the impact of the different climates in Victoria have on mass affects the energy efficiency of your house.
the amount of heating and cooling you need. › Outlines some of the downsides to using high thermal mass
› The aim of designing an energy efficient house is to provide materials under some conditions.
comfortable conditions without the need for large amounts › Provides examples of how thermal mass affects thermal
of purchased energy. This section explains what influences comfort in Victorian housing.
human comfort and how understanding this helps you to › Explains some important technical issues around how to
design a better home. make best use of thermal mass, how different floor coverings
and their colour affect the performance of slab on ground
floors, and
› Gives some guidance on the use of non-conventional
03 / Siting and Solar Access construction systems which have high levels of thermal mass.
› Provides guidelines on how to site your house on the block

to protect access to the sun for north windows in winter and
roof surfaces year round for Solar Hot Water and Photo-
voltaic panels.
04 / Windows 07 / Air Leakage and Air Movement

› Shows how the intensity of the sun varies on windows and › Explains where outside air can leak into your house, how
skylights of various orientations throughout the year and this affects energy efficiency and what you can do to seal
how you can use this knowledge to design a better home. these unwanted air leakage sites.
› Explains the Window Energy Rating Scheme (WERS) and › Gives example of how to use a Blower Door test to identify
how you can use it to select the windows that will improve air leakage sites as well as some DIY tips.
the energy efficiency of your house. › Shows the amount of air that typically leaks through various
› Provides guidelines on selecting the right window size air leakage sites to help you prioritise which to seal first.
and how best to shade windows in summer. › Explains the potential risks of reducing air leakage by too much.
› Explains the impact of curtains on the energy efficiency › Explains how to cool down your house in summer by
of your windows. providing good cross ventilation and air movement to
minimise the amount of air conditioning you need.
05 / Insulation 08 / Case Study

› Explains the principles of heat flow so you can understand › Explains how a house which closely follows the principles
how various insulation products work and how to compare in this manual can reduce the cost of 6 star compliance or
their thermal resistance (R value). achieve even higher efficiency levels.
› Provides information about the different insulation materials
available in the market and how these can be used in a
building.
› Shows the recommended minimum insulation levels
recommended by the National Construction Code and
explains how good energy efficient design affects the amount
of insulation you need.
› Provides guidance on how to install insulation to ensure that
the performance of the product is maintained.
› Explains important information relating to fire safety and
issues around moisture control.
5
01 / Overview: Using these guidelines
Using these guidelines
Using this manual Apartment design

In the past energy efficient house design guidelines relied on adhering This manual is primarily written about the design of detached houses
to fixed rules of thumb. Experience with using NatHERS house energy (or Class 1 dwellings in the National Construction Code (NCC)).
rating tools (e.g. FirstRate5) has shown that many of these old rules Apartments (or NCC Class 2) have significant thermal performance
of thumb had significant limitations e.g. the old passive solar design differences to houses::
rules of thumb about eave depth for north facing windows blocked too
much sun during cold weather in spring and autumn. This new edition › They may have large areas of their walls, floors and ceiling shared
of the Energy Smart Housing manual has therefore been updated to with other elements this means thatheat losses in winter will be
reflect experience with using energy rating tools. much lower than a detatched house,
› They are further off the ground than detatched houses which
The guidelines shown in this manual will help designers and energy means they are exposed to higher wind speeds. Apartments on
assessors using NatHERS tools to fine tune the design of a house upper floors will therefore have a larger heat losses through
to minimise the additional cost of making the structure of a house windows and from air leakage,
energy efficient. It may not be possible for every house design to
› Apartments are usually constructed with high thermal mass walls,
follow every guideline shown in this manual due to site constraints
floors and ceilings, and
e.g. adjacent buildings may overshadow your north windows in winter
which will mean you can't heat your home using free heat from the › They may only have one or two faces which contain windows may
sun. This does not mean that it is no longer possible to achieve an be much larger than found in detatched houses. This limits the
energy efficient design. ability to use north facing windows in living areas to reduce winter
heating or leave no alternative but to use west facing windows
NatHERS house energy rating tools allow you to compensate for those which have higher summer heat gains.
elements of house design which are less than ideal. These guidelines
can be used to help you do this e.g. if you have overshadowed north These differences will generally mean that apartments can have
windows and so can't heat your house in winter with free heat from much lower heating requirements than detached houses. Because
the sun, then you can minimise heat losses by using double glazing the NatHERS star rating works by adding heating and cooling loads
(Chapter 4) and higher levels of insulation in the walls, floor and together to achieve a star rating it can mean that cooling loads are
ceiling (Chapter 5). much higher in apartments than in detached houses. To address this
situation the Victorian Government's Better Apartments program have
Using energy ratings gives much greater design flexibility than developed separate cooling load limits in addition to the minimum
adhering to rules of thumb. The design guidelines developed for star rating which must be met in addition to the rating requirement
this manual show best practice and are not intended to be used as for Class 2 dwellings. The NCC has also developed separate heating
a new rigid rules of thumb. If your eave design does not meet the and cooling load limits for all dwellings. The cooling load limits were
suggestions shown in Chapter 4, or you house can not achieve the developed to eliminate the worst cases. Meeting the cooling load limit
setback from buildings to the north described in Chapter 3, it can still does not guarantee "good" performance.
be energy efficient, but it will require more careful design.
In addition, the way the NCC is applied to apartments is different to
While energy rating provides a more flexible approach that provides a they way it is applied to detached houses. While detached houses
much better measure of actual performance, energy ratings also have must comply with a minimum 6 stars in Victoria, apartments may
limitations. For example: have ratings as low as 5 stars but the average rating over the whole
apartment building must be 6 stars. This means that the star rating
› Energy ratings are effectively a whole of house average
performance of apartments will typically vary from 5 stars to 8 stars
performance. This means that some rooms may perform poorly
in the one building.
provided that others perform well.
› The rating does not provide minimum performance separately
for heating and cooling but aggregates heating and cooling. This
means that a single star rating level still provides for a range of
performance levels for heating and cooling.
The guidelines in this manual will help readers to ensure better

performance across all rooms in the house and a better balance
of heating and cooling performance than the current regulated
minimums.
6
The differences between apartment and detached house design mean
that the guidelines in this manual may not be applied to apartments in
the same way as for detached houses e.g.:
› Insulation still works, but if the only surface exposed to outside is

a small area of wall, the overall benefit for the apartment may be
small. It is still good construction practice to insulate walls in this
case to stop condensation.
› North facing windows are ideal because they have larger winter
heat gains and smaller summer heat gains than windows in other
orientations. It may not be physically possible for some apartments
to have any north facing windows. In this case the best approach is
to minimise the detriment of poor orientation.
While the general principles of thermal performance described in this

manual apply equally to both houses and apartments, the specific
suggestions may not. Care should be taken in the application of this
manual to apartments.
7
Planning your house
Design your house so you can limit the area of your house that is heated and cooled
to only those areas that are occupied so that you only need to heat or cool the rooms
you are actually using.
Design guidelines
Large, open-plan living areas make it hard to contain the area heated or cooled. Use glass or bi-fold
doors to allow you to reduce the area heated/cooled while retaining the open-plan aesthetic.
Group rooms with similar uses together like bedrooms or living area and allow them to be closed off
so you can limit areas that are heated and cooled.
Use doors at the base of stairwells to prevent heated or cooled air leaking upstairs.
Ensure you can contain the size of the areas heated and cooled. An open plan house can mean that you
have to heat and cool the entire living area which will significantly increase energy bills. Provide doors
to allow individual living areas to be cut off from other living areas. Stacker and bi-fold doors can allow
you to maintain the open plan look, while still allowing you to contain the area you heat and cool.
An air lock is a space between inside and outside which can be closed off from the rest of the house
so that when you open the external door the cooler external air doesn’t blow straight in to the house.
Creating airlocks at external doors limits the escape of heated or cooled air when doors are opened.
High ceilings allow warmed air to gather at the top of the ceiling rather than keep you warm and
reduce the efficiency of heating. A ceiling fan with a winter setting will mix up the air so that more of
the heat reaches you.
Group together areas that use hot water to minimise heat loss from pipes, plumbing costs and
water wastage.
FIGURE 1.10: ZONING OF A HOME FOR A NARROW FIGURE 1.11: ZONING OF A HOME FOR A NARROW
NORTH-SOUTH BLOCK EAST-WEST BLOCK
Doors between
living areas
Bedrooms
Bathrooms/ Bedroom Bathrooms/
Laundry Laundry
Kitchen/family
day-time zones
on the north
Formal living
Doors between
living areas
Kitchen/family
Doors between
Garage/ day-time zones
living zones and
carport on the north
bedroom zones
Formal living Children’s playrooms or
studies on the north side
8
Victorian climates have hot summer days, Some rooms in the house are less important The sun is most intense on east and west
but overnight temperatures are often much to keep cool in summer or warm in winter windows in summer. Maintaining summer
lower. You can minimise your use of air e.g. garages, bathrooms, storage areas and comfort is much easier if these windows are
conditioning by designing the house to laundries. You can use these spaces on well shaded and are modestly sized.
encourage cross ventilation to cool down the less favourable orientations (see Chapter 4:
house overnight or after a cool change (see Windows) to provide protection for heated › Avoid a westerly aspect for bedrooms
Figure 1.12 and refer to Chapter 7). and cooled rooms (i.e. living rooms and which heat up the room just before you
bedrooms). Keep these spaces away from the go to bed. An easterly aspect is fine if
› In Victoria cooling breezes usually come north to ensure other rooms can use north you can shade windows in summer. As
from the south. Small openings on the windows. with all rooms a northerly aspect is best
south (windward) and larger openings on (see Figure 1.14). If you can’t achieve this
the north (leeward) help maximise cross › Use utility areas such as bathrooms, consider using clerestory windows.
ventilation. laundries and garages as buffer zones on › Design your house with a room that can be
› If you can’t place windows on the south the west and south sides of the home. a cool retreat: a living area positioned on the
and east try and ensure that there are › Locate garages and carports on the east, south side of the house with modest sized
openings on at least two sides of rooms. west or south sides to protect the rest of well shaded windows. This room will only
› Provide short ventilation paths connecting the home from summer sun and winter need a little energy to keep cool even if the
external openings (less than 8 m) to winds (see Figures 1.10 and 1.11). other areas of the house are uncomfortable
encourage cross-ventilation. › Be careful not to place rooms or garages so allows you to keep cool and contain
where they will overshadow northern your energy bills at the same time.
› If your house is large and ventilation paths
are too long, consider using a mechanical windows during winter mornings or
ventilation system to cool down the house. afternoons. Avoid deep north-facing
courtyards (see Figures 1.12 and 1.13
and later section on Courtyards).
FIGURE 1.12: CROSS-VENTILATION FIGURE 1.13: DEEP NORTH-FACING FIGURE 1.14: EAST AND WEST-FACING
CAN PROVIDE MOST OF YOUR SUMMER COURTYARDS ARE OVERSHADOWED WALLS CAN SHADEADJACENT NORTH-FACING
COOLING NEEDS BY THE SIDE WALLS IN WINTER WINDOWS IN WINTER
Morning sun Afternoon sun North-facing windows in shade for

most of the winter morning
9
Notes
10
02 / Sun, Climate and Comfort
The contents of this chapter outlines
background information relating to
the movement of the sun and how to
determine its position at a given site;
climate zones in Victoria and how this
affects heating and cooling energy
requirements; and factors influencing
our perception of thermal comfort.
11
The sun and the seasons
The tilt of the Earth’s axis as it orbits the sun creates the different paths and angles
of the sun from summer to winter. For half of the year the southern hemisphere is
tilted toward the sun which creates summer conditions. When it is tilted away the
southern hemisphere is cooler i.e. winter. The time between these two extremes is
called the equinox, when both hemispheres receive the same amount of sunlight.
Equinoxes Winter solstice

At the equinoxes (21 March and 21 September), the sun rises exactly The winter solstice on 21 June has the least daylight of the year
in the east and sets exactly in the west. The point directly above the (around nine hours). In Melbourne the sun rises from a position on the
observer is called the zenith (see Figure 2.10). The angle between the horizon about 30° north of due east, travels low across the sky and
zenith and the position of the sun at noon (solar noon) is equal to the sets about 30° north of due west. Its maximum altitude angle at solar
site latitude. In Victoria latitude varies by only around 4.5 degrees, so noon is about 29° (see Figure 2.11).
the sun angles are broadly similar across all locations.
Figure 2.10 shows the apparent movement of the sun to an observer Summer solstice
in Melbourne and the resultant summer and winter shadows. The
relative angles and position of the sun vary slightly across Victoria The summer solstice on 21 December has the most daylight of the
according to latitude. year (around 14.5 hours). In Melbourne the sun rises from a position
on the horizon about 30° south of due east, travels high in the sky and
sets about 30° south of due west. Its maximum altitude angle at solar
noon is around 75° (see Figure 2.11).
FIGURE 2.10: SOLAR NOON ALTITUDE ANGLES FOR MELBOURNE FIGURE 2.11: APPARENT MOVEMENT OF THE SUN
WITH SUMMER AND WINTER SHADOWS
zenith
90˚ WEST summer
summer solstice
75˚
equinox equinox
52˚ winter
midday shadow
winter
winter solstice
29˚
SOUTH NORTH
summer
altitude angles midday shadow EAST
observer
12
Evaluating shading impacts
The position of the sun in the sky varies across the year and during the day. As a
result the extent of shade cast by eaves, pergolas, and surrounding buildings also
varies throughout the day and the year. This variation is allowed for by Nationwide
House Energy Rating Scheme (NatHERS) software tools. These tools are used to
determine compliance with building regulations for new houses and renovations.
While these impacts are calculated by NatHERS tools, they do not You can also use these tools to examine whether adjacent buildings
provide a visual indication of how effectively your house is shaded. will overshadow your house as shown in Figure 2.15 below. This
It is therefore useful to examine shading impacts during the design shows that the north windows of the house will not be overshadowed
process using other software tools. at the winter solstice. In summer, of course, shading keeps your
house cool. So you can also use these tools to see whether adjacent
Most building designers and architects use computer-aided design buildings provide shade in summer. This helps you decide whether
(CAD) software, and most CAD software packages can visually show you need to install external blinds or shading structures like pergolas
shading impacts at different times of the year and day. There are also to shade windows or whether shade from surrounding buildings and
a number of free tools available for download on the internet that trees will do the job for you.
allow you to relatively easily construct a model of your house and
examine shading impacts. Planning codes often require a certain proportion of private outdoor
space to be in sun at the equinox either on your lot or on adjacent lots.
Figures 2.12, 213 and 2.14 below, show examples of shading studies These tools can show whether you comply with minimum areas in
using SketchUp©. You can use these 3D modelling tools to check out sunlight required by these planning codes.
how much shade eaves provide in winter and summer.
Note that complying with planning code requirements minimum open
At the winter solstice, the eaves do not shade most of the north space in sunlight requirements should not be seen as a guarantee
windows (1) so these windows provide free solar heat to heat up that the affected houses have either enough sun in winter or enough
your house in winter. Note that the wall above the window is shaded. shade in summer. It will always be important to check out the impacts
If the windows went up to the underside of the eave, this top part of of eaves, surrounding buildings and vegetation at various times of the
the window would be in shade. The deep eaves creating an ‘Outdoor year and the day to ensure that you have the right mix of sun in winter
Room’ at (2) leaves these windows in shade in winter and they will not and shade in summer.
help to heat the house. At the summer solstice, however, the eaves
completely shade the north windows. Chapter 3 on siting and solar access and Chapter 4 on windows
provide more information on how to make best use of windows to
provide free heating from the sun in winter and how to keep the sun
out in summer.
FIGURE 2.12: HOUSE VIEWED FROM NORTH EAST SHOWING SHADE FIGURE 2.13: SHADE CAST BY EAVES ON NORTH WINDOWS
CAST BY EAVES ON NORTH WINDOWS AT THE WINTER SOLSTICE AT THE SUMMER SOLSTICE
FIGURE 2.14: SHADE CAST BY EAVES ON NORTH WINDOWS FIGURE 2.15: IMPACT ON PRIVATE OPEN SPACE IN SHADE
AT THE EQUINOX
Boundary fence
Private open space Private open space in

shade at 9am equinox
13
Climate zones in Victoria
Australian climates are classified in two ways.
› For NatHERS energy ratings there are 69 climates across Australia. The amount of energy you need to heat and cool your house depends
Nine of the climates apply to Victoria (see Figure 2.16). NatHERS on the climate at your location. The temperature, solar radiation, wind
software tools will use the climate zone linked to your dwelling’s speed and humidity the house is exposed to all affect the need for
postcode when assessing the thermal performance of your house. heating and cooling. Figures 2.18 shows the average maximum and
You can see an interactive map of NatHERS climate classifications minimum temperature in Summer and Winter for various Victorian
at http://nathers.gov.au/nathers-accredited-software/nathers- climates.
climate-zones-and-weather-files.
Figure 2.18 shows that Mildura is significantly warmer in summer so
› You can also meet the requirements of building regulations using
it will need more cooling than other Victorian climates. Ballarat and
the Deemed to Satisfy requirements for Insulation levels and
Alpine areas are much cooler in winter so they will need more heating
Window performance values rather than a NATHERS energy rating.
than other Victorian climates. Inland climates also have a greater daily
Climate classification is simpler for this purpose and there are only
range of temperatures than coastal climates e.g. Warrnambool versus
eight climate classifications across Australia, three of which apply
Ballarat because there is less cloud cover in inland climates means
to Victoria. You can download a map of Victorian climates at:
that the climate cools down more overnight and heats up more during
http://www.abcb.gov.au/Resources/Tools-Calculators/Climate-
the day.
Zone-Map-Victoria. Refer to Figure 2.17.
As will be explained in Chapter 6 on thermal mass, inland climates,
which have a larger daily range of temperatures than coastal
climates, are particularly suited to using heavy weight high thermal
mass construction like concrete slabs or internal brick walls.
The amount of solar radiation in Victoria also varies significantly

between climates and is at much lower levels in winter than summer.
Again, in inland climates, the amount of solar radiation available will
be higher because of the lower cloud cover.
Figure 2.19 shows the total amount of solar radiation falling on a

horizontal surface in kWh for the three months of winter or summer
for the same climates shown.
These climatic influences combine to produce significantly different

heating and cooling requirements across the various climates. Figure
2.21 shows how heating and cooling requirements vary across these
climates for the typical 6 star house shown in Figure 2.20.
FIGURE 2.16: NATHERS CLIMATE CLASSIFICATIONS FIGURE 2.17: ABCB CLIMATE ZONE MAP OF VICTORIA
zone 1
zone 2
zone 3
Ouyen
Swan Hill zone 4
zone 5
zone 6
Wodonga
Charlton Echuca
Nhill zone 7
Shepparton
zone 8
Horsham St Arnaud Bendigo
Benella
Bright
Avoca Seymour Mansfield
Ararat Alexandra Omeo
Ballarat
Hamilton Melton
Bairnsdale Orbost
Heywood Pakenham Lakes Entrance
Geelong Sale
Portsea Morwell
Leongatha
Wonthaggi
14
FIGURE 2.18: AVERAGE SUMMER AND WINTER TEMPERATURE RANGES FIGURE 2.19: SUMMER AND WINTER RADIATION ON A HORIZONTAL
IN VARIOUS VICTORIAN CLIMATES SURFACE IN VARIOUS VICTORIAN CLIMATES
TEMPERATURE (°C) KWH PER SQUARE METRE
summer winter summer winter

35 250
30
200
25
20
150
15
100
10
5
50
-5 0
East Sale Alpine Mildura Tullamarine Warrnambool Ballarat East Sale Alpine Mildura Tullamarine Warrnambool Ballarat
FIGURE 2.20: TYPICAL 6 STAR HOUSE PLAN USED TO ASSESS HEATING AND COOLING LOADS IN VARIOUS VICTORIAN CLIMATES
Sitting
WC Living
Bath
L’dry Entry
Bed 3 Bed 2 Kitchen Ensuite
Bed 1
WIR
15
Thermal comfort
Thermal comfort refers to the range of conditions in which the majority

of people feel comfortable. This is a limited range, as we need to maintain
a relatively stable body temperature of around 37°C.
The heating and cooling loads shown in Figure 2.21 are the energy FIGURE 2.21: HEATING AND COOLING LOADS IN VARIOUS
requirements needed to provide comfortable conditions inside the VICTORIAN CLIMATES
typical 6 star house (shown in figure 2.20) throughout the year.
ENERGY LOAD MJ/ANNUM (THOUSANDS)
heating cooling
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
East Sale Alpine Mildura Tullamarine Warrnambool Ballarat
Our bodies produce heat depending primarily on the level of activity Heat can also be gained or lost by conduction e.g. coming into
e.g. sitting, standing or running, and loose or gain heat according to contact with surfaces at a different temperature to your skin like
the surrounding environmental conditions. walking on a floor with no socks on. The proportion varies depending
on the temperature of the surfaces and the area of skin in contact
The body loses or gains heat in three main ways: with these surfaces. Figure 2.22 shows the main factors affecting
body heat gains and losses inside a building.
Radiation 45%
Convection 30%
FIGURE 2.22: BODY HEAT GAINS AND LOSSES
Evaporation 25%
Heat gains Heat losses
› From solar radiation › To cooler air
› From warmer air › To cooler objects
› From warmer objects › By evaporation
› From radiant heaters › By contact with cooler
› From contact with warmer objects
objects
16
Thermal comfort variables NatHERS tools use the environmental Humidity: moisture content of the air is
temperature to predict heating and cooling defined as relative humidity and may cause
Comfort is influenced by seven main loads which combines both air temperature discomfort when above 70% or below
variables. All these factors are accounted and radiant temperature effects. 30%. While this rarely applies in Victorian
for by NatHERS energy rating software. climates NatHERS tools will turn on cooling
Factors affecting comfort are listed below. Relative air velocity: this is important in in conditions of high humidity.
warm weather, as air moving across the
Air temperature (also called dry bulb skin increases heat loss by evaporation, Activity levels: lower air temperatures are
temperature): this is the main influence on lowering the perceived air temperature. acceptable when users of the space have
thermal comfort. NatHERS tools will open windows in higher activity levels, reducing their heating
summer to provide air movement. They needs.
Mean radiant temperature: the average predict the air speed through each room and
temperature of all exposed surfaces in a will not turn on cooling if this air movement Thermal resistance of clothing: lower air
space. For example: is enough to provide comfort. An air speed temperatures are acceptable if users of the
› Single glazed windows have a surface of 0.5 m/sec will make you feel about 1.6 space wear warm clothing or use enough
temperature which is close to the outside degrees cooler while an air speed of 1.0 m/ blankets to lower their heating needs
temperature. On a cold night your body sec will make you feel about 3.8 degrees (e.g. in bedrooms at night). Lower heating
will lose heat to the cooler windows cooler. thermostat levels are used in bedrooms
and you will need to heat to a higher by NatHERS tools despite the fact that
air temperature to maintain comfort to Air movement in colder weather can make our activity level is low because we are
compensate for this radiant heat loss us feel uncomfortably cold even when insulated by bedding.
to the windows, and the air temperature would normally be
considered comfortable e.g. the draughts Adaptation to climate: The conditions in
› Radiant heaters like hydronic (hot water) each climate affect how comfortable we
that arise from loose fitting windows and
panels can make you feel comfortable feel. In warmer climates like Mildura, people
doors. See chapter 7 on air leakage and air
at lower air temperatures than heaters become adapted to higher temperatures
movement.
which only heat the air because of the and do not set air conditioning thermostats
radiant heat gain from the heating panel. to as low a temperature as in cooler
climates like Ballarat. This is reflected in the
thermostat settings used by NatHERS tools.
17
Notes
18
03 / Siting and Solar Access
This chapter explains how to select a lot, site
your home and arrange the rooms in your home
to maximise the benefits of solar energy.
19
Siting and Solar Access
The degree to which your north windows and roof are exposed to the sun is
known as Solar Access. High exposure to the sun is known as good solar access.
The guidelines below explain how to maintain good solar access for your
north windows in winter.
20
Benefits of solar access Diffuse and direct solar radiation

