Making Loading Dies and Bullet Molds - Harold Hoffman (1991)

MAKING LOADING
DIES & BULLET
MOLDS
By Harold Hoffman
Copyright © 1991 Harold Hoffman
All rights reserved. No parts of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without the written consent of the publisher.
H & P Publishing 7174 Hoffman Rd. San Angelo, Tx. 76905

INTRODUCTION
I have had numerous request from my readers to include a book on making loading dies as well as bullet molds. What this involves is basic
Tool & Die work. Making loading dies as well as other tools are simple once you learn the fundamentals of tool making. There are quite a
few books out, but I have found that few go into the step-by-step process of leading the individual through the actual process of machining
tools that are needed for making various items.
Though this book is basic, I try to lead you through the different processes. You will find that all the machining operations are about the
same, so once you have mastered the basic, you can go on to the next stage.
I cover in this book turning of materials, milling operations for making tools, and the final heat treating of the part to be able to use it. Many
of my other books go into much greater detail and information, but they are for craftsperson that has gained more experience.
Once you have learned the basic, you will be able to do many of the other operations described in these books. If you learn to do what is
covered in this book, you will then be able to make just about any type of metal tools that is needed to make loading dies, etc.
This book may seem to be a little vague at time for the inexperience reader, but once the reader starts making the parts described, it all falls
in place. I welcome any suggestions on how to improve the books and ideas on other books that they feel that is needed
If the reader follows the instructions, he or she will be able to become a good machinist in time. All it takes is much time patience, and
practice to become proficient, and this is true of any new skill. I have many readers tell me it sounded too simple. Well, becoming a
machinist is simple, but it takes time. So don't expect to become an expert machinist over night.
Harold Hoffman
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER I EQUIPMENT AND TOOLS

LATHE
ENGINE LATHE SIZE
OIL PAN
TOOL POST GRINDER
MILLING MACHINE
DRILL PRESS
SHAPER
SAWS
HEAT TREAT FURNACE
MEASURING AND LAYOUT TOOLS
MICROMETER
MICROMETER (DEPTH)
MICROMETER (INSIDE AND OUTSIDE)
ANGLE AND RADIUS GAUGE
LEVELS
TOOL STEEL
CHAPTER 2 HEAT TREATING TOOL STEEL

CHANGES IN TOOL STEEL
LIFE OF TOOLS
TYPICAL TOOL STEELS
PLAIN CARBON TOOL STEELS
OIL HARDENING TOOL STEEL
HIGH CARBON HIGH CHROMIUM TOOL STEEL
CARBON STEELS
HOW HEATING CHANGES THE STRUCTURE
GRAIN SIZE AND TOUGHNESS
WATER HARDENING
TEMPERING TEMPERATURE J
WORKING TEMPERATURE
HEAT-TREATMENT OF TOOL STEEL
QUENCHING MEDIA
WATER
BRINE
OIL
LYE
TEMPERING
COLORS FOR TEMPERING
HIGH TEMPERATURES BY COLOR
FORGING
ANNEALING
CHAPTER 3 MICROMETER CALIPER

MICROMETER DEPTH GAGE
READING THE MICROMETERS
CHAPTER 4 CUTTING TOOLS AND TOOLHOLDERS

SETTING A SINGLEPOINT CUTTING TOOL
SHARPENING THE BIT
USE OF FORM TOOLS
PARTING OR CUTTING OFF
GROOVING
KNURLING
DRILLING WITH A LATHE
PRODUCING TAPERS
CHAPTER 5 TURNING STEEL

TEST BAR
MAKING A KEYWAY CUTTER
TURNING THE STOCK
FACING
CHAPTER 6 MILLING MACHINES
GENERAL TYPES
VERTICAL MILLING MACHINES
CUTTER TEETH
ARBOR-MOUNTING MILLING CUTTERS
PLAIN MILLING CUTTERS
ANGULAR MILLING CUTTERS
FLY CUTTERS
T-SLOT CUTTERS
WOODRUFF KEY SEAT CUTTERS
SIDE MILLING CUTTERS
METAL-SLITTING SAWS
HOLDING THE WORKPIECE ON THE TABLE
UP MILLING AND DOWN MILLING
DOWN MILLING
UP MILLING
CUTTING SPEED, FEED, AND DEPTH OF CUT
SPEEDS AND FEEDS
ADJUSTING THE LOCATION OF THE WORKPIECE TO THE CUTTER
ATTACHMENTS FOR MILLING MACHINES
ANGLE PLATE
ROTARY TABLE
UNIVERSAL DIVIDING HEAD
CHAPTER 7 MAKING CUTTING TOOLS

TYPES OF REAMERS
SHAPE OF FLUTES
CHATTER
REAMING SPEEDS
REAMING FEEDS
STOCK ALLOWANCES
LUBRICANTS
CHATTERING
REAMER PLUGGING
ARKANSAS STONE
SURFACE SPEED
MAKING THE REAMER OR CUTTING TOOL
BALL CUTTER
MAKING THE BALL CUTTER
MAKING THE SIZING REAMER
TAPER TURNING
KEYWAY CUTTER
ANGULAR CUTTER
THE FLUTE THICKNESS
DEPTH OF FLUTES
HEAT TREATING THE REAMER
TEMPERING THE REAMERS
TEMPERING THE BALL CUTTER
GRINDING THE REAMER
SIZING OR SEATING REAMER
GRINDING THE SHANK
GRINDING THE CLEARANCE
GRINDING THE CUTTING EDGES
STONING THE CUTTING EDGE
CHAPTER 8 CARTRIDGE DIMENSIONS

FINDING THE ANGLE
LOADING DIES FOR A PRESS
CHAPTER 9 MAKING THE DIES

FACING THE STOCK
TURNING THE BLANK
THREAD CUTTING IN A LATHE
CHAMBERING THE DIE
POLISHING THE DIE
CHAPTER 10 MAKING BULLET MOLDS
ROUGH DRILL
BULLET CHERRY OR CUTTER
DUTCHMAN REAMER
MAKING THE MOLD BLOCKS
BULLET SIZES
CHAPTER 11 THREAD CUTTING

TEST BAR
THREAD-CUTTING TOOLS AND THREAD FORMS
CLEARANCE
CENTER GAGE FOR CHECKING CUTTING TOOLS
TO CHECK THE GEAR TRAIN
THREAD DIAL INDICATOR
SETTING THE COMPOUND FOR RIGHT AND LEFT-HAND THREADS
SETTING THREADING TOOL
CUTTING AN EXTERNAL THREADS
RESETTING THE TOOL
CUTTING THE THREADS
SIZE OF WORKPIECE BEFORE THREADING
SETUP FOR CUTTING AN EXTERNAL (V) THREAD ON THE LATHE.
THREAD CUTTING TERMINOLOGY
MAJOR DIAMETER
DEPTH OF THREAD
MINOR DIAMETER
NUMBER OF THREADS PER INCH
PITCH
PITCH DIAMETER
LEAD
SINGLE SCREW THREADS
ANGLE OF THREAD
FORMS OF SCREW THREADS
AMERICAN STANDARD THREAD FORM
THREAD FITS
LOOSE FIT
MEDIUM FIT
CLOSE FIT
TAPS AND THREADING
CHAPTER 12 THE TOOL GRINDER

BEARING HOUSING
PULLYS
CHAPTER 13 HEAT TREAT FURNACE

FIRE BRICK
FRONT LOADING FURNACE
STARTING THE FURNACE
APPENDIX
SUPPLIERS – Removed as out of date.
INDEX – Removed as page numbers do not apply.

