Poland

Poland,[e] officially the Republic of Poland,[f] is a country in

Central Europe. Poland is divided into sixteen voivodeships and is Republic of Poland
the fifth-most populous member state of the European Union Rzeczpospolita Polska (Polish)
(EU), with over 38 million people, and the seventh-largest EU
country, covering a combined area of 312,696 km2
(120,733 sq mi). It extends from the Baltic Sea in the north to the
Sudetes and Carpathian Mountains in the south, bordering seven
countries.[g] The territory is characterised by a varied landscape,
diverse ecosystems, and temperate transitional climate. The Flag
Coat of arms
capital and largest city is Warsaw; other major cities include
Kraków, Wrocław, Łódź, Poznań, and Gdańsk. Anthem: "Mazurek Dąbrowskiego"[a]
("Poland Is Not Yet Lost")
Humans have been present on Polish soil since the Lower 0:43
Paleolithic, with continuous settlement since the end of the Last
Glacial Period over 12,000 years ago. Culturally diverse
throughout late antiquity, in the early medieval period the region
became inhabited by the tribal Polans who gave Poland its name.
The process of establishing statehood coincided with the
conversion of a pagan ruler of the Polans to Christianity, under
the auspices of the Roman Catholic Church in 966. Subsequent
territorial expansion led to the creation of the Kingdom of Poland
in 1025. By the mid-14th century, Poland became a major
European power and began gradually integrating with Lithuania,
resulting in the formation of the Polish–Lithuanian
Commonwealth in 1569. For the next two centuries, the Show globe
Commonwealth was one of the great powers of Europe, governed Show map of Europe
by a uniquely liberal political system that adopted Europe's first Show all
modern constitution in 1791. Location of Poland (dark green)
– in Europe (green & dark grey)
With the passing of the Renaissance and the prosperous Polish – in the European Union (green) –
Golden Age in the late 16th century, Poland–Lithuania was [Legend]
weakened by social and political turmoil that led to its partition by Capital Warsaw
and largest city 52°13′N 21°02′E
neighbouring states at the end of the 18th century. Poland
regained its independence at the end of World War I with the Official language Polish[1]
founding of the Second Polish Republic. In September 1939, the Ethnic groups (2021) 98.84% Polish[b]
invasion of Poland by Germany and the Soviet Union marked the [2] 96.28% only
beginning of World War II, which resulted in the Holocaust and Polish
millions of Polish casualties. Forced into the Eastern Bloc during 2.56% Polish
and others
the global Cold War, the Polish People's Republic was a founding 1.13% only non-
signatory of the Warsaw Pact. Through the emergence and Polish
contributions of the Solidarity movement, the communist 0.03% unknown
government was dissolved and Poland re-established itself as a Religion (2021[3]) 72.4% Christianity
democratic state in 1989. 71.3%
Poland is a unitary parliamentary republic, with its bicameral Catholicism
1.1% other
legislature comprising the Sejm and the Senate. The country is
Christian
considered a middle power, with a developed market and high-
6.9% no religion
income economy that is the sixth largest in the EU by nominal
0.1% other
GDP and the fifth largest by GDP (PPP). Poland enjoys a very high
20.6% unanswered
standard of living, safety, and economic freedom, as well as free
university education and universal health care. The country has 17 Demonym(s) Polish · Pole
UNESCO World Heritage Sites, 15 of which are cultural. Poland is Government Unitary
a founding member state of the United Nations and a member of parliamentary
the World Trade Organization, OECD, NATO, and the European republic
Union (including the Schengen Area). • President Andrzej Duda
• Prime Minister Donald Tusk
Legislature Parliament
Etymology • Upper house Senate
• Lower house Sejm
The native Polish name for Poland is Polska.[13] The name is
Formation
derived from the Polans, a West Slavic tribe who inhabited the
• Duchy of Poland[c] c. 960
Warta River basin of present-day Greater Poland region (6th–8th
• Christianization[d] 966
century CE).[14] The tribe's name stems from the Proto-Slavic
• Kingdom of Poland 18 April 1025
noun pole meaning field, which in-itself originates from the
• Polish–Lithuanian 1 July 1569
Proto-Indo-European word *pleh₂- indicating flatland.[15] The Commonwealth
etymology alludes to the topography of the region and the flat • Partitions of Poland 24 October 1795
landscape of Greater Poland.[16][17] During the Middle Ages, the • Second Republic 11 November 1918
Latin form Polonia was widely used throughout Europe.[18] • Government-in-exile 17 September 1939
• People's Republic 22 July 1944
The country's alternative archaic name is Lechia and its root • Third Republic 31 December 1989[5]
syllable remains in official use in several languages, notably Area
Hungarian, Lithuanian, and Persian.[19] The exonym possibly • Total 312,696 km2
derives from either Lech, a legendary ruler of the Lechites, or (120,733 sq mi)[6][7]
from the Lendians, a West Slavic tribe that dwelt on the south- (69th)
easternmost edge of Lesser Poland.[20][21] The origin of the tribe's • Water (%) 1.48 (2015)[8]
name lies in the Old Polish word lęda (plain).[22] Initially, both Population
names Lechia and Polonia were used interchangeably when • 2022 census 38,036,118[9]
referring to Poland by chroniclers during the Middle Ages.[23] (38th)
• Density 122/km2 (316.0/
sq mi) (75th)

History GDP (PPP) 2024 estimate

• Total $1.801 trillion[10]
(20th)
• Per capita $49,060[10] (39th)
Prehistory and protohistory
GDP (nominal) 2024 estimate
The first Stone Age archaic humans and Homo erectus species
• Total $844.623
settled what was to become Poland approximately 500,000 years
billion[10] (21st)
ago, though the ensuing hostile climate prevented early humans • Per capita $23,014[10] (45th)
from founding more permanent encampments.[24] The arrival of
Homo sapiens and anatomically modern humans coincided with Gini (2022) 26.3[11]
low
the climatic discontinuity at the end of the Last Glacial Period
(Northern Polish glaciation 10,000 BC), when Poland became HDI (2022) 0.881[12]
habitable.[25] Neolithic excavations indicated broad-ranging very high (36th)
development in that era; the earliest evidence of European Currency Złoty (PLN)
cheesemaking (5500 BC) was discovered in Polish Kuyavia,[26]
and the Bronocice pot is incised with the earliest known depiction Time zone UTC+1 (CET)
of what may be a wheeled vehicle (3400 BC).[27] • Summer (DST) UTC+2 (CEST)

The period spanning the Bronze Age and the Early Iron Age (1300 Date format dd.mm.yyyy (CE)
BC–500 BC) was marked by an increase in population density, Driving side right
establishment of palisaded settlements (gords) and the expansion
Calling code +48
of Lusatian culture.[28][29] A significant archaeological find from
the protohistory of Poland is a fortified settlement at Biskupin, ISO 3166 code PL
attributed to the Lusatian culture of the Late Bronze Age (mid-8th Internet TLD .pl [a]
century BC).[30]
a. Also .eu, shared with other European Union
Throughout antiquity (400 BC–500 AD), many distinct ancient member states.
populations inhabited the territory of present-day Poland, notably
Celtic, Scythian, Germanic, Sarmatian, Baltic and Slavic tribes.[31]
Furthermore, archaeological findings confirmed the presence of Roman
Legions sent to protect the amber trade.[32] The Polish tribes emerged
following the second wave of the Migration Period around the 6th century
AD;[18] they were Slavic and may have included assimilated remnants of
peoples that earlier dwelled in the area.[33][34] Beginning in the early 10th
century, the Polans would come to dominate other Lechitic tribes in the
region, initially forming a tribal federation and later a centralised
monarchical state.[35] A reconstruction of a Bronze Age,
Lusatian culture settlement in
Biskupin, 8th century BC
Kingdom of Poland
Poland began to form into a
recognisable unitary and territorial entity around the middle of the 10th
century under the Piast dynasty.[36] In 966, ruler of the Polans Mieszko I
accepted Christianity under the auspices of the Roman Church with the
Baptism of Poland.[37] In 968, a missionary bishopric was established in
Poznań. An incipit titled Dagome iudex first defined Poland's geographical
boundaries with its capital in Gniezno and affirmed that its monarchy was
under the protection of the Apostolic See.[38] The country's early origins
were described by Gallus Anonymus in Gesta principum Polonorum, the
oldest Polish chronicle.[39] An important national event of the period was
the martyrdom of Saint Adalbert, who was killed by Prussian pagans in 997
Poland under the rule of Mieszko I,
and whose remains were reputedly bought back for their weight in gold by
whose acceptance of Christianity
under the auspices of the Roman
Mieszko's successor, Bolesław I the Brave.[38]
Church and the Baptism of Poland
marked the beginning of statehood
In 1000, at the Congress of Gniezno, Bolesław obtained the right of
in 966 investiture from Otto III, Holy Roman Emperor, who assented to the
creation of additional bishoprics and an archdioceses in Gniezno.[38] Three
new dioceses were subsequently established in Kraków, Kołobrzeg, and
Wrocław. [40] Also, Otto bestowed upon Bolesław royal regalia and a replica of the Holy Lance, which were later
used at his coronation as the first King of Poland in c. 1025, when Bolesław received permission for his
coronation from Pope John XIX.[41][42] Bolesław also expanded the realm considerably by seizing parts of
German Lusatia, Czech Moravia, Upper Hungary and southwestern regions of the Kievan Rus'.[43]

The transition from paganism in Poland was not instantaneous and resulted in the pagan reaction of the 1030s.
[44] In 1031, Mieszko II Lambert lost the title of king and fled amidst the violence.[45] The unrest led to the

transfer of the capital to Kraków in 1038 by Casimir I the Restorer.[46] In 1076, Bolesław II re-instituted the
office of king, but was banished in 1079 for murdering his opponent, Bishop
Stanislaus.[47] In 1138, the country fragmented into five principalities when
Bolesław III Wrymouth divided his lands among his sons.[20] These comprised
Lesser Poland, Greater Poland, Silesia, Masovia and Sandomierz, with intermittent
hold over Pomerania.[48] In 1226, Konrad I of Masovia invited the Teutonic
Knights to aid in combating the Baltic Prussians; a decision that later led to
centuries of warfare with the Knights.[49]