The energy from the sun can help you to reduce your household When people think of solar radiation they usually only think about
energy use. In winter months, north facing windows let in the sun’s the radiation that comes directly from the sun. However, for north
heat to provide free home heating and are easily shaded in summer windows, the amount of sun that is reflected from the sky or the
with a simple eave. Windows facing in other directions don’t provide ground is responsible for up to 40% of the energy falling on the
nearly as much heat in winter (see chapter 4 on Windows for more window in winter. This reflected radiation is called diffuse radiation.
information). This means that your north windows can receive some shade from
direct sun without losing all the sun’s energy.
Solar hot water panels collect the sun’s heat to provide 60-75% of
the heat you need for hot water. Millions of Australians have installed Early solar access guides concentrated on eliminating all winter
photovoltaic panels on their roofs to generate their own electricity shade by surrounding object on north windows. This guide focusses
from the sun. However, if surrounding buildings or vegetation on strategies which maintain at least 90% of the total radiation
overshadow your north windows, or the roof where your panels are – direct and diffuse – falling on north windows. The advantage of
installed, these benefits are lost. this approach is that buildings can be sited closer together than an
approach which only considers shadows or direct radiation.
It is harder to provide good solar access to north windows compared
to the roof, because your roof is higher than your windows and less While a number of diagrams in this chapter show a representation
exposed to overshadowing from surrounding objects. So providing of shadows cast, all siting guidelines to protect north windows from
good solar access to your north windows ensures that you will also shade in winter include the effect of both shade from direct sun and
have good solar access for your solar hot water or photovoltaic panels. diffuse sun (e.g. Figures 3.16, 3.17, 3.19 and 3.20).
All new houses in Victoria must achieve a minimum 6 (out of 10) star
rating. If you have good solar access to north windows in daytime Siting for solar access
occupied areas like living areas the cost of achieving 6 stars can
be significantly reduced. This is because north windows heat your The key to providing good solar access to your north windows is
home during the day, so you don’t need to reduce heat losses by as maintaining an area to the north of these windows which is free of
much as you would without solar access e.g. less double glazing or other buildings or evergreen trees (see Figure 3.10).
insulation. The case study in Chapter 8 provides an example of the
The size and shape of your lot affects your ability to site your house
construction cost savings that can be made by implementing solar
with a clear space in front of your north windows. The amount of
passive design principles. Houses with good solar access also make
space you need to protect your solar access depends on the height
it easier and cheaper to build houses at even higher star ratings than
of the houses to the north and the slope of the land. The following
the minimum 6 stars. Note that north windows to any space will make
sections explain how these factors can affect solar access, and the
it more comfortable in winter, but the largest benefits for regulatory
extent of open space you will need to maintain on your lot to protect
compliance occur when north windows are in daytime occupied
your solar access.
spaces like living areas.
FIGURE 3.10: UNOBSTRUCTED SPACE TO THE NORTH

FOR GOOD SOLAR ACCESS
set
bac
k
space free of major
obstructions
living areas
21
Choosing a block
These guidelines explain how to select a lot for your new home that will
make it possible to have north facing windows to the living areas which
have good solar access.
The key principles of lot selection are: Design guidelines

› ensure there is enough space on the lot to accommodate north
windows to all your living areas, and then You will get the best solar access by selecting lots with the
following properties:
› protect the solar access to these north windows from
overshadowing by surrounding buildings and vegetation by setting
your house back from the north boundary. Large lots allow the greatest opportunity to place the home
with living areas facing north.
If your lot boundaries don’t align with north, then you will need to build
your house at an angle to the lot boundary to make use of north facing If you are looking at smaller lots:
windows. This can lead to a less efficient use of outdoor space, and on
narrow lots make the use of north windows impractical. Figure 3.11 Where the longest side of the lot runs north-south (Figure 3.12)
shows preferred lot orientations for narrow lots. the backyard or street will protect your solar access. In this
case the key factor is selecting a block that is wide enough to
allow your living rooms to have north windows.
FIGURE 3.11: PREFERRED ORIENTATION RANGE FOR LOTS
Where the longest side of the lot runs east-west (Figure 3.13)
you need to choose a lot which will allow you to set the house
back from the northern boundary so that the solar access to
the living area north windows is protected:
› if there is a one-storey building built to the north you will

Street need to keep your house at least 5.5 m from this building.
20° 30° › if there is a two-storey building built to the north you will
need to keep your house at least 10.0 m from this building.
› lots with a street or park to the north are ideal because there
will be no buildings to the north. This allows you to choose a
30°
20°
narrower lot and still have good solar access.

Street
Street
20°
30°
Blocks that slope down to the north (see Figure 3.14) will be
less affected by overshadowing to the north and will therefore
have better solar access.
30° 20°
Street
To protect your solar access, avoid lots with the following properties:
small, irregular-shaped blocks;
narrow blocks that slope steeply to the south (see Figure 3.15);
blocks with obstructions such as buildings and tall trees to the

LONG NORTH-SOUTH LONG EAST-WEST north; and
BOUNDARY BOUNDARY
long, narrow blocks with boundaries that don’t align with the
north-south or east west (see Figure 3.11).
22
FIGURE 3.12: BLOCKS THAT RUN NORTH-SOUTH FIGURE 3.14: DISTANCE BETWEEN HOMES
CAN PROVIDE GOOD SOLAR ACCESS IF MINIMUM CAN BE LESS ON NORTH-FACING SLOPES
BOUNDARY WIDTHS ARE PROVIDED.
winter sun
>13 m >13 m
living living
living
car car car
>13 m >13 m FIGURE 3.15: AVOID NARROW BLOCKS THAT

street SLOPE STEEPLY TO THE SOUTH
winter sun
car car
living living distance between homes
must be extended
home in shade
all winter
FIGURE 3.13: BLOCKS THAT RUN EAST-WEST

CAN PROVIDE GOOD SOLAR ACCESS IF
MINIMUM BOUNDARY WIDTHS ARE PROVIDED.
5.5 m setback
living
car
5.5m setback
living 14 m
car
5.5 m setback
living 14 m
car
23
Placing your home on the block
This section provides guidelines on siting your home and the general layout of living
areas and garages/carports to make the best use of the solar access of your lot.
These are suggested minimums and detailed shading studies, like those described
in Chapter 2, will always provide a better and more flexible solution.
Design guidelines
Keep north-facing walls and windows well back from large obstructions to the north such as buildings,
trees or fences, as they cast shadows two to three times their height in mid-winter (see Figure 3.16)
depending on the time of day. A distance of at least 5.5 m from a single-storey obstruction to the north, or
at least ten metres from a double-storey obstruction, is recommended (see Figure 3.17).
Consider building on the south, east or west boundaries. If this is not possible, at least place the home
close to the southern boundary. This gives you more space to put your living areas on the north and helps
to avoid windows in less favourable orientations.
Avoid placing garages, carports and other buildings on the northern side of the block so that you can
maximise the use of north windows in your living areas. This may mean you may have to place your house
on the east of west boundary (see Figure 3.18).
Consider sharing walls with neighbours, particularly on the east or west boundaries (see Figure 3.18).
Sharing walls reduce the area of wall exposed to outside temperature fluctuations and therefore
significantly reduces the heat loss/gain to the house.
24
FIGURE 3.16: OBJECTS CAST SHADOWS TWO FIGURE 3.17: ALLOW ADEQUATE DISTANCE
TO THREE TIMES THEIR HEIGHT IN WINTER FROM OBSTRUCTIONS TO THE NORTH
winter sun
sun
ter
win
height double
single single storey
storey storey
at least 5.5 m at least 10 m

2–3 times height
FIGURE 3.18: WISE HOUSE PLACEMENT CLOSE TO EAST, WEST AND SOUTH BOUNDARIES MAXIMISES SOLAR ACCESS
5.5 m 5.5 m
living living
car car
5.5 m 5.5 m
living living
car car
street
street
5.5 m 5.5 m
living living
car car
living living living
car car car
street
25
Sites with poor solar access
This chapter has explained how to maintain good solar access to north windows.
Real world constraints, can mean it is not always possible to achieve this.
Renovations of an existing house often face constrained solar access. This section
explains how to keep the benefits of north facing glass where solar access is limited.
If site constraints mean that it is just not possible to achieve good Raise sill heights for north facing glass
solar access, then windows will be a significant source of heat loss
in winter. Without solar heat gains in winter even a double glazed with poor solar access
window will lose 4 to 8 times more heat than an insulated wall and
Raising sill heights can eliminate areas of north glass which are
single glazed windows will lose 12 times more heat. You can contain
permanently in shadow (see Figure 3.19). Table 3.1 shows the
the extra cost of meeting regulations by trimming window areas. Full
recommended sill heights and distance required from a northern
height glazing provides a wonderful link to the outside environment,
obstruction to maintain 90% of winter solar access.
but the bottom and top of the glass don’t provide views. In sites
without solar access raising the sill height and lowering the head
height of windows by 300 mm can help to contain costs without TABLE 3.1: DISTANCE BETWEEN BUILDINGS NEEDED TO MAINTAIN
sacrificing views. 90% SOLAR ACCESS
Sill height Distance (metres) needed to maintain 90%

solar access
One storey Two storey Three storey
Eave depth
of 600 mm
Floor level 5.5 10.0 16.0
0.3 m 4.8 9.0 14.4
0.6 m 4.5 8.4 13.8
Eave depth (If you raise the sill by 900mm,

of 300 mm reduce the eave depth)
0.9 m 4.0 7.4 13.0
FIGURE 3.19: RAISE SILL HEIGHT TO MAXIMISE WINTER HEAT GAIN
Permanent heat loss through shaded glass area Raising sill avoids heat loss in low glass
26
Use north facing clerestory windows Courtyards

On sites with severely constrained solar access to north walls, using Courtyards and L shaped buildings can cast unwanted shade on north
north-facing clerestory windows can allow you to take advantage of facing windows.
free heat from the sun in winter (see Figure 3.20). In addition, because
Table 3.2 shows how you can position north facing windows in
they are less overshadowed, clerestory windows provide much more
courtyards to minimise overshadowing and maximise solar access.
light than windows in walls at ground level providing a light and airy
Note that if your courtyard or L shape is only single storey you should
feel to the room.
use the window positions shown for the first floor.
Here are some tips on using clerestory windows:
TABLE 3.2: PREFERRED GLAZING ZONE FOR RECESSED
› Use windows with double glazing or single low-e coated glass. NORTHERN WALLS
Hot air rises, so heat losses are higher through clerestory windows.
› Don’t make them too big. In winter the first few square metres Window location and height Distance from overshadowing wall.
of north glass is responsible for much of the energy saving (see D is depth of courtyard/L-shape
Chapter 4 on Windows for more information). Too great an area of First Floor
clerestory window will increase your winter heat losses and can
create overheating problems in summer. Remember that clerestory Windows with any glazing D/4 (max 1.5 m)
windows allow more light to enter a room so you will not need such below 1200mm
a big area of glazing.
Windows with all glazing D/5 (max 1 m)
› Use a ceiling fan with a winter reverse setting. This ensures that above 1200mm
air is mixed up and the heat doesn’t stay up at the level of the
clerestory window. Ground Floor
› Make some of the clerestory windows openable. In summer this Windows with any glazing D/2 (max 3 m)
can help you to get rid of the heat that builds up at ceiling level. below 1200mm
› Make sure they are shaded in summer. Ideally, clerestory windows
should be shaded with an external blind so you can choose when Windows with all glazing D/3 (max 2.2 m)
you want to let the sun in or keep it out. However, if you want to above 1200mm
shade clerestory windows with a fixed shading structure the depth
Figure 3.21 shows shade cast on June 21 at 2:30 in a 2 storey north
of the shading device does not need to be very wide because
facing courtyard. The lower the window, the greater the shade from
clerestory windows are often 600 to 900mm in height. A 300mm
the sides of the courtyard. Lower windows will need to be placed
wide shading structure with a 150mm gap from the window head
further from the projecting wall to avoid excessive shade. Note that
to the underside of the overhang should be enough.
these guidelines are suggested values only. Careful design using
NatHERS tools will still allow energy efficient solutions even if these
suggested clearances are notused.The higher the courtyard, the
greater the need for careful design.
FIGURE 3.20: NOTH-FACING CLERESTORY WINDOW FIGURE 3.21: PREFERRED GLAZING ZONE FOR RECESSED NORTHERN WALLS
Not greater than 1/3 of D/5

height of clerestory windows ≥1.2 m
D/4
<1.2 m
D/3 ≥1.2 m
First First
Floor D/2 Floor
<1.2 m
Ground
D = Distance from wall
27
Notes
28
04 / Windows
This chapter explains how windows affect the
energy efficiency of your home and how to
make windows work for you to minimise the
cost of complying with building regulations for
new homes and renovations.
29
04 / Windows
Benefits of good window design
Windows are a vital part of any home – they allow natural light into the home and
provide views and fresh air. Well-planned and protected windows improve comfort
year-round and reduce the need for heating in winter and cooling in summer.
Image courtesy of Metricon – Delta display home in Kaduna Park, Officer, Victoria.
Window size, orientation, shading and internal coverings can

have a significant impact on energy efficiency and occupant
comfort. Designing north windows for maximum solar access
can reduce winter heating bills by up to 25%. External shading
can block up to 80% of summer heat gain through windows.
Internal window coverings and double glazing can reduce
winter heat losses by up to 70%
Windows are also the most critical component in achieving

the minimum energy performance requirements of the
building regulations. Chapters 2 and 3 explain how to
choose a site and position your house to maximise the use
of beneficial north-facing glazing. Use of north-facing
glazing can help you to minimise the cost of complying with
regulations and give you the ability to use a greater amount
of glazing in your house.
30
04 / Windows
Window Energy Rating Scheme
The Window Energy Rating Scheme (WERS) has been developed by the Australian
windows industry with the support of the Australian Government. WERS rates a
window’s energy performance in summer and winter in terms of stars. No stars
means the window is a very poor performer while 5 stars indicates an excellent
performer (see Table 4.1).
Selecting windows using Window performance Energy ratings and

star ratings information regulations: Finding
In Victoria’s cooler coastal and inland The WERS scheme also provides important alternative windows
climates e.g. Melbourne, Sale, Warrnambool performance data about windows that allow
New homes and significant renovations need
and Ballarat, the best windows are those with you to compare products on a level playing
to be assessed against the minimum energy
the most stars for winter performance and field. The WERS website (www.wers.net)
performance requirements set out in the
low stars for summer performance. This is shows the U value and Solar Heat Gain
building regulations. When your house is
because heating energy use is much higher Coefficient (SHGC) for hundreds of thousands
assessed against these regulations the
than cooling energy use in these climates. of window products available in Australia.
required U value and SHGC for each window
In warmer Victorian climates like those The U value shows how much heat flows will be reported to you by the NatHERS
around Mildura you will need a balance of through the window due to the difference assessor, the building designer or building
window performance that focuses more on between internal air and outside air. The lower surveyor. You can use these values to shop
reducing summer heat gain because it has the U value, the lower the heat flow and the around for suitable products from any
much higher cooling loads (see Fig. 2.21). better the performance of the house. window manufacturer. The WERS website
Windows with higher cooling stars may be allows you to search its database to find
needed on the east and west, while the best The SHGC shows how much of the sun’s heat which windows meet the U and SHGC your
windows for a southern orientation will be will get through the window in both summer windows need to achieve.
those with higher winter stars. and winter. SHGC values vary from 0.1 (lets
only 10% of the sun in) to 0.85 (lets 85% of To meet the building regulation requirements
the sun in). A clear single glazed window will your windows need to have a U value which
TABLE 4.1: PERCENTAGE IMPROVEMENT typically have a SHGC of approximately 0.6 to is equal to or less than the value specified
IN HEATING AND COOLING IS REPRESENTED and an SHGC within 5% or 10% of the value
0.85 depending on the size of the frame,
BY THE NUMBER OF STARS specified. Ask your NatHERS assessor or
while a tinted window will have a SHGC of
approximately 0.3 to 0.5 depending on the Building Surveyor for more details.
Number of stars Indicative frame and the nature of the tint.
The U value and SHGC of glazing also
improvement
In cooler climates high SHGC values are best depends on the opening style of windows
Windows to keep you cool because they maximise heat gain from the (e.g. casement, awning, sliding and fixed)
sun in winter. In these climates summer heat because the area of the frame is different
NIL 0% in each case. When looking for windows
gain is best managed using shading systems
which let the sun in in winter and keep it out that meet the requirements of your rating,
12%
in summer e.g. external blinds or eaves on make sure you are comparing minimum
24% north windows. In climates like Mildura performance values with windows that
windows with lower SHGC values will have the same opening style.
36%
generally provide higher NatHERS star
If you want to use a window which is not
48% ratings on all orientations except for north
within the original specifications your house
facing windows. However, much depends on
60% may still comply, but this will need to be
the overall area of windows and whether the
verified by re-rating the house using the
house or individual rooms have higher
Windows to keep you warm actual products you want to use. Your
heating loads than cooling loads.
NatHERS assessor will make a small
NIL 0% additional charge to do this and your plans
will need to be amended to show the actual
9%
windows used. If you do change the window
18% types used, your house may need further
changes in order to comply with the rating
27% requirements such as changes to insulation
36% levels or window sizes. In this case additional
additional changes may add to costs of the
45% re-rating and construction.
Based on the amount of energy required to heat or cool
a typical house, when compared with using clear, single
glazed aluminium windows.
31
04 / Windows
Window design and Heat flow through glass

shading principles
The three main principles of energy smart window design are listed Heat flows through glass in two ways:
below. › Conduction: heat flow caused by a difference in temperature
› Maximise winter heat gain by orientating windows to the north and between inside and outside – measured by the U value, and
sizing windows to suit the amount of thermal mass in the dwelling. › Radiation: glass allows a proportion of the solar radiation that falls
› Minimise winter heat loss through appropriate window sizing, on it into the house – measured by SHGC.
together with double glazing and/or close-fitting internal coverings
such as drapes with pelmets. When the sun’s heat passes through glass it heats up surfaces inside
the house e.g. walls, floors and furniture. These surfaces then radiate
› Minimise summer heat gain by protecting windows with external
heat back toward the glass. However, while glass lets in the sun’s
shading devices, and through appropriate SHGC, sizing and
radiation it reflects the radiation from heated objects back into the
positioning of windows.
house. This property of glass is used in commercial greenhouses to
The same principles apply to other types of glazing, such as glass provide warm conditions for plants that would not otherwise be able
doors, roof windows and skylights. Wherever the term ‘window’ is to grow in cool climates. This is called the greenhouse effect – it is
used in this chapter, it encompasses all forms of glazing. why global warming, due to higher levels of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere, is also called the greenhouse effect.
To distinguish between the behaviour of solar radiation heat gain

through glass from the atmospheric greenhouse effect, the term
‘glasshouse effect’ will be used to avoid confusion.
Figure 4.10 shows how the glasshouse effect occurs. The glasshouse
effect can be used to advantage in winter to keep a home warm. In
summer, this behaviour makes it particularly important to provide shade.
The amount of solar radiation transmitted through windows depends

on a number of factors including window orientation, size, amount of
external shading, and glass treatments such as tinting or reflective
films. Whether the window has a net heat gain or loss in winter
depends on the balance between the amount of direct and diffuse
radiation received and the amount of heat lost by conduction. With
good design a house can have a net heat gain through windows in
winter, and minimal heat gain in summer.
FIGURE 4.10: THE GLASSHOUSE EFFECT FIGURE 4.11: WINDOW ORIENTATIONS CONSIDERED
TO BE NORTH, EAST, WEST AND SOUTH
North
20˚ 30˚
West East
Re-radiated Shortwave radiation

longwave passes through the glass 40˚ 40˚
radiation
is trapped
inside
South
32
04 / Windows
The impact of window orientation