CHAPTER 1 EQUIPMENT AND TOOLS
In the introduction I listed a few machines that are needed, to make what you need. What is needed will allow you to machine and make
parts.
LATHE
Your lathe should have at least a 2 foot bed. The hole through the head stock should be at least 1½ inch, as you will need to center the steel in
the head stock if it sticks all the way through.
Lathes used in manufacturing can be classified as engine, and toolroom. On an engine lathe, the mechanisms for holding and rotating the
workpiece include the headstock and the tailstock. The bed and ways are horizontal, and the headstock is mounted at one end of the bed.
When standing in front of an engine lathe, the headstock is always located at the operator’s left. The headstock houses and supports the
spindle and the means for rotating the spindle.
Engine Lathes are the type most frequently used in manufacturing. They are heavy-duty machine tools with all the components described
previously and have power drive for all tool movements except on the compound rest. In most cases the bed is mounted on two pedestal legs.
They range in size from 12 to 24 inches swing and from 24 to 48 inches center distance. Most have chip pans and a built-in coolant
circulating system.
The axis of rotation of the spindle is accurately parallel to the ways of the bed. The spindle rotates the workpiece and often completely
supports it. The spindle must be supported in excellent bearings, which will keep all radial and axial movements to a minimum. It is
necessary to be able to change the rpm of the spindle to obtain different needed cutting speeds. With modem engine lathes, this is usually
accomplished by shifting gears with the aid of levers that extend to the outside by the head stock. The spindle is hollow so that a bar being
machined at one end may extend through the spindle. The inner end of the spindle, or the end that is closest to the tailstock, is provided with
means for fastening certain work holding devices to it.
Tool Room Lathes have greater accuracy and, usually, a wider range of speeds and feeds than ordinary engine lathes. They are designed to
have greater versatility to meet the requirements of tool and die work and they often have a continuously variable spindle speed range. They
have shorter beds than ordinary engine lathes of comparable swing, since they are generally used for machining small parts. They may be
either bench or pedestal type.
Supporting work in lathes. Three methods commonly are used for supporting workpieces in lathes:
1. Held between centers.

2. Mounted on a face plate.
3. Held in a chuck.
In the above methods the workpiece is rotated during machining. The tailstock is movable on the ways, and it can be clamped to the bed at
various locations. The tailstock contains a sliding cylindrical member, known as a quill. This quill is sometimes called the tailstock spindle,
even though it cannot rotate.
Movement of the tailstock quill is accurately parallel to the rotational axis of the spindle in the headstock. This movement is limited to a few
inches, depending upon the size of the engine lathe. The movement of the tailstock quill is controlled by a sufficiently large screw, which is
turned by a handwheel at the outer end of the tailstock. Once set, the quill may be clamped to remain
in a desired position. At its inner end, a tailstock quill has a tapered hole for supporting a center, which in turn may be used to locate and
support a workpiece.
The axis of this tapered hole must be accurately parallel to the rotational axis of the spindle, and for the majority of engine lathes work these
two axes must be accurately in line. It is possible to adjust the upper portion of the tailstock so that the axis of the tailstock quill can be
moved horizontally out of line. It always remains parallel to the rotational axis of the spindle.
This adjustment is useful for turning tapers by the method in which the tailstock center is purposely offset. Since drills, reamers, and other
cutting tools are commonly located and supported in the tapered hole of the tailstock quill, a tailstock serves in a dual capacity. Movement of
these cutting tools is controlled by the handwheel that moves the quill.
ENGINE LATHE SIZE
Several features are used to find the size of an engine lathe. When considering purchase of a lathe are (1) the largest workpiece diameter that
can be rotated without striking the ways and (2) the overall length of the bed. For some applications, the largest workpiece diameter that can
be rotated without striking the top of the cross slide may be the most important consideration. The diameter of the hole through the hollow
spindle will be the limiting feature for diameters of bars that can be passed through it. The electric motor, which furnishes power for the
lathe, limits the rate of metal removal.
Operations commonly performed on a lathe include turning, facing, boring, use of form tools, parting, grooving, knurling, drilling, taper
turning, taper boring, and thread chasing. When Milling machines are not available, an engine lathe with certain accessories such as a Milling
Vise, or Tool Post Grinder may also perform some milling and grinding operations.
There will need to be a collar on each end of the head stock so the blank can be centered. The collars will need to be tapped for 4-1/4 inch set
screws, which will be used to center the blank.
The lathe should be able to turn at least 2000 rpm. It should have tapered bearings in the head stock spindle.
You will have to get extra gears for your lathe so you can slow down the feed to give you the minimum of ·001·5 inch of feed per revolution.
OIL PAN
There should be some type of oil pan under the ways to catch the returning cutting oil, so it can be strained before it is returned to the oil
reservoir, if you plan to use a coolant. This tray should extend full length of the lathe.
TOOL POST GRINDER
In my opinion the Tool Post Grinder is the most important piece of equipment or accessory that you will need for your lathe. With the Heat
Treat Furnace, Milling Machine, lathe, and Tool Post Grinder you make all the tools that you need in the shop. If you are going to make your
tools, such as reamers, and other special tools or cutters, a tool post grinder is necessary. With a tool post grinder you can cut your expenses
down to a very small percent of what it would be if you had to buy them or have them special made.
MILLING MACHINE
You will need a milling machine with an indexing attachment for making rifling buttons, and reamers. A vertical mill would be the best
choice, as you
can do much gun work with it. You will also need a coolant pump. This can be from an air conditioner pump, the evaporative type.
The coolant that you should is a water soluble type that can be found at any machine supply house or oil bulk plants.
A good small mill can be bought from Wholesale Tools. See listing at back of manual under suppliers.
DRILL PRESS
Most shops have these. You will need a drill press for most of your fixture making. There will be quite a few fixtures to be made to drill the
special parts.
SHAPER
A shaper is not a necessary item to have but it will save quite a bit of time in making the necessary fixtures that will be needed.
Most of the work can be done on a shaper can be done on a milling machine. However some special shapes can best done with a shaper. It is
easy to shape a lathe bit to what you want rather than to try to reshape a milling cutter.
SAWS
A good band or cut off saw is necessary when you are working with barrel steel. It gets old very quick cutting off a 1¼ bar steel with a hack
saw. It will come in handy also in the fixtures that you will be making.
Wholesale Tool has a good one that works as a cut off saw or a vertical band saw:
HEAT TREAT FURNACE
This is absolutely necessary to have if you want to make your tools. There are many small furnaces available on the market that would work
for what we want. It should go up to at least 2000 degrees, if you are planning working with high speed steel. In this book I give complete
instructions for making gas furnaces for as little as one hundred dollars and a little time and effort.
I have found that an oil hardening tool steel (01) works just about as good. You will need to have good control to hold precise temperatures
of the oven.
This can be used to draw the temper of the reamers and cutters also. The furnace can be made fairly easy, and a blower from a vacuum
cleaner can provide the air. More on this later.
MEASURING AND LAYOUT TOOLS
The following listing includes all the tools and instruments of this category that are essential to good gunsmithing and tool making. Some of
these precision items are a bit on the expensive side when one has to go out and buy them all at once.
Considering the years of good service they will render, if properly taken care of, one can scarcely consider them as being really costly.
MICROMETER
You will need a micrometer from 0 to one inch, and one to two inches. They should be of a type so you can read down to ten thousandths of
an inch.
MICROMETER (DEPTH)
Most of these come equipped with three interchangeable rods giving a range of measurement from 0-3 inch by thousandths of an inch.
MICROMETER (INSIDE AND OUTSIDE)
These should have a capacity of at least 6″ and equipped to give a reading in thousandths.
ANGLE AND RADIUS GAUGE
Another of the gauges that you will need will be angle and radius gauges. These are not used to often, but they do come in handy when you
need them. You will need a thread gauge, as in every barrel you pull you will have to know how many threads per inch there is.
LEVELS
You will need a very accurate machinist level, one that will have the adjustable degree base, so correct angles can be achieved.
TOOL STEEL
You will need a good supply of tool steel, (oil Hardening) for your reamers. You can experiment with different makes till you find what will
fit your needs.
In over 30 years I have found 01 hard to beat. More on this later.
Reamers can if you want to made from worn out hand reamers. All that is necessary is to regrind them to the size needed. All sizes and
dimensions will be given in later chapters, along with all other information and sketches.
CHAPTER 2 HEAT TREATING TOOL STEEL