In the first half of the 13th century, Henry I the Bearded and Henry II the Pious
aimed to unite the fragmented dukedoms, but the Mongol invasion and the death
of Henry II in battle hindered the unification.[50][51] As a result of the devastation
which followed, depopulation and the demand for craft labour spurred a migration
of German and Flemish settlers into Poland, which was encouraged by the Polish
dukes.[52] In 1264, the Statute of Kalisz introduced unprecedented autonomy for Casimir III the Great is the
the Polish Jews, who came to Poland fleeing persecution elsewhere in Europe.[53] only Polish king to receive
the title of Great. He built
In 1320, Władysław I the Short became the first king of a reunified Poland since extensively during his reign,
Przemysł II in 1296,[54] and the first to be crowned at Wawel Cathedral in Kraków. and reformed the Polish
[55] Beginning in 1333, the reign of Casimir III the Great was marked by army along with the
developments in castle infrastructure, army, judiciary and diplomacy.[56][57] Under country's legal code, 1333–
70.
his authority, Poland transformed into a major European power; he instituted
Polish rule over Ruthenia in 1340 and imposed quarantine that prevented the
spread of Black Death.[58][59] In 1364, Casimir inaugurated the University of Kraków, one of the oldest
institutions of higher learning in Europe.[60] Upon his death in 1370, the Piast dynasty came to an end.[61] He
was succeeded by his closest male relative, Louis of Anjou, who ruled Poland, Hungary and Croatia in a
personal union.[62] Louis' younger daughter Jadwiga became Poland's first female monarch in 1384.[62]

In 1386, Jadwiga of Poland entered a marriage of convenience with Władysław II

Jagiełło, the Grand Duke of Lithuania, thus forming the Jagiellonian dynasty and
the Polish–Lithuanian union which spanned the late Middle Ages and early
Modern Era.[63] The partnership between Poles and Lithuanians brought the vast
multi-ethnic Lithuanian territories into Poland's sphere of influence and proved
beneficial for its inhabitants, who coexisted in one of the largest European political
entities of the time.[64]

In the Baltic Sea region, the struggle of Poland and Lithuania with the Teutonic
Knights continued and culminated at the Battle of Grunwald in 1410, where a
combined Polish-Lithuanian army inflicted a decisive victory against them.[65] In
The Battle of Grunwald was
fought against the German
1466, after the Thirteen Years' War, king Casimir IV Jagiellon gave royal consent to
Order of Teutonic Knights, the Peace of Thorn, which created the future Duchy of Prussia under Polish
and resulted in a decisive suzerainty and forced the Prussian rulers to pay tributes.[20] The Jagiellonian
victory for the Kingdom of dynasty also established dynastic control over the kingdoms of Bohemia (1471
Poland, 15 July 1410. onwards) and Hungary.[66] In the south, Poland confronted the Ottoman Empire
(at the Varna Crusade) and the Crimean Tatars, and in the east helped Lithuania to
combat Russia.[20]

Poland was developing as a feudal state, with a predominantly agricultural economy and an increasingly
powerful landed nobility that confined the population to private manorial farmstead known as folwarks.[67] In
1493, John I Albert sanctioned the creation of a bicameral parliament composed of a lower house, the Sejm, and
an upper house, the Senate.[68] The Nihil novi act adopted by the Polish General Sejm in 1505, transferred most
of the legislative power from the monarch to the parliament, an event which marked the beginning of the period
known as Golden Liberty, when the state was ruled by the seemingly free and equal Polish nobles.[69]

The 16th century saw Protestant Reformation movements making

deep inroads into Polish Christianity, which resulted in the
establishment of policies promoting religious tolerance, unique in
Europe at that time.[70] This tolerance allowed the country to avoid
the religious turmoil and wars of religion that beset Europe.[70] In
Poland, Nontrinitarian Christianity became the doctrine of the so-
called Polish Brethren, who separated from their Calvinist Wawel Castle in Kraków, seat of Polish kings
denomination and became the co-founders of global Unitarianism. from 1038 until the capital was moved to
[71]
Warsaw in 1596

The European Renaissance evoked under Sigismund I the Old and

Sigismund II Augustus a sense of urgency in the need to promote a cultural awakening.[20] During the Polish
Golden Age, the nation's economy and culture flourished.[20] The Italian-born Bona Sforza, daughter of the
Duke of Milan and queen consort to Sigismund I, made considerable contributions to architecture, cuisine,
language and court customs at Wawel Castle.[20]

Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
The Union of Lublin of 1569 established the Polish–Lithuanian
Commonwealth, a unified federal state with an elective monarchy,
but largely governed by the nobility.[72] The latter coincided with a
period of prosperity; the Polish-dominated union thereafter
becoming a leading power and a major cultural entity, exercising
political control over parts of Central, Eastern, Southeastern and
Northern Europe. The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth occupied
approximately 1 million km2 (390,000 sq mi) at its peak and was
the largest state in Europe.[73][74] Simultaneously, Poland imposed
Polonisation policies in newly acquired territories which were met
with resistance from ethnic and religious minorities.[72]
The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth at its
In 1573, Henry de Valois of France, the first elected king, greatest extent in 1619. At that time it was the
largest country in Europe
approbated the Henrician Articles which obliged future monarchs
to respect the rights of nobles.[75] When he left Poland to become
King of France, his successor, Stephen Báthory, led a successful campaign in the Livonian War, granting Poland
more lands across the eastern shores of the Baltic Sea.[76] State affairs were then headed by Jan Zamoyski, the
Crown Chancellor.[77] Stephen’s successor, Sigismund III, defeated a rival Habsburg electoral candidate,
Archduke Maximilian III, in the War of the Polish Succession (1587–1588). In 1592, Sigismund succeeded his
father and John Vasa, in Sweden.[78] The Polish-Swedish union endured until 1599, when he was deposed by
the Swedes.[79]

In 1609, Sigismund invaded Russia which was engulfed in a civil war,[20] and a year later the Polish winged
hussar units under Stanisław Żółkiewski occupied Moscow for two years after defeating the Russians at
Klushino.[20] Sigismund also countered the Ottoman Empire in the southeast; at Khotyn in 1621 Jan Karol
Chodkiewicz achieved a decisive victory against the Turks, which ushered the downfall of Sultan Osman II.[80]
[81]

Sigismund's long reign in Poland coincided with the Silver Age.[82] The liberal Władysław IV effectively
defended Poland's territorial possessions but after his death the vast Commonwealth began declining from
internal disorder and constant warfare.[83][84] In 1648, the Polish hegemony over Ukraine sparked the
 Khmelnytsky Uprising,[85] followed by the decimating Swedish Deluge during the
Second Northern War,[86] and Prussia's independence in 1657.[86] In 1683, John
III Sobieski re-established military prowess when he halted the advance of an
Ottoman Army into Europe at the Battle of Vienna.[87] The Saxon era, under
Augustus II and Augustus III, saw neighboring powers grow in strength at the
expense of Poland. Both Saxon kings faced opposition from Stanisław Leszczyński
during the Great Northern War (1700) and the War of the Polish Succession
(1733).[88]

Partitions
The royal election of 1764 resulted in the elevation of
King John III Sobieski
defeated the Ottoman Turks
Stanisław II Augustus Poniatowski to the monarchy.
[89] His candidacy was extensively funded by his
at the Battle of Vienna on
12 September 1683. sponsor and former lover, Empress Catherine II of
Russia.[90] The new king maneuvered between his
desire to implement necessary modernising reforms,
and the necessity to remain at peace with surrounding states.[91] His ideals led to
the formation of the 1768 Bar Confederation, a rebellion directed against the
Poniatowski and all external influence, which ineptly aimed to preserve Poland's
sovereignty and privileges held by the nobility.[92] The failed attempts at
government restructuring as well as the domestic turmoil provoked its neighbours
to intervene.[93]
Stanisław II Augustus, the
In 1772, the First Partition of the Commonwealth by Prussia, Russia and Austria last King of Poland, reigned
took place; an act which the Partition Sejm, under considerable duress, eventually from 1764 until his
abdication on 25 November
ratified as a fait accompli.[94] Disregarding the territorial losses, in 1773 a plan of
1795.
critical reforms was established, in which the Commission of National Education,
the first government education authority in Europe, was inaugurated.[95] Corporal
punishment of schoolchildren was officially prohibited in 1783. Poniatowski was the head figure of the
Enlightenment, encouraged the development of industries, and embraced republican neoclassicism.[96] For his
contributions to the arts and sciences he was awarded a Fellowship of the Royal Society.[97]

In 1791, Great Sejm parliament adopted the 3 May Constitution, the first set of supreme national laws, and
introduced a constitutional monarchy.[98] The Targowica Confederation, an organisation of nobles and deputies
opposing the act, appealed to Catherine and caused the 1792 Polish–Russian War.[99] Fearing the reemergence
of Polish hegemony, Russia and Prussia arranged and in 1793 executed, the Second Partition, which left the
country deprived of territory and incapable of independent existence. On 24 October 1795, the Commonwealth
was partitioned for the third time and ceased to exist as a territorial entity.[100][101] Stanisław Augustus, the last
King of Poland, abdicated the throne on 25 November 1795.[102]

Era of insurrections
The Polish people rose several times against the partitioners and occupying armies. An unsuccessful attempt at
defending Poland's sovereignty took place in the 1794 Kościuszko Uprising, where a popular and distinguished
general Tadeusz Kościuszko, who had several years earlier served under George Washington in the American
Revolutionary War, led Polish insurgents.[103] Despite the victory at the Battle of Racławice, his ultimate defeat
ended Poland's independent existence for 123 years.[104]

In 1806, an insurrection organised by Jan Henryk Dąbrowski liberated western Poland ahead of Napoleon's
advance into Prussia during the War of the Fourth Coalition. In accordance with the 1807 Treaty of Tilsit,
Napoleon proclaimed the Duchy of Warsaw, a client state ruled by
his ally Frederick Augustus I of Saxony. The Poles actively aided
French troops in the Napoleonic Wars, particularly those under
Józef Poniatowski who became Marshal of France shortly before
his death at Leipzig in 1813.[105] In the aftermath of Napoleon's
exile, the Duchy of Warsaw was abolished at the Congress of
Vienna in 1815 and its territory was divided into Russian Congress
Kingdom of Poland, the Prussian Grand Duchy of Posen, and
Austrian Galicia with the Free City of Kraków.[106]