on heat gain
In summer In winter
The amount of solar radiation that falls on a window varies according In winter, the situation is different. Windows facing north, north-west
to its orientation (see Figure 4.12) and time of year. Figure 4.12 and north-east can have a net heat gain over winter, and reduce your
compares the summer solar heat gain in a house from just one heating needs (see Figure 4.13). Although east and west windows
square metre of clear single glazed window over the summer season receive substantial solar radiation in the morning and afternoon,
with the heat given out by a two-bar radiator operating three hours respectively, the overall heat losses outweigh the gains over a 24-hour
per day for different window orientations in Melbourne. As can be period. Windows orientated to the south also have net heat loss.
seen, it won’t take too many square metres of glazing to heat up a Figure 4.10 shows the range of orientations for Victoria within which
house and make it uncomfortable in summer. a window is regarded as facing north, east, west, or south. These
orientations are used for all tables and calculations in this chapter.
The highest heat gains in summer come from windows which face
west and east. In fact, when there is no cloud the amount of radiation North-facing windows receive winter sun, allowing light and warmth
on both east and west is about the same. The total radiation on the into the home. They can be easily shaded in summer to help keep the
east is less because temperatures are lower in the morning when the home cool.
sun is in the east and this leads to higher cloud cover. So while there
is less heat gain from an east window, on clear sunny mornings it is East and west-facing windows receive much less winter sun than
just as important to shade east facing windows as it is to shade west north windows, and quite high levels of summer sun. The size and
facing windows. shading of the windows need to be carefully managed.
Figures 4.12 and 4.13 solar radiation data was taken from the South-facing windows receive no direct sunlight in winter and only
Australian Solar Radiation Data Handbook Edition 3. Summer and receive early morning and late afternoon sunlight in summer. Try to
winter solar heat gains used the appropriate 3 months of data (Dec. minimise the size of south windows. Most cooling breezes in Victoria
Jan. and Feb. for summer, May, Jun. Jul. for winter). Comparison with come from the south. So do provide some south windows to allow
the heat output of a two bar radiator assumed a 2kW heat output. a good breeze path through the house in summer.
Calculation of heat loss was based on simple steady state heat flow
calculations using average temperatures from 7am to midnight. Note
that the actual impact on heating loads in winter as predicted by
NatHERS tools is not directly proportional to this simple calculation.
FIGURE 4.12: WINDOW ORIENTATION AND SUMMER RADIATION FIGURE 4.13: WINDOW ORIENTATION AND WINTER RADIATION
(UNSHADED GLASS) (UNSHADED GLASS)
SOLAR INPUT (MJ/M2) summer heat gain SOLAR INPUT (MJ/M2) winter heat gain
two-bar radiator
operating three hrs/day
800 800
700 700
Single
600 600 glazing:
Heat loss range for high Heat gain
500 500 performance windows greater than
heat loss
400 400
Heat gain
300 300 less than
heat loss
200 200
100 100
0 0
South South West North North North East South South South West North North North East South
West West East East West West East East
33
04 / Windows
Window size guidelines
House Energy Rating software, such as FirstRate5, helps you to fine tune the design
of your house to suit your specific design constraints. If you want to have large
windows in less favourable orientations, NatHERS assessors using rating software
can show you how to do this.
This new flexibility means that older ideas about optimum window Principles for sizing windows
sizes are out of date. However, achieving regulation compliance in
new houses/renovations with large glass areas can significantly add The following are key principles to consider when sizing your windows:
to construction costs because the higher the area of glass used, the › Houses with high thermal mass construction like brick internal
higher the performance of the glass will have to be. walls or exposed concrete slabs absorb more of the solar heat gain
through windows. This means more of the heat gains can be used
It is important to remember that after the sun goes down – when the
to reduce heating in winter, while the heat absorbed during the day
majority of heating loads occur – single glazing has a heat loss 12
in summer can be removed at night by opening windows to let the
times higher than an insulated wall, and double glazing 4 to 8 times
cooler air in. Houses with more thermal mass can use larger
higher. So windows can be the weak link in an otherwise efficient
window areas.
design, particularly at higher areas.
› North facing glazing has high winter solar heat gain and is easily
The following principles and guidelines are presented to help you shaded in summer with a simple eave. If you have a choice always
make better window design decisions. They are based on achieving put your windows on the north elevation.
the required 6 star rating with minimal use of double glazing. They
› A little bit of north window goes a long way. The first few square
apply to houses and not apartments. Apartments can generally use
metres in any room produce most of the heating energy savings.
higher window areas because the low heat loss through shared walls,
While additional north windows will still heat up the space in winter,
floors and ceilings means there are less constraints on heat loss
they will heat up the house to well above your heating thermostat
through windows.
setting so won’t save energy, even if the additional warmth is
welcome. This means that:
› even small north windows to any room are beneficial, and
› there is no need to devote the entire north wall to windows
if this is not practical or affordable.
The benefits of north windows depend on the type of windows you use
and the amount of thermal mass in the house. Figure 4.16 shows the
heating energy loads of the kitchen/living room of the Case Study
house (Chapter 8) for various sizes of north glass with single glazing,
double glazing and double glazing with brick cavity external walls and
internal brick walls.
If you have single glazing adding further north glass does not reduce
heating energy loads beyond a certain point. The extra heat gains from
north windows increases the internal temperature and therefore
increases the heat losses through the glass. Figure 4.14 below shows
the temperatures in the living space for four areas of north glass on a
day with high solar radiation in winter. The higher areas of north glass
increase heat losses through the glass. At 22.8 m2 of north glass
the heat losses will be around 25% higher than at 1.5 m2.
FIGURE 4.14: INTERNAL TEMPERATURES ON A WINTER DAY WITH HIGH
SOLAR RADIATION
TEMPERATURE (°C)
25
20
15
10
outdoor
1.5 m2
5
8.0 m2
15.9 m2
0 22.8 m2
6 12 18
TIME OF DAY (O IS MIDNIGHT, 23 IS 11PM)
34
04 / Windows
However, just because north windows increase heating energy does While heating energy loads increase with larger glass areas for single
not mean it has no benefit. Figure 4.15 below compares the heating glazing as shown in Figure 4.16, larger north glazing still performs
energy use of the living space if it faced east with various glass areas. much better than glazing on other orientations. Increasing single
Note how much higher the heating energy is than with north windows. glazing areas on other orientations would see much more substantial
increases in heating loads, while increases in loads for north glazing
FIGURE 4.15: IMPACT OF NORTHAND EAST WINDOW AREA ON HEATING are only small. So, if you want to use larger areas of single glazing in
AND COOLING ENERGY IN KITCHEN/LIVING ZONE your house, using north facing glazing is the key.
LIVING ROOM ENERGY (MJ) If you have rooms with no north windows, consider using north-facing
13000 clerestory windows. Clerestory windows also provide wonderful light
12000
quality.
11000 Floor to ceiling windows provide a wonderful ‘indoor-outdoor’ feel, but
10000 can lead to higher construction costs and reduce comfort. The bottom
9000 300-450 mm of windows provide no views. Neither does the top
300-450 mm and this part of the window is usually in permanent
8000
shade in winter due to eaves. If you need to reduce window area, look
7000
at trimming from the top and bottom first – you’ll still get the views
6000 without the unwanted downside. Keep in mind that the building
5000 regulations generally require a minimum glass area of 10% of the
4000 room’s floor area for each habitable room.
3000
5
AREA OF WINDOWS (M2)
10 15 20 25
Total window area
east north
Table 4.2 gives recommended total window areas for single glazing
expressed as a percentage of total floor area. Houses which use
double glazing can use window areas which are up to a third bigger
again. Larger areas of glass are better suited to homes with higher
If you are using double glazing, the lower level of heat loss through levels of thermal mass and larger north-facing windows.
the glazing means that adding more north glass keeps on reducing
heating loads, and with high thermal mass the benefits of north glass
TABLE 4.2: MAXIMUM TOTAL GLASS AREA AS PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL
are greater again. FLOOR AREA FOR HOUSES WITH MAINLY SINGLE GLAZING
FIGURE 4.16: HOW THE BENEFITS OF NORTH WINDOWS VARY WITH
GLASS SIZE, TYPE OF WINDOW AND THERMAL MASS Construction type Total area % when Total area % when
north glass is less north glass is more
LIVING ROOM ENERGY (MJ)
than 5% of total floor than 5% of total
7000 area floor area
6000 Timber floor
5000 Brick veneer and 20.0 22.5

weatherboard walls
4000
Brick cavity walls 22.5 27.5
3000
Concrete slab floor
2000
Brick veneer and 22.5 25.0
1000 weatherboard walls
0 Brick cavity walls 25.0 30.0

5 10 15 20 25
AREA OF NORTH GLASS (M2)
single glazed windows

double glazed windows
double glazed windows and brick internal walls
35
04 / Windows
Balancing different orientations
NatHERS tools like FirstRate5 will allow your designer and energy assessor
to develop an energy efficient house plan with a wide variety of window areas.
The guidelines in this section are therefore not a hard and fast prescription
for window size, just a useful place to start.
North-facing windows South-facing windows

Between 30° east of true north and 20° west of true north Between 40° east of south and 40° west of south (see Figure 4.18).
(see Figure 4.17). › Keep south-facing windows reasonably small: total window area
If the house is constructed with high thermal mass such as internal should be less than 5% of the home’s total floor area. Maximise the
brick walls, use larger areas of north-facing glass. openable area if possible.
› Keep the window area in individual rooms less than 15% of the
If solar access is good and the floors are concrete slab:
room’s floor area.
› the area of north-facing windows over the whole house should be
between 10–15% of the home’s total floor area; and
› the area of north-facing windows in individual rooms can be up to
25% of the room’s floor area.
If solar access is good and the floors are timber:

› the area of north-facing windows over the whole house should be
around 10% of the home’s total floor area; and
› the area of north-facing windows in individual rooms can be up to
20% of the room’s floor area.
If solar access is poor:

› Keep the window area in individual rooms less than 15% of the
room’s floor area.
› Raise the sill height to eliminate the most overshadowed portion of
the window.
› Use adjustable external shading rather than eaves to maximise any
winter solar heat gain.
FIGURE 4.17: RANGE OF ACCEPTABLE ORIENTATIONS FIGURE 4.18: ORIENTATION OF WINDOWS CONSIDERED
FOR NORTH-FACING WINDOWS TO BE SOUTH-FACING
North
40˚ 40˚
20˚ 30˚
South
36
04 / Windows
East-facing windows Roof windows and skylights

Between 60° north of true east and 50° south of true east Roof windows and skylights should:
(see Figure 4.19). › be kept to a modest size e.g. no more than 600mm x 600 mm;
› Keep east-facing windows to a modest size: total window › be avoided in living and bedroom areas;
area should be less than 8% of the home’s total floor area.
› provide summer shading, and
› Keep the window area in individual rooms less than 15% of
› protection from winter heat loss e.g. use double glazed skylights, a
the room’s floor area.
ceiling diffuser or insulating shutters to minimise heat loss at night.
› Shade east-facing windows in summer and consider using
windows with higher cooling star ratings such as low-e coated
glazing in warmer climates like Mildura. Windows facing more than one direction
The maximum window sizes apply to rooms that have windows facing
West-facing windows only one direction. If rooms with east or west windows have windows
facing other directions as well, maximum sizes should be adjusted as
Between 70° north of true west and 50° south of true west follows:
(see Figure 4.20).
› reduce east glass by 1% (of floor area) for every 1.5% (of floor area)
› Keep west-facing windows small: total window area should be of north window area and 2.8% of south window area; and
less than 5% of the home’s total floor area.
› reduce west glass by 1% for every 2% of north window area and
› Keep the window area in individual rooms no more than 10% of 3.5% of south window area.
the room’s floor area if the room has windows in other orientations.
Note the NCC requires a minimum window area of 10% of floor
area in all rooms.
› Shade west-facing windows in summer and consider using
windows with higher cooling star ratings such as low-e coated
glazing in warmer climates like Mildura.
FIGURE 4.19: ORIENTATION OF WINDOWS CONSIDERED FIGURE 4.20: ORIENTATION OF WINDOWS CONSIDERED
TO BE EAST-FACING TO BE WEST-FACING
60˚ 70˚
East West
50˚
50˚
37
04 / Windows
Reducing window heat gain in hot weather
There are two basic ways of reducing the amount of heat gain through a window:
Shade the window using an external device such as a canvas awning or eave,
or use a window with a tint or reflective film. The following sections look at these two
ways to reduce window heat gains in hot weather to make your home cooler.
Fixed or adjustable shading?

Victorian climates are very changeable. In Spring and Autumn,
you may need to heat your house one day, and cool it the next. Fixed
shading includes structures such as eaves, pergolas or verandas, are
part of the building structure (see Figure 4.21). Although fixed devices
may provide effective protection from heat gain, they lack flexibility in
situations where shading may be needed one day but not the next.
Further, if they successfully shade the window in hot weather, they
may block out too much sun in cool weather. However, fixed shading
is durable and does not require ongoing adjustment.
Adjustable shading devices include canvas blinds, conventional or

roller shutters, angled metal slats, adjustable horizontal awnings and
pergolas with retractable shade such as sail cloth (see Figure 4.22).
Such devices permit greater flexibility to adjust on a day-by-day, or
even hour-by-hour, basis, in response to changing weather conditions
and individual comfort levels. They can be completely retracted to
maximise winter solar access. Adjustable devices only work if you
are home to adjust them.
If external shading is not feasible, internal shading devices such as

close-fitting blinds, lined curtains or internal shutters are preferable
to no shading at all. The lighter the colour of the external side of the
curtains, the more effective it will be at reducing heat gains in
summer because they reflect some of the sun’s heat before it is
absorbed by the curtain material. Reflective backed curtains are
more effective again.
FIGURE 4.21: FIXED SHADING FIGURE 4.22: ADJUSTABLE EXTERNAL SHADING DEVICES
Roller Shutter
38
04 / Windows
How effective is shading at

reducing cooling energy use?
Figure 4.23 below shows the impact on
cooling energy use predicted by FirstRate of
various shading techniques when applied to
all north, east and west windows in the house
(shown in Chapter 8: Case Study). Curtains
and external blinds do not affect heat gains
in winter but all other techniques can have a
substantial impact on heating due to reduced
solar gain through windows in winter.
Adjustable shading is always preferable as
this is the most effective at reducing cooling
and does not increase heating.
Double glazing has a bigger impact on

reducing cooling loads than a grey tint even
though the grey tint has a lower SHGC.
The SHGC value shows the reduction in solar
heat gain when the sun is shining directly on
the glazing (i.e. 0-degree angle of incidence).
During summer, when the sun is at a greater
angle to the window glass reflects a greater
proportion of radiation. Because double glazing
has two panes of glass reflecting radiation
the overall effect is greater than a tint.
FIGURE 4.23: REDUCTION IN ANNUAL COOLING ENERGY USE
2000 mm eave
1000 mm eave
500 mm eave
Super grey tint – single glazing SHGC = 0.29
Grey tint – single glazing SHGC = 0.48
Double glazing – Low e SHGC = 0.55
Double glazing SHGC = 0.52
External blinds SHGC = 0.24
Curtains SHGC = 0.60
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60%
39
04 / Windows
Choosing shading devices to

suit window orientation
North windows New guidelines for north window

The sun is much higher in the sky in summer than in winter on north eave design
windows. So, it is possible to design an eave which keeps out summer
This eave has the following properties:
sun, but lets winter sun in. Passive Solar design guides from the past
often talk about a Rule of Thumb for designing eave shade to north › A depth of 25% of the height of the window.
windows. This Rule of Thumb seeks to ensure that windows are shaded › An offset from the top of the window to the underside of the eave
from the spring equinox till the autumn equinox. At the latitudes in Victoria equivalent to half the depth of the eave.
this equates to an eave which is around half the height of the window. › To avoid the triangles of sun entry shown in Table 4.3, in summer
In the 1990’s maintaining a clearance between the top of the window the eave should extend beyond the sides of the window by at least
and the eave was added to the old rule of thumb as shown in Figure 4.24. the depth of the eave itself (Figure 4.26).
Now that we can simulate the hourly energy use of houses using › Additional shade for hot days in spring and autumn is effectively
energy rating tools it has been observed that the need for heating in provided with adjustable shading devices such as external blinds
cooler climates often extends well into spring and autumn. Thus, the or shutters, or removable shading over pergolas. These allow full
Rule of Thumb eave casts too much shade in Spring and Autumn. winter sun access, in addition to full summer sun protection.
The variability of Victorian climates in spring and autumn also means › If shade is provided by shade battens on a pergola (see Figure 4.25),
we need better control over shade than a fixed device can provide battens should be spaced so that the distance between them is no
over this time of year. more than the height of the batten to ensure complete sun shade
in summer.
Table 4.3 shows the shade cast by the ’Old Passive Solar Rule of
Thumb’ (width 1.2m with no offset) eave for north facing windows › If you use deciduous vines on a pergola to provide extra shade for
and eaves following the new guidelines which better balance summer north windows in summer, make sure you trim them back at the
and winter performance (width 0.6m and offset 0.3 m) which delivers end of daylight saving or they will cast too much shade in spring
better energy rating outcomes. and autumn.
› Fixed, angled louvres on pergolas have also been promoted by
The new Rule of thumb eave for north windows casts no shade on Passive Solar guidelines in the past. By setting the angle of the
north windows in winter but still provides complete shade in summer. louvre to the winter midday sun angle the louvres will cast minimal
On hot spring and autumn days some additional adjustable shading shade in the middle of the day. However, as soon as the sun is lower
may be needed. in the sky e.g. in the morning or afternoon in winter or in spring
and autumn, they do cast significant shade. Even if the angle of the
TABLE 4.3: SHADE CAST BY OLD AND NEW RULES OF THUMB FOR EAVES louvres are adjustable you need to adjust the angle every few hours
to maximise sun input in cool weather.
Time Eave 10am 12pm › In Mildura, which has significantly higher cooling loads than in other
of year Victorian climates (see Fig. 2.21), eaves to north windows may need
Depth Offset to be deeper than shown here. It will depend on the area of north
windows and the thermal mass in the house.
Winter 1.2 0
East and west windows

Winter 0.6 0.3
› Use adjustable external shading. For horizontal shading to be
effective at blocking low angled morning and afternoon summer
Equinox 1.2 0 sun, it needs to have a depth of around twice the window height.
This will significantly reduce solar gain and daylight in winter.
› Windows that face north-east or north-west are also best shaded
Equinox 0.6 0.3 by adjustable vertical external shading devices such as awnings
or blinds.
Summer 1.2 0
Summer 0.6 0.3
40
04 / Windows
FIGURE 4.24: RULE OF THUMB FOR SIZING NORTH WINDOW OVERHANG FIGURE 4.25: USE OF SHADE BATTENS ON PERGOLAS
summer sun Shade batterns
Solid shading device

(eave overhang or battens) 75 mm 25 mm
w = 25% h winter sun
w
16% of h
25% of h
Wall above
window h
should be half h
of eave depth
FIGURE 4.26: EXTEND SHADING BEYOND THE WINDOW EDGES Batten shade using these guidelines produces only slightly less shade
in summer than an eave with the same overall dimensions.
depth
Time Battens 10am 12pm
of year
Width Offset
Winter 0.6 0.3
depth Equinox 0.6 0.3
Summer 0.6 0.3
depth of fixed
shading
41
04 / Windows
Tinted glass, reflective films and low-e glass
Glass can be treated to reduce the amount of solar energy transmitted through it.
Where individual rooms suffer from considerable summer discomfort or high cooling
energy use, the tints and reflective coating can provide some relief.
This can be an alternative method of preventing summer heat gain Low emittance glass
where external shading devices are inappropriate, such as for
windows which are inaccessible, or have views which must be Low emittance (low-e) glass comes with high or low solar
maintained. However, treated glass must be used with caution, transmission options and the low solar transmission option can be
as it reduces heat gain and light in winter as well as summer. used for summer sun control. There are also several different types
of low-e coating and some are more effective at reducing the U
value of the double glazing than others. Low emittance glass also
Tinted glass has benefits in winter as it reduces heat flow induced by the
temperature difference across the glass. Emittance is a measure of
Tinted glass has a tint applied to the glass during manufacture,
how much radiant heat a material absorbs and emits.
to reduce the amount of solar radiation transmitted through it.
There are two main types of tinted glass available: Tints, reflective coatings and low solar transmission low-e glass may
› Basic tints, usually bronze, grey and green; and provide a useful improvement to the energy efficiency of a house in
› Super tints which offer greater reductions in solar heat gains, warmer climates like Mildura where cooling loads are much higher.
such as EverGreen™, SuperGrey™, SolarGreen® and Azurlite®. However, because they will also reduce heat gains in winter, in most
of Victoria the net effect will be to increase heating use by much more
than they reduce cooling energy use.
Reflective coatings Figure 4.27 shows the percentage change to the Case Study house
Reflective coatings can be applied to new and existing windows. (Chapter 8) heating and cooling loads for tinted glazing in Victorian
They tend to stop greater amounts of heat gain than some toned climates when all windows are tinted. You wouldn’t want to add a tint
glass, and increase privacy by stopping vision into a home. To ensure to north facing windows because this will reduce useful winter heat
optimum performance, films should be applied professionally. gain from the north windows.
FIGURE 4.27: IMPACT OF TINTED GLAZING ON HOUSE