There is a lot of different tool steels available to the machinist today. I will list some of the more common types that you can use. A good
source of tool steel if you live in a fanning community is old farming equipment. Much of the steel used in plows, springs, and other types of
farming equipment is made of some type of tool steel.
When you use the plow items, they will be too hard to machine. To use these, you will need to cut them to the size that will fit in your
furnace and anneal them. To do this all that is necessary is to bring them up to about 1500° and either let them cool in the oven, or bury them
in lime. When cool they can be processed much as any other steel.
Much of items you make will not need to be heat treated, as they can be used as they are. If you need to heat treat other parts other than tools,
treat them the same as a carbon steel. Drawing the parts back to a working hardness is important as they are glass hard after quenching.
CHANGES IN TOOL STEEL
WEAR RESISTANCE AND TOUGHNESS OF TOOL STEELS
Wear Resistant & Toughness Chart
Now for the heat-treatment of the tools and cutters that you will be making. To prevent the spoilage of tools during heat-treatment, you must
understand the changes that take place in the steel when it is heated, quenched and tempered.
This chapter deals with the heating cycles for typical tool steels, the quenching or cooling procedure, and the effects of single tempering
operations on the structure and properties of the steel.
LIFE OF TOOLS
The life of tools if proportional to their hardness can be developed in a plain carbon steel by heat-treatment if the steel contains over about
0·50% carbon, provided the section is not very large.
When tools are made in large sections, a plain carbon steel cannot be hardened adequately, and it is necessary to add allowing elements in
order to increase harden-ability.
The elements usually used for this purpose are chromium, manganese, and molybdenum.
Steel becomes hard during heat treatment because of the formation of a microstructure called martensite. For some tool applications, the
wear resistance provided by the martensite structure alone is not sufficient, and therefore, tungsten and vanadium as well as chromium and
molybdenum, are introduced into tool steel. This is important to take into consideration when purchasing steel.
These elements combine with some of the carbon in the steel to form very hard particles of carbides. This gives the heat treated steel much
better abrasion resistance than can be developed without the presence of alloy carbides.
When the tool operates at high speed or under high pressure or is in contact with hot metal, as in forging, etc., special tool steels must be used
that are resistant to the high temperatures encountered.
Vanadium, cobalt, and chromium combined with tungsten or molybdenum give the steel the necessary resistance to softening at high
temperatures.
Finally, in some applications, the life of the tool is more dependent on toughness than on hardness. If you are using farm equipment, most of
the steel will fall into this group.
TYPICAL TOOL STEELS
The compositions of tool steels that we use for tool making are as follows.
GENERAL PROPERTIES AND HEAT TREATING DATA FOR CARBON TOOL STEELS
Type AISI Carbon Mn Si Cr V
110 W1 0·60-1·400 0·25 0·25
120 W2 0·60-1·40 0·25 0·25 0·25
121 W3 1·00 0·25 0·25 0·50
122 0·90 0·40 0·55 0·10
CARBON-CHROMIUM TOOL STEELS
130 1·00 0·25 0·25 0·10
131 W4 1·00 0·25 0·25 0·25
132 W5 1·00 0·25 0·25 0·50
133 W4 0·90 0·70 0·25 0·25
140 W7 1·00 0·25 0·25 0·35 0·20
Heat Treating Data For Carbon Steels
PLAIN CARBON TOOL STEELS

Carbon 1·14, Manganese 0·22, Silicon 0·16 per cent.
OIL HARDENING TOOL STEEL

Carbon 0·85, Manganese 1·18, Silicon 0·26, Chromium 0·50, Tungsten 0·44 per cent.
HIGH CARBON HIGH CHROMIUM TOOL STEEL

Carbon 1·55, Manganese 0·27, Silicon 0·45, Chromium 11·34, Vanadium 0·24, Molybdenum 0·53 per cent.
GENERAL PROPERTIES OF W SERIES

TYPE AOSI WEAR TOUGHNESS USUAL WORKING HARDNESS SURFACE HARDNESS AS-QUENC CORE HARDNESS
RESISTANCE Rockwell C Rockwell C Rockwell C
110 W1 2-4 3-7 58-65 65-67 38-43
120 W2 2-4 3-7 58-65 65-67 38-43
121 W3 4 3-7 58-65 65-67 38-43
122 3 3-7 58-65 65-67 38-43
130 3-4 3-7 58-65 65-67 38-43
131 W4 3-4 3-7 58-65 65-67 38-43
132 W5 3-4 3-7 58-65 65-67 38-43
133 W4 3 3-7 58-65 65-67 38-43
140 W7 3 3-7 58-65 65-67 38-43
HEAT TREATING DATA FOR CARBON TOOL STEELS

TYPE AISI AVAILABILITY QUENCH HARDENING APPROX ANNEALED ANNEALING TEMPERING FORGING
ING TEMPERATURE, F° HARDNESS HARDNESS, TEMPERATURE F° RANGE, F° TEMPERATURE,
MEDIUM AS ROLLED OR Bhn F°
FORGED BHN
110 W1 4 W 1400 TO 1550 275 159 TO 202 1360 TO 1450 300 TO 650 1800 TO 1950
120 W2 4 W 1400 TO 1550 275 159 TO 202 1360 TO 1450 300 TO 650 1800 TO 1950
121 W3 1 W 1400 TO 1550 275 163 TO 202 1360 TO 1450 300 TO 650 1800 TO 1950
122 1 W 1400 TO 1550 275 163 TO 202 1360 TO 1450 300 TO 650 1800 TO 1950
130 1 W 1400 TO 1555 275 159 TO 202 1360 TO 1450 300 TO 650 1800 TO 1950
131 W4 1 W 1400 TO 1500 275 159 TO 202 1360 TO 1450 300 TO 650 1800 TO 1950
132 W5 2 W 1400 TO 1550 275 163 TO 202 1360 TO 1450 300 TO 65c 1800 TO 1950
133 W4 1 W 1400 TO 1550 275 159 TO 202 1360 TO 1450 300 TO 650 1800 TO 1950
140 W7 1 W 1400 TO 1550 275 163 TO 202 1360 TO 1450 300 TO 650 1800 TO 1950
Carbon Steel Data
Steels referred to as Oil Hardening, and differs from the first type primarily in harden ability. This is the basic type of tool steel that I have
used for over 30 years. Because of its greater harden-ability, large tools made of this steel can be hardened by an oil quench rather than a
water quench.
Tools made of the oil hardening tool steels do undergo as much size change and distortion during hardening as those made from plain carbon
steels.
CARBON STEELS
Plain carbon steels are among the least expensive of tool steels, and their properties provide a convenient base line against which all other
tool steels may be compared, Since the wear resistance of plain carbon tool steel is lower than that of alloy steels of equivalent carbon
content, the useful life of a plain carbon tool will normally be shorter than that of a tool made from a higher-alloy steel. One notable
exception is found in cold header dies where, owing to their combination of hard case and tough core, plain carbon tool steels are
unsurpassed in performance. Other applications for plain carbon tool steels include shear blades, blanking dies, reamers, threading dies, taps,
twist drills, lathe tools and wiredrawing dies.
A portion of the iron-iron carbide phase diagram is a useful guide to understanding of the heat treatment and properties of plain carbon tool
steels. Although the alloying elements, other than carbon, have a significant effect on the position of the phase boundaries, the iron-iron
carbide diagram is sufficiently precise to warrant its use in making qualitative conclusions.
HOW HEATING CHANGES THE STRUCTURE
The first step in the heat treatment of steel is the heating. The purpose of the heating is to form austenite and to dissolve carbon in the
austenite. The solution of the carbon is necessary so in the second step of heat treatment, when the transformation of austenite takes place,
the steel will develop the needed hardness.
You must remember that even though a large amount of carbon is in the steel, it is not effective in developing hardness unless it is first
dissolved in the austenite. The hardness increases rapidly up to 60 Rc as the carbon increases to 0·40 to 0·70%. Above about 0·70% carbon,
the hardness remains practically constant.
LOW ALLOY TOOL STEELS