In 1830, non-commissioned officers at

Warsaw's Officer Cadet School rebelled
in what was the November Uprising. The partitions of Poland, carried out by the
[107] After its collapse, Congress Poland Kingdom of Prussia (blue), the Russian Empire
lost its constitutional autonomy, army (brown), and the Austrian Habsburg Monarchy
and legislative assembly. [108] During (green) in 1772, 1793 and 1795

the European Spring of Nations, Poles

took up arms in the Greater Poland Uprising of 1848 to resist Germanisation, but its
Tadeusz Kościuszko failure saw duchy's status reduced to a mere province; and subsequent integration
was a veteran and hero into the German Empire in 1871.[109] In Russia, the fall of the January Uprising
of both the Polish and (1863–1864) prompted severe political, social and cultural reprisals, followed by
American wars of deportations and pogroms of the Polish-Jewish population. Towards the end of the
independence.[103]
19th century, Congress Poland became heavily industrialised; its primary exports
being coal, zinc, iron and textiles.[110][111]

Second Polish Republic

In the aftermath of World War I, the Allies agreed on the reconstitution of Poland,
confirmed through the Treaty of Versailles of June 1919.[112] A total of 2 million
Polish troops fought with the armies of the three occupying powers, and over
450,000 died.[113] Following the armistice with Germany in November 1918,
Poland regained its independence as the Second Polish Republic.[114]

The Second Polish Republic reaffirmed its sovereignty after a series of military
conflicts, most notably the Polish–Soviet War, when Poland inflicted a crushing
defeat on the Red Army at the Battle of Warsaw.[115]

The inter-war period heralded a new era of Polish politics. Whilst Polish political
activists had faced heavy censorship in the decades up until World War I, a new
political tradition was established in the country. Many exiled Polish activists, such Chief of State Marshal
as Ignacy Jan Paderewski, who would later become prime minister, returned Józef Piłsudski was a hero
of the Polish independence
home. A significant number of them then went on to take key positions in the
campaign and the nation's
newly formed political and governmental structures. Tragedy struck in 1922 when premiere statesman from
Gabriel Narutowicz, inaugural holder of the presidency, was assassinated at the 1918 until his death on 12
Zachęta Gallery in Warsaw by a painter and right-wing nationalist Eligiusz May 1935.
Niewiadomski.[116]

In 1926, the May Coup, led by the hero of the Polish independence campaign Marshal Józef Piłsudski, turned
rule of the Second Polish Republic over to the nonpartisan Sanacja (Healing) movement to prevent radical
political organisations on both the left and the right from destabilizing the country.[117] By the late 1930s, due to
increased threats posed by political extremism inside the country, the Polish government became increasingly
heavy-handed, banning a number of radical organisations, including communist and ultra-nationalist political
parties, which threatened the stability of the country.[118]

World War II
World War II began with the Nazi German invasion of Poland on 1
September 1939, followed by the Soviet invasion of Poland on 17 September.
On 28 September 1939, Warsaw fell. As agreed in the Molotov–Ribbentrop
Pact, Poland was split into two zones, one occupied by Nazi Germany, the
other by the Soviet Union. In 1939–1941, the Soviets deported hundreds of
thousands of Poles. The Soviet NKVD executed thousands of Polish
prisoners of war (among other incidents in the Katyn massacre) ahead of
Operation Barbarossa.[119] German planners had in November 1939 called
Polish Army 7TP tanks on military
for "the complete destruction of all Poles" and their fate as outlined in the
manoeuvres shortly before the
genocidal Generalplan Ost.[120]
invasion of Poland in 1939

Poland made the fourth-largest troop

contribution in Europe,[121][122][123]
and its troops served both the Polish
Government in Exile in the west and Soviet leadership in the east. Polish
troops played an important role in the Normandy, Italian, North African
Campaigns and Netherlands and are particularly remembered for the Battle
of Britain and Battle of Monte Cassino.[124][125] Polish intelligence
operatives proved extremely valuable to the Allies, providing much of the
intelligence from Europe and beyond,[126] Polish code breakers were
responsible for cracking the Enigma cipher and Polish scientists
Pilots of the 303 Polish Fighter
participating in the Manhattan Project were co-creators of the American Squadron during the Battle of
atomic bomb. In the east, the Soviet-backed Polish 1st Army distinguished Britain, October 1940
itself in the battles for Warsaw and Berlin.[127]

The wartime resistance movement, and the Armia Krajowa (Home Army), fought against German occupation.
It was one of the three largest resistance movements of the entire war, and encompassed a range of clandestine
activities, which functioned as an underground state complete with degree-awarding universities and a court
system.[128] The resistance was loyal to the exiled government and generally resented the idea of a communist
Poland; for this reason, in the summer of 1944 it initiated Operation Tempest, of which the Warsaw Uprising
that began on 1 August 1944 is the best-known operation.[127][129]

Nazi German forces under orders from Adolf Hitler set up six German extermination camps in occupied
Poland, including Treblinka, Majdanek and Auschwitz. The Germans transported millions of Jews from across
occupied Europe to be murdered in those camps.[130][131] Altogether, 3 million Polish Jews[132][133] –
approximately 90% of Poland's pre-war Jewry – and between 1.8 and 2.8 million ethnic Poles[134][135][136] were
killed during the German occupation of Poland, including between 50,000 and 100,000 members of the Polish
intelligentsia – academics, doctors, lawyers, nobility and priesthood. During the Warsaw Uprising alone, over
150,000 Polish civilians were killed, most were murdered by the Germans during the Wola and Ochota
massacres.[137][138] Around 150,000 Polish civilians were killed by Soviets between 1939 and 1941 during the
Soviet Union's occupation of eastern Poland (Kresy), and another estimated 100,000 Poles were murdered by
the Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UPA) between 1943 and 1944 in what became known as the Wołyń Massacres.
[139][140] Of all the countries in the war, Poland lost the highest percentage of its citizens: around 6 million

perished – more than one-sixth of Poland's pre-war population – half of them Polish Jews.[141][142][143] About
90% of deaths were non-military in nature.[144]

In 1945, Poland's borders were shifted westwards. Over two million Polish inhabitants of Kresy were expelled
 along the Curzon Line by Stalin.[145] The western border became the Oder-
Neisse line. As a result, Poland's territory was reduced by 20%, or 77,500
square kilometres (29,900 sq mi). The shift forced the migration of millions
of other people, most of whom were Poles, Germans, Ukrainians, and Jews.
[146][147][148]

Post-war communism
At the insistence of Joseph Stalin, the Yalta
Conference sanctioned the formation of a new
provisional pro-Communist coalition
government in Moscow, which ignored the
Map of the Holocaust in German- Polish government-in-exile based in London.
occupied Poland with deportation This action angered many Poles who
routes and massacre sites. Major
considered it a betrayal by the Allies. In 1944,
ghettos are marked with yellow
Stalin had made guarantees to Churchill and
stars. Nazi extermination camps are
marked with white skulls in black Roosevelt that he would maintain Poland's
squares. The border in 1941 sovereignty and allow democratic elections to
between Nazi Germany and the take place. However, upon achieving victory in
Soviet Union is marked in red. 1945, the elections organised by the occupying
Soviet authorities were falsified and were used At High Noon, 4 June 1989
to provide a veneer of legitimacy for Soviet —political poster featuring
hegemony over Polish affairs. The Soviet Union instituted a new communist Gary Cooper to encourage
government in Poland, analogous to much of the rest of the Eastern Bloc. As votes for the Solidarity party
elsewhere in Communist Europe, the Soviet influence over Poland was met with in the 1989 elections
armed resistance from the outset which continued into the 1950s.[149]

Despite widespread objections, the new Polish government accepted the Soviet annexation of the pre-war
eastern regions of Poland[150] (in particular the cities of Wilno and Lwów) and agreed to the permanent
garrisoning of Red Army units on Poland's territory. Military alignment within the Warsaw Pact throughout the
Cold War came about as a direct result of this change in Poland's political culture. In the European scene, it
came to characterise the full-fledged integration of Poland into the brotherhood of communist nations.[151]

The new communist government took control with the adoption of the Small Constitution on 19 February 1947.
The Polish People's Republic (Polska Rzeczpospolita Ludowa) was officially proclaimed in 1952. In 1956, after
the death of Bolesław Bierut, the régime of Władysław Gomułka became temporarily more liberal, freeing many
people from prison and expanding some personal freedoms. Collectivisation in the Polish People's Republic
failed. A similar situation repeated itself in the 1970s under Edward Gierek, but most of the time persecution of
anti-communist opposition groups persisted. Despite this, Poland was at the time considered to be one of the
least oppressive states of the Eastern Bloc.[152]

Labour turmoil in 1980 led to the formation of the independent trade union "Solidarity" ("Solidarność"), which
over time became a political force. Despite persecution and imposition of martial law in 1981 by General
Wojciech Jaruzelski, it eroded the dominance of the Polish United Workers' Party and by 1989 had triumphed
in Poland's first partially free and democratic parliamentary elections since the end of the Second World War.
Lech Wałęsa, a Solidarity candidate, eventually won the presidency in 1990. The Solidarity movement heralded
the collapse of communist regimes and parties across Europe.[153]

Third Polish Republic

A shock therapy program, initiated by Leszek Balcerowicz in the early 1990s, enabled the country to transform
its Soviet-style planned economy into a market economy.[154] As with other post-
communist countries, Poland suffered temporary declines in social, economic,
and living standards,[155] but it became the first post-communist country to reach
its pre-1989 GDP levels as early as 1995, although the unemployment rate
increased.[156] Poland became a member of the Visegrád Group in 1991,[157] and
joined NATO in 1999.[158] Poles then voted to join the European Union in a
referendum in June 2003,[159] with Poland becoming a full member on 1 May
2004, following the consequent enlargement of the organisation.[160]