HEATING AND COOLING
% CHANGE TO ENERGY LOADS
40 Mildura Melbourne Ballarat
Reduction in
20 Cooling loads
(improvement)
Increase in
-20 Heating needs
(detriment)
-40
-60
-80
-100
grey tint single glazing super grey tint single glazing
42
04 / Windows
Reducing window heat loss in cold weather
Heat also passes through glass by conduction caused by a difference in air

temperature on either side of the glazing. On a winter night, large amounts of heat
can be lost through unprotected glazing in a home. Windows are therefore the
potential weak link in building design.
Heat losses through windows can be reduced by adding curtains or Impact of curtains and double glazing
using double glazing. Because the resistance to heat flow of windows
are so low, the additional layer of still air between the panes of glass on heating energy use
in double glazing or between the curtain and the room significantly
The relative effectiveness of various window treatments in reducing
reduce heat losses through windows. Because the impact of curtains
winter heat loss is shown in Figure 4.29. These window treatments
depends on the user, the effect of curtains cannot be modelled for
are applied to all windows of the Case Study house (Chapter 8).
regulatory ratings: all windows are assumed to have Holland blinds.
However, some NatHERS tools will allow you to explore the impact of Double glazing can halve the heating loads in a house. Using curtains
curtains in non-regulatory mode. can significantly reduce heat loads as well. In the case of Heavy
Drapes and Pelmets the reduction in heating loads can be even
Thickened and/or laminated glass has a negligible effect on stopping
greater than for typical double glazing. Double glazing with heavy
heat loss. This is because around 98% of the window’s resistance to
drapes and pelmets are the better option. These reductions in heating
heat flow comes not from the glass itself, but by naturally occurring
loads from curtains assume that occupants keep curtains closed from
air films on either side of it (see Figure 4.28).
sunset till sunup. Further, these savings depend on the ability of the
curtains to maintain a sealed air space between the glazing and the
room. Because the impact of curtains is dependent on occupant use
and installation.
Note that curtains are assumed to be drawn at sunset and opened

again at sunrise to let light in. Because curtains will only reduce the
U value of windows for part of the time they are not as effective as
double glazing with the same U value.
FIGURE 4.28: RESISTANCE OF AIR FILMS AND GLASS TO HEAT FLOW FIGURE 4.29: IMPACT OF GLAZING TYPE AND CURTAINS
ON HOUSE HEATING LOADS
Outside air film Inside air film Window U value
Double glazing Low e Argon Fill 2.83
Double glazing Low e 3.05
– add Heavy Drapes and pelmets 1.65

26% of 72% of
resistance resistance – add heavy drapes 3.04
Glass Double glazing 3.64
SG add heavy drapes and pelmets 2.02

Film
SG add heavy drapes 4.56
SG add holland blinds 5.15

2% of resistance
Single glazing 6.09
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
43
04 / Windows
Reducing window heat loss in cold weather

continued
Internal window coverings FIGURE 4.31: EFFECTIVE WINDOW COVERINGS
Internal window coverings are used to trap a layer of still air between
the glass surface and the covering, reducing heat flow through the Still air space
glass, Figure 4.31. To maintain the still air layer, coverings must be between glass
opaque and closely woven and should not allow air from the room to and blind
leak into the space between the curtain and the window. Use a barrier
at the top, such as a boxed pelmet and make sure curtains extend to
the floor and beyond the sides of the window. Air trapped in
cells provides
Another approach is to recess close fitting window coverings into the extra insulation
window reveal (Figure 4.32).
Vertical blinds, conventional or timber venetians and lace curtains do

not give a good air seal and won’t reduce heat losses through
windows.
Sealed at
the top
FIGURE 4.30: FEATURES OF EFFECTIVE WINDOW COVERINGS FIGURE 4.32: EFFECTIVE WINDOW COVERINGS
pelmet
(closed at top) Roller blind
recessed in
warm air window frame
with cover
Poorly fitted Well fitted strip acting
cold curtain with as pelmet
curtain allows still
glass pelmet creates
warm air to air
a still air space layer
contact the between the
cold glass glass and curtain
cooled inside air closely

woven fabric
Small
Preferred option pelmet over
roller blind
44
04 / Windows
Avoiding draughts and radiant heat loss TABLE 4.4: INDICATIVE U VALUES FOR A VARIETY OF WINDOWS
Warm room air cools as it contacts the cold glass surface and falls to Glass type U value of glazing type (w/m2/°c)
the floor as a cool draught. This lowers the room temperature and
produces draughts near unprotected glass. Further discomfort is Aluminium Improved Timber
experienced as a person near a window loses body heat to the cooler aluminium*
surface of the glass (Figure 4.33). Appropriate window coverings can
Single 6.7 5.9 5.4
reduce the impacts of draughts and radiant heat loss to cooler
window surfaces. See Chapter 3 for a further description of radiant Single low-e (high gain) 5.5 4.0 3.3
heat loss.
Double air fill 4.8 3.6 3.0
Double glazing Double argon fill 4.5 3.5 2.3
The use of double glazing has increased significantly since the Double low-e (high gain) 4.3 3.1 2.6
introduction of 5 star minimum energy efficiency requirements in
Double argon + low-e 4.1 2.9 2.0
2004 and in particular the upgrade to 6 stars in 2009. The good news
is that in the last 10 years double glazing prices have fallen * Improved frame types: for the purposes of this table. Single glazing improved frames are
significantly and is now available from virtually every window assumed to have window frames which are mounted in line with the timber window reveal
manufacturer. In addition, there are many more high performance so the timber covers part of the frame area which reduces heat flows; Double glazing uses
Thermally Broken frame. These are not the only ways to achieve improved aluminium frame
options to choose from. performance, but are shown as examples of higher performing aluminium windows.
This is not to say that you can’t achieve 6 stars in Victoria without Note that most double glazing is now manufactured with an argon fill.
double glazing – you can. However, where site constraints mean that
The figures shown above are indicative only. For example, it is
implementing passive solar design principles is not practical, or you
possible to obtain an aluminium framed double-glazed window with
want to use larger windows areas, double glazing allows you to meet
air fill which has a lower U value than the double-glazed window with
minimum energy efficiency requirements without compromising on
argon fill listed in Table 4.4. When your NatHERS assessor or Building
other aspects of the design. Using double glazing will also allow you to
Surveyor lets you know what U value you need to achieve compliance
exceed the minimum 6 star standard.
with the minimum energy efficiency requirements, the U values
The extent of heat loss through glazing is measured by the U value. shown in the table above may not correspond with the actual type of
The lower the U value the better. U values for double glazing varies windows needed. You will need to need to refer to the WERS website
considerably depending on the size of the air gap between the panes, to determine the exact type of windows you need.
the type of gas between the panes and the use of low emittance
coatings and the material of the frame as shown in Table 4.4.
FIGURE 4.33: UNPROTECTED GLASS AND WINTER DISCOMFORT
warm air
rises
Warm air moves
heat toward the cold
loss glass and loses heat
Losing body heat
Cooled inside air
45
04 / Windows
Types of double glazing
Air gap Low emittance glass

Double glazing is most commonly produced as a factory-sealed unit Low-e glass has a special coating which reflects radiant heat back
where two panes of glass are separated by a still air layer of between into the room. The coating is located on the glass inside the air space,
6mm to 20 mm (see Figure 4.34). A double-glazed window with a and reduces transmission of radiant heat from the warmer glass to
12mm air gap will have 10% better (lower) heat loss than the same the colder glass. Low-e glass is generally only used in conjunction
glazing with a 6mm air gap. with double glazing, but you can get single glazing with a hard low-e
coating. U values for single low-e products fall in between the plain
Double glazed products for high acoustic performance are available single glazed and double glazed products. While this type of glazing
with air gaps of up to 100mm. While the larger air gap significantly does not have as good a U value as double glazing, in mild climates
improves acoustic performance, it does not result in a substantial it is often all that is needed to comply with energy efficiency
improvement in thermal performance because the space is big regulations.
enough to allow air convection currents between the panes which
increases heat flows. Depending on the direction the coating is facing, low-e glass can be
used to reduce either heat loss from inside a building or heat gain
from outside (in hot climates). The use of low-e glass to control heat
Gas fill gain is not recommended for Victorian conditions as it also reduces
the amount of solar gain in winter.
All manufacturers offer alternative gases for filling double-glazed
units, with the most common being argon. Argon increases the Glazing manufacturers around the world are developing new and
performance of units because it has lower conductivity than air. Argon more effective low-e coatings. So, low-e coated double glazed
filled double glazing will have around a 10% better (lower) heat loss windows can now have significantly different U values depending
than air filled double glazing. on the coating used.
Window frame material

The material of the window frame can affect overall window
performance. Materials with high heat conductance cause more rapid
heat loss from the heated interior in winter and higher heat gain in
summer. PVC and timber frames generally perform better than metal
FIGURE 4.34: TYPICAL DOUBLE-GLAZING SYSTEM frames, unless metal frames have thermal breaks to decrease
conductance across them (see Table 4.4).
airtight seal
Window frames also block out solar radiation. In cooler climates
windows with small frame areas are preferable because the smaller
sized frames allow for a greater area of glass and hence let in more
two panes of glass sun in winter.
FIGURE 4.35: SOLAR RADIATION ON PITCHED ROOFS
IN WINTER AND SUMMER
sealed air space (MJ/m2 adapted from Australian Solar radiation Data Handbook)
80
70
spacer 60
50
40
30
20
10
airtight seal
0
desiccant to North North East South South South West North

East East West West
absorb moisture
roofs winter west wall winter
roofs summer west wall summer
46
04 / Windows
Skylights and roof glazing
The two main types of skylights on the market are shown in Figures 4.37 and 4.38.
Roof glazing refers to products which are like windows. Skylights and roof glazing
will soon be covered by the WERS scheme so that consumers can more easily
compare product performance.
Solar radiation levels falling on roofs Winter heat loss

and implications for roof glazing Winter heat loss through skylights and roof glazing is larger than
through windows because the air at the roof level is warmer than the
The amount of heat from the sun on skylights of roof glazing is higher
air at window level due to stratification of the heated air inside a
than on walls in summer because roofs face up to the sky and are
home. Glazing at ceiling level loses up to 40% more heat than glazing
therefore more exposed to the sun. The distribution of radiation levels
at eye level because the air temperature at ceiling level is higher. All
for roofs is quite different to walls (see Figure 4.35).
roof glazing should be double glazed and skylights should be fitted
Where wall radiation levels drop off considerably in summer south of with ceiling diffusers – typically a translucent polycarbonate sheet
east and west (see Figure 4.35), levels of solar radiation on roofs of all that forms a sealed barrier between the room and the skylight shaft –
orientations are constant in summer on roofs. Furthermore, radiation to reduce winter heat loss (Figure 4.36).
levels in summer on roofs are 50-60% higher than on a west wall.
This means that summer heat gains from skylights and roof glazing FIGURE 4.36: SKYLIGHT DIFFUSER
can cause significant problems with discomfort and high cooling loads.
Air loses heat Preferred option
The larger the glass area, the greater the potential for excessive heat against glass and
loss and gain. It is vital to provide shade in summer, use low U value falls to room as a
cold draught
products and keep sizes modest to avoid a significant reduction in the
energy efficiency of your home. It can be difficult and expensive to
correct problems created by skylights and roof glazing once installed.
insulation
To avoid excessive summer heat gain and winter heat loss roof light shaft
glazing and skylights should only be kept as small as practical. As a transparent diffuser
roof glazing admits, on average, around three times as much light as
the same area of vertical glazing, there is no reason for it to be
excessively large. Australian Standard AS4285 provides recommended
sizing guidelines for skylights, e.g. toilet, ensuite or walk-in wardrobe
requires a 400 mm x 400 mm shaft or one 250 mm tube type. Warm air rises Warm air stays in the room
Summer heat gain

Daylight tubes
As shown in Figure 4.35 the amount of sun on pitched roofs in
summer is very high. A typical 900 mm x 900 mm unshaded skylight Daylight tubes can be a more energy efficient alternative to
can admit as much heat as a three-bar radiator running for six hours conventional skylights. They consist of a clear, hemispherical dome,
a day throughout summer. a smooth highly reflective tube and a diffuser at ceiling level (Figure
4.37). As they require a smaller area of roof glazing than a traditional
Skylights and roof glazing are best shaded using external awnings. skylight, heat gain in summer and heat loss in winter is significantly
A number of products with remote winders to allow you to operate reduced. They are best suited for use in smaller rooms such as
them from inside are available. However, these products are bathrooms, hallways and entry areas. Note that types with textured,
expensive. A number of double glazed skylight products are now flexible ducts can deliver significantly less light than those with
available with an operable shading screen in between the panes smooth shiny ducts.
which allows a lower overall cost than providing external awnings.
FIGURE 4.37: DAYLIGHT TUBE
Using tinted glazing in skylights won’t reduce heat gains by as much
as external awnings or shading screens between the panes, but they
clear UV
still provide a significant reduction in summer heat gain. While low
stabilised dome
SHGC products are generally not recommended in Victoria they can be
a better option for roof glazing, particularly if the area of the roof
glazing or skylight is large and if your house already has enough solar
gain in winter from windows.
reflective tube
ceiling liner
diffuser
47
04 / Windows
Notes
48
05 / Insulation
The contents of this chapter outline the
benefits of insulation, how insulation
performance is measured and types of
insulation products. Guidelines are provided
for insulation selection and installation.
49
05 / Insulation
Insulation benefits How insulation works
Insulation is the cornerstone to all energy efficient All materials allow heat to pass through them.
house design. Without insulation a dwelling can’t Some, such as metal, glass or plasterboard, allow
be energy efficient. heat to pass through easily. Insulation materials
reduce the amount of heat that can flow through
a wall, floor or ceiling by providing resistance to
one of the three modes of heat transfer.
Insulation is not the only design strategy needed. Glazing that is To help you understand how insulation works, the three modes of heat
not appropriately sized or oriented (Chapter 4) or high levels of transfer are explained in section 'Understanding heat transfer'.
uncontrolled air leakage (Chapter 7) can short circuit the insulation
and result in high energy heating and cooling loads. Insulation will provide different benefits when installed in ceilings,
walls or floors because the amount of heat lost or gained through
Insulating a home can save 45–55% of heating and cooling energy. each path is different (see Figure 5.10). Building regulations require
Table 5.1 shows the savings on heating and cooling energy when higher insulation levels in ceilings than in floors or walls in houses
insulation is installed. Because it has such a significant effect because – on average – the heat flow through a ceiling is greater than
on energy efficiency, insulation is required by regulation for new through a floor or a wall.
housing and alterations, renovations and additions.
NOTE: To avoid overheating in hot weather, windows should be
shaded and the house should be able to be easily ventilated to
TABLE 5.1: TYPICAL ENERGY SAVINGS DUE TO INSULATION let in cool air after a cool change. This ensures that heat entering
the home through the windows in hot weather will not be trapped
Extent of insulation Heating Cooling Heating and inside by the insulation in the building envelope.
cooling
Ceiling only 15–25% 30–45% 20–30%

FIGURE 5.10: HEAT FLOW WITHOUT INSULATION
Ceiling and walls 40–50% 40–55% 40–50%
Ceiling, walls 45–55% 35–50% 45–55% Winter losses

and floor
ceiling
25–35%
Benefits of insulation:
› comfort is improved year-round; An exception to this rule is that
windows walls
insulating a suspended timber floor over an enclosed subfloor
10–20% 15–25%
space or under a slab can increase summer cooling requirements
and make the house less comfortable in summer. In Victoria this
negative summer effect is outweighed by the reductions in winter
heating requirements and winter comfort in most climates, but in floor
air leakage 10–20%
warm climates like Mildura it can result in a lower rating. Check 15–25%
with your NatHERS assessor to see if underfloor insulation is
beneficial or not if you are building in a warmer inland climate.
› it reduces the cost of heating and cooling by over 40%;
› it pays for itself in around five to six years;
Summer gains
› because an insulated house needs less heating and cooling using
insulation reduces greenhouse gas emissions; ceiling
› it virtually eliminates condensation on walls and ceilings; and 25–35%
› some insulation materials can also be used for sound proofing.
windows walls
25–35% 15–25%
air leakage
5–15% floor
50
05 / Insulation
Understanding heat transfer
There are three ways in which heat is transferred—radiation, convection and

conduction. To help understand heat flow, the way in which radiation, convection
and conduction affect the heat flow through an attic roof on a cold winter’s night
are described below.
Convection Radiation Conduction

Convection transfers heat through the Radiation is heat transfer from one object to Conduction is heat transfer within a material,
movement of gases or liquids. If you have another without the objects touching. When or between two materials touching each
ever replaced a light bulb at ceiling level you warm your hands near a pot-bellied other. Gases, such as air, do not conduct heat
you’ll notice that the air is warmer at the stove the heat you can feel is radiation. The very well. Solids, particularly metal, conduct
ceiling than on the ground. This is because heat from the sun is also radiation. heat much more readily.
hot air rises. Hot air rising is an example of
heat flow by convection. In the attic space In winter, heating your house warms the In the attic example the primary areas of
in winter, the warm layer of air above the ceiling. This warm ceiling radiates heat to the conduction will be through the plasterboard
ceiling rises and comes into contact with cooler underside of the roof in the attic space ceiling (and roof tiles). The heat from the
the cold roof surface, cools by losing some (see Figure 5.12). It is important to remember room warms the lower surface of the
heat to the roof material, then falls to the that radiation (in this case infra-red radiation) ceiling. The heat absorbed by the surface
plasterboard where the process repeats always flows from a warmer surface to a of the ceiling is transferred to plasterboard
itself (see Figure 5.11). cooler surface. The higher the difference in immediately above the surface, which heats
temperatures between the two surfaces the the layer above it and so on. (see Figure 5.13).
In cold conditions both radiant heat transfer greater the radiant heat flow will be.
and convective heat transfer work together Bulk insulation materials provide a high
to increase the heat flow. However, in hot The amount of heat flow by radiation also resistance to conduction. In the attic space
conditions, the roof is hotter than the ceiling, depends on the emissivity of the surfaces. example, the lower conduction through the
so the convection current shown in Figure The lower the emissivity, the lower the insulation than the plasterboard means that
5.11 does not occur so the amount of heat amount of radiation emitted. Reflective the upper surface of the insulation will be
flow is significantly less. This means that insulation products have a low emissivity at a lower temperature than the surface
reflective insulation products provide a higher coating which reduces heat flow by radiation of the plasterboard. This means that the
heat flow resistance when heat flows down across an air space. Low emissivity coatings temperature difference with the roof surface
than when heat flows up. have a polished metallic appearance. will be lower which in turn also reduces
radiation and convection heat flow.
In the attic roof space example, if a reflective
membrane is placed under the roof tiles
it will reflect radiation back to the ceiling.
In summer, where it is hotter outside than
inside, reflective insulation works in a
different way. In this case rather than reflect
heat, the low emittance surface won’t emit
much radiant heat to the cooler ceiling.
Reflective insulation doesn’t need to face the
heat source – it works in both directions.
FIGURE 5.11: CONVECTIVE HEAT TRANSFER FIGURE 5.12: RADIANT HEAT TRANSFER FIGURE 5.13: CONDUCTED HEAT TRANSFER
cold night roof surface cold night roof surface Cool air in roof space
temperature is cold temperature is cold
Plasterboard
cools radiates
convective heat to
rises heat colder
Warm air heats lower layer of plasterboard.
surface
warms falls Lower layer heats next layer
plasterboard warm indoor plasterboard warm indoor

is warm temperature is warm temperature
51
05 / Insulation
Types of insulation
There are two main types of insulation product:

› reflective: which primarily affects radiation heat flow, and
› bulk: which primarily affects conduction heat flow.
R value of the material: Bulk insulation

Used for bulk insulation Bulk insulation traps millions of tiny pockets of still air or other gases
within its structure.
All bulk insulation materials are rated for their performance in
restricting heat transfer. This is expressed as the R value or thermal These air pockets provide the resistance to heat flow (see Figure 5.14).
resistance of a product. The R value is a guide to its performance A polystyrene cup is an example of bulk insulation – the millions of air
as an insulator – the higher the R value, the greater the insulating pockets trapped allow you to hold a cup of boiling water.
effect. It measures the amount of heat that will flow through one
square metre of a product when there is a one degree temperature
difference. (W/m2.K)
Products which have the same R value will provide exactly the same
insulating effect as each other, provided they are correctly installed.
FIGURE 5.14: BULK INSULATION AND HEAT FLOW
heat flow
tiny pockets
of trapped air
52
05 / Insulation
How insulation performance is measured
Reflective insulation Comparing reflective and bulk insulation

Reflective insulation works by reducing the radiant heat transfer performance
across an enclosed space, e.g. between bricks and plasterboard in
Because the two types of insulation use different measures of
a brick veneer wall or between the ceiling and underside of a roof
their performance it can be difficult for consumers to compare the
in an attic (see Figure 5.15). Reflective insulation will not add any
performance of the two types of products. The best way to compare
R value if the reflective surface does not face an air space. However,
the product R value of a bulk insulation product with the overall
in attic spaces lined with reflective foil under the roof surface, adding
R value of a reflective insulation product is convert the reflective
ventilation to the roof replaces the warm air inside the attic with
insulation R value to an added R value. You can do this by subtracting
cooler outdoor air and reduces summer heat gains. This isn’t really
the overall R value of the building element without reflective insulation
changing the R value of the attic space, but because it reduces the
from the overall R value with the reflective insulation. As a general
heat flow through the roof, simplified calculation methods such as
rule, subtracting R0.5 from the overall R value of a building element
those used in the NCC deemed to satisfy clauses assign a higher
will give you the approximate effective R value added by the
R value to a reflective lined attic with ventilation.
reflective insulation.
Reflective insulation needs to remain clean and dust-free for best
Comparing R values of reflective and bulk insulation is further
performance and there must be no holes in the insulation so that
complicated when the insulation is installed in a floor or ceiling
air cannot pass from one side to the other.
because reflective insulation products have a different (higher) R value
for heat flow down than heat flow up. In Victoria the requirements for
Overall R value: heating are generally greater than for cooling so you need to focus
on R values for heat flow down in floors or up in ceilings.
Used for reflective insulation and
building elements Comparing R values for bulk insulation
The overall R value is the total resistance of a building element. It products
takes into account resistance provided by construction materials used
in a wall or ceiling, internal air spaces, insulation materials and air The same R value represents the same performance for any bulk
films adjacent to solid materials. Each of these components has its insulation product. In this case the key difference will be in the
own inherent R value, the sum of which provides the overall R value. thickness of the insulation needed to achieve the R value you want to
use. Some products will trap air or gas more effectively, and so will
Because reflective products work by increasing the effective have a higher R value for a specified thickness. For example, a 45 mm
resistance of an air space within a wall, floor or ceiling it is usual to thickness of extruded polystyrene has the same R value as an 80 mm
represent their performance in terms of the overall R value of the thickness of glasswool: around 1.5.
building elements they are installed in.
Always consider the amount of space that is available within your
wall, floor or ceiling when selecting the type of bulk insulation you
want to use because an insulation product which is compressed will
reduce its R value e.g. a 150 mm thick glasswool product will lose
25% of its R value if squeezed into a 90mm space and may push the
plasterboard off the framing.
FIGURE 5.15: REFLECTIVE INSULATION AND HEAT FLOW
reflects 95% of
radiant heat
emits 5% of
all radiant heat
double sided
reflective foil
53
05 / Insulation
Insulation products
The following pages provide general information on the range of insulation

materials available. Table 5.3 shows the type of elements i.e. walls, floors
or ceilings, where these insulation products are best used.
Bulk insulation Polyester