TYPE AISI C MN SI CR V MO
210 LI 1·10 0·30 0·25 1·25
211 L2, L3 0·65 TO 1·10 0·10 TO 0·90 0·25 0·70 TO 1·70 0·20
212 L7 1·00 0·35 0·25 1·40 0·40
213 1·00 1·60 1·60 2·75
Low Alloy Tool Steels
For maximum hardness in the steel, therefore, approximately 0·70% of carbon must be dissolved in the austenite. All of the steels being
discussed except the chromium molybdenum hot work steel have sufficient carbon in the analysis to attain a hardness of 65 Rc.
GRAIN SIZE AND TOUGHNESS
Two other factors are involved in the heating of tool steels, besides the formation of austenite and the solution of carbides.
These are grain coarsening and melting of the steel. In tool steels, the grain size should be as small as possible, because a fine grained
hardened steel is inherently tougher than a coarse grained steel.
LOW ALLOYS PROPERTIES

TYPE AISI WEAR TOUGHNESS USUAL SURFACE CORE HARDNESS
RESISTANCE WORKING HARDNESS 1 INCH,
HARDNESS AS ROCKWELL C
ROCKWELL QUENCHED,
C ROCKWELL
C
210 LI 3 4 56 TO 63 58 TO 67 54 TO 60
211 L2, L3 2 TO 3 4 TO 6 45 TO 63 58 TO 67 54 TO 60
212 L7 3 TO 4 4 56 TO 64 58 TO 67 54 TO 60
213 4 4 56 TO 64 58 TO 67 58 TO 64
Low Alloys Properties
Usually there is little concern about coarse grain in a tool steel because coarsening of the steel does not occur until the temperature is well
above the usual austenitizing temperatures.
WATER HARDENING
AISI-SAE W2-1·00 Carbon-Vanadium. This an all purpose water hardening Carbon-Vanadium Tool Steel with remarkable hardening
characteristics that permit a wide variation in treatment with uniformly good results. Used for punches, blanking and forming dies, shear
blades, bending dies, etc.
LOW ALLOY HEAT TREAT DATA

AVAILABILITY MACHIN QUENCHING HARDENING SUSCEPTIBILITY TO APPROX ANNEALED ANNEALING TEMPERING FORGING
ABILITY MEDIUM TEMPERATURE, DECARBURIZATION HARDNESS HARDNESS TEMPERATURE RANGE, TEMPERATURE
F° AS ROLLED Bhn F° F° F°
OR FORGED
Bhn
1 8 W, O 1450 TO 1550 M 350 179 TO 207 1425 TO 1475 350 TO 600 1800 TO 2000
2 8 W, O 1400 TO 1500 M 350 163 TO 202 1400 TO 1500 350 TO 1800 TO 2000
1000
1 8 O 1500 TO 1600 M 400 183 TO 212 1450 TO 1500 300 TO 600 1800 TO 2000
1 8 O 1500 TO 1600 M 450 192 T0 228 1475 TO 1575 300 TO 600 1800 TO 2000
Low Alloy Heat Treat Data
Effects of tempering on a 2 inch disc 5/8 inch thick, water quenched at 1450 degrees.
TEMPERING TEMPERATURE
Rockwell C
As Quenched 100° 200° 300° 400° 500° 600°
67 67 67 65 62 59 55
Hardening - AISI SAE 01
This is one of the main tool steels that I used. This is an oil hardening tool steel that combines high hardness and deep hardness with
minimum distortion, freedom from cracking and good machine-ability. Used for cams tolls, thread rolling dies, thread chasers, blanking dies
and punches, bushings, etc.
WORKING TEMPERATURE
Forging, 1800 to 1925 degrees F., never below 1550 degrees F.
OIL-HARDENING COLD WORK TOOL STEELS

TYPE AISI C MN SI CR V W MO
410 01 0·95 1·20 0·25 0·50 0·20 0·50
411 02 0·95 1·60 0·25 0·20 0·15 030
412 1·00 1·10 0·60 1·00
413 07 1·20 0·25 0·25 0·60 0·20 1·60 025
414 1·05 0·70 0·25 1·60 0·50
Oil Hardening Tool Steel
Hardening, 1400 to 1475 degrees F. Annealing, 1375 to 1425 degrees F.
Tempering Temperature
As Quenched 300° 400° 500° 600° 700°

63 62·5 60 57 53·5 51·5
HEAT-TREATMENT OF TOOL STEEL
Hardening
The rate of heating for hardening should be slower for alloy steels than for plain carbon steels. The higher the alloy content, the slower the
heating rate should be. Much difficulty with warping or size change can be reduced or eliminated by slow uniform heating.
HEAT-TREATING PROPERTIES FOR OIL HARDENING
TYPE AISI WEAR TOUGHNESS USUAL SURFACE CORE
RESISTANCE WORKING HARDNESS HARDNESS
HARDNESS, AS 1-INCH
ROCKWEL QUENCHED ROCKWEL
C ROCKWEL C
C
410 01 4 3 57 TO 62 61 TO 64 59 TO 61
411 02 4 3 57 TO 62 61 TO 64 59 TO 61
412 3 3 57 TO 62 61 TO 64 59 TO 61
413 07 5 3 58 TO 64 61 TO 64 59 TO 61
414 4 3 58 TO 62 62 TO 64 62 TO 64
Oil Hardening Heat Treat Data
If you have a gas furnace start the heat low, and bring up the temperature in steps. This takes about 30 minutes. Always put the tools in the
oven before it is started. This preheating is not always necessary for the water-hardening or oil hardening groups, but I have found that this
almost always eliminates warping. I have found also that this preheating will reduce the time in a hardening furnace without atmosphere
control and reduce scaling and decarburization.
Commercial compounds can be bought for temperatures up to 1550 degrees, to eliminate decarbonizing of the surface. Brass brazing flux can
be used also, and it works up to 2200 degrees.
OIL HARDENING TOOL STEELS