Poland joined the Schengen Area in 2007, as a result of which, the country's
borders with other member states of the European Union were dismantled,
allowing for full freedom of movement within most of the European Union.[161]
On 10 April 2010, the President of Poland Lech Kaczyński, along with 89 other
high-ranking Polish officials died in a plane crash near Smolensk, Russia.[162]
Flowers in front of the
Presidential Palace following
In 2011, the ruling Civic Platform won parliamentary elections.[163]In 2014, the
the death of Poland's top
Prime Minister of Poland, Donald Tusk, was chosen to be President of the
government officials in a
European Council, and resigned as prime minister.[164] The 2015 and 2019 plane crash on 10 April 2010
elections were won by the national-conservative Law and Justice Party (PiS) led
by Jarosław Kaczyński,[165][166] resulting in increased Euroscepticism and
increased friction with the European Union.[167] In December 2017, Mateusz Morawiecki was sworn in as the
Prime Minister, succeeding Beata Szydlo, in office since 2015. President Andrzej Duda, supported by Law and
Justice party, was re-elected in the 2020 presidential election.[168] As of November 2023, the Russian invasion
of Ukraine had led to 17 million Ukrainian refugees crossing the border to Poland.[169] As of November 2023,
0.9 million of those had stayed in Poland.[169] In October 2023, the ruling Law and Justice (PiS) party won the
largest share of the vote in the election, but lost its majority in parliament. In December 2023, Donald Tusk
became the new Prime Minister leading a coalition called Civic Coalition made up of Civic Platform, Third Way,
and The Left. Law and Justice became the leading opposition party.[170]

Geography
Poland covers an administrative area of 312,722 km2 (120,743 sq mi), and is
the ninth-largest country in Europe. Approximately 311,895 km2
(120,423 sq mi) of the country's territory consists of land, 2,041 km2
(788 sq mi) comprises internal waters and 8,783 km2 (3,391 sq mi) is
territorial sea.[171] Topographically, the landscape of Poland is characterised
by diverse landforms, water bodies and ecosystems.[172] The central and
northern region bordering the Baltic Sea lie within the flat Central
European Plain, but its south is hilly and mountainous.[173] The average
elevation above the sea level is estimated at 173 metres.[171]

The country has a coastline spanning 770 km (480 mi); extending from the
shores of the Baltic Sea, along the Bay of Pomerania in the west to the Gulf Topographic map of Poland
of Gdańsk in the east. [171] The beach coastline is abundant in sand dune
fields or coastal ridges and is indented by spits and lagoons, notably the Hel
Peninsula and the Vistula Lagoon, which is shared with Russia.[174] The largest Polish island on the Baltic Sea is
Wolin, located within Wolin National Park.[175] Poland also shares the Szczecin Lagoon and the Usedom island
with Germany.[176]

The mountainous belt in the extreme south of Poland is divided into two major mountain ranges; the Sudetes in
the west and the Carpathians in the east. The highest part of the Carpathian massif are the Tatra Mountains,
extending along Poland's southern border.[177] Poland's highest point is Mount Rysy at 2,501 metres (8,205 ft)
in elevation, located in the Tatras.[178] The highest summit of the Sudetes massif is Mount Śnieżka at 1,603.3
metres (5,260 ft), shared with the Czech Republic.[179] The lowest point in Poland is situated at Raczki Elbląskie
in the Vistula Delta, which is 1.8 metres (5.9 ft) below sea level.[171]

Poland's longest rivers are the Vistula, the Oder, the Warta, and the Bug.
[171] The country also possesses one of the highest densities of lakes in the

world, numbering around ten thousand and mostly concentrated in the

north-eastern region of Masuria, within the Masurian Lake District.[180]
The largest lakes, covering more than 100 square kilometres (39 sq mi), are
Śniardwy and Mamry, and the deepest is Lake Hańcza at 108.5 metres
(356 ft) in depth.[171]

Morskie Oko alpine lake in the Tatra

Mountains. Poland has one of the Climate
highest densities of lakes in the
world. The climate of Poland is temperate transitional, and varies from oceanic in
the north-west to continental in the south-east.[181] The mountainous
southern fringes are situated within an alpine climate.[181] Poland is
characterised by warm summers, with a mean temperature of around 20 °C (68.0 °F) in July, and moderately
cold winters averaging −1 °C (30.2 °F) in December.[182] The warmest and sunniest part of Poland is Lower
Silesia in the southwest and the coldest region is the northeast corner, around Suwałki in Podlaskie province,
where the climate is affected by cold fronts from Scandinavia and Siberia.[183] Precipitation is more frequent
during the summer months, with highest rainfall recorded from June to September.[182]

There is a considerable fluctuation in day-to-day weather and the arrival of a particular season can differ each
year.[181] Climate change and other factors have further contributed to interannual thermal anomalies and
increased temperatures; the average annual air temperature between 2011 and 2020 was 9.33 °C (48.8 °F),
around 1.11 °C higher than in the 2001–2010 period.[183] Winters are also becoming increasingly drier, with less
sleet and snowfall.[181]

Biodiversity
Phytogeographically, Poland belongs to the Central European province of
the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom. The country has four
Palearctic ecoregions – Central, Northern, Western European temperate
broadleaf and mixed forest, and the Carpathian montane conifer. Forests
occupy 31% of Poland's land area, the largest of which is the Lower Silesian
Wilderness.[184] The most common deciduous trees found across the
country are oak, maple, and beech; the most common conifers are pine,
spruce, and fir.[185] An estimated 69% of all forests are coniferous.[186] The wisent, one of Poland's national
animals, is commonly found at the
The flora and fauna in Poland is that of Continental Europe, with the ancient and UNESCO-protected
wisent, white stork and white-tailed eagle designated as national animals, Białowieża Forest.
and the red common poppy being the unofficial floral emblem.[187] Among
the most protected species is the European bison, Europe's heaviest land
animal, as well as the Eurasian beaver, the lynx, the gray wolf and the Tatra chamois.[171] The region was also
home to the extinct aurochs, the last individual dying in Poland in 1627.[188] Game animals such as red deer,
roe deer, and wild boar are found in most woodlands.[189] Poland is also a significant breeding ground for
migratory birds and hosts around one quarter of the global population of white storks.[190]
Around 315,100 hectares (1,217 sq mi), equivalent to 1% of Poland's territory, is protected within 23 Polish
national parks, two of which – Białowieża and Bieszczady – are UNESCO World Heritage Sites.[191] There are
123 areas designated as landscape parks, along with numerous nature reserves and other protected areas under
the Natura 2000 network.[192]

Government and politics

Poland is a unitary parliamentary republic and a representative
democracy, with a president as the head of state.[193] The executive
power is exercised further by the Council of Ministers and the prime
minister who acts as the head of government.[193] The council's
individual members are selected by the prime minister, appointed by
the president and approved by parliament.[193] The head of state is
elected by popular vote for a five-year term.[194] The current
president is Andrzej Duda and the prime minister is Donald Tusk.

Poland's legislative assembly is a bicameral parliament consisting of

President Prime Minister
a 460-member lower house (Sejm) and a 100-member upper house
Andrzej Duda Donald Tusk
since 6 August 2015 since 13 December 2023
(Senate).[195] The Sejm is elected under proportional representation
according to the d'Hondt method for vote-seat conversion.[196] The
Senate is elected under the first-past-the-post electoral system, with
one senator being returned from each of the one hundred constituencies.[197] The Senate has the right to amend
or reject a statute passed by the Sejm, but the Sejm may override the Senate's decision with a majority vote.[198]

With the exception of ethnic minority parties, only candidates of political

parties receiving at least 5% of the total national vote can enter the Sejm.
[197] Both the lower and upper houses of parliament in Poland are elected

for a four-year term and each member of the Polish parliament is

guaranteed parliamentary immunity.[199] Under current legislation, a
person must be 21 years of age or over to assume the position of deputy, 30
or over to become senator and 35 to run in a presidential election.[199]

Members of the Sejm and Senate jointly form the National Assembly of the The Sejm is the lower house of the
parliament of Poland.
Republic of Poland.[200] The National Assembly, headed by the Sejm
Marshal, is formed on three occasions – when a new president takes the
oath of office; when an indictment against the president is brought to the State Tribunal; and in case a
president's permanent incapacity to exercise his duties due to the state of his health is declared.[200]

Administrative divisions
Poland is divided into 16 provinces or states known as voivodeships.[201] As of 2022, the voivodeships are
subdivided into 380 counties (powiats), which are further fragmented into 2,477 municipalities (gminas).[201]
Major cities normally have the status of both gmina and powiat.[201] The provinces are largely founded on the
borders of historic regions, or named for individual cities.[202] Administrative authority at the voivodeship level
is shared between a government-appointed governor (voivode), an elected regional assembly (sejmik) and a
voivodeship marshal, an executive elected by the assembly.[202]
 Voivodeship Area Population
Capital city
in English in Polish km2[203] 2021[203]

Greater Poland Wielkopolskie Poznań 29,826 3,496,450

Kuyavian-Pomeranian Kujawsko-Pomorskie Bydgoszcz & Toruń 17,971 2,061,942

Lesser Poland Małopolskie Kraków 15,183 3,410,441

Łódź Łódzkie Łódź 18,219 2,437,970

Lower Silesian Dolnośląskie Wrocław 19,947 2,891,321

Lublin Lubelskie Lublin 25,123 2,095,258

Gorzów Wielkopolski &

Lubusz Lubuskie 13,988 1,007,145
Zielona Góra

Masovian Mazowieckie Warsaw 35,559 5,425,028

Opole Opolskie Opole 9,412 976,774

Podlaskie Podlaskie Białystok 20,187 1,173,286

Pomeranian Pomorskie Gdańsk 18,323 2,346,671

Silesian Śląskie Katowice 12,333 4,492,330

Subcarpathian Podkarpackie Rzeszów 17,846 2,121,229

Holy Cross Świętokrzyskie Kielce 11,710 1,224,626

Warmian-Masurian Warmińsko-Mazurskie Olsztyn 24,173 1,416,495

West Pomeranian Zachodniopomorskie Szczecin 22,905 1,688,047

Law
The Constitution of Poland is the enacted supreme law, and Polish judicature is
based on the principle of civil rights, governed by the code of civil law.[204] The
current democratic constitution was adopted by the National Assembly of Poland
on 2 April 1997; it guarantees a multi-party state with freedoms of religion, speech
and assembly, prohibits the practices of forced medical experimentation, torture or
corporal punishment, and acknowledges the inviolability of the home, the right to
form trade unions, and the right to strike.[205]