› Made from polyester fibres (including recycled PET bottles) spun
Bulk insulation contains millions of tiny pockets of still air (or other into a flexible mat, available as batts or blankets.
gas) trapped within the material. This gas provides the material’s
› Similar physical properties to glass wool and rock wool, but is
insulating effect so it is important not to compress bulk insulation.
non‑irritable.
Bulk insulation is available as batts, blankets and boards, or as loose
fill which is pumped, blown or placed by hand into an area. › Does not burn, but will melt if exposed to a direct flame at high
temperature.
Batts and blankets
› Blankets are manufactured in rolls for specific types of installations, Loose-fill insulation
e.g. under roofing in a cathedral or raked ceiling or under a flat roof. This type of insulation consists of shredded or granulated material
› Blankets are generally thinner and denser than batts so have supplied in a loose form, and is usually installed by the supplier/
a higher R value for a given thickness, and are available with manufacturer. It must be correctly installed at even depth to provide
reflective foil attached to one side.. adequate insulation cover. Barriers should be installed to prevent
insulation falling down through exhaust fans, wall cavities, ceiling
Glasswool (fibreglass) vents and light fittings.
› Made from melted glass spun into a flexible mat of fine fibres.
Available as batts or blankets. Loose-fill material may settle over time, reducing its effectiveness—
your contractor should quote you a guaranteed ‘settled R value’, which
› Available in higher densities with higher R values for a given
is the final R value achieved after any settling has occurred.
thickness e.g. 90mm wall batts can vary between R2 – R2.7.
› Commonly sold in DIY packs with R values clearly labelled. This type of insulation is more suited to flat or shallowly-sloping
ceilings of less than 25° pitch. With the exception of some rockwool
› Blankets are manufactured in rolls for specific types of installations,
products, loose-fill is only suitable for insulating ceilings.
e.g. under roofing in a cathedral or raked ceiling or under a flat roof.
› Blankets are generally thinner and denser than batts so have Cellulose fibre
a higher R value for a given thickness, and are available with › Made from waste paper pulverised into a fine fluff.
reflective foil attached to one side.
› Must be treated with fire retardant chemicals to reduce
Rockwool flammability.
› Made from volcanic rock melted at high temperatures and spun into › Cheaper to purchase and install than other types of bulk insulation.
a mat of fine fibres. › Quality and installation can vary greatly, so ensure the product
› Available as batts or blankets. complies with Australian Standard AS2462 (1981): Cellulosic fibre
› Denser than glasswool, so has a higher R value for a given thickness. thermal insulation.
› Better sound absorption qualities than glasswool. Natural wool
› Generally more expensive than glasswool. › Typically manufactured from natural sheep’s wool off-cuts.
› Other characteristics are similar to glasswool. › Only, scoured wool should be used. It should not contain any
synthetic fibres, or dyed or recycled materials.
Natural wool
› Cheaper grades of wool are commonly used and can include small
› Made from sheep’s wool formed into batts or blankets.
leather fragments— this should not affect performance.
› Should only be manufactured from new, scoured wool treated with
› Should be treated with a vermin and rot-proofing agent during the
a vermin and rot-proofing agent during the scouring process.
scouring process.
› Moth-proofing of wool is vital—check with the manufacturer for test
results to guarantee this (test results should not be more than four Granulated rockwool
months old). › A loose-fill form of rockwool.
› Most batts and blankets are made of a wool-polyester blend to › If treated with a water-repellent agent, can sometimes be used to
reduce settling and compression. fill cavity brick and brick veneer walls—check with the supplier to
› Naturally flame-resistant, however, the addition of synthetic fibres see if it is suitable.
increases flammability— check with supplier for fire resistance
testing results.
› As different types of wool can provide different R values for the
same thickness, check with the supplier for R value tests and
certifications.
54
05 / Insulation
Australian Standards cover most insulation products. Provided the product complies with the Australian
Standard, good levels of performance and reliability can be expected. If no Australian Standard exists, it is vital
to ensure the product has been independently tested to ensure performance is optimised. This should be done in
a National Association Testing Authorities-accredited laboratory and must conform to the testing requirements
of AS/NZS 4859.1:2002 – Materials for the thermal insulation of buildings – General criteria and technical
provisions. R value tests conducted overseas may not meet the requirements of the standard and as a result
may not show the correct R value.
Boards Adequate performance can be achieved by combining reflective

insulation with bulk insulation and/or using specialist foil products,
These are used mainly in walls and cathedral ceilings. Some boards provided they are carefully installed. Any gaps or tears will significantly
are available with plasterboard backing so you can install the internal reduce performance because this allows air to pass from one side to
lining and insulation at the same time. the other and this convection heat flow will short circuit the radiation.
In addition for installation on a horizontal position dust will build-up on
Extruded polystyrene
the upward facing surface and increase the emissivity of the reflective
› Rigid, waterproof boards of closed cell polystyrene. surface and significantly increase the radiation heat transfer.
› High compressive strength.
Four types of reflective insulation products are currently available.
› Contain flame-retardants, however, installation is only
recommended between non-combustible surfaces (e.g. Reflective wrap
plasterboard, reflective foil or brickwork). › Foil laminated to paper with glass fibre reinforcement or non-
› Very high R value per unit thickness. metallic reflective coatings.
› Generally more expensive than other types of bulk insulation. › Supplied in rolls.
› Some products available with reflective foil backing. › Typically used as roof sarking and wall insulation.
Expanded polystyrene › Double-sided foil is more effective than single-sided, provided that
both sides face a still air space because it can create two reflective
› Rigid boards of polystyrene beads, can have reflective foil attached air spaces. It is also more water resistant.
to both sides.
› Double-sided foil is typically produced with an anti-glare coating
› Solid or hollow pods of polystyrene can be used for insulation slab for occupational health and safety reasons—this reduces the
on ground floors. insulation’s effectiveness by around 10%.
› If foil backed, should be installed with foil facing still air spaces of at
least 25 mm width to maximise R value. Multi-cell reflective foil products
› Expanded polystyrene has lower R value for a given thickness than › Two, three or four layers of laminated foil separated by partitioning
extruded polystyrene. to provide a one, two or three-layered cell structure.
› Can be installed over ceiling joists and between or across wall
Foil-faced rigid thermoset phenolic insulation studs, depending on the product.
› Rigid boards with foil attached to both sides. › R value depends on the number of cells and the presence of still air
› Should be installed with foil facing still air spaces of at least 25 mm layers between the batts.
width to maximise R value.
Expandable concertina-style foil
› Phenolic insulation has a higher R value per unit thickness than
other insulation so is particularly useful where the space for › Double-sided reflective foil formed into an expandable concertina.
insulation is limited. › Used mainly under timber floors and between wall studs.
› Adjustable width to suit varying gaps.
Reflective insulation Foil bonded to bulk insulation
Reflective insulation is traditionally made of thin sheets of highly › Reflective foil bonded to batts, blankets or polystyrene or phenolic
reflective aluminium foil laminate, however, non-metallic reflective foam boards.
surfaces are now available. Reflective insulation only works if it faces › Increases insulation benefits only if installed with the foil facing a
a still air space. still air space.
Reflective foil R values are influenced by the characteristics of › Blankets are a common method of insulating cathedral ceilings and
adjacent air spaces, such as their orientation – horizontal, vertical or under flat roofs.
sloping – the thickness of the air space it faces and the temperature
difference across the air space. Reflective air space have higher R
values if the temperature difference is lower so using multiple layers
of reflective products can provide higher R values.
55
05 / Insulation
Insulating slabs Soundproofing
There are three main ways of insulating Some insulating materials can be used for
a slab floor: soundproofing. Bulk insulation, particularly denser
materials have good sound absorbing qualities.
Install insulation board under the slab The soundproofing performance of a particular product is measured
by a sound reduction index referred to as Sound Transmission Class
The board can be used as a formwork for the concrete. Sides of floor (STC). The higher the STC rating, the greater the soundproofing
beams should be insulated too. This can be achieved by using the performance. If soundproofing is desired between rooms (e.g.
insulation board as a formwork to pour the concrete into. Note that between a bedroom and a bathroom), high density insulation can be
excavators will need to dig slightly wider trenches than they would for installed in internal walls or between floors in a two-storey building.
a conventional uninsulated slab. Blanket type insulation installed directly under metal roofing also
helps reduce external noise caused by wind, rain and hail. Specialised
acoustic insulation products are also available which provide even
Waffle pods better soundproofing performance.
See Figure 5.16. A series of polystyrene pods are set up in a grid
pattern and the concrete is poured in between and over the pods.
Because you can’t insulate under the ribs of the waffle the impact of
the insulation is limited compared to using insulation boards under
the slab, but can still add half a star to NatHERS ratings in Melbourne
climates.
Slab edge insulation

This is required by the NCC if you use a heated slab. This insulation
reduces heat flows to external air temperatures at the edge of the
slab but does not affect the heat flow through the core of the slab to
the favourable ground conditions.
FIGURE 5.16 WAFFLE POD SLAB INSULATION
56
05 / Insulation
Insulation levels
Insulation levels required for new This is a complicated calculation and it is recommended that you take
the advice of your Building Surveyor or NatHERS thermal performance
homes and renovations by the National assessor to determine the actual insulation R values needed.
Construction Code (NCC) The Insulation Council of Australia and New Zealand has prepared
There are two ways of meeting the energy efficiency requirements example calculations for many common construction types to show
of the NCC with regard to insulation: you how to meet the requirements of the NCC insulation levels. It can
be downloaded from the ICANZ website (icanz.org.au).
› Achieve the total R values specified in clause 3.12.1 elemental
requirements for floors walls and ceilings, or
› Achieve a minimum star rating of 6 stars as assessed by a Insulation levels required when using
NatHERS accredited tool used by accredited NatHERS assessors.
NatHERS energy ratings
Using a NatHERS rating provides you with greater flexibility in the
NCC clause 3.12.1 insulation levels you use. You can:
Minimum insulation requirements › Use less insulation than required by the NCC elemental provisions
if your house contains aspects of good passive solar design.
The NCC sets minimum insulation requirements in terms of the
overall R value of a building elements i.e. the total R value of a wall, › Get credit for using more insulation if you want to relax
floor or ceiling including all the building materials, air films and air requirements for other parts of the house like glazing.
spaces. It sets different R values depending on the climate zone (see › Get credit for insulation to internal walls to unconditioned areas
Table 5.2 below). The NCC divides Victoria into 4 climate zones: and between floor, and
› Warmer inland areas like Mildura (Climate Zone 4). › Use a variety of different insulation R values to suit the types
› Cooler coastal and inland areas like Melbourne or Horsham of construction in the house.
(Climate Zone 6).
The flexibility offered by NatHERS ratings is the reason why the
› Colder inland climates like Ballarat (Climate Zone 7), and majority of houses use ratings to determine compliance with
› Alpine Areas (Climate Zone 8). the NCC rather than the elemental provisions.
TABLE 5.2: R VALUE FOR CLIMATE ZONES While using NatHERS ratings provides flexibility, more often than not
NatHERS assessors will specify quite high levels of insulation. This
Element Minimum required total R value for climate zone is because the additional insulation generally costs only a little more
but the increased performance allows you to save money by lowering
4 6 7 8 specifications in other areas of the house.
Ceiling* 4.1/4.6/5.1 4.6/5.1/5.1 4.6/5.1/5.1 6.3 The other reason for using high insulation levels is that insulation in
walls and floors can often be very expensive to upgrade at a later date:
Wall** 2.4 or 2.8 2.8 3.8 it is better to put in as much as practical now while it is cheapest.
shade the
wall Heat flow depends not only on the climate and R value, it also depends
on area. High insulation levels may also be specified by NatHERS
Suspended Floor 2.25 2.25 2.75 3.25 assessors in walls of two storey houses, houses with a courtyard
Slab on ground 1.0 slab 1.0 slab 1.0 slab 1.0 slab design or high ceilings because they have larger wall areas.
with in slab edge edge edge edge & 2.0 In most climates in Victoria using a waffle pod slab (see Chapter 6)
heating under slab will add around half a star to the NatHERS rating. Waffle pod slab
* For light, medium and dark coloured external roof surfaces floors have been used in increasing numbers in Victoria because of
** In climate zone 4 if the wall is shaded, lower R values can be used. For heavyweight walls this benefit. If you want to use a waffle pod slab make sure that an
brick cavity, concrete block or mud brick walls lower insulation R values can be used in engineer has confirmed that it is suitable for the soil classification of
houses with slab on ground floors. your site.
To determine the Insulation R value required you must subtract the R
Waffle pods will make the house a little less comfortable in hot
value of the uninsulated element. As a general rule, the R value of the
weather because they insulate the house from the cooler ground
uninsulated element will be around 0.5 for walls, ceilings and floors
temperatures. In climates like Mildura, which have higher cooling
over unenclosed subfloor spaces and around 0.6 to 1.1 for floors over
loads than in other parts of the state, waffle pod slabs can make your
enclosed subfloor spaces depending on the height and ventilation of
NatHERS rating worse.
the subfloor space.
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05 / Insulation
Insulation selection Fire safety
All insulation products should be independently

tested for flammability prior to being sold.
When selecting insulation, ensure that the material is: AS1530.1 (1989) provides a standard testing procedure to measure:
› the recommended R value for the relevant area; › ignitability;
› appropriate for the intended installation; › the spread of flame;
› a material covered by Australian Standards or approved › the amount of heat generated when alight; and
by other recognised testing authorities; and › the amount of smoke generated when alight.
› sufficient to meet local building authority requirements.
Ignitability is rated on a scale of zero to 20, while other factors are rated
on a scale of zero to ten. The lower the number, the smaller the risk.
Cellulose fibre must be treated with a fire retardant such as a mix of

borax and boracic acid during manufacture. The treatment ensures
that, if the material does ignite, the flame will not spread. Expanded
and extruded polystyrene are combustible, and should only be
installed between fire-resistant surfaces (this includes plasterboard).
Natural wool is flame resistant, provided only pure, new scoured wool
is used. Wool which is oily, or has synthetic fibres mixed with it is
potentially flammable.
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05 / Insulation
Suggested applications for insulation products
Table 5.2 provides general information about the various insulation products
currently available, together with the most common applications for each product.
It is possible to adapt most products for different uses if required.
TABLE 5.3: INSULATION PRODUCTS AND POSSIBLE APPLICATIONS
Insulating Material Typical Applications

Material Description
Flat Cathedral Timber Suspended Concrete Full Framed
ceilings ceilings floors concrete slab edge/ masonry walls
pitched or raked slabs under walls
roofs ceilings slab
Batts and blankets
Glasswool Manufactured from melted glass spun

into a mat of fine fibre.
Made to an Australian Standard and

commonly sold in DIY packs with R
values clearly labelled. Easy to cut and
install. Remains inert. Should not be
compressed or moistened. Butt all ends
and edges together firmly.
Rockwool Volcanic rock melted at high

temperatures and spun into a mat of
fine fibres. Denser than glasswool so
R value per unit thickness is higher.
Good sound absorption properties. See
Glasswool for other characteristics.
Glasswool/ Characteristics same as above with foil

rockwool – providing increased insulating value
foil attached (in summer) and moisture resistance.
R value depends on method of
installation.
Natural wool Should only be made from new,

scoured wool. Must be treated with a
vermin/rot proofing agent during the
scouring process. Dirt or grease can
add to flammability. Some include
synthetic (usually polyester) fibres
to reduce settling and compression.
The Wool Mark logo signifies the
batt is made from pure wool only. No
Australian Standard as yet.
Polyester Manufactured from polyester strands

spun into a mat. Similar physical
properties to glass wool and rock wool.
Non-toxic, with no known physical or
health hazards. Does not burn, but will
melt if exposed to a direct flame. Butt
all edges firmly. No Australian Standard
as yet.
59
05 / Insulation
Insulating Material Typical Applications

roofs ceilings slab
Boards
Extruded Rigid boards of close cell polystyrene

polystyrene which retain air but exclude water. High
R value per unit thickness. Suitable
where space is limited. Easy to cut and
install. Should only be used between
non-combustible materials such as brick,
aluminium and plasterboard. Can be
rendered. Most commonly used material
for slab-edge and cavity brick wall
insulation. Greater structural strength
and moisture resistance than expanded
polystyrene.
Expanded Semi-rigid boards of white polystyrene

polystyrene beads. High water absorbency.
(EPS) Combustible and should only be used
between fire resistant materials. Easy
to cut and install. Available as preclad
panels.
Expanded Expanded polystyrene boards

polystyrene – sandwiched between reflective foil.
foil attached Characteristics same as above, however,
higher R values achieved due to the
addition of two reflective surfaces and
higher water resistance.
Phenolic Rigid phenolic foam insulation

sandwiched between facing products on
its outer surfaces, one or more of which
can be made from, composite foil,
Loose Fill
Cellulose Manufactured from waste paper

fibre pulverised into a fine fluff. Fire retardant
added. Generally pumped into roof by
contractor.
Difficult for the purchaser to ensure

uniform thickness and density if
installing by hand. Product should be
manufactured to AS2462 and installed in
a consistent, even layer. Must be kept dry.
Must not be compressed. Settling of up to

20 mm per 100 mm thickness may occur,
decreasing performance.
Granulated Properties as per rockwool batts.

rockwool However, material is loose, not a
prefabricated mass. Treated with a water
repellent. Should be installed in an even,
consistent manner.
Natural Made from off-cuts of natural sheep’s

wool wool. Quality and density can vary
considerably, affecting the R value. Other
characteristics same as for natural wool
batts.
60
05 / Insulation
Insulating Material Typical applications

roofs ceilings slab
Reflective
Reflective Aluminium foil laminated with glass

foil fibre reinforcement. Supplied in rolls,
one side often painted with an anti-glare
paint. Does not have a significant R value
itself, and requires a sealed air space of
at least 25 mm between foil and solid
surface to achieve full insulation
qualities. Gaps in foil reduce
performance. Valuable in combination
with bulk insulation for enhancing
performance. Useful barrier against
transfer of moisture. Reflective surface
needs to remain clean and dust-free.
Dust build-up reduces R value.
Concertina Expandable concertina folded foil-paper

foil batts laminate. Can be adjusted to suit varying
gaps. Other characteristics identical to
laminate bought as rolls.
Multi-cell Prefabricated batts made from layers

foil batts of laminated foil with partition reflective
strips to produce a cell construction
with enclosed air cavities. Gaps will
significantly reduce performance. Double
or triple-cell batts (two and three layers
of cells, respectively) may be necessary
to achieve adequate winter insulation
levels. Dust build-up reduces R value.
Building Materials
Aerated Lightweight concrete blocks or panels

concrete aerated to trap insulating pockets of
air. Blocks provide solid masonry wall
and insulation in the one product. Good
thermal and acoustic properties.
Non-combustible. Easy to handle.
Expanded Hollow forms filled with concrete.

polystyrene Hollow EPS blocks and panels create a
solid formwork which is then filled with
concrete, or sprayed with an external
concrete render.
Insulated A range of building products, cement or

paneling metallic materials rendered onto extruded
or expanded polystyrene. Designed to be
used as pre-insulated external or internal
paneling on roofs or walls or as a
replacement for conventional tilt
concrete construction. Some
manufacturers use polyurethane foam
or mineral wool in place of polystyrene.
Characteristics vary depending on
product.
Weatherproof Sheeting made of polyethylene fibres

housewrap bonded together by heat and pressure.
Added to buildings during construction
to weatherproof and draught proof walls.
Can add up to R0.8 to walls by trapping a
layer of still air.
61
05 / Insulation
Installing insulation
These guidelines are primarily intended to help you make sure that the insulation
in your house has been properly installed so that it performs as intended. It is not
intended to provide a complete procedure for self-installation, particularly
in existinghouses.
Installation of insulation to existing homes can be a dangerous Installation guidelines

activity. Dangers include but are not limited to electrical safety
(eg. old wiring), presence of hazardous material (eg asbestos) and It is vital that insulation is installed with careful attention to detail,
fire safety (appropriate clearances around fire hazards). Therefore, as incorrect or inappropriate installation will significantly decrease
it is critical to seek appropriate professional advice prior to installing performance. For instance, failure to butt all ends and edges of batts
your own insulation. to give a snug fit could result in 5% of the ceiling area not being covered,
this can reduce the effective R value of R4.0 insulation to R2.2.
If you wish to install insulation in your own home make sure you read,
understand and follow the manufacturer’s instructions and take all
the necessary safety precautions. Relevant standards
ICANZ have developed a handbook of installation practice for for installation
professional installers. It has a significant section on identifying risks
Various Australian Standards and national codes of practice cover the
associated with installing insulation. It is highly recommended that
installation of insulation products with key standards set out below.
anyone who wants to install their own insulation read this handbook.
It can be downloaded from: http://icanz.org.au/wp-content/ Bulk insulation must be installed in compliance with AS3999: Thermal
uploads/2013/12/ICANZ-HandBook-PART-2-Professional-Installation- insulation of dwellings – Bulk insulation – Installation requirements.
Guide-V2-November-2013.pdf
Reflective foil insulation must be installed in compliance with
The Clean Energy Council (CEC) is committed to ensuring the AS4200.2: Pliable building membranes and underlays – Installation
high quality of insulation installations by accredited installers requirements.
and improving the standards of the insulation industry. As part
of this commitment the CEC works with insulation installers in a All electrical wiring encased in insulation must conform to AS3000:
accreditation program referred to as the Insulation Accreditation Electrical installations – buildings, structures and premises. In existing
Scheme. CEC accreditation is a qualification that demonstrates an dwellings, which may not conform to this standard, spacers must be
installer's competence in the installation of batts in ceilings, floors installed to ensure that wiring is not in contact with the insulation
and walls. For more information go to the Clean Energy Council (refer AS3999).
website (cleanenergycouncil.org.au).
It is best to keep wiring clear of insulation, e.g. run wiring on top of
ceiling joists.
Installation safety when installing mineral wool (glasswool and

rockwool), insulation should comply with Work Safe Australia’s
National code of practice for safe use of synthetic mineral fibres (1990).
62
05 / Insulation
Principles of installation Thermal bridging

The following installation principles will ensure the best possible Thermal bridging is the transfer of heat across building elements,
performance from insulation. which have less thermal resistance than the added insulation.
This decreases the overall R value (see Figure 5.17).
› Avoid gaps in insulation. Leaving gaps of just 5% of the area
of the ceiling will reduce the R value of R3.5 insulation to R2.1 FIGURE 5.17: THERMAL BRIDGING THROUGH CEILING JOISTS
(see Figure 5.18).
› Avoid or reduce use of downlights
› Use non-halogen downlights. Providing the 200 mm clearance
required around halogen downlights (assuming 4 per 10 m2)
insulation
reduces the R value of R4.0 insulation to R1.4. Other types of
downlights (e.g. LED) can require as little as 50 mmm clearance
which would only cause a drop in R value from 4.0 to 3.5. joist plasterboard
› Do not compress bulk insulation. Compressing 110 mm insulation
into a 90 mm space reduces the R value by around 12%. insulation R2.5
ceiling joists R0.9
› Eliminate thermal bridges through metal framing by placing a overall R value of ceiling R2.2
thin insulating strip of material over the frame.
› Allow clearance around heat generating and electrical
appliances and fittings. Wall frames and ceiling joists are examples of thermal bridges, having
a lower R value than the insulating material placed between them.
› Protect insulation from contact with moisture. Because of this, the overall R value of a typical ceiling is reduced.
› Where reflective insulation is used ensure a sealed air space For example, adding R4.0 bulk insulation between timber joists will
by taping joins and any services penetrations. result in an overall R value for the whole ceiling of R3.5. Metal framing,
› Provide vapour and moisture barriers to prevent condensation. which has lower thermal resistance, reduces the overall R value
even further. Insulation suppliers will be able provide thermal break
material to install over metal frames to reduce thermal bridging.
TABLE 5.4: SOME INSTALLATION TECHNIQUES TO IMPROVE
THERMAL PERFORMANCE Figure 5.18 shows the impact on the effective R value of insulation
when part of the ceiling is left uninsulated due to poor installation
Situation Technique practice. To use the nomogram, find the area uninsulated at the
bottom, project up to the R value you have installed then project
Gaps where insulation not Fit batts snugly leaving no gaps
left to find the effective R value.
installed around ducts and pipes
Gaps between pieces of Make sure corners, junctions of wall, FIGURE 5.18 IMPACT OF LEAVING PART OF A CEILING UNISULATED
insulation floor and ceiling are fully covered
EFFECTIVE R VALUE
Compression of bulk Retain maximum thickness, allow R 4.0 R 3.0
R 3.5 R 2.5
insulation to fully expand 4.5
Thermal bridging through Isolate metal framing from contact 4.0

structural framing—metal, with cladding (required by NCC).
timber Isolate timber framing from contact 3.5
with cladding in alpine areas.