AVAILABILITY MACHLNABILITY QUENCHING HARDENING SUSCEPTIBILITY APPROX ANNEALED ANNEALING TEMPERING FORGING
MEDIUM TEMPERATURE TO DECAR- HARDNESS HARDNESS, TEMPPERATURE, RANGE, F° TEMPERATURE,
F° BURIZTION AS ROLLED BHN F° F°
OR
FORGED,
BHN
4 8 O 1450 TO 1500 M 325 183 TO 212 1400 TO 1450 300 TO 500 1800 TO 1950
3 8 O 1400 TO 1475 M 325 183 TO 212 1375 TO 1425 300 TO 500 1800 TO 1925
2 8 O 1450 TO 1600 M 350 183 TO 212 1425 TO 1475 300 TO 500 1800 TO 1950
2 7 W. O 1450 TO 1625 M 325 192 TO 217 1450 TO 1500 300 TO 500 1800 TO 2000
1 6 O 1500 TO 1550 M 325 179 TO 207 1500 TO 1550 300 TO 500 1800 TO 1900
Oil Hardening Tool Steel
The steel must be held at a temperature long enough to ensure uniform temperature throughout the entire piece. Longer time at temperatures
is required for the high alloy steels. When heating 01 steel it is best to hold a slightly rich flame on the gas furnace to keep from getting a soft
skin on the surface after quenching.
When the steel has reached the proper temperature, let it soak at this temperature for a few minutes. You will need a long nose tong tool to be
able to reach into the oven to remove the tool. When ready to remove the part, open the oven and grasp the end of the tool with the tongs.
Now carefully and quickly remove the part from the oven and plunge it straight into the quenching medium that is correct for the steel you
are using.
Go straight in when you quench, as if you quench the tool on the angle it will more than likely warp and make the tool worthless. Hold the
tool in the quenching medium for 10 to 20 seconds without moving, then move it up and down to finish cooling it.
QUENCHING MEDIA
I have used quite a variety of liquids to quench the tools in over the years, and when you are ready to heat-treat the tool make sure that you
use the right quenching medium.
WATER
Water as it comes from the faucet, but have not got to good results, as there seems to be too much air in the water. If you use water, keep the
temperature at 60 to 80 degrees.
BRINE
This will produce a more uniform quench if not over 10% salt by weight is added to the water. I have found that it will produce a much
cleaner and more uniform surface on the tools. As with tap water, temperatures should be held at 60 to 80 degrees. After quenching, dip in oil
to eliminate rusting.
OIL
I normally use a 5 weight oil for all my quenching, but any mineral oil 5 weight or less will work fine. The temperature of the oil should be
held 100 to 130 degrees F.
LYE
Carbon Steels may be quenched in a 5% lye solution with very good results. I have found that it will eliminate soft spots in the steel. It will
give a bright finish, plus it will not rust the tools if they are not dipped in oil.
TEMPERING
Now comes the most important part of heat treating process and that is of tempering of the metal. Harden steel can be tempered or made
softer and less brittle by reheating it to a pre-determined temperature. Depending upon the nature of the steel and its intended use, and then
the cooling.
When the tempering is done by the color method, the temper is gauged by the colors formed on the surface of the polished metal as the heat
increases. The color method of gauging temperatures is not dependable, as the color is affected, to some extent, by the composition of the
metal. Tempilaq is a compound that you can buy, (Brownells caries all the temperature ranges) in any temperature range, to put on the metal.
When it melts you have the metal at the proper temperature. It is better to have a temperature gauge to get the correct temperature. After you
have worked with a certain type of steel for a while, you will be able to judge the correct temperature by the color. It is best to polish the
metal to a bright finish so the color can be seen clearly.
430 degrees, Very pale yellow, extra file hard, dies, milling cutters, cut off tools.
440 degrees, Light Yellow, file hard, reamers, thread chasers, fly cutters, hollow mills.
450 degrees, Pale straw yellow, profile cutters for milling machines, rolling dies, knurling tools.
460 degrees, Straw yellow, knife hard, swages.
470 degrees, Deep straw yellow.
480 degrees, Dark yellow, cutting dies.
490 degrees, Yellow brown, extra hard, taps, dies.
500 degrees, Brown yellow, thread dies for general work.
510 degrees, Spotted red brown.
520 degrees, Brown purple, hard.
530 degrees, Light purple.
550 degrees, Dark purple.
560 degrees, Full purple.
570 degrees, Dark blue, half hard.
620 degrees, Blue gray, spring temper.
752 degrees, Red heat, visible in the dark.

885 degrees, Red heat, visible in the twilight.
975 degrees, Red heat, visible in the daylight.
1077 degrees, Red heat, visible in the sunlight
1292 degrees, Dark red.
1472 degrees, Dull cherry red.
1652 degrees, Cherry red.
1832 degrees, Bright cherry red.
2015 degrees, Orange red.
2192 degrees, Orange Yellow.
2372 degrees, Yellow white. .
2552 degrees, White welding heat.
2732 degrees, Brilliant white.
2912 degrees, Dazzling white, bluish white.
In tempering I let the oven cool down to the temperature that I need to draw the temper for the job that I need. I then put the part in the oven,
then let it cool down over night.
FORGING
Plain carbon steels are among the easiest tool steels to forge. When heated to recommended forging temperatures (1800° to 1950° F), the
structure is free of excess carbides that may decrease forgeability. No special precautions are required, although prolonged soaking at forging
temperature should be avoided to minimize surface scaling and decarburization. The best forging temperature for a given steel depends on
the carbon content; the lower the carbon content, the higher the forging temperature. For example, a 0·70% Carbon steel may be forged at
1925° F, while 1825° F is best for a 1·20% Carbon type. The recommended finishing temperature depends on carbon content in a similar
manner, decreasing from 1500° F at the 0·70% Carbon level to 1450° F at the 1·20% level. After forging, pieces may be air cooled.
Although not absolutely necessary, forgings may be normalized from a temperature slightly above the recommended temperature before
annealing to obtain a more uniform structure. Normalizing produces a ―soft‖ structure predominantly pearlitic but with some tendency for
cementite at prior austenitic grain boundaries if the carbon is over about 1·10%.
ANNEALING
Sometimes you may need to anneal the tool to do some machining or changing. The annealing of steel consists in heating it slightly above
the critical temperature range and cooling it slowly in the oven. The steel is then totally annealed. The steel is held at this temperature usually
not less than one hour for each inch of the thickest section of the part being annealed.
Annealing is necessary after forging and normalizing, or after cold working, to ensure grain refinement and to place the structure of the steel
in the proper state for machining and heat treating. The advantages of this treatment may be summarized as follows:
1. Softens the steel for ease in machining

2. Changes the structure, thereby altering the machining characteristics
3. Relieves stresses induced by mechanical working
4. Produces a structure that will respond uniformly to hardening.
To minimize scaling and decarburization, the material to be annealed should be packed in an inert substance such as dry sand and heated to
the annealing ~ range. Packing ensures a slow cooling rate from the annealing temperature, but packing materials such as charcoal or cast
iron chips should be avoided since they may cause slight decarburization. Time at temperature during the anneal should be controlled
according to section thickness of the steel; up to a 1 inch section size, 15 minutes at temperature is adequate, while an 8 inch section would
require about 2½ hour.
Cooling from the annealing temperature should be slow (maximum rate of 50° F per hour) down to 1000° F, at which point more rapid
cooling is permissible. By annealing after machining this will also remove any stress or hard spots caused by machining. The temperature
required for annealing varies for different steels. Low carbon steel may be annealed at about 1650 degrees F. The temperature should be
maintained long enough to heat the entire piece evenly throughout.
Care should be taken not to heat the steel much above the decalescence or hardening point. When steel is heated above this temperature, the
grain assumes a definite size for that particular temperature, the coarseness increasing with an increase of temperature.
Moreover, if the steel that has been heated above the critical point is cooled slowly, the coarseness of the grain corresponds to the coarseness
at the maximum temperature. Therefore the grain of annealed steel is coarser, the higher the temperature to which it is heated above the
critical point.
CHAPTER 3 MICROMETER CALIPER
The first thing that you should know is how to read measuring tools such as micrometers and calipers. These are the handiest to use and will
give you accurate measurements of your work
STANDARD 1 INCH MICROMETERS
There are many types, and I prefer the one with the dial indicators on it. You will need two sizes of calipers should be provided. One set
should be about 4 inch, and the other set 8 inch. They should be of the spring-opening type with screw adjustment. The quick-opening spring
nut is a good time saver, as it is possible to open the nut and make a rough adjustment of the calipers without having to run the nut slowly
along the thread.
PARTS OF THE MICROMETER
MICROMETER DEPTH GAGE
A micrometer depth gage is used to measure the depth of such work as holes, slots, recesses, and keyways. The tool consists of a hardened,
ground and lapped base combined with a micrometer head. Measuring rods with individual length adjustment are inserted through a hole in
the micrometer screw and brought to a positive seat by a knurled nut. The screw has a 1″ movement.
0·125 - 0·0150-
0·140 THOUSANDS TOTAL
HOW TO READ A MICROMETER
For accurate work you will need a good micrometer. These are rather expensive, but a 1 inch size and a 2 inch size will be used often and are
well worth the price. To go with these you should have a set of inside micrometers. These come with adjusting rods to measure from 2 inches
up.
For accurately measuring holes smaller than 2 inches across, a telescoping gauge should be used. This has a handle with a telescoping head
operated by a spring. Several lengths of pins fit the sliding part of the head, and there is a locking nut at the end of the handle.
For measuring the depth of holes, a depth gauge is necessary. For very accurate work, a micrometer depth gauge should be used. The usual
run of work in a home workshop will not require the use of a micrometer depth gauge, so one with a sliding head is good enough.
The smallest measurement in common fractions that can be made with the fixed caliper and steel rule is 1/64″ To measure in thousandths and
ten- thousandths, you will need a micrometer.
READING A MICROMETER GRADUATED IN TEN THOUSANDTHS OF AN INCH
READING THE MICROMETERS
To use these you must understand that the pitch of the screw thread on the spindle of a micrometer is 1/40″ Or 40 threads per inch. So one
complete revolution of the thimble advances the spindle face toward or away from the anvil face 1/40″ or ·025″.
On the longitudinal line on the sleeve it is divided into 40 equal parts by vertical lines that correspond to the number of threads cut on the
spindle. On the spindle each vertical line designates 1/40″ or ·025″ and every fourth line designates ·100″. You will see that the line marked
―1‖ will represents ·100″, the line marked ―2‖ will represents ·200″ and so on.
The beveled edge of the thimble is divided into 25 equal parts with each line representing ·001″ and every line numbered consecutively. By
rotating the thimble to the next higher line moves the spindle 1/25 of ·025″ or ·001″. Twenty-five divisions shows a complete revolution,
·025″ or 1/40″.
What would be the answer if the reading if the edge of the thimble is between the ·125″ and the ·150″ lines, and the line on the thimble is the
coinciding line? The answer is: Micrometer reading = sleeve + thimble or ·125 + ·015 = ·140 of an inch.
It is very important to keep your micrometers clean as dirt between the anvil and spindle will cause the micrometer to read incorrectly. If you
want to test to see if the micrometer is accurate, clean and bring the anvil and spindle together carefully. If the zero line on the thimble and
the axial (longitudinal) line on the sleeve fail to coincide, wear has taken place either in the screw or contact surfaces.
SPRING CALIPERS
Micrometers are made in a wide range of sizes and in matched sets. The ratchet on the micrometer is used to rotate the spindle when taking a
measurement and insures consistent, accurate gauging by limiting the spindle pressure on the workpiece.
There is a locknut that makes it possible to lock the micrometer spindle at any desired setting. A slight turn of the knurled locknut ring
contracts a split bushing around the spindle and makes the micrometer a fixed gage.
If you want very accurate measurements are required, a micrometer that has an extra scale added to the sleeve is used, enabling the
micrometer to be read in ten-thousandths of an inch. This scale consists of a series of lines on the
sleeve parallel to its axis.
Ten divisions on the sleeve mark the same spaces as nine divisions on the beveled edge of the thimble. The difference between the width of
one of the ten spaces on the sleeve and one of the nine spaces on the thimble is one tenth of a division on the thimble. Since the thimble is
graduated to read in thousandths, 1/10 of a division would be ·0001 or one ten-thousandth.
CHAPTER 4 CUTTING TOOLS AND TOOLHOLDERS