The judiciary in Poland is composed of the Supreme Court as the country's highest
judicial organ, the Supreme Administrative Court for the judicial control of public
administration, Common Courts (District, Regional, Appellate) and the Military
Court.[206] The Constitutional and State Tribunals are separate judicial bodies,
which rule the constitutional liability of people holding the highest offices of state
and supervise the compliance of statutory law, thus protecting the Constitution. The Constitution of 3 May
[207] Judges are nominated by the National Council of the Judiciary and are adopted in 1791 was the
first modern constitution in
appointed for life by the president.[207] With the approval of the Senate, the Sejm Europe.
appoints an ombudsman for a five-year term to guard the observance of social
justice.[197]

Poland has a low homicide rate at 0.7 murders per 100,000 people, as of 2018.[208] Rape, assault and violent
crime remain at a very low level.[209] The country has imposed strict regulations on abortion, which is
permitted only in cases of rape, incest or when the woman's life is in danger; congenital disorder and stillbirth
are not covered by the law, prompting some women to seek abortion abroad.[210]

Historically, the most significant Polish legal act is the Constitution of 3 May 1791. Instituted to redress long-
standing political defects of the federative Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and its Golden Liberty, it was the
first modern constitution in Europe and influenced many later democratic movements across the globe.[211][212]
[213] In 1918, the Second Polish Republic became one of the first countries to introduce universal women's

suffrage.[214]

Foreign relations
Poland is a middle power and is transitioning into a regional power in
Europe.[215][216] It has a total of 52 representatives in the European
Parliament as of 2022.[217] Warsaw serves as the headquarters for Frontex,
the European Union's agency for external border security as well as ODIHR,
one of the principal institutions of the OSCE.[218][219] Apart from the
European Union, Poland has been a member of NATO, the United Nations,
and the WTO.

In recent years, Poland significantly strengthened its relations with the The Ministry of Foreign Affairs,
United States, thus becoming one of its closest allies and strategic partners located in Warsaw
in Europe. [220] Historically, Poland maintained strong cultural and political
ties to Hungary; this special relationship was recognised by the parliaments
of both countries in 2007 with the joint declaration of 23 March as "The Day of Polish-Hungarian Friendship".
[221]
Military
The Polish Armed Forces are composed of five branches – the Land Forces,
the Navy, the Air Force, the Special Forces and the Territorial Defence
Force.[222] The military is subordinate to the Ministry of National Defence
of the Republic of Poland.[222] However, its commander-in-chief in
peacetime is the president, who nominates officers, the Minister for
National Defence and the chief of staff.[222] Polish military tradition is
generally commemorated by the Armed Forces Day, celebrated annually on
Polish Air Force F-16s, a single- 15 August.[223] As of 2022, the Polish Armed Forces have a combined
engine multirole fighter aircraft strength of 114,050 active soldiers, with a further 75,400 active in the
gendarmerie and defence force.[224]

Poland ranks 14th in the world in terms of military expenditures; the country allocates 3.8% of its total GDP on
military spending, equivalent to approximately US$31.6 billion in 2023.[225] From 2022, Poland initiated a
programme of mass modernisation of its armed forces, in close cooperation with American, South Korean and
local Polish defence manufacturers.[226] Also, the Polish military is set to increase its size to 250,000 enlisted
and officers, and 50,000 defence force personnel.[227] According to SIPRI, the country exported €487 million
worth of arms and armaments to foreign countries in 2020.[228]

Compulsory military service for men, who previously had to serve for nine months, was discontinued in 2008.
[229] Polish military doctrine reflects the same defensive nature as that of its NATO partners and the country

actively hosts NATO's military exercises.[224] Since 1953, the country has been a large contributor to various
United Nations peacekeeping missions,[230] and currently maintains military presence in the Middle East,
Africa, the Baltic states and southeastern Europe.[224]

Security, law enforcement and emergency services

Thanks to its location, Poland is a country essentially free from the threat of
natural disasters such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, tornadoes and
tropical cyclones. However, floods have occurred in low-lying areas from
time to time during periods of extreme rainfall (e.g. during the 2010 Central
European floods).

Law enforcement in Poland is performed by several agencies which are

subordinate to the Ministry of Interior and Administration – the State
A Toyota Auris patrol car belonging
Police (Policja), assigned to investigate crimes or transgression; the
to the Polish State Police Service
Municipal City Guard, which maintains public order; and several (Policja)
specialised agencies, such as the Polish Border Guard.[231] Private security
firms are also common, although they possess no legal authority to arrest or
detain a suspect.[231][232] Municipal guards are primarily headed by provincial, regional or city councils;
individual guards are not permitted to carry firearms unless instructed by the superior commanding officer.
[233] Security service personnel conduct regular patrols in both large urban areas or smaller suburban localities.
[234]

The Internal Security Agency (ABW, or ISA in English) is the chief counterintelligence instrument safeguarding
Poland's internal security, along with Agencja Wywiadu (AW) which identifies threats and collects secret
information abroad.[235] The Central Investigation Bureau of Police (CBŚP) and the Central Anticorruption
Bureau (CBA) are responsible for countering organised crime and corruption in state and private institutions.
[236][237]

Emergency services in Poland consist of the emergency medical services, search and rescue units of the Polish
Armed Forces and State Fire Service. Emergency medical services in Poland are operated by local and regional
governments,[238] but are a part of the centralised national agency – the National Medical Emergency Service
(Państwowe Ratownictwo Medyczne).[239]

Economy
As of 2023, Poland's economy and gross domestic product Economic indicators
(GDP) is the sixth largest in the European Union by GDP (PPP) $1.801 trillion (2024)[10]
nominal standards and the fifth largest by purchasing
power parity. It is also one of the fastest growing within Nominal GDP $844.6 billion (2024)[10]

the Union and reached a developed market status in 2018. Real GDP growth 5.3% (2022)[240]
[245] The unemployment rate published by Eurostat in
CPI inflation 14.4% (2022)[241]
2023 amounted to 2.8%, which was the second-lowest in
[242]
the EU.[243] As of 2023, around 62% of the employed Employment-to-population ratio 57% (2022)
population works in the service sector, 29% in Unemployment 2.8% (2023)[243]
manufacturing, and 8% in the agricultural sector. [246]
Total public debt $340 billion (2022)[244]
Although Poland is a member of the European single
market, the country has not adopted the Euro as legal tender and maintains its own currency – the Polish złoty
(zł, PLN).

Poland is the regional economic leader in Central Europe, with nearly 40 per cent of the 500 biggest companies
in the region (by revenues) as well as a high globalisation rate.[247] The country's largest firms compose the
WIG20 and WIG30 indexes, which is traded on the Warsaw Stock Exchange. According to reports made by the
National Bank of Poland, the value of Polish foreign direct investments reached almost 300 billion PLN at the
end of 2014. The Central Statistical Office estimated that in 2014 there were 1,437 Polish corporations with
interests in 3,194 foreign entities.[248]

Poland has the largest banking sector in Central Europe,[249] with 32.3 branches per 100,000 adults.[250] It was
the only European economy to have avoided the recession of 2008.[251] The country is the 20th largest exporter
of goods and services in the world.[252] Exports of goods and services are valued at approximately 56% of GDP,
as of 2020.[253] In 2019, Poland passed a law that would exempt workers under the age of 26 from income tax.
[254]

Tourism
In 2020, the total value of the tourism industry in Poland was 104.3 billion
PLN, then equivalent to 4.5% of the Polish GDP.[255] Tourism contributes
considerably to the overall economy and makes up a relatively large
proportion of the country's service market.[256] Nearly 200,000 people were
employed in the accommodation and catering (hospitality) sector in 2020.
[255] In 2021, Poland ranked 12th most visited country in the world by

international arrivals.[257]
Malbork Castle is the largest castle
Tourist attractions in Poland vary, from the mountains in the south to the
in the world measured by land area
beaches in the north, with a trail of rich architectural and cultural heritage. and a UNESCO World Heritage
Among the most recognisable landmarks are Old Towns in Kraków, Site.
Warsaw, Wrocław (dwarf statues), Gdańsk, Poznań, Lublin, Toruń and
Zamość as well as museums, zoological gardens, theme parks and the
Wieliczka Salt Mine, with its labyrinthine tunnels, underground lake and chapels carved by miners out of rock
salt beneath the ground. There are over 100 castles in the country, largely within the Lower Silesian
Voivodeship, and also on the Trail of the Eagles' Nests; the largest castle in the world by land area is situated in
Malbork.[258][259] The German Auschwitz concentration camp in Oświęcim, and the Skull Chapel in Kudowa-
Zdrój constitute dark tourism.[260] Regarding nature based travel, notable sites include the Masurian Lake
District and Białowieża Forest in the east; on the south Karkonosze, the Table Mountains and the Tatra
Mountains, where Rysy and the Eagle's Path trail are located. The Pieniny and Bieszczady Mountains lie in the
extreme south-east.[261]

Transport
Transport in Poland is provided by means of rail, road, marine shipping and
air travel. The country is part of EU's Schengen Area and is an important
transport hub due to its strategic geographical position in Central Europe.
[262] Some of the longest European routes, including the E30 and E40, run

through Poland. The country has a good network of highways comprising

express roads and motorways. As of August 2023, Poland has the world's
21st-largest road network, maintaining over 5,000 km (3,100 mi) of
highways in use.[263] PKP Intercity Pendolino at the
Wrocław railway station
In 2022, the nation had 19,393 kilometres (12,050 mi) of railway track, the
third longest in the European Union after Germany and France.[264] The
Polish State Railways (PKP) is the dominant railway operator, with certain major voivodeships or urban areas
possessing their own commuter and regional rail.[265] Poland has a number of international airports, the largest
of which is Warsaw Chopin Airport.[266] It is the primary global hub for LOT Polish Airlines, the country's flag
carrier.[267]