3.0
Alternatively, install insulation over
the frame. 2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
PERCENTAGE OF CEILING UNINSULATED
63
05 / Insulation
Wall sections within a roof space FIGURE 5.19: INSULATE VERTICAL WALL SECTIONS BETWEEN
CEILINGS OF DIFFERENT HEIGHTS
It is essential to insulate vertical wall sections within the roof space
above ceilings of different heights, as these can be a major source of Pay special Insulate walls between ceilings
attention to cathedral to the same rating as the ceilings
heat loss. These sections should be insulated to the same level as the
type ceilings
ceiling (see Figure 5.19)
up to R3.5
ceiling insulation
insulate cavity
brick walls
up to R2.0 insulate concrete

wall insulation slab edges
FIGURE 5.20: INSULATION CLEARANCE AROUND FLUES FIGURE 5.21: INSULATION CLEARANCE AROUND EXHAUST FANS
insulation
suitable
barrier
50 mm
insulation
50 mm gap
flue exhaust fan

plasterboard
64
05 / Insulation
Clearance around appliances and fittings: TABLE 5.5: INSULATION CLEARANCE REQUIREMENTS
Fire safety Item to be cleared Technique

Some appliances and fittings, such as recessed downlights and Recessed downlights i.e. Maintain at least a 50 mm clearance.
heater flues, require free space around them for the dissipation of penetrates ceiling lining If a transformer is required maintain
heat, to reduce fire hazard. Insulation should not be placed against and requires clearance to 50 mm clearance to this as well or
these fixtures. Regulations and manufacturers’ recommendations insulation for fire safety install above insulation. Note halogen
should always be checked before installing insulation. Table 5.5 sets downlights require 200 mm clearance.
out some common installation clearances.
Flues and exhaust fans Minimum clearance of 50 mm
Refer to AS/NZS 5110:2011 Recessed luminaire barriers, for
further information on barriers around flues, exhaust fans and Loose fill insulation material Use recommended barriers to restrain
recessed lights. and ensure adequate clearance
Electrical wiring (existing Check by electrician before installing

home) insulation. Keep wiring clear of
insulation. Restrain loose fill material
by spacers
A number of house fires have been attributed to incorrect installation

of insulation around downlights. The following detail for safe
installation around downlights is taken from the ICANZ Handbook and
is based on Australian Standards.
While leaving a 50mm gap is essential it is important not to leave an

excessive gap. Leaving out half a batt around downlights can lead to a
reduction of the effective R value of ceiling insulation by over 60%.
FIGURE 5.22: INSTALLATION OF INSULATION AROUND DOWNLIGHTS
Fixed barrier required where:

luminaire barrier
› Insulation materials are not fixed in position
› Loose fill insulation materials are used. transformer combustible building
material eg. timber joist
50mm 50mm
bulk recessed bulk

insulation downlight insulation
65
05 / Insulation
Condensation & moisture control
Air always contains a certain amount of water vapour. This vapour can originate
from many sources around the home – breathing, cooking, bathrooms, laundries,
indoor plants, LPG gas heaters and so on. When moist air comes into contact with
a surface which is below the dew point of the air vapour changes to liquid droplets
on that surface. This phenomenon is called condensation.
Condensation is more likely to occur: Interstitial condensation

› where there is a low ventilation rate within the walls or roof space,
insufficient to remove water vapour (e.g. cathedral and flat roof
(condensation within bulk insulation)
ceilings); In cold conditions, condensation may occur within the insulation
› where daytime temperatures do not exceed 5°C itself. Exhausting moist air into the roof space or wall cavity may
(e.g. in alpine areas in winter); and also cause condensation. Such condensation is known as interstitial
› where high amounts of water vapour are generated internally condensation. It can cause mould, mildew and the rotting of building
but not mechanically exhausted. components. In addition, the effectiveness of insulation is significantly
reduced when it contains water.
Condensation on interior surfaces Condensation is a particular hazard in cathedral and flat roof
systems where the low ventilation rate within the roof space may be
Insulation, correctly installed, can keep the interior surface temperature insufficient to remove water vapour contained in the air.
of ceilings and external walls above the dewpoint, preventing
condensation on these surfaces. Condensation control involves These problems can be avoided by either providing sufficient
preventing moist air from coming into contact with cold surfaces ventilation within the wall or roof space to remove water vapour, or
below the dewpoint of the air by one or more of the following means: by installing vapour barriers such as reflective foil or plastic moisture
› removing moisture-laden air by controllable ventilation or proof wraps behind the internal lining. This prevents water vapour
exhaust fans; from the room entering the structure.
› insulating to keep ceiling and wall temperatures above dewpoint, Exhaust fans in buildings with metal deck or tiled roofs with sarking
and to reduce the difference between room temperature and (reflective foil installed under roofing material for weatherproofing)
surface temperatures; and must be ducted to the atmosphere instead of into the roof space to
› background heating (low temperature, no more than 15 degrees) ensure that condensation build-up is avoided.
to prevent interior surfaces from cooling below the dewpoint.
This may significantly increase heating energy use, so insulation is
the preferred approach. This should only be considered in existing
homes with significant condensation problems where installing
insulation is problematic.
66
05 / Insulation
Protect insulation from contact Provide vapour barriers to prevent

with moisture condensation and moisture barriers
If glasswool or cellulose fibre insulation gets wet it loses its insulation Condensation in bulk insulation reduces its insulating properties
value and can absorb a significant mass of water. This additional significantly. Vapour barriers stop the transmission of water vapour
mass can lead to structural damage. One way that insulation can generated inside the home, through the building elements and into the
get wet is if the insulation touches the underside of the roof surface. building structure which can lead to interstitial condensation.
In fact, Australian Standards require that a clearance of 50 mm is
maintained between the underside of the roof material and the top of A vapour barrier installed on the warm side of insulation will prevent
ceiling insulation. This requires the installation of thinner batts around moist air from contacting a cold surface (see Figure 5.24). The vapour
the edge of the roof where the roof pitches from the top plate of the wall. barrier should be continuous, with no breaks.
See Figure 5.23. Vapour barriers include well-maintained painted surfaces, polythene
Masonry walls are not waterproof. In both brick veneer and double- sheeting and aluminium foil. If aluminium foil is required to act as
brick wall construction a cavity between the external masonry wall both thermal insulation and a vapour barrier, ensure that a still
and the internal lining keeps the internal lining dry. Moisture on the airspace is provided.
internal face of the external masonry wall can drain away through High gloss painted surfaces generally provide adequate protection
weepholes or evaporate into the cavity. Table 5.6 sets out techniques from condensation in Victorian climates.
to prevent the insulation from absorbing moisture from the external
leaf and losing its effectiveness. Moisture barriers stop the transmission of water from outside the
home entering through the building elements. Sarking may be
TABLE 5.6: KEEPING INSULATION DRY IN WALL CAVITIES installed directly under roofing material to act primarily as a moisture
barrier. It is usually made of reflective foil laminate (which adds to the
Situation Technique insulation effect), or other waterproof material.
If reflective wrap insulation is installed behind weatherboards

Brick veneer Restrain bulk insulation within the frame. manufacturers recommend using breather foil. Breather foil is foil
construction Reflective foil laminate, polypropylene lashing, which has a number of small holes that allow moisture vapor to
nylon cord, galvanised wire or building paper pass through it. If breather foil is not installed the inner surface of
can be used to keep bulk insulation in place the weatherboard will have a higher moisture content than the outer
surface and the weatherboard may warp or cup.
Cavity masonry Restrain bulk insulation to maintain at least
walls 20 mm cavity ABCB Condensation handbook can be downloaded from the Austalian
Building Codes Board website (abcb.gov.au).
Existing wall Use water-repellent loose-fill granular
cavities rockwool insulation. Contains water-repelling
agent to prevent absorption of moisture. Not
allowed by some building authorities because
of concern over moisture penetration
FIGURE 5.23: INSTALLATION OF EDGE INSULATION FIGURE 5.24: PLACE VAPOUR BARRIER ON THE WARM SIDE
OF INSULATION (BRICK VENEER WALL)
cavity
edge
insulation foil or painted plasterboard
bulk insulation
as a vapour barrier
placed on
ceiling lining plasterboard lining
outside stud warm side
>50 mm
clearance ceiling joist bulk insulation
>50 mm
flue
67
05 / Insulation
Notes
68
06 / Thermal Mass
The contents of this chapter explain the effect
of thermal mass and provide guidelines for
how to use it to improve the energy efficiency
of your house. Summer and winter effects of
thermal mass and the relationship with
climate are also outlined.
69
06 / Thermal Mass
Understanding thermal mass
A building material which has high thermal mass is a dense While houses with Brick Veneer walls perform better than houses
heavyweight material like bricks or concrete (Figure 6.10) while with weatherboard walls because of the thermal mass of the brick,
materials like timber or plasterboard are light weight and have much placing the brick on the outside substantially reduces its benefit.
lower thermal mass (Figure 6.11). Houses with Reverse Brick Veneer walls, where the brick is exposed
to the internal air will perform much better than Brick Veneer walls
Materials with thermal mass absorb heat from the air in the room because the thermal mass is in contact with the inside air.
or from the sun shining on them. This heat is then released slowly
into the room over several hours. To get the best out of high thermal If your house is appropriately designed, thermal mass can be used
mass materials they must be in contact with the internal air so that to improve the comfort and energy efficiency of your house in both
heat is free to flow into and out of them. Putting carpet on a slab floor summer and winter.
reduces this ability.
FIGURE 6.10: MATERIALS WITH HIGH THERMAL MASS FIGURE 6.11: MATERIALS WITH LOW THERMAL MASS
mud concrete brick stud wall

brick block
weatherboard
cladding
timber floor
concrete slab
70
06 / Thermal Mass
Summer Potential negative effects in winter

In summer, thermal mass absorbs heat that enters the building. and summer
By absorbing heat from within the house the internal air temperature
In some cases thermal mass can actually increase winter energy
is lowered during the day, with the result that comfort is improved
requirements. Where there is little possibility of solar gain, either
(see Figure 6.12).
because north windows are too small or are overshadowed (poor
During the night if external air temperatures are lower and you open solar access), the benefits provided by the use of thermal mass will be
your windows this stored heat can be removed by ventilation. Inside minimal. Each time supplementary heating is used, the thermal mass
temperatures at night time will be slightly higher than in a building needs to be heated before the air temperature rises, increasing the
with no thermal mass, however with air movement, temperatures will heating energy needed.
still be comfortable (unless a long spell of consistently hot days and
nights is experienced).
Differences between thermal mass
It is essential that you appropriately shade your windows so the and insulation
internal thermal mass is not exposed to the summer sun.
Thermal mass doesn’t just absorb heat from solar heat gain through
windows, it changes the way heat flows through a wall, floor or roof.
Winter In the right circumstances it can significantly reduce heat loss in
winter and heat gain in summer. Because insulation reduces heat
In winter, thermal mass in the floor or walls absorbs radiant
flow through building elements it is easy to confuse the effects and
heat from the sun coming into the house through north, east and
conclude that thermal mass helps to insulate the house; it does not.
west‑facing windows. During the night, this stored heat is gradually
released back into the room as the air temperature drops. This helps Thermal mass will only reduce heat flow in climates where the
maintain a comfortable temperature for some time, reducing the need external temperature is fluctuating above and below the inside
for supplementary heating (see Figure 6.13). The slight downside for temperature. In Victorian climates this typically occurs in summer
winter performance is that houses with thermal mass may need a where the maximum on a hot day will be above thirty but night
bigger heater to warm up the house early in the morning before the time minimum temperatures can be in the high-teens. A significant
sun is very intense. proportion of heat absorbed by the thermal mass during the day flows
back out to the cooler night temperatures and never makes it into the
For good winter performance, thermal mass should be exposed
house. The bigger the temperature difference, the greater the benefit
to direct sunlight and is best located in areas with unobstructed
of thermal mass, so inland climates like Ballarat and Mildura will
north‑facing windows.
obtain the greatest benefits of using thermal mass in summer.
Simply changing the building materials of a house from lightweight
In winter however, maximums are usually in the mid-teens and
(timber floor and timber walls) to heavy weight (concrete slab floor
minimums will be below ten. It is therefore always cooler outside than
and brick internal walls) can reduce heating by 30% and cooling by
you want it to be inside. In this case the ability of the thermal mass to
50% in a house designed to make best use of thermal mass.
reverse the heat flow is lost and a high thermal mass wall will lose as
much heat as a light weight wall. In cold weather thermal mass inside
the house can still help by absorbing heat gain from windows. But
external thermal mass walls with no insulation lose as much heat as
FIGURE 6.12: THERMAL MASS FIGURE 6.13: THERMAL MASS
any other external wall type in cold winter conditions in Victoria. You
IN SUMMER IN WINTER
will significantly improve the energy efficiency of a house if you apply
insulation to the outside of thermal mass to reduce winter heat loss.
Heat is absorbed by the slab Heat is released by the slab
during the day, reducing during the evening, stabilising
internal temperature internal temperature
summer sun
winter sun
71
06 / Thermal Mass
Seasonal effects of thermal mass
The graphs below show how using high thermal mass building affects the
unconditioned temperatures inside a house in summer and winter. The house is a
passive solar design which makes best use of thermal mass. The high mass house
uses reverse brick veneer external walls, brick internal walls and a concrete slab
floor, while the low mass house uses weatherboard external walls, plasterboard
internal walls and a timber floor.
Summer Winter
Figure 6.14 shows how the high thermal mass house has improved Figure 6.15 shows how the high thermal mass house has improved
summer comfort compared to the light weight house by comparing winter comfort compared to the light weight house.
temperatures in the house without air conditioning. The house used
was the Case Study house (Chapter 8). Figure 6.15 shows the overnight temperatures in the high thermal
mass house never falls below 15 degrees while the low thermal mass
On the hottest days the high thermal mass house is up to 7 degrees house can be as cold as 10 degrees in the late morning. During the
cooler than the low mass house. At night, when the heat build-up day the temperatures stay at comfortable levels without heating for
of the day can be removed using ventilation, the high thermal mass longer than in the low thermal mass house while the low mass house
house cools down, but is still a degree or two warmer than the house actually overheats in cool weather when north window solar gains
built using lightweight materials. are high. The high thermal mass house has a much lower range of
temperature over winter days as the thermal mass helps to even out
In summer, thermal mass absorbs heat that enters the building. the temperature fluctuations.
In hot weather, thermal mass has a lower initial temperature than
the surrounding air and acts as a heat sink. By absorbing heat from
the atmosphere the internal air temperature is lowered during the
day, with the result that comfort is improved without the need for
supplementary cooling (see Figure 6.12).
FIGURE 6.14: COMPARING THE SUMMER PERFORMANCE FIGURE 6.15: COMPARING THE WINTER PERFORMANCE
OF HIGH AND LOW THERMAL MASS HOUSES, MELBOURNE OF HIGH AND LOW THERMAL MASS HOUSES, MELBOURNE
HIGHEST AVERAGE TEMPERATURE OVER 3 DAYS outdoor temperature LOWEST AVERAGE TEMPERATURE OVER 3 DAYS outdoor temperature
TEMPERATURE (°C) high mass kitchen/family area TEMPERATURE (°C) high mass kitchen/family area
45 low mass kitchen/family area 25 low mass kitchen/family area
40 20
35
15
30
10
25
5
20
15 0
Midnight Midnight Midnight Midnight Midnight Midnight

Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 1 Day 2 Day 3
72
06 / Thermal Mass
Concrete slab on ground: A special case
Concrete slab floors are made of high thermal mass materials. Like internal brick
walls they absorb heat from direct sunlight or inside air during the day and store it.
Unlike thermal mass in walls, however, the temperature on the underside of the slab
– the ground temperature – fluctuates very little over the day and over the year. This
means that the use of high thermal mass concrete slab on ground floors has a very
different impact on house energy efficiency to the use of high thermal mass internal
or external walls.
Figures 6.16 and 6.17 show the internal temperature, external During the day the heat loss through a slab on ground will be
temperature and ground temperature for the same house shown much less than though a timber floor to the subfloor because the
in the graphs (Figures 6.14 and 6.15) located in Mildura. In this temperature difference across the floor temperatures are much less
case, however, the house is heated and cooled. Living area heated for the slab. At night, when internal temperatures fall, the temperature
and cooled only when conditions are uncomfortable from 7am to of the ground is higher than internal temperatures. This means the
midnight. In some hours cooling will turn off if the room temperature slab floor will gain heat at night and keep the high thermal mass
is not more than 2.5 degrees above the thermostat setting – this house warmer, while a timber floor will still lose heat throughout
is one of NatHERS standard assumption. As a result the internal the night. Again, this gives the thermal mass in the slab an advantage
temperature does not stay constantly at the thermostats setting over thermal mass in walls.
in the graphs below.
The favourable temperature difference for slabs placed on ground
also explains why a suspended concrete slab over a subfloor space
Summer does not perform as well as a slab on ground.
While the temperature outside ranges from 18 overnight to 43 during
the day, the temperature of the ground is fairly constant at 25 degrees.
The temperature of a subfloor space under a timber floor will be Insulating Slab Floors
around halfway between the external air temperature and the Placing insulation under slab floors will reduce heat losses through
ground temperature. the floor during the day in winter and lower the need for heating. In
The ground temperature is stable due to the thermal mass of the summer, however, insulating under a slab floor will increase the need
earth itself. This stable temperature means that during the day the for cooling. This is because a slab floor typically loses heat to the ground
house will actually lose heat to the ground underneath the slab, while during the day when cooling needs are highest. Insulation will reduce
a timber floored house would actually gain heat. And a proportion of the amount of heat lost through the slab and make the house warmer.
the heat absorbed by the slab from solar heat gain through windows In climates like Melbourne and Ballarat insulating under a slab floor
will be lost to the cooler ground, so not all the heat stored will be will improve the star rating of a house because the reduced heating
released back into the house. This gives the thermal mass in a loads outweighs the increased cooling loads. However, in climates
concrete slab an advantage over thermal mass in walls or ceilings. like Mildura, where cooling loads are much higher, insulating under a
slab floor may result in a lower star rating. If you are designing a new
house or renovation in warmer areas like Mildura, get your NatHERS
Winter assessor to check out whether insulating under the slab provides a
In winter, while the temperature outside ranges from 1 degree net benefit as this will depend on the design of the house. See Chapter
overnight to 15 degress during the day, the temperature of the ground 5 for information about how to insulate a slab.
is between 18 and 20 degrees. Again, the temperature of a subfloor
The best way to see whether insulating under your floor is a net
space under a timber floor will be around halfway between the
benefit or cost is to simulate the house using a NatHERS tool and
external air temperature and the ground temperature.
compare the reduction in heating with the increase in cooling.
FIGURE 6.16: COMPARING THE TEMPERATURES IN THE HOUSE, UNDER FIGURE 6.17: COMPARING THE TEMPERATURES IN THE HOUSE, UNDER
THE SLAB AND OUTSIDE IN SUMMER, MILDURA THE SLAB AND OUTSIDE IN WINTER, MILDURA
HIGHEST AVERAGE TEMPERATURE OVER 3 DAYS outdoor LOWEST AVERAGE TEMPERATURE OVER 3 DAYS outdoor
TEMPERATURE (°C) kitchen/family TEMPERATURE (°C) kitchen/family
ground zone 25 ground zone
45
40 20
35
15
30
10
25
5
20
15 0
Midnight Midnight Midnight Midnight Midnight Midnight

Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 1 Day 2 Day 3
73
06 / Thermal Mass
Making best use of thermal mass
Inside the insulated building envelope Amount of thermal mass

For maximum effectiveness, thermal mass should be insulated The use of concrete slab floors is beneficial throughout Victoria.
from external air temperatures. The insulation should be located Thermal mass in walls are also beneficial except under some
on the outer side of the thermal mass and allow the internal layer circumstances, for example:
of thermal mass to come in to contact with the internal air (see Figure › if solar access is poor solar heat from windows won’t heat up
6.18). The benefits of thermal mass are considerably reduced if the rooms sufficiently in winter and thermal mass may mean that
external envelope is not insulated. For this reason brick veneer walls heating appliances take significantly longer to heat the room;
offer little thermal mass benefit, as the brick is on the outside of the
› if you have large unshaded windows, particularly on the west and
insulated cavity.
east the thermal mass will absorb too much heat for rooms to cool
down sufficiently in summer, and
Inside north-facing rooms
› if you want to sleep at night without air-conditioning a light weight
Using thermal mass in north-facing rooms should be a priority, house will cool down by one or two degrees more than a high
particularly on those walls which receive direct winter sun thermal mass house.
because this is where the heat gains from the sun are highest
in winter (see Figure 6.19 and Figure 6.20). Thermal mass works best when all the floors or walls in the house
are made with high thermal mass materials. While masonry feature
Hot rooms during summer walls make some improvement, to achieve the benefits shown in
Figure 6.14 and 6.15, all the floors and walls need to use high thermal
High thermal mass walls and floors can significantly improve summer mass materials. This is because the surface area of the feature wall
comfort. This only occurs when windows are well shaded from the is much less than the surface area of all the walls.
sun and the room can be effectively ventilated at night to remove heat
which has been absorbed during the day. If you can’t shade windows The impact of constructing internal partition walls with high thermal
or ventilate the room at night high thermal mass construction can mass materials is generally greater than external walls because the
make the room less comfortable, particularly bedrooms because the surface area of the internal walls is greater than the external walls
heat released from the thermal mass at night can limit the extent to and the walls are not exchanging heat with the outside as well. If you
which the bedroom can cool down. can only afford to use thermal mass in either the internal or external
walls, internal walls will give the best result.
Masonry fireplaces on internal walls You can increase the thermal mass of your house by using thicker
masonry e.g. 200 mm concrete blocks instead of 110 mm bricks.
Masonry fireplaces are best located on internal rather than external
This will improve the energy efficiency of the house, however, the
walls so that the chimney can radiate additional heat into the rooms
effect of increasing the thickness is much less than adding thermal
around it (see Figure 6.22).
mass by increasing the total area of walls constructed with thermal
mass at a lesser thickness.
FIGURE 6.18: THERMAL MASS FIGURE 6.19: LOCATE THERMAL FIGURE 6.20: SOLAR RADIATION FIGURE 6.21: USE THERMAL MASS
WITHIN THE INSULATED ENVELOPE MASS IN NORTH-FACING ROOMS DIRECTLY ONTO MASONRY WALLS IN ROOMS THAT MAY OVERHEAT
AND/OR SLAB IN SUMMER
insulation radiant heat
thermal mass
insulation
74
06 / Thermal Mass
The effect of type and colour of

floor covering on slab on ground
The type and colour of floor coverings on slab floors affect the interaction between
solar gain entering the house and the thermal mass of the slab. Table 6.1 shows how
changes to the type and colour of floor coverings affects the heating and cooling
loads (MJ/m2) in the Case Study house (see Chapter 8) in the Melbourne climate.
TABLE 6.1: EFFECT OF FLOOR COVERINGS ON ENERGY

CONSUMPTION (MJ/M2)
Soft floor finishes
Carpets laid over concrete slab floors will insulate the thermal mass
Colour of floor Slab floor Slab floor of the slab from incoming heat. Houses will obtain higher NatHERS
ceramic tiles carpet ratings if hard floor surfaces are used.
Heating Cooling Heating Cooling Table 6.1 shows that the impact of carpet on heating and cooling
energy use. It shows the impact of applying carpet or ceramic tiles
Dark 84 32 127 48 to all floors in the house. Because at least some floors will usually
be tiled it exaggerates the impacts insulating the slab from incoming
Medium 100 32 133 47 solar radiation by putting carpet on it increases both heating and
cooling energy loads.
Light 117 32 139 47
Hard floor finishes
Because this house is a Passive Solar House designed to enhance the
use of thermal mass the impacts seen in Table 6.1 are exaggerated A ceramic tiled or polished concrete finish on a concrete slab floor
compared to other houses. increases the ability of the thermal mass of the floor to store heat.
This can improve cooling in summer (providing the windows are
shaded) and works best for rooms with good north solar access.
Other hard floor finishes, such as slate and vinyl tiles, have a
similar effect on thermal mass performance.
While hard floor surfaces may feel colder with bare feet, this is not
because the temperature of the surface is colder, but because the
surface more easily conducts heat from your bare feet than carpet
or timber. To maximise the benefits of high thermal mass concrete
floors use a hard floor finish and keep your feet warm with slippers.
Note that turning up the heating won't make you feet feel any warmer
unless you have a heated slab.
Colours
Thermal mass that is coloured black absorbs more heat than white
coloured material (see Figure 6.23). The darker the floor colour the
lower heating energy use becomes because it allows more of the
sun coming in through windows to be stored to heat the room after
sundown. Again, bear in mind that the example shown in Figure
6.23 is a Passive Solar house design with high areas of north facing
windows and has north windows in every major room. The effect of
colour on heating energy use will be less in houses with lower solar
heat gain in winter.
FIGURE 6.22: FIREPLACES ON FIGURE 6.23: COMPARISON OF THE EFFECT OF COLOUR
INTERNAL WALLS ON ROOM TEMPERATURE
black white
thermal mass thermal mass
22˚C 20˚C
75
06 / Thermal Mass
Special construction types
Mud brick Reverse brick veneer

Mud brick and rammed earth homes generally have thick walls Reverse brick veneer, as the name suggests, puts the brickwork
(approximately 300 mm) and high thermal mass. When outside on the inside and timber framing on the outside i.e. the reverse of
temperatures fluctuate above and below comfort temperatures, the traditional construction. This form of construction enables houses
high thermal mass of mud bricks considerably reduces heat transfer, to achieve the same level of thermal performance as a double-brick
resulting in lower cooling energy use. In winter however, outside home and makes it easier to insulate walls.
temperatures are normally lower than comfort temperatures and the
low thermal resistance of mud brick leads to higher heating energy By reversing the traditional construction type, the high thermal mass
use as heat is lost through the walls. of brickwork can be used to advantage. Instead of being on the outside
of the insulation and hence isolated from the room, the brick skin is
While more heat is lost in winter in Victorian climates than through within the insulation envelope. Reverse brick veneer can be used in
insulated conventional construction it is still possible to obtain a 6 star conjunction with either a concrete slab floor (see Figure 6.25) or a
rating using uninsulated construction. In climates like Mildura where timber floor (see Figure 6.26).
there is a greater need for cooling this more than compensates for the
higher heating energy use. In cooler climates the impact on heating Reverse brick veneer does not have to be used for the entire home –
energy use can be minimised by: it may be used only for north-facing rooms. The external skin can be
any type of lightweight cladding suitable for exterior use.
› Using a dark coloured render with minimal fixed shade. This
increases absorption of solar radiation during the day to compensate
for the high heat losses from conduction. Dark north facing walls
with little fixed shading can have a net heat gain in winter.
› Minimising the external wall area to main rooms by:
› Using unconditioned utility spaces like laundries and
bathrooms on east, west and south as buffer spaces. FIGURE 6.25: REVERSE BRICK VENEER ON CONCRETE SLAB
› Use post and beam construction to minimise the height of the
mud brick. Make sure you insulate behind the beam too. insulation in external stud
› Use a cathedral ceiling to minimise external wall height while
still providing adequate internal volume.
selected cladding
› Insulating where you can do so easily e.g. insulate behind the lining
of built in cupboards. brick internal wall
If your house has a high external wall area because it uses a courtyard
design, or is two storey, you may need to insulate some wall space.
Focus on insulating south wall to living areas first. The best way to concrete slab floor
provide insulation is to apply this externally (see Figure 6.24).
Finally, mud brick walls work best in a passive solar house design
where all the main daytime living spaces have north facing windows,
the house is constructed on slab floor with dark coloured floors and
the internal walls are made of mud brick too. FIGURE 6.26: REVERSE BRICK VENEER WITH TIMBER FLOOR
insulation in external stud timber floor

FIGURE 6.24: INSULATING MUD BRICK WALLS
brick internal wall
Insulation fixed to the Insulation fixed to the outer
outside of the mud brick side of the inner mud brick selected cladding
(external insulation) leaf (cavity insulation)
50 mm
polystyrene
ground level
mud and cement inside
render applied
over chicken wire strip footing suitable
reinforcing mesh for both brickwork
and stud frame
cavity
76
06 / Thermal Mass
Two-storey dwellings Phase Change Materials (PCM)1

Consider thermal mass of the upper storeys of homes as they have There is growing interest in the use of PCMs as a lightweight thermal
the potential to overheat in summer because: mass substitute in construction. All materials require a large energy
› as they are usually of lightweight construction, with either brick input to change state (i.e. from a solid to a liquid or a liquid to a gas).
veneer or weatherboard walls. This energy does not change their temperature – only their state.
Phase change materials utilise the energy needed to change the material
› have no connection to the cooler ground through floors.
from solid to liquid as a way of storing heat. The temperature at which
› are exposed to higher levels of solar radiation. the material changes phase general varies between 23 and 27 degrees.
› gain heat from hot air on the ground floor which floats up to the
PCMs are very useful for storing passive solar gains. Any temperature
upper floor rooms, and
increase over a desired thermal comfort level is absorbed by the PCM
› two storey houses have a greater area of wall for the same floor as it melts. This energy stays stored until the PCM starts to solidify
area so have a greater heat gain through walls which are less again as temperatures drop at night. As it solidifies, it releases the
insulated than roofs. stored heat.
Thermal mass can help prevent overheating on upper levels. Thermal Commonly used PCMs include paraffin wax and a variety of benign
mass can be provided by a suspended concrete slab floor, internal salts. Many are available in Australia. PCMs are currently expensive
brick walls or even providing high density fibre cement sheet as the compared to conventional thermal mass but can reduce costs through
internal lining to floors and walls. space and structural savings. They are an ideal way to install mass in
To further improve summer performance in the upper floors of existing buildings and are particularly useful in lightweight buildings
two storey houses minimise the area of windows to the east and where cost savings are often achieved.
west and use modest sized north facing windows. All windows The PCM market is developing rapidly so current suppliers are best
should be effectively shaded and positioned to allow good found through an internet search. Some PCMs crystallise after many
cross‑ventilation. cycles of phase change, which renders them useless. Get a guarantee
from your supplier that their product does not do this.
The most common form of phase change materials is a plastic sheet

containing pockets of PCM. This is fixed to the outer side of room
linings like plasterboard or floor boards. Other forms of PCM integrate
the product within other building materials e.g. PCM microcapsules
integrated within plasterboard or AAC blocks. Currently (2019) PCM
can be quite expensive and the price can fluctuate depending on the
value of the Australian dollar as they are not manufactured locally.
Gypsum plaster, paints and floor screeds also have the potential to
contain PCMs.
PCMs have the potential to allow lightweight buildings to perform

more like houses with high thermal mass as shown in Figures 6.14
and 6.15. For example, the thermal capacity of a 13mm thick plaster
layer with 30% microcapsule content is claimed to be equivalent to
that of a 150mm thick masonry wall.
Use of PCMs can be very helpful on severely constrained sites where

thermal mass would otherwise be difficult to install.
targeted
temperature
range PCMs release heat when
temperature drops
1
From Your Home: http://www.yourhome.gov.au/passive-design/thermal-mass
77
06 / Thermal Mass
Notes
78
07 / Air Leakage and
Air Movement
This chapter is about the control of unwanted
air leakage, how it can save energy and how
planning to promote cross ventilation can
reduce the need for air-conditioning. It also
provides guidelines for maintaining acceptable
air quality.
79
07 / Air Leakage and Air Movement
Control of air leakage can save energy
Uncontrolled air leakage can significantly reduce the energy efficiency of a house.
Reducing uncontrolled air leakage can prevent heat loss in winter, and prevent the
entry of warm air in summer. This can save up to 20% on heating and cooling costs
and improve comfort.
The air leakage rate of a house is measured by the number of times The lower the ACH rate the less heat is lost or gained through air
in an hour the air inside the house is replaced with outside air – air leakage and so the less energy will be needed for heating and cooling.
changes per hour or ACH. Measurements of air changes in Victorian Very low ACH rates can cause problems with indoor air contamination
houses in a study by Sustainability Victoria (SV) has shown a wide as indoor air pollutants cannot be effectively removed without opening
range of air leakage rates in Victorian houses (See Figure 7.10). windows or mechanical ventilation. Table 7.1 below shows what levels
of ACH50 and natural ACH are considered to be good practice, what
These air leakage rates were measured using a blower door test. additional ventilation levels may be required to maintain indoor air
This test involves mounting a large fan in a door to pressurise quality, and the average air change rates observed in the SV studies.
a house and measuring air leakage rates at a range of different Note that houses which comply with a 6 star rating would be expected
pressure levels. External doors and windows must be closed to achieve natural ACH rates of between 0.35 and 0.5.
during the test.
The houses in this SV study had comprehensive draft sealing
Results from the Draft Sealing Retrofit Trial (DSRT) are used measures implemented to reduce their air leakage. The retrofits
throughout this chapter. resulted in a reduction in the average natural ACH from 1.90 to 0.83.
The results of blower door air leakage tests are presented in two ways: These reductions in air leakage were estimated to have reduced
› Air changes per hour at 50 pascals (ACH50) taken directly from the heating energy use by around 10%. The cost of reducing air leakage
testing results, and was then compared to the heating energy savings and a payback
› The average natural air changes per hour (ACH) rate at ambient (or period of around 7 years was observed. Note that by focusing only
atmospheric) pressure differences is derived using blower door test on the major air leakage sources this payback period could be
data. Note wind driven air leakage would only generate an average significantly improved.
pressure difference of around 2 Pascals.
Householders in the study were then asked about their perceptions
The blower door test result at 50 Pascals is often used as a benchmark of comfort after the houses were retrofitted. The houses were warmer
for house air leakage in overseas regulations. The average natural air and more comfortable, occupants had less difficulty in heating the
change rate represents the actual air change rate that would occur in house and draughts were significantly reduced.
the house under average real world wind and temperature conditions.
The SV Draft Sealing Retrofit Trial found that a comprehensive
As a general rule the natural average rate is approximately equal to
draught-sealing strategy is one of the most cost effective measures
the air change rate at 50 Pascals divided by 20.
that can be taken in Victoria to reduce heating and cooling energy use.
Many draught sealing measures can be easily installed by a person
competent in DIY.
TABLE 7.1: AIR CHANGE RATES IN VICTORIAN HOUSING

FIGURE 7.10: RANGE OF AIR LEAKAGE FOUND IN VICTORIAN HOUSES * Note: OGA Study refers to the On Ground Assessment study conducted by MEFL for
(FROM THE DRAFT SEALING RETROFIT TRIAL, BY SUSTAINABILITY SV in 2012 (unpublished)
VICTORIA, MARCH 2015, FIGURE 1 PAGE 5)
Classification ACH50 Natural Air
Leakage Rate
30% (ACH)
Aspirational PassivHaus 0.6 0.03

25%
Best practice 1.5 0.075

20%
Excellent 3.5 0.18
15% Better 5.0 0.25
Good 7.0 0.35

10%
Fair 10.0 0.50

5%
Poor 20.0 1.00
0% OGA Study* – post 1990 24.0 1.20

0 to 0.5 to 1 to 1.5 to 2 to 2.5 to 3 to 3.5 to 4 to
<0.5 <1 <1.5 <2 <2.5 <3 <3.5 <4 <4.5 OGA Study* – average 38.0 1.90
AIR LEAKAGE RATE BAND (ACH) OGA Study* – pre-1990 40.4 2.02
80
Typical air leakage rates for various

types of air leakage sources
Part of the SV study included determining the air leakage rates from
different sources. In selected houses individual air leakage sites
were covered and the blower door test was repeated to establish
the amount of air leakage through each air leakage site. There was
a wide range of results found for each site. This is to be expected
because, for example, the air leakage from gaps around windows
depends on the size of the gap. Figure 7.11 reports the average air
leakage rates observed for each air leakage source . Note that blower
door test results do not accurately assess air leakage from chimneys.
The rate for chimneys shown below is taken from measurements of
real houses using tracer gas decay tests conducted by Melbourne
University in the 1980’s. Tracer gas testing is a more accurate, but much
more expensive, way of testing the natural air change rate in houses.
FIGURE 7.11: AIR LEAKAGE IMPACT OF TYPICAL AIR LEAKAGE SITES

Number of features modelled shown in brackets next to feature as appropriate
e.g. 12 wall/ceiling vents. A 4000 cm2 hole could be 1cm wide gap which is 40 m long.
Internal sliding door (1)

Man hole
Gaps around in wall cooling

Plumbing penetrations
Downlights (per downlight)*
Ceiling rose (3)
Windows (per window)

Leaking ductwork
Exhaust fans (2)
External doors (3)

Louvre window (per window)
General gaps**
Wall/ceiling vents (12)
Evaporative cooler
Large gap or hole (4000cm2)
Chimney
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
AIR LEAKAGE (M PER HOUR)

3
* Can style downlights designed for incandescent globes have much higher air leakage
** Gaps were generally between individual floorboards and below skirtings
81
Identifying air leakage sources
This section explains how to identify the air leakage sources in your home.
Figure 7.12 shows typical air leakage sites in Victorian houses.
vented skylight
evaporative
cooling outlets
gaps between walls

exhaust
or ceilings and cornices
fans
air vents fixed air conditioners
gaps and heaters
around
doors
joints between
wall materials
gaps between gaps where pipes

and around chimney penetrate walls
windows
gaps between
gaps between walls
floorboards
FIGURE 7.12 or floors and skirting boards
Blower door testing

The best way to identify air
leakage sources is with a blower
door test. Operators can then
find the source of air leaks using
smoke puffers and following
the smoke trail, using thermal
imaging cameras to see the cool
air coming into the house (see
Figure 7.13) or simply by feeling
additional air movement or lower
Blower door tests apply a uniform pressure FIGURE 7.13: BLOWER DOOR TEST
temperatures.
to all air leakage sites in building. This does Thermal image camera shows air leakage
not occur under real conditions. As a result from between the wall, floor and the skirting
blower door tests do not always show the board. Blue indicates cooler air temperature.
actual air leakage amount for particular sites
e.g. chimneys have much larger air leakage
than a blower door test will show because
the top of the chimney is exposed to higher
air speeds and creates a ‘Venturi’ effect that
increases air leakage.
When you have had your house tested with

a blower door test, you can calculate your
natural air leakage rate with reasonable
accuracy by dividing the ACH50 result by 20.
82
DIY air leak detection Step 1: Identify all obvious gaps Step 2: Depressurise your home
Choose a cool, very windy day (or a hot day in
Look for the following:
Even without a blower door you climates requiring cooling).
› under doors
can identify air leaks in the house › Shut all windows and doors and turn off
› mail delivery and cat flaps
using some simple techniques. any ducted heating, cooling or ventilation
› around doors and window frames,
The following four step procedure systems that blow air into the house.
especially behind architraves
is based on the YourHome website › Turn on all fans that suck air outside,
› fixed vents and wet area window
(www.yourhome.gov.au) ventilators
such as exhaust fans and range hoods.
› Light an incense stick or use a smoke
› gaps between floorboards
pencil and pass it around the edges of all
› chimneys common leak sites. Wherever the smoke
› vented skylights is blown back into the room, there’s an
› air conditioners, especially air leak.
evaporative coolers In addition to using a smoke pencil you can
› downlights also identify leaks in other ways:
› exhaust fans › look for obvious gaps – visible light under
› large cracks or construction joints and around doors and windows;
› gaps above built-in wardrobes › listen for ‘rattles’ or ‘whistling’ around
doors and windows or moving curtains,
› services entry points (plumbing, drainage,
especially during strong winds; and
gas, electricity, phone and TV cables)
› feel for moving air (or use a lighted candle)
› joints where materials meet (especially
around doors, windows, fireplaces, air
dissimilar ones and floor−wall,
outlets, vents, stairways, architraves and
wall−ceiling)
skirting boards.
› holes in heating or cooling ducts.
› Dryer vents After sealing the leaks identified in this step,
the air tightness of your home will most
likely be above average.
Step 3: Pressurise your home Step 4: Thermal imaging