Because cutting-tool materials are expensive, it is desirable to use as small amounts as possible. It is necessary that the cutting tool should be
supported in a strong, rigid manner to minimize deflection and possible vibration. Lathe tools are supported in various types of heavy, forged
toolholders. The tool bit should be clamped in the tool post with minimum overhang. If there is much overhang, tool chatter and poor surface
finish may result. Most lathe work is done with high-speed steel, carbide, or ceramic tools.
CUTTING TOOL HOLDER
Where large tool bits are required, the heavy type of forged toolholder is used. It provides adequate method of clamping and supporting the
tool than is provided by an ordinary tool post. The tools used in such cases have a heavy shank of Tool Steel or hot-rolled bar stock in which
a carbide tip is brazed.
Most all of the lathe operations are done with simple, single point cutting tools. On right-hand and left-hand turning and facing tools, the
cutting takes place on the side of the tool so that the side rake angle is important so deep cuts can be made. On the round-nose turning tools,
cutoff tools, finishing tools, and some threading tools, cutting takes place on or near the end of the tool, so that the back rake is of
importance, and are fed with light depths of cut.
Where there are more than 1 operation on a lathe are performed repeatedly in sequence, the time required for changing and setting tools may
make up as much as 50 per cent of the total time. Quick- change toolholders are being used to reduce the time of tool changing.
The individual tools, preset in their holders, can be interchanged in the special tool post in a few seconds. With some systems a second tool
may be set in the tool post while a cut is being made with the first tool, and then be brought into proper position by rotating the post.
In most lathe work, the nose of the tool should be set exactly at the same height as the axis of rotation of the work. Any setting below the axis
causes the work to tend to climb up on the tool, and in most operations you will need to set your tool a few thousandths of an inch above the
axis, except for cutoff, threading, and some facing operations.
SETTING A SINGLEPOINT CUTTING TOOL.
Single point cutting tools for the lathe are ground sharpened for the on center settings. Tilting the cutting tool to some angle other than the
angle for which it was ground will affect the cutting action. A Single point cutting tool should be set in the position for which it is ground.
For a heavy cut, the cutting edge of a cutting tool should be arranged so that it will deflect under heavy forces away from the workpiece
surface instead of into the work piece surface.
The cutting force may become great enough to deflect the cutting tool about the vertical axis of the tool post.
For light cuts, the cutting edge may be set ahead of the tool post in the direction of feeding.
SHARPENING THE BIT
You will need some type of bench grinder to sharpen the tool bits when they get dull. In most cases the bit can be sharpened without a gauge,
after you get some experience. When sharpening the bits, be sure that you have enough clearance so the tool doesn't rub on the work.
This can be checked with the tool in the holder and the point on the center of the workpiece, or it can be set on the center that is in the tail
stock.
The type of fixture for holding and controlling the movement of the cutting tool include the tailstock, carriage, cross slide, and compound
rest. The carriage, like the tailstock, is movable on the ways of the bed. The motion is parallel to the rotational axis of the spindle, and this
motion is commonly used for producing cylindrical surfaces.
A compound rest is used for producing some tapered surfaces, for helping in the cutting of threads by thread chasing, and for several other
types of applications. Mounted above the compound rest, the tool post serves to clamp the cutting tool, or tool holder, in a desired position.
At the base of the tool post the rocker plate has a concave spherical surface facing upward.
Usually the cutting tool consists of a toolholder, which carries a tool bit. Different toolholders are available to hold tool bits at various
desired horizontal angles. A rocker for mounting the tool holder that has a mating convex spherical surface fits above the rocker plate, and
the cutting tool is clamped above this rocker. The rocker plate and rocker thus permit the cutting edge of the cutting tool to be raised or
lowered. When the cutting tool has been properly positioned, a set screw is tightened to clamp the cutting tool rigidly.
USE OF FORM TOOLS
In lathe work, form tools are used for form turning, producing short tapers, thread chasing, and other applications. If a form tool is to
reproduce the special contour of its cutting edge on the workpiece surface, it is important that the cutting edge should be adjusted so that it is
at the same height as the rotational axis of the workpiece. This is known as adjusting the cutting edge on center. If a form . tool is set above
or below center, a contour differing from that of the cutting edge will be produced on the surface of the workpiece. For the feed, a form tool
is moved into the workpiece with the cross slide.
PARTING OR CUTTING OFF
Parting is the operation of severing a workpiece from a bar. It is done with a narrow cutting tool, which cuts only at its end. A parting tool
should be adjusted so that its cutting edge is on center if it is to cut to the center of a bar. It should also be set so that no rubbing or cutting
will occur along its sides.
GROOVING
A groove can be produced with a parting tool or with a form tool.
KNURLING
Making a raised diamond-shaped pattern on the cylindrical surface of a workpiece is known as ―knurling‖. Surfaces are often knurled so that
they may be more easily gripped with the fingers or by hand. A knurling tool has two serrated hardened-steel rollers with the serrations
slanted at 4-5 degrees from the horizontal.
The serrations of the roller are slanted at 90 degrees from those of the other roller. Both rollers are mounted on a floating head, which permit
the rollers to exert equal pressure as they are pressed against a rotating workpiece. Knurling is a mechanical-working process, in which the
metal on the surface of the workpiece is deformed rather than removed. Since greater forces are used in knurling, the workpiece should be
well supported.
The workpiece, although held in a chuck, is given extra support by the center of the tailstock. When knurling, the knurling tool is forced to a
workable depth into the workpiece surface with the cross slide, and then it is fed for the length of the desired knurl with the carriage.
This is repeated until final depth and a finished knurl is obtained. Since workpieces with various diameters may be knurled, the
circumference will seldom be equal to a whole number of the diamond shaped patterns Thus after the first complete revolution, some fraction
of a diamond ordinarily remains. With continued knurling, this fraction of a diamond distributes itself evenly over the complete
circumference, so that it cannot be detected.
Drilling On A Lathe
DRILLING ON THE LATHE
DRILLING WITH A LATHE
A drill is held in the tapered hole of the tailstock quill, which should locate it concentric with the rotational axis of the spindle. The
workpiece to be drilled must be positioned so the desired hole is concentric with the rotational axis of the spindle. Reamers, counterbores,
and other cutting tools also may be held by the tailstock quill. They may be used after drilling.
PRODUCING TAPERS
The method to be used for producing a taper depends upon the length of the taper, included angle of the taper, number of workpieces to be
produced, and the available tooling and attachments. A taper may be produced with the use of the compound rest. Since the liner movement
of a compound rest slide is limited, this method is suitable only for tapers no longer than this movement.
CHAPTER 5 TURNING STEEL