Seaports exist all along Poland's Baltic coast, with most freight operations using Świnoujście, Police, Szczecin,
Kołobrzeg, Gdynia, Gdańsk and Elbląg as their base. The Port of Gdańsk is the only port in the Baltic Sea
adapted to receive oceanic vessels. Polferries and Unity Line are the largest Polish ferry operators, with the
latter providing roll-on/roll-off and train ferry services to Scandinavia.[268]

Energy
The electricity generation sector in Poland is largely fossil-fuel–based. Coal production in Poland is a major
source of employment and the largest source of the nation's greenhouse gas emissions.[269] Many power plants
nationwide use Poland's position as a major European exporter of coal to their advantage by continuing to use
coal as the primary raw material in the production of their energy. The three largest Polish coal mining firms
(Węglokoks, Kompania Węglowa and JSW) extract around 100 million tonnes of coal annually.[270] After coal,
Polish energy supply relies significantly on oil—the nation is the third-largest buyer of Russian oil exports to the
EU.[271]

The new Energy Policy of Poland until 2040 (EPP2040) would reduce the share of coal and lignite in electricity
generation by 25% from 2017 to 2030. The plan involves deploying new nuclear plants, increasing energy
efficiency, and decarbonising the Polish transport system in order to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and
prioritise long-term energy security.[269][272]

Science and technology

Over the course of history, the Polish people have made considerable contributions in the fields of science,
technology and mathematics.[274] Perhaps the most renowned Pole to support this theory was Nicolaus
Copernicus (Mikołaj Kopernik), who triggered the Copernican Revolution by placing the Sun rather than the
Earth at the center of the universe.[275] He also derived a quantity theory of money, which made him a pioneer
of economics. Copernicus' achievements and discoveries are
considered the basis of Polish culture and cultural identity.[276]
Poland was ranked 41st in the Global Innovation Index in 2023.
[277]

Poland's tertiary education institutions; traditional universities,

as well as technical, medical, and economic institutions, employ
around tens of thousands of researchers and staff members.
There are hundreds of research and development institutes.[278]
Physicist and Nicolaus Copernicus, the
However, in the 19th and 20th centuries many Polish scientists
chemist Marie 16th century Polish
worked abroad; one of the most important of these exiles was
Curie was the first astronomer who formulated
Marie Curie, a physicist and chemist who lived much of her life person to win two the heliocentric model of
in France. In 1925, she established Poland's Radium Institute. Nobel Prizes.[273] the solar system.
[273]

In the first half of the 20th century, Poland was a flourishing centre of mathematics. Outstanding Polish
mathematicians formed the Lwów School of Mathematics (with Stefan Banach, Stanisław Mazur, Hugo
Steinhaus, Stanisław Ulam) and Warsaw School of Mathematics (with Alfred Tarski, Kazimierz Kuratowski,
Wacław Sierpiński and Antoni Zygmund). Numerous mathematicians, scientists, chemists or economists
emigrated due to historic vicissitudes, among them Benoit Mandelbrot, Leonid Hurwicz, Alfred Tarski, Joseph
Rotblat and Nobel Prize laureates Roald Hoffmann, Georges Charpak and Tadeusz Reichstein.

Demographics
Poland has a population of approximately 38.2 million as of 2021, and is the ninth-most populous country in
Europe, as well as the fifth-most populous member state of the European Union.[279] It has a population
density of 122 inhabitants per square kilometre (320 inhabitants/sq mi).[280] The total fertility rate was
estimated at 1.33 children born to a woman in 2021, which is among the world's lowest.[281] Furthermore,
Poland's population is aging significantly, and the country has a median age of 42.2.[282]

Around 60% of the country's population lives in urban areas or major

cities and 40% in rural zones.[283] In 2020, 50.2% of Poles resided in
detached dwellings and 44.3% in apartments.[284] The most populous
administrative province or state is the Masovian Voivodeship and the
most populous city is the capital, Warsaw, at 1.8 million inhabitants with
a further 2–3 million people living in its metropolitan area.[285][286][287]
The metropolitan area of Katowice is the largest urban conurbation with
a population between 2.7 million[288] and 5.3 million residents.[289] Population of Poland from 1900 to 2010
Population density is higher in the south of Poland and mostly in millions of inhabitants
concentrated between the cities of Wrocław and Kraków.[290]

In the 2011 Polish census, 37,310,341 people reported Polish identity, 846,719 Silesian, 232,547 Kashubian and
147,814 German. Other identities were reported by 163,363 people (0.41%) and 521,470 people (1.35%) did not
specify any nationality.[291] Official population statistics do not include migrant workers who do not possess a
permanent residency permit or Karta Polaka.[292] More than 1.7 million Ukrainian citizens worked legally in
Poland in 2017.[293] The number of migrants is rising steadily; the country approved 504,172 work permits for
foreigners in 2021 alone.[294] According to the Council of Europe, 12,731 Romani people live in Poland.[295]

Largest cities or towns in Poland

Statistics Poland (GUS) 2021[296] and GUS BDL 2021[297]
 Rank Name Voivodeship Pop. Rank Name Voivodeship Pop.
1 Warsaw Masovian 1,860,281 11 Katowice Silesian 285,711
Lesser
2 Kraków 800,653 12 Gdynia Pomeranian 245,222
Poland
Lower
3 Wrocław 672,929 13 Częstochowa Silesian 213,107
Silesian
4 Łódź Łódź 670,642 14 Radom Masovian 201,601
Greater Kuyavian-
5 Poznań 546,859 15 Toruń 198,273
Warsaw Poland Pomeranian
Wrocław
6 Gdańsk Pomeranian 486,022 16 Rzeszów Subcarpathian 195,871
West
7 Szczecin 396,168 17 Sosnowiec Silesian 193,660
Pomeranian
Kuyavian-
Kraków 8 Bydgoszcz 337,666 18 Kielce Świętokrzyskie 186,894
Pomeranian Łódź
9 Lublin Lublin 334,681 19 Gliwice Silesian 174,016
Warmian-
10 Białystok Podlaskie 294,242 20 Olsztyn 170,225
Masurian

Languages
Polish is the official and predominant spoken language in Poland, and is
one of the official languages of the European Union.[298] It is also a
second language in parts of neighbouring Lithuania, where it is taught in
Polish-minority schools.[299][300] Contemporary Poland is a linguistically
homogeneous nation, with 97% of respondents declaring Polish as their
mother tongue.[301] There are currently 15 minority languages in Poland,
[302] including one recognised regional language, Kashubian, which is
Dolina Jadwigi—a bilingual Polish-
spoken by approximately 100,000 people on a daily basis in the northern Kashubian road sign with the village
regions of Kashubia and Pomerania.[303] Poland also recognises name
secondary administrative languages or auxiliary languages in bilingual
municipalities, where bilingual signs and placenames are commonplace.
[304] According to the Centre for Public Opinion Research, around 32% of Polish citizens declared knowledge of

the English language in 2015.[305]

Religion
According to the 2021 census, 71.3% of all Polish citizens adhere to the Roman Catholic Church, with 6.9%
identifying as having no religion and 20.6% refusing to answer.[3]

Poland is one of the most religious countries in Europe, where Roman Catholicism remains a part of national
identity and Polish-born Pope John Paul II is widely revered.[306][307] In 2015, 61.6% of respondents outlined
that religion is of high or very high importance.[308] However, church attendance has greatly decreased in
recent years; only 28% of Catholics attended mass weekly in 2021, down from around half in 2000.[309]
According to The Wall Street Journal, "Of [the] more than 100 countries studied by the Pew Research Center
in 2018, Poland was secularizing the fastest, as measured by the disparity between the religiosity of young
people and their elders."[306]

Freedom of religion in Poland is guaranteed by the Constitution, and Poland's concordat with the Holy See
enables the teaching of religion in public schools.[310] Historically, the Polish state maintained a high degree of
religious tolerance and provided asylum for refugees fleeing religious persecution in other parts of Europe.[311]
Poland hosted Europe's largest Jewish diaspora, and the country was a centre of Ashkenazi Jewish culture and
traditional learning until the Holocaust.[312]
Contemporary religious minorities include Orthodox Christians, Protestants,
including Lutherans of the Evangelical-Augsburg Church, Pentecostals in the
Pentecostal Church in Poland, Adventists in the Seventh-day Adventist Church,
and other smaller Evangelical denominations, including Jehovah's Witnesses,
Eastern Catholics, Mariavites, Jews, Muslims (Tatars), and neopagans, some of
whom are members of the Native Polish Church.[313]

Pilgrimages to the Jasna Góra Monastery, a shrine dedicated to the Black

Madonna, take place annually.[314]

Health John Paul II, born Karol

Medical service providers and hospitals (szpitale) in Poland are subordinate to the Wojtyła, held the papacy
between 1978 and 2005
Ministry of Health; it provides administrative oversight and scrutiny of general
and was the first Pole to
medical practice, and is obliged to maintain a high standard of hygiene and patient
become a Roman Catholic
care. Poland has a universal healthcare system based on an all-inclusive insurance Pope.
system; state subsidised healthcare is available to all citizens covered by the
general health insurance program of the National Health Fund (NFZ). Private
medical complexes exist nationwide; over 50% of the population uses both public and private sectors.[315][316]
[317]

According to the Human Development Report from 2020, the average life expectancy at birth is 79 years
(around 75 years for an infant male and 83 years for an infant female);[318] the country has a low infant
mortality rate (4 per 1,000 births).[319] In 2019, the principal cause of death was ischemic heart disease;
diseases of the circulatory system accounted for 45% of all deaths.[320] In the same year, Poland was also the
15th-largest importer of medications and pharmaceutical products.[321]

Education
The Jagiellonian University founded in 1364 by Casimir III in Kraków was
the first institution of higher learning established in Poland, and is one of
the oldest universities still in continuous operation.[322] Poland's
Commission of National Education (Komisja Edukacji Narodowej),
established in 1773, was the world's first state ministry of education.[323]
[324]
Jagiellonian University in Kraków
The framework for primary, secondary and higher tertiary education are
established by the Ministry of Education and Science. Kindergarten
attendance is optional for children aged between three and five, with one year being compulsory for six-year-
olds.[325][326] Primary education traditionally begins at the age of seven, although children aged six can attend
at the request of their parents or guardians.[326] Elementary school spans eight grades and secondary schooling
is dependent on student preference – a four-year high school (liceum), a five-year technical school (technikum)
or various vocational studies (szkoła branżowa) can be pursued by each individual pupil.[326] A liceum or
technikum is concluded with a maturity exit exam (matura), which must be passed in order to apply for a
university or other institutions of higher learning.[327]