Choose a cool, still day. Consider examining the home with a
thermal imaging camera. These are
› Shut all windows and doors and turn off reasonably inexpensive to hire, and
all fans that suck air outside. relatively inexpensive add on cameras are
› Turn on all ducted heating, cooling or now available for a number of smart phones.
ventilation systems that blow air into Figure 7.14 was taken with a smartphone
the house. add-on thermal imaging camera.
› Use an incense stick or use a smoke pencil
Thermal imaging works best when
to detect air movement and follow it to
temperature differences are greatest.
the exit point; this can be difficult to find
Use the camera on a cold day and turn
quickly, so work methodically. If the exit
up the heating to make sure the room/house
point is an exhaust fan or duct, it requires
is significantly warmer than outside to get
self-closing baffles. Temporarily seal these
the best results. FIGURE 7.14: THERMAL IMAGING
with paper and masking tape and continue.
› Other points of leakage then need Using a thermal imaging camera identifies Thermal image used to detect gaps in
permanent fixing, such as sealing behind air leakage sites because they will be at a insulation. The blue area shows insulation
architraves or under floorboards. colder temperature in winter or warmer has fallen away from the bulkhead to the
temperature in summer. Look in particular attic space behind as well as a lack of
After sealing every outgoing leak you can around junctions between walls and floors insulation in the walls.
find, you have probably achieved adequate and ceilings, at corners, around doors and
air tightness for your home to perform windows, and around penetrations through
efficiently in most Australian climates. the structure for plumbing pipes, electrical
cables and appliances.
Thermal imaging can also be used to

identify gaps in insulation, water leaks and
other issues such as standby power usage
(i.e. detecting heat coming from appliances
and equipment that are not in operation).
83
Eliminating unwanted air leakage for draughts
This section details how you can reduce or eliminate unwanted air leakage sources.
Note that there are important requirements which apply to homes with open flue gas
heaters or gas heaters that do not have a flue. Open flued and flueless gas space
heaters require adequate ventilation to operate safely.
Doors and windows › Seal gaps around doors and openable

windows with lightweight self-adhesive
Doors require draught proofing at their weatherstripping products (foam, flexible
base and between the door and door frame. plastic, polypropylene pile strips) (Figure 7.15).
Windows require draught proofing between › Fit draught excluders to the bottom of all
the openable sash and the window frame. external doors and to internal doors leading
to unheated and vented areas (Figure 7.15).
› Fit automatic door closers to external doors
and doors leading to unheated areas.
Roller PVC Brush Storm Auto lift FIGURE 7.15: WEATHER STRIPPING FOR
door seal door strip door strip proof seal door seal DOOR AND WINDOW FRAMES
Fixed vents in walls and ceilings

New housing does not require fixed IMPORTANT NOTE: If you have a flueless or
ventilation. Existing wall vents can be closed an open flued gas space heater you MUST
off without adversely affecting air quality NOT COVER VENTS. Flueless heaters need
provided that exhaust fans are used to wall vents to allow combustion gases to
eliminate contaminants at their source e.g. escape. Blocking off these wall vents can
when showering or cooking, and the house is have severe health impacts including death.
opened up to provide additional ventilation in
mild weather. Fixed vents can be sealed with caulking
compounds, plaster or even the adhesive
foam strips used for weather stripping. FIGURE 7.16: USING PLASTER TO SEAL WALL VENT
Vented skylights
A vented skylight has a fixed area of opening If the skylight vent is not required by Bad: Unsealed Good: Sealed
that cannot be closed off. This is typically regulations – e.g. the gas safety regulations
Air loses heat against
a strip of 2-5 cm width (see Figure 7.17). relating to unflued gas heaters – these glass and falls to room
Vented skylights are typically used draughts can be significantly reduced by as a cold draught
in bathrooms or WCs which have no installing a clear plastic diffuser at the base
openable windows. of the skylight shaft (see figure 7.17), and Heat escapes
sealing the edges of the diffuser. The edges through vent
of the skylight shaft should also be insulated insulation
to reduce heat losses through the shaft and light shaft
into the roof space in winter.
transparent
diffuser
Warm air rises Warm air stays

in the room
FIGURE 7.17: VENTED SKYLIGHT
84
Important notice about Open Flued and flueless space heaters

If you have an open flued or a flueless gas It is particularly important to note that
space heater installed for heating in your negative pressure can arise in certain
home, please refer to the following sources circumstances and cause carbon monoxide
of information and ensure that the safety to enter your home. Carbon monoxide can
measures are followed: be fatal. We therefore recommend that if
you have an open flue space heater you:
https://esv.vic.gov.au/safety-education/
heating-your-home-with-gas/ 1 Install a carbon monoxide monitor
in your home
https://esv.vic.gov.au/safety-education/
heating-your-home-with-gas/flues-and- 2 Get it serviced at least every two years
ventilation/
3 Do not cover internal air vents to the
https://esv.vic.gov.au/gas-technical- outside
information-sheets/negative-pressure-
environment/ FIGURE 7.18: OPEN FLUED AND FLUELESS
SPACE HEATERS
Open fireplaces
Building regulations require all open fire
places to be fitted with dampers which
can be closed when not in use because
they cause such high levels of air leakage
see Figure 7.18). If you no longer use your
fireplace it can be permanently sealed
(see Figure 7.19).
FIGURE 7.19: CHIMNEY DAMPERS FIGURE 7.20: SEALING AN UNUSED FIREPLACE
Flueless space heater installation restrictions in Victoria

It must be noted that flueless space heaters emission criteria as prescribed in the
cannot be installed in new installations in Gas Safety (Gas Installation) Regulations
Victoria. An existing flueless space heater 2018. Consult a qualified gasfitter for the
operating on LP Gas can be replaced with installation of flueless space heaters.
a new flueless space heater that operates
on LP Gas provided the heater meets strict
Exhaust fans The air pressure created by the fan FIGURE 7.21:
opens the damper when the exhaust fan SELF CLOSING WALL
Exhaust fans can draw products of is operating and the dampers close when MOUNTED EXHAUST
combustion including carbon monoxide the exhaust fan is switched off, reducing FAN
indoors from open flued gas space heaters the air leakage.
if there is inadequate ventilation. https://esv.
vic.gov.au/gas-technical-information-sheets/ It is important to ensure that the covers
negative-pressure-environment/ are suitable for use with the existing ceiling
exhaust fans.
Wall and ceiling mounted exhaust fans are
often used in bathroom, toilet and kitchen Rangehood ventilation fans are used
areas to expel warm moist air, smoke or above the stove to vent moisture and
odours from these areas when they are cooking odours from the kitchen. Modern
being used. If choosing a new or replacement range hoods often have a self-closing
exhaust fan, look for models which are damper that closes of when not in use to
self-closing. Special covers with self-closing prevent fire from the stove reaching the attic FIGURE 7.22: SELF
dampers are available for existing ceiling space. If you have an old range hood and are CLOSING EXHAUST
exhaust fans (see Figure 7.21). unsure about whether it has a self-closing FAN AND COVER
baffle, contact the manufacturer or get a
licensed electrician to inspect it.
85
Gaps in structure Caulking gun Expandable foam
for small gaps filler for large gaps
Caulking compounds such as silicone or latex › Door and window frames;
based gap fillers can be used to seal small › Architraves and skirting boards;
cracks and gaps. For larger gaps or holes › Ceiling cornices;
expandable foam filler can be used. In areas › Construction joints;
which are exposed to the weather the foams › Floor boards;
may require a sealant to be applied after they › Wall penetrations (such as pipes);
have set.
› Exposed rafters and beams;
Special attention should be directed to › Inbuilt heaters and air conditioners; and
sealing cracks and gaps around: › Between masonry walls and other materials. FIGURE 7.23: SEALING AROUND GAPS
AND CRACKS IN THE STRUCTURE
Ducted evaporative cooling systems

The ceiling outlets of ducted evaporative Special covers are now available which can
cooling systems can allow heated air to be placed over the evaporative cooler’s
escape in winter. If there are gaps, heated air ceiling outlets in winter to eliminate the air
can escape around the outside of the outlets. leakage through the louvers (and therefore
Heated air can also escape through the the ductwork and evaporative cooler) (see
louvers into the ductwork, where it can then Figure 7.23). It is important to ensure that the
escape into the roof space through holes, covers are suitable for the type and size of
tears or gaps due to loose joins. the ceiling outlets used with your evaporative
cooling system. It may also be necessary to
If the outlet from the evaporative cooler unit use caulking compounds to seal around the
is not sealed off effectively with an automatically outside of the ceiling outlet.
closing damper during the winter months
then heated air can also escape through the In addition, winter covers are available for
evaporative cooler itself. While automatically some roof mounted evaporative coolers to
closing dampers are available on some reduce winter heat losses through the
evaporative cooler models, these may not evaporative cooling unit (see Figure 7.24).
completely eliminate the air leakage.
ceiling outlet
caulking
compound FIGURE 7.25: WINTER
COVER FOR ROOF
MOUNTED DUCTED
EVAPORATIVE COOLER
internal cover
FIGURE 7.24: CEILING OUTLET COVER
86
Maintaining air quality in houses

with low air leakage
A completely airtight home is not desirable as a minimum level of ventilation is
necessary to replace used internal air that contains odours, carbon dioxide, water
vapour and contaminants. This section provides you with practical solutions to
maintain indoor air quality while minimising unwanted air leakage.
Indoor air contaminants Use your house wisely Heat recovery ventilators
Indoor air quality depends on the activities, While eliminating unwanted air leakage will The ultimate solution to indoor air quality is
furnishings and building materials in the lower your heating bills, it is important not to use a Mechanical Heat Recovery Ventilator
home which may produce air contaminants lower air leakage to the extent that indoor air (MHRV). To use an MHRV you must first
and the degree to which these contaminants quality is compromised. Some of the houses seal all leakage sites in the home. A MHRV
can escape. Many building materials and in the SV study did note that cooking smells draws fresh air from outside through a heat
household goods can emit chemicals lingered for longer when the air leakage sites exchange system that warms (in winter) or
which dissipate over time. Natural ACH were blocked or noticed a slight increase in cools (in summer) the incoming air with air
rates of 0.5 air changes per hour or lower condensation. In most cases taking simple from within the house. This means that fresh
are not adequate to completely remove and practical steps can avoid these issues: air can be introduced with much lower net
contaminants in all situations. › Remove moisture at the source by using heat loss. MHRVs must be used to obtain
exhaust fans when showering and range Passivhaus accreditation.
Heaters which burn internal air (e.g. solid
hoods when cooking. Make sure you leave
fuel and some gas heaters) can be provided MHRV systems can also contain filters
these on for a little while after the activity
with a separate external air supply to avoid to eliminate contaminants from outdoor
is finished to ensure all contaminants
draughts and maintain indoor air quality. air such as pollen and pollution and
and moisture have been removed. Make
These require a damper to be closed dehumidifiers to help eliminate mould.
sure exhaust fans are placed as close as
off when not in use (see Figure 7.25). MHRVs can be integrated with your existing
possible to the source of the contaminant
Ventilation is essential when using unflued ducted heating system. While they are not
to increase their effectiveness.
LPG gas heaters. cheap, they are an excellent solution for
› Regularly open your windows and doors highly efficient houses and cases where
on mild days when you don’t need to heat the occupants suffer from allergies and
or cool to ventilate the house. This helps respiratory conditions.
to remove any leftover contaminants that
were not removed by exhaust fans.
FIGURE 7.26: SEPARATE AIR SUPPLY FOR SOME HEATERS
closable
register Further information
The YourHome website has excellent
information about avoiding potential
condensation problems when sealing up your
house: http://www.yourhome.gov.au/passive-
design/sealing-your-home
outside
air
duct
87
House ventilation for reducing

cooling energy use
Most people understand the benefits of opening windows in summer to help cool
your house down after a cool change has come through. The design of your house
and the positioning of the openings can increase ventilation to let in cool air and help
you lower your cooling energy costs. This section explains the principles of good
design to promote cross flow ventilation.
Ventilating your house can cool your house NatHERS tools do not turn on cooling if
in two ways: by replacing the warmer air comfort can be maintained just by opening
inside with cooler air from outside, and by windows. In places like Darwin or Brisbane,
creating air movement through the house. NatHERS tools will open windows from two
This air movement helps you to feel cooler thirds to half the time to maintain comfort
because it increases the body’s heat loss through air movement rather than use
by evaporation. It is particularly effective air conditioning.
in climates with high humidity levels. At air
speeds of between 0.5 to 1.0 m per second Because summer humidity levels are
the body will feel 2–3Åã cooler in 25ÅãC air. lower in places like Victoria this air
movement effect is less important.
NatHERS House Energy Rating Software In Victoria the main advantage of ventilating
includes comprehensive modeling of the the house is to remove heat by opening
impact of air movement induced by windows to let in cooler air after a cool
opening windows. They calculate the air
speed through each room and how much change. This is also modeled by NatHERS
more comfortable this air movement will tools.
make you feel.
88 88
Principles of cooling by ventilation
Enhancing ventilation using Cross-ventilation Ceiling fans

the stack effect Cross-ventilation utilises differential wind Ceiling fans can provide additional air
pressure. When the air outside is cooler, movement in summer if your ceiling height is
Using openable clerestory windows can
windows on opposite sides of the home can adequate to have them installed (see Figure
allow you to easily get rid of warm air that
be opened. Cool air enters on the windward 7.28). Overhead fans circulate large volumes
has risen to the ceiling. When the outside air
side and passes out on the other side, replacing of air and assist evaporative heat loss
is cooler, windows can be opened, and warm,
warm inside air with cool outside air. from the body. They are an economical and
less dense air rises and passes out through
efficient way of creating cool breezes. In hot
the high opening. The warm inside air is
summer conditions, increased air movement
replaced with cooler air from outside drawn Mechanical ventilation can make you feel up to 3°C cooler. NatHERS
in through a relatively low opening. This
tools also model the impact of ceiling fans
cool air absorbs the heat of the building and Even if you can’t improve the cross ventilation
and the air movement they provide.
carries it outside (see Figure 7.26). of your home you can still ventilate your
house using mechanical ventilation systems.
New residential mechanical ventilation
products with substantial air flow capacity
are now available that will allow you to
achieve an air change rate of 5 per hour to
help you take advantage of a cool change.
FIGURE 7.27: COOLING BY FIGURE 7.28: COOLING WITH FIGURE 7.29: COOLING WITH
CONVECTION FLOW CEILING EXHAUST FAN CEILING FAN
eave
vents
89 89
Design for good ventilation
Determine where the The direction of prevailing winds for each

month can be sourced from the Bureau of
natural cooling breezes Meteorology website http://www.bom.gov.au
come from under the search term ‘wind roses’. In and
around Melbourne, the cooling summer
breezes tend to come from the south.
Determine how local Valleys and large land masses can direct FIGURE 7.30: WIND SHADOW
or deflect wind away from prevailing paths.
conditions modify the Buildings, tree belts or other tall features can
wind shadow of still air
direction of the breeze cause wind shadows, which cause pockets of
fairly still air. Such obstruction can impede
ventilation and should be taken into account
in house design.
h
Wind shadows between the obstruction and
the immediately adjacent building are created
for a distance of about three to seven times 3m to 7m x h
the height of obstruction (see Figure 7.29).
Locate and determine the Allow for both an inlet and outlet opening Plan the interior so that
on opposite sides of the home and a short
size of openings that will unrestricted path. With an inlet only opened, air can flow freely
admit cooling breezes the air speed inside the building will be only
The more direct the path for air to move
4% of that on the outside (see Figure 7.30).
through a building, the greater its speed
Houses ventilate best when there are and effect to cool. The planning of partitions
small openings facing the cooling breeze and openings should ensure that pockets
(windward side) and large openings on the of still air are not created (see Figure 7.32).
opposite side (leeward) of the house. Wind Passages that have openings to the outside
speed through the house will be 25% higher can create paths for air movement to
in this condition than if the opening on each adjoining rooms.
side were the same. (see Figure 7.31).
FIGURE 7.31: INSIDE AIR SPEED FIGURE 7.32: RELATIVE WINDOW FIGURE 7.33: AIR FLOW
WITH CROSS-VENTILATION OPENING SIZES
obstructed air flow free air flow
inside air speed inside air speed inside air speed inside air speed
only 4% of outside 35-44% of outside 35% of outside 44% of outside
90
08 / Good Design Saves Money
All new housing in Victoria must meet a 6 star
minimum performance standard. This chapter
shows how following the principles shown in
the Energy Smart Housing Manual can help
you comply with regulations, exceed minimum
standards and reduce your construction cost.
91
Good design saves money
Using a NatHERS tool early in the design process of your house will allow you to
optimise the design and thermal performance of your house and this will help to
reduce additional construction costs needed for compliance with minimum building
fabric energy efficiency regulations in the National Construction Code. It is therefore
important to get a NatHERS thermal performance assessor involved early in your
design process. The additional rating costs involved in getting ratings early in the
design process will usually be easily recouped in lower construction costs.
Passive Solar House Typical House

The house plan below shows the plan of a house which is designed The house plan below has not followed the principles outlined in
to implement the passive solar principles outlined in this manual. this manual.
Passive Solar Houses are well insulated, have north facing windows
in most rooms and utilise high thermal mass materials such as a The main living areas have no north windows. The lounge has a
concrete slab on ground to store the heat from the sun during the large area of south window which loses lots of heat in winter, and
day in winter, and have well shaded windows in summer. two west windows which will make it hot in summer. The Kitchen/
Family room has only east facing windows which do not let in as
Key features of the plan include: much heat as north windows in winter and will heat up the house
› Main rooms all have north facing windows. in the morning on hot summer days. While two of the bedrooms both
have north windows which will make them warm on cold days, but
› Entry provides air lock to protect from cold winter winds.
if these bedrooms are not heated during the day the heat gain from
› Utility areas like bathrooms and ensuites protect habitable rooms the north windows delivers little energy saving benefits.
from hot east and west summer sun.
Figure 8.13 shows the view from the east looking toward the Kitchen/
› Bedrooms on the south have north facing clerestory windows.
Dining area.
Figure 8.12 shows the view from the north.
FIGURE 8.10: PLAN OF PASSIVE SOLAR HOUSE FIGURE 8.11: TYPICAL HOUSE
FIGURE 8.12: PASSIVE SOLAR DESIGN VIEWED FROM NORTH FIGURE 8.13: EAST FACING KITCHEN AND FAMILY ROOMS
92
Comparing the two houses at 6 stars Potential to go further

Both houses are assumed to be located in the south eastern new It is important to remember that 6 stars is just the minimum
home growth corridor in Melbourne. They are approximately the same requirement. Many people would like to go further and achieve
size and have a similar area of windows. excellent performance. The Passive Solar House has the potential
to achieve a much higher rating. To see just how far each house
Both houses are constructed with Brick Veneer walls on a waffle pod could go the following modifications were made to each:
insulated concrete slab floor. Both houses have weatherstripped their
› All windows double glazed with argon filled low-e coated glazing.
doors and windows and use dampers to close off exhaust fans when
not in use. › Ceiling insulation increased to R5.0.
› External wall insulation increased to R2.7 with an anti-glare
reflective wrap.
Achieving 6 stars in the Passive Solar House
The typical house is able to achieve a rating of 7.2 stars.
The Passive Solar House doesn’t have to make many modifications to
The Passive Solar is almost a star better at 8.1 stars. The 8.1 star
get to 6 stars:
Passive Solar design uses around 40% less heating energy and
› All windows can be single glazed and have aluminium frames. 20% less cooling energy over the course of the year compared
› Brick Veneer walls can be insulated with only double sided to the 7.2 star typical house.
reflective foil and no added bulk insulation.
› Ceiling insulation with an R value of 3.5 is needed.
Good design make sense
Achieving 6 stars in the typical house Whether you want to achieve compliance with 6 stars for the least
cost or want to make your house has as efficient as possible, applying
The Typical house has to do a lot more to get to 6 stars: the principles described in the Energy Smart Housing Manual will help
› All windows in living areas must be double glazed and all have you to achieve your goal.
aluminium frames.
› Brick Veneer walls need bulk insulation with an R value of R2.0.
› Ceiling insulation with an R value of 4.1 is needed.
Both houses use the same amount of energy because both achieve 6
stars. But the typical house will cost more to build due to the need for
double glazing and higher insulation levels. Construction costs for the
Passive Solar House could be as much as $2,000 lower.
93
Notes
94
Sustainability Victoria
Level 28, Urban Workshop,
50 Lonsdale Street, Melbourne VIC 3000
Phone (03) 8626 8700
sustainability.vic.gov.au
Published by Sustainability Victoria.
Energy Smart Housing Manual
© Sustainability Victoria, December 2019 BBE034
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Energy Smart

Your guide to creating an Energy Smart house

Welcome to the Energy Smart Housing Manual.

1 ABS, 2020 “3101.0 - Australian Demographic Statistics, Jun 2019”

Below is a quick summary of the content of chapters 2-8:

02 / Sun, Climate and Comfort 06 / Thermal Mass

› Provides guidelines on how to site your house on the block

04 / Windows 07 / Air Leakage and Air Movement

05 / Insulation 08 / Case Study

Using these guidelines

Using this manual Apartment design

The guidelines in this manual will help readers to ensure better

› Insulation still works, but if the only surface exposed to outside is

While the general principles of thermal performance described in this

Planning your house

Morning sun Afternoon sun North-facing windows in shade for

The sun and the seasons

Equinoxes Winter solstice

Evaluating shading impacts

Private open space Private open space in

Climate zones in Victoria

Australian climates are classified in two ways.

The amount of solar radiation in Victoria also varies significantly

Figure 2.19 shows the total amount of solar radiation falling on a

These climatic influences combine to produce significantly different

TEMPERATURE (°C) KWH PER SQUARE METRE

summer winter summer winter

Thermal comfort refers to the range of conditions in which the majority

East Sale Alpine Mildura Tullamarine Warrnambool Ballarat

Siting and Solar Access

Benefits of solar access Diffuse and direct solar radiation

FIGURE 3.10: UNOBSTRUCTED SPACE TO THE NORTH

The key principles of lot selection are: Design guidelines

› if there is a one-storey building built to the north you will

narrower lot and still have good solar access.

small, irregular-shaped blocks;

blocks with obstructions such as buildings and tall trees to the

car car car

>13 m >13 m FIGURE 3.15: AVOID NARROW BLOCKS THAT

FIGURE 3.13: BLOCKS THAT RUN EAST-WEST

Placing your home on the block

at least 5.5 m at least 10 m

living living living

car car car

Sites with poor solar access

Sill height Distance (metres) needed to maintain 90%

One storey Two storey Three storey

Floor level 5.5 10.0 16.0

0.3 m 4.8 9.0 14.4

0.6 m 4.5 8.4 13.8

Eave depth (If you raise the sill by 900mm,

0.9 m 4.0 7.4 13.0

FIGURE 3.19: RAISE SILL HEIGHT TO MAXIMISE WINTER HEAT GAIN

Use north facing clerestory windows Courtyards

Not greater than 1/3 of D/5

D = Distance from wall

Benefits of good window design

Window size, orientation, shading and internal coverings can

Windows are also the most critical component in achieving