Turning stock usually makes up the majority of lathe work. The work usually is held between centers or in a chuck, and a right-hand turning
tool is used, so that the cutting forces, resulting from feeding the tool from right to left, tend to force the workpiece against the headstock and
thus provide better work support.
TEST BAR
Before you start the turning operation, set the tail stock back to 000 using an 18 inch bar that is turned to exactly the same diameter on each
end. To make this bar, get a 1 inch bar 18 inches long, center it and set it up between centers.
Make a light pass and check both ends to see if they measure the same. If not, adjust the tailstock and make another pass. Repeat the above
operations until the bar measures the same on both ends.
SETTING THE TAIL STOCK
This bar, you save as you will be using it again each time you true up the tailstock. Once you have the bar completed, all that is necessary is
to put the bar between centers. Clamp a dial indicator to the carriage on the lathe.
With the plunger of the indicator on the bar, start from the headstock end (without the lathe being turned on) and move the carriage to the tail
stock end. If there is any difference in size, adjust the tail stock and repeat until the dial indicator reads the same on each end.
MAKING A KEYWAY CUTTER
We will start out by making a ¾ inch keyway cutter. By doing so, this project though a simple one will go through all the operations that is
normally done in a machine shop.
First, you will need a piece of tool steel, preferably 01, which can be purchased from about any machine shop supply house. If you do not
have one in your area, in the Appendix in the back of the book will give you the location of these. Wholesale Tool will have most all of the
tools and supplies that you will need.
Once you have the 1 inch tool steel, cut off a piece 2 inches long. You will next need to cut centers in both ends for turning. Before a
workpiece can be mounted between lathe centers, a 60° center hole must be drilled in each end. This can be done in a drill press, or in a lathe
by holding the work in a chuck.
A combination center drill and countersink is used, taking care that the center hole is deep enough so that it will not be machined away in any
facing operation, and yet is not drilled to the full depth of the tapered portion of the center drill. To cut the center in the lathe, chuck up the
stock in a three jaw chuck, or if you are using a four jaw chuck center the stock using a Dial Indicator.
Set up a cutting tool in the lathe and face off each end of the tool steel stock. This is necessary so that when you center drill the stock the
center drill will not cut off center. Once you have the stock trued, place a drill chuck in the tail stock of the lathe (the taper on the chuck will
match the taper of the tail stock center.)
Centers have shanks with self-holding tapers, and they fit accurately into the tapered holes in the spindle and tailstock quill. When inserting a
center, both the tapered shank and hole must be clean, because small chips or dirt particles will cause misalignment. The centers of a lathe
must be accurately concentric with the rotational axis of the spindle, if accurate cylindrical surfaces are to be turned. Otherwise, a slight taper
will be turned.
Use a small center drill to cut these centers. Put the center drill in the chuck in the tailstock and clamp it tight. Turn the lathe on with the
speed set on the lowest speed (not in back gear) and move the tailstock so that the center is within 1/2 inch of the stock. Clamp the tailstock,
and drill a center just deep enough so there is just about a 3/32 inch bevel on the edge of the center hole.
When you have the center cut on one end, turn off the lathe and turn the stock around and repeat the process on the other end. When both
centers are cut, you can start to turn the tool steel to its correct shape.
A Face Plate can now be installed in place of the three or four jaw chuck and centers set in place. The work and the center at the headstock
end rotate together, so no lubricant is needed in the center hole at this end. However, because the center in the tailstock quill is dead with
respect to the rotating workpiece, adequate lubrication must be provided. This usually is accomplished by putting a mixture of white lead and
oil, or with another type of lubricant in the center hole before the dead center is tightened in the hole. If you do not provide proper lubrication
at all times, you will result in scoring of the workpiece center hole and the center, and inaccuracy and serious damage may occur to the
centers.
TURNING WORKPIECE WITH CENTERS

TURNING WORKPIECE
A connection must be provided between the spindle and the workpiece to cause it to rotate. This is accomplished by a lathe dog and a face
plate. For this project you will need a 1 inch, and a 1/2 inch lathe dog. The dog is a forging that fits over the end of the workpiece and is
clamped to it by means of a setscrew. The tail of the dog enters a slot in the dog plate, which is rigidly attached to the lathe spindle in the
same manner as a lathe chuck. If the dog is attached to work that has a finished surface, a piece of soft metal, such as copper or aluminum,
can be placed between the work and the setscrew to avoid marring.
Proper tightness must be maintained between the centers and the workpiece. The workpiece must rotate freely, yet no looseness should exist.
Looseness usually will be first noticed by chattering of the material during cutting.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF CUTTING TOOLS
CUTTING TOOLS USED IN MACHINING
Tightness of the centers should be checked after cutting has been done for a short time. The resulting heating and thermal expansion of the
workpiece will increase the tightness.
Live Centers are sometimes used in place of the dead center in the tailstock quill. The end that fits into the workpiece is mounted on ball or
roller bearings so that it is free to rotate; thus no lubrication of the center hole is required. In most cases they may not be as accurate as the
solid type, so they often are not used for precision work.
Clamp the 1 inch lathe dog to the stock. It is best to leave the dog loose around the stock for now. Put the stock between centers, and adjust
the centers to where they are just snug. Now clamp the lath dog as far back on the stock as you can. These reason for this is that you need to
turn the shank end down to ·0500 inch and 2 inches long. If you can't turn the stock to 2 inches long, turn to 1½ inches in length. The other
1/2 inch can be turned later.
If good finish and accurate size are needed, one or more roughing cuts usually are followed by one or more finish cuts. Roughing cuts may
be as heavy as proper chip thickness, tool life, and lathe capacity permit. Large depths of cut and smaller feeds are preferred to the reverse
procedure, because fewer cuts are required and less time is lost in reversing the carriage and resetting the tool for the following cut.
CUTTING SPEEDS
Cast Steel 50 fpm
Bronze 70 fpm
Cast Iron 70 fpm
Malleable Iron 100 fpm
Mild Steel 100 fpm
Soft Brass 200 fpm
Aluminum 300 fpm
CUTTING SPEEDS
TURNING THE STOCK
Mark on the stock from the end (tailstock end) a mark with a file at 2 inches. Set the cutting tool for turning and just touch the point on the
stock. Move the carriage back far enough to clear the work piece and move the compound feed in ·020 of an inch. In most cases this will
remove ·040 from the stock on each pass.
Having the lathe running at the slowest speed in direct belt drive, engage the feed lever and start removing the stock. When the cutting tool
reaches the mark you put on the stock, disengage the feed. Now, run the carriage back to where it just clears the work, set it in another ·020
and repeat the process.
FACING THE END OF BAR