In Poland, there are over 500 university-level institutions,[328] with technical, medical, economic, agricultural,
pedagogical, theological, musical, maritime and military faculties.[329] The University of Warsaw and Warsaw
Polytechnic, the University of Wrocław, Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań and the University of
Technology in Gdańsk are among the most prominent.[330] There are three conventional academic degrees in
Poland – licencjat or inżynier (first cycle qualification), magister (second cycle qualification) and doktor (third
cycle qualification).[331] In 2018, the Programme for International Student Assessment, coordinated by the
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, ranked Poland's educational system higher than
the OECD average; the study showed that students in Poland perform better academically than in most OECD
countries.[332]

Culture
The culture of Poland is closely connected with its intricate 1,000-year
history, and forms an important constituent in the Western civilisation.[333]
The Poles take great pride in their national identity which is often
associated with the colours white and red, and exuded by the expression
biało-czerwoni ("whitereds").[334] National symbols, chiefly the crowned
white-tailed eagle, are often visible on clothing, insignia and emblems.[335]
The architectural monuments of great importance are protected by the
National Heritage Board of Poland.[336] Over 100 of the country's most
significant tangible wonders were enlisted onto the Historic Monuments
The Polish White Eagle is Poland's
Register,[337] with further 17 being recognised by UNESCO as World enduring national and cultural
Heritage Sites.[338] symbol.

Holidays and traditions

There are 13 government-approved annual public holidays – New Year on 1
January, Three Kings' Day on 6 January, Easter Sunday and Easter
Monday, Labour Day on 1 May, Constitution Day on 3 May, Pentecost,
Corpus Christi, Feast of the Assumption on 15 August, All Saints' Day on 1
November, Independence Day on 11 November and Christmastide on 25
and 26 December.[339]

Particular traditions and superstitious customs observed in Poland are not

All Saints' Day on 1 November is
found elsewhere in Europe. Though Christmas Eve (Wigilia) is not a public
one of the most important public
holidays in Poland.
holiday, it remains the most memorable day of the entire year. Trees are
decorated on 24 December, hay is placed under the tablecloth to resemble
Jesus' manger, Christmas wafers (opłatek) are shared between gathered
guests and a twelve-dish meatless supper is served that same evening when the first star appears.[340] An empty
plate and seat are symbolically left at the table for an unexpected guest.[341] On occasion, carolers journey
around smaller towns with a folk Turoń creature until the Lent period.[342]

A widely-popular doughnut and sweet pastry feast occurs on Fat Thursday, usually 52 days prior to Easter.[343]
Eggs for Holy Sunday are painted and placed in decorated baskets that are previously blessed by clergymen in
churches on Easter Saturday. Easter Monday is celebrated with pagan dyngus festivities, where the youth is
engaged in water fights.[344][343] Cemeteries and graves of the deceased are annually visited by family members
on All Saints' Day; tombstones are cleaned as a sign of respect and candles are lit to honour the dead on an
unprecedented scale.[345]

Music
Artists from Poland, including famous musicians such as Frédéric Chopin, Artur Rubinstein, Ignacy Jan
Paderewski, Krzysztof Penderecki, Henryk Wieniawski, Karol Szymanowski, and traditional, regionalised folk
composers create a lively and diverse music scene, which even recognises its own music genres, such as sung
poetry and disco polo.[346]
The origins of Polish music can be traced to the 13th century;
manuscripts have been found in Stary Sącz containing polyphonic
compositions related to the Parisian Notre Dame School. Other
early compositions, such as the melody of Bogurodzica and God
Is Born (a coronation polonaise tune for Polish kings by an
unknown composer), may also date back to this period, however,
the first known notable composer, Nicholas of Radom, lived in
the 15th century. Diomedes Cato, a native-born Italian who lived
in Kraków, became a renowned lutenist at the court of Sigismund
III; he not only imported some of the musical styles from
southern Europe but blended them with native folk music.[347]
Frédéric Chopin was a Artur Rubinstein was
renowned classical one of the greatest
In the 17th and 18th centuries, Polish baroque composers wrote
composer and virtuoso concert pianists of the
liturgical music and secular compositions such as concertos and pianist. 20th century.
sonatas for voices or instruments. At the end of the 18th century,
Polish classical music evolved into national forms like the
polonaise. Wojciech Bogusławski is accredited with composing the first Polish national opera, titled
Krakowiacy i Górale, which premiered in 1794.[348]

Fryderyk Chopin Poland today has an active music scene, with the jazz and metal
Mazurka no. 4 in a minor, op. 17 genres being particularly popular among the contemporary
populace. Polish jazz musicians such as Krzysztof Komeda
5:35
created a unique style, which was most famous in the 1960s and
Mazurka (Polish: mazurek), stylised 1970s and continues to be popular to this day. Poland has also
folk dance in triple meter (1832),
commemorating the November become a major venue for large-scale music festivals, chief
Uprising among which are the Pol'and'Rock Festival,[349] Open'er
Festival, Opole Festival and Sopot Festival.[350]

Art
Art in Poland has invariably reflected European trends, with
Polish painting pivoted on folklore, Catholic themes, historicism
and realism, but also on impressionism and romanticism. An
important art movement was Young Poland, developed in the late
19th century for promoting decadence, symbolism and art
nouveau. Since the 20th century Polish documentary art and
photography has enjoyed worldwide fame, especially the Polish
School of Posters.[351] One of the most distinguished paintings in
Poland is Lady with an Ermine (1490) by Leonardo da Vinci.[352]

Internationally renowned Polish artists include Jan Matejko Jan Matejko, leading Lady with an Ermine
(historicism), Jacek Malczewski (symbolism), Stanisław Polish history painter (1490) by Leonardo da
Wyspiański (art nouveau), Henryk Siemiradzki (Roman academic whose works depict Vinci is displayed in the
art), Tamara de Lempicka (art deco), and Zdzisław Beksiński Poland's heritage and Czartoryski Museum in
[353] key historical events Kraków.
(dystopian surrealism). Several Polish artists and sculptors
were also acclaimed representatives of avant-garde,
constructivist, minimalist and contemporary art movements, including Katarzyna Kobro, Władysław
Strzemiński, Magdalena Abakanowicz, Alina Szapocznikow, Igor Mitoraj and Wilhelm Sasnal.

Notable art academies in Poland include the Kraków Academy of Fine Arts, Academy of Fine Arts in Warsaw,
Art Academy of Szczecin, University of Fine Arts in Poznań and the Geppert Academy of Fine Arts in Wrocław.
Contemporary works are exhibited at Zachęta, Ujazdów, and MOCAK art galleries.[354]

Architecture
The architecture of Poland reflects European architectural styles,
with strong historical influences derived from Italy, Germany,
and the Low Countries.[355] Settlements founded on Magdeburg
Law evolved around central marketplaces (plac, rynek), encircled
by a grid or concentric network of streets forming an old town
(stare miasto).[356] Poland's traditional landscape is
characterised by ornate churches, city tenements and town halls.
[357] Cloth hall markets (sukiennice) were once an abundant

feature of Polish urban architecture.[358] The mountainous south

is known for its Zakopane chalet style, which originated in
Poland.[359]
St. Mary's Basilica on The 16th-century City
the Main Market Square Hall of Poznań The earliest architectonic trend was Romanesque (c. 11th
in Kraków is an example illustrates the
century), but its traces in the form of circular rotundas are scarce.
of Brick Gothic Renaissance style.[360] The arrival of brick Gothic (c. 13th century) defined Poland's
architecture.
most distinguishable medieval style, exuded by the castles of
Malbork, Lidzbark, Gniew and Kwidzyn as well as the cathedrals
of Gniezno, Gdańsk, Wrocław, Frombork and Kraków.[361] The Renaissance (16th century) gave rise to
Italianate courtyards, defensive palazzos and mausoleums.[362] Decorative attics with pinnacles and arcade
loggias are elements of Polish Mannerism, found in Poznań, Lublin and Zamość.[363][364] Foreign artisans often
came at the expense of kings or nobles, whose palaces were built thereafter in the Baroque, Neoclassical and
Revivalist styles (17th–19th century).[365]

Primary building materials comprising timber or red brick were extensively utilised in Polish folk architecture,
[366] and the concept of a fortified church was commonplace.[367] Secular structures such as dworek manor

houses, farmsteads, granaries, mills and country inns are still present in some regions or in open air museums
(skansen).[368] However, traditional construction methods faded in the early-mid 20th century due to
urbanisation and the construction of functionalist housing estates and residential areas.[369]

Literature
The literary works of Poland have traditionally concentrated
around the themes of patriotism, spirituality, social allegories
and moral narratives.[370] The earliest examples of Polish
literature, written in Latin, date to the 12th century.[371] The first
Polish phrase Day ut ia pobrusa, a ti poziwai (officially
translated as "Let me, I shall grind, and you take a rest") was
documented in the Book of Henryków and reflected the use of a
quern-stone.[372] It has been since included in UNESCO's
Memory of World Register.[373] The oldest extant manuscripts of
fine prose in Old Polish are the Holy Cross Sermons and the Adam Mickiewicz, whose Joseph Conrad,
Bible of Queen Sophia,[374] and Calendarium cracoviense (1474) national epic poem Pan author of popular
is Poland's oldest surviving print.[375] Tadeusz (1834) is books such as Heart
considered a of Darkness (1899)
The poets Jan Kochanowski and Nicholas Rey became the first masterpiece of Polish and Nostromo (1904)
Renaissance authors to write in Polish.[376] Prime literarians of literature
the period included Dantiscus, Modrevius, Goslicius, Sarbievius
and theologian John Laski. In the Baroque era, Jesuit philosophy and local culture greatly influenced the
literary techniques of Jan Andrzej Morsztyn (Marinism) and Jan Chryzostom Pasek (sarmatian memoirs).[377]
During the Enlightenment, playwright Ignacy Krasicki composed the first Polish-language novel.[378] Poland's
leading 19th-century romantic poets were the Three Bards – Juliusz Słowacki, Zygmunt Krasiński and Adam
Mickiewicz, whose epic poem Pan Tadeusz (1834) is a national classic.[379] In the 20th century, the English
impressionist and early modernist writings of Joseph Conrad made him one of the most eminent novelists of all
time.[380][381]

Contemporary Polish literature is versatile, with its fantasy genre having been particularly praised.[382] The
philosophical sci-fi novel Solaris by Stanisław Lem and The Witcher series by Andrzej Sapkowski are celebrated
works of world fiction.[383] Poland has six Nobel-Prize winning authors – Henryk Sienkiewicz (Quo Vadis;
1905), Władysław Reymont (The Peasants; 1924), Isaac Bashevis Singer (1978), Czesław Miłosz (1980),
Wisława Szymborska (1996), and Olga Tokarczuk (2018).[384][385][386]

Cuisine
The cuisine of Poland is eclectic and shares similarities with other regional
cuisines. Among the staple or regional dishes are pierogi (filled dumplings),
kielbasa (sausage), bigos (hunter's stew), kotlet schabowy (breaded cutlet),
gołąbki (cabbage rolls), barszcz (borscht), żurek (soured rye soup), oscypek
(smoked cheese), and tomato soup.[387][388] Bagels, a type of bread roll,
also originated in Poland.[389]

Traditional dishes are hearty and abundant in pork, potatoes, eggs, cream,
mushrooms, regional herbs, and sauce.[390] Polish food is characteristic for
Selection of popular traditional
its various kinds of kluski (soft dumplings), soups, cereals and a variety of dishes from Poland, including
breads and open sandwiches. Salads, including mizeria (cucumber salad), hunter's stew, stuffed cabbage rolls,
coleslaw, sauerkraut, carrot and seared beets, are common. Meals conclude rye soup, pierogi, potato pancakes,
with a dessert such as sernik (cheesecake), makowiec (poppy seed roll), or and rye bread
napoleonka (mille-feuille) cream pie.[391]

Traditional alcoholic beverages include honey mead, widespread since the 13th century, beer, wine and vodka.
[392] The world's first written mention of vodka originates from Poland.[393] The most popular alcoholic drinks

at present are beer and wine which took over from vodka more popular in the years 1980–1998.[394]
Grodziskie, sometimes referred to as "Polish Champagne", is an example of a historical beer style from Poland.
[395] Tea remains common in Polish society since the 19th century, whilst coffee is drunk widely since the 18th

century.[396]

Fashion and design

Several Polish designers and stylists left a legacy of beauty inventions and cosmetics; including Helena
Rubinstein and Maksymilian Faktorowicz, who created a line of cosmetics company in California known as Max
Factor and formulated the term "make-up" which is now widely used as an alternative for describing cosmetics.
[397] Faktorowicz is also credited with inventing modern eyelash extensions.[398][399] As of 2020, Poland

possesses the sixth-largest cosmetic market in Europe. Inglot Cosmetics is the country's largest beauty products
manufacturer,[400] and the retail store Reserved is the country's most successful clothing store chain.[401]

Historically, fashion has been an important aspect of Poland's national consciousness or cultural manifestation,
and the country developed its own style known as Sarmatism at the turn of the 17th century.[402] The national
dress and etiquette of Poland also reached the court at Versailles, where French dresses inspired by Polish
garments included robe à la polonaise and the witzchoura. The scope of influence also entailed furniture;
 rococo Polish beds with canopies became fashionable in French châteaus.[403]
Sarmatism eventually faded in the wake of the 18th century.[402]

Cinema
The cinema of Poland traces its origins to 1894,
when inventor Kazimierz Prószyński patented the
Pleograph and subsequently the Aeroscope, the
first successful hand-held operated film camera.
[404][405] In 1897, Jan Szczepanik constructed the
Traditional polonaise
Telectroscope, a prototype of television
dresses, 1780–1785
transmitting images and sounds.[404] They are
both recognised as pioneers of cinematography.
[404] Poland has also produced influential directors, film producers and Andrzej Wajda, the recipient of an
Honorary Oscar, the Palme d'Or, as
actors, many of whom were active in Hollywood, chiefly Roman Polański,
well as Honorary Golden Lion and
Andrzej Wajda, Pola Negri, Samuel Goldwyn, the Warner brothers, Max Golden Bear awards
Fleischer, Agnieszka Holland, Krzysztof Zanussi and Krzysztof Kieślowski.
[406]

The themes commonly explored in Polish cinema include history, drama, war, culture and black realism (film
noir).[404][405] In the 21st-century, two Polish productions won the Academy Awards – The Pianist (2002) by
Roman Polański and Ida (2013) by Paweł Pawlikowski.[405] Polish cinematography also created many well-
received comedies. The most known of them were made by Stanisław Bareja and Juliusz Machulski.

Media
According to the Eurobarometer Report (2015), 78 percent of Poles watch
the television daily.[407] In 2020, 79 percent of the population read the
news more than once a day, placing it second behind Sweden.[408] Poland
has a number of major domestic media outlets, chiefly the public
broadcasting corporation TVP, free-to-air channels TVN and Polsat as well
as 24-hour news channels TVP Info, TVN 24 and Polsat News.[409] Public
television extends its operations to genre-specific programmes such as TVP
Headquarters of the publicly funded Sport, TVP Historia, TVP Kultura, TVP Rozrywka, TVP Seriale and TVP
national television network TVP in Polonia, the latter a state-run channel dedicated to the transmission of
Warsaw Polish-language telecasts for the Polish diaspora. In 2020, the most popular
types of newspapers were tabloids and socio-political news dailies.[407]

Poland is a major European hub for video game developers and among the most successful companies are CD
Projekt, Techland, The Farm 51, CI Games and People Can Fly.[410] Some of the popular video games developed
in Poland include The Witcher trilogy and Cyberpunk 2077.[410] The Polish city of Katowice also hosts Intel
Extreme Masters, one of the biggest esports events in the world.[410]

Sports
Motorcycle Speedway, volleyball and association football are among the country's most popular sports, with a
rich history of international competitions.[411][412] Track and field, basketball, handball, boxing, MMA, ski
jumping, cross-country skiing, ice hockey, tennis, fencing, swimming, and weightlifting are other popular
sports. The golden era of football in Poland occurred throughout the 1970s and went on until the early 1980s
when the Polish national football team achieved their best results in any FIFA World Cup competitions
finishing third place in the 1974 and the 1982 tournaments. The team won a gold medal in football at the 1972
Summer Olympics and two silver medals, in 1976 and in 1992. In 2012,
Poland co-hosted the UEFA European Football Championship.[413]

As of June 2024, the Polish men's national volleyball team is ranked as first
in the world.[414] The team won a gold medal at the 1976 Summer Olympics
and the gold medal at the FIVB World Championship 1974, 2014 and 2018.
[415][416] Mariusz Pudzianowski is a highly successful strongman competitor

and has won more World's Strongest Man titles than any other competitor The Kazimierz Górski National
Stadium in Warsaw, home of the
in the world, winning the event in 2008 for the fifth time.[417]
national football team

Poland has made a distinctive mark in motorcycle speedway racing. The top
Ekstraliga division has one of the highest average attendances for any sport in Poland. The national speedway
team of Poland is one of the major teams in international speedway. Individually, Poland has three Speedway
Grand Prix World Champions, with the most successful being four-time World Champion Bartosz Zmarzlik who
won back-to-back championships in 2019 and 2020 as well as 2022 and 2023. In 2021, Poland finished
runners-up in the Speedway of Nations world championship final, held in Manchester, England in 2021.[418]

In the 21st century, the country has seen a growth of popularity of tennis and produced a number of successful
tennis players including World No. 1 Iga Świątek, winner of five Grand Slam singles titles; former World No. 2
Agnieszka Radwanska, winner of 20 WTA career singles titles including 2015 WTA Finals; Top 10 ATP player
Hubert Hurkacz; former World No. 1 doubles player Łukasz Kubot, winner of two Grand Slam doubles titles
and Jan Zieliński, winner of two Grand Slam mixed doubles titles. Poland also won the 2015 Hopman Cup with
Agnieszka Radwańska and Jerzy Janowicz representing the country.[419][420]

Poles made significant achievements in mountaineering, in particular, in the Himalayas and the winter
ascending of the eight-thousanders. Polish mountains are one of the tourist attractions of the country. Hiking,
climbing, skiing and mountain biking and attract numerous tourists every year from all over the world.[261]
Water sports are the most popular summer recreation activities, with ample locations for fishing, canoeing,
kayaking, sailing and windsurfing especially in the northern regions of the country.[421]

See also
Outline of Poland Poland portal

Europe portal
Notes
a. "the Dąbrowski Mazurka"
b. Multiple national identity was available in the census.
c. "The dukes (dux) were originally the commanders of an armed retinue (drużyna) with which they broke the
authority of the chieftains of the clans, thus transforming the original tribal organization into a territorial
unit."[4]
d. "Mieszko accepted Roman Catholicism via Bohemia in 966. A missionary bishopric directly dependent on
the papacy was established in Poznań. This was the true beginning of Polish history, for Christianity was a
carrier of Western civilization with which Poland was henceforth associated."[4]
e. Polish: Polska [ˈpɔlska]
f. Polish: Rzeczpospolita Polska [ʐɛt͡ʂpɔsˈpɔlita ˈpɔlska] , lit. 'Commonwealth [of] Poland'
g. Poland is bordered by Lithuania and Russia (Kaliningrad Oblast exclave) to the northeast, Belarus and
Ukraine to the east, Slovakia and the Czech Republic to the south, and Germany to the west.
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External links
Gov.pl – Polish national portal (https://www.gov.pl/). .
Poland (https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/poland/). The World Factbook. Central Intelligence
Agency.
"Poland" (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Poland). Encyclopædia
Britannica. Vol. 21 (11th ed.). 1911.
"Poland" (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1922_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Poland). Encyclopædia
Britannica. Vol. 32 (12th ed.). 1922.
Poland (https://curlie.org/Regional/Europe/Poland) at Curlie
Wikimedia Atlas of Poland
Geographic data related to Poland (https://www.openstreetmap.org/relation/49715) at OpenStreetMap

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