Facing Stock
In turning operations, diameters usually are measured with micrometers, although spring calipers may be used to check roughing cuts or
where close accuracy is not required. The method of making length measurements is made by spring, hermaphrodite, vernier, or micrometer
calipers or micrometer depth gages can be used.
The shank will be finished to ·500 or 1/2 inch, however when you get the stock down to within ·030 you need to take a ·010 pas at a slower
feed to clean up the work, If you have a Tool Post Grinder and plan to finish the work by grinding, stop about ·010 to ·015 oversize. If you do
not have a grinder, you can take a fine cut at the slowest feed and finish the work to ·003 to ·005 oversize and use as is.
Remove the turned part around, remove the 1 inch dog and put the 1/2 inch dog on the turned end. Set the work piece back between the
centers, adjust the dog and tighten it. Touch the point to the stock and move it slightly past the work, and set it in ·020. Engage the feed and
take the stock down to ·780, then take the finer feed to finish it to ·015 over finish size. If you are going to use without grinding, take the
stock down to about ·005, or ·755.
Next we have to finish the width to ·187 for the cutter. You need make a groove or recess on the shank next to the large end. This can be
done with a cut off tool, or a square end cutting tool. Run the recess or groove to a depth of ·025 per side. Use a right hand tool holder and
face off the inside of the large end to get a thickness of ·190. An undercut is also made on both sides for clearance.
Finishing cuts are light, usually being less than ·005 inch in depth, with the feed as fine as necessary to give the needed finish. Sometimes a
special finishing tool is used, but often the same tool is used for both roughing and finishing cuts. In most cases one finishing cut is all that is
required.
Where exceptional accuracy is required, two finishing cuts are usually used. If the diameter is controlled manually, make a short finishing cut
about 1/2 inch long and check the diameter before completing the cut. Because the previous micrometer measurements were made on a
rougher surface, some readjustment of the tool setting may be necessary in order to have the final measurement, made on a smoother surface,
check exactly.
Turning is a lathe operation in which an external cylindrical surface is produced by cutting action of the tools. The cutting tool is first
adjusted for the desired depth of cut, using the cross slide. Then, as the workpiece rotates, the cutting tool is advanced slowly in a direction
parallel to the rotational axis of the spindle and this motion is known as the feed.
By adjusting the feed so that the helical path if the tool tip overlaps sufficiently, the cutting tool removes the excess material and generates a
cylindrical surface on the workpiece, A spindle rpm that gives a desired cutting speed at the circumference of the cylindrical surface should
he selected. This may be calculated using the following:
Spindle rpm = 12 X cutting speed, ft/min / pie x workpiece diameter (in.)
Feed is measured in thousandths of an inch advance of the cutting tool per revolution of the workpiece.
FACING.
Facing is the removing of metal on a flat surface as the result of the tool being fed across the end of the rotating workpiece. The work may be
held in a chuck, a face plate, or between centers. Both ends of the work that is to be faced, must be turned end for end after the first end is
completed and the facing operation repeated.
Because most facing operations are performed on surfaces that are away from the headstock, a right-hand tool is used most frequently. The
spindle speed should be determined from the largest diameter of the surface to be faced. Facing may be done either from the outside inward
or from the center outward. The point of the tool must be set exactly at the height of the center of rotation. Because the cutting force tends to
push the tool away from the work, it usually is desirable to clamp the carriage to the lathe bed during each facing cut to prevent it from
moving and thus producing a surface that is not flat.
CHAPTER 6 MILLING MACHINES

GENERAL TYPES
Hand milling machines may be of the column and knee type or constructed with a table mounted on a fixed bed. This type of machine is
intended for small work only. The hand feed operates by means of levers or a hand screw for work such as slotting and cutting grooves and
keyways.
The machine is provided with a horizontal spindle with speeds of 75 to 4,000 rpm (4- ranges). The worktable has longitudinal and vertical
feeds also a crossfeed. A machine of this type can be used for production work if provided with stops and specially designed fixtures where
parts can be rapidly loaded and unloaded.
Milling machines are designed to hold and rotate a milling cutter, hold a workpiece, and feed the workpiece to the milling cutter in one of
several directions. The workpiece may be held directly, or indirectly, on the table of the milling machine.
The table and the workpiece may be moved or adjusted about the rotating milling cutter, in three directions, that is vertical, horizontal,
parallel to the rotational axis of the spindle, and horizontal, perpendicular to the rotational axis of the spindle. Along any one of these three
directions feeding may be accomplished.
VERTICAL MILLING MACHINE
Movements along the other two directions then are used for locating the cut, that includes obtaining the depth of cut. Adjusting the
movements along these three directions can be controlled to within 0·001 inch.
Milling machines are available in several different types, and can be used for making a large variety of machining cuts. Milling machines
with a horizontal spindle for rotating the milling cutter are called horizontal milling machines. Milling machines with a vertical spindle are
called vertical milling machines that we will be using here.
VERTICAL MILLING MACHINES
A vertical milling machine has the same table movements as a horizontal machine. It is called a vertical milling machine because the spindle
is located vertically and at right angles to the top of the table. The head may be swiveled for angular or bevel milling operations.
Vertical milling machines use end-milling cutters of various types and sizes depending upon the kinds of operations to be performed. These
operations consist of milling horizontal surfaces, angular surfaces, milling grooves, keyways, T-slots, and dovetails.
Vertical milling machines can also be used for drilling and boring operations where it is necessary to space a number of holes accurately. In
this type of operation, dial gages, vernier scales, precision measuring pins, and rods can be used advantageously for producing precision
holes.
The table, saddle, and knee portion of a vertical milling machine is the same as that of a horizontal milling machine. A vertical milling
machine is not suitable for using arbor-mounting milling cutters, that must be mounted on an arbor. There is no provision for supporting the
outer end of an arbor. Compared with a horizontal milling machine, a vertical milling machine can use shank- mounted milling cutters easier.
Milling Machine R. P. M. Necessary to Give a Desired Cutting Speed
Cutting Speeds in Feet per Minute

Diameter (Inches) 40 50 60 70 80 90
Revolutions per Minute
¼ 611 764 917 1,070 1,222 1,375
5/16 489 611 733 856 978 1,100
⅜ 407 509 611 713 815 917
7/16 349 437 524 611 698 786
½ 306 382 458 535 611 688
⅝ 244 306 367 428 489 550
¾ 204 255 306 357 407 458
⅞ 175 218 262 306 349 393
1 153 191 229 267 306 344
1⅛ 136 170 204 238 272 306
1¼ 122 153 183 214 244 275
1⅜ 111 139 167 194 222 250
1½ 102 127 153 178 204 229
1⅝ 94 117 141 165 188 212
1¾ 87 109 131 153 175 196
1⅞ 81 102 122 143 163 183
2 76 95 115 134 153 172
2¼ 68 85 102 119 136 153
2½ 61 76 92 107 122 137
2¾ 56 69 83 97 111 125
3 51 64 76 89 102 115
3½ 44 55 65 76 87 98
4 38 48 57 67 76 86
4½ 34 42 51 59 68 77
5 31 38 46 54 61 69
5½ 28 35 42 49 56 63
6 25 32 28 45 51 57
7 22 27 33 38 44 49
8 19 24 29 33 38 43
9 17 21 25 30 34 38
10 15 19 23 27 31 34
11 14 17 21 24 28 31
12 13 16 19 22 25 29
13 12 15 18 21 24 27
16 10 12 14 17 19 22
17 8 11 13 15 17 19
48
VERTICAL MILL AND END MILL
Milling Machine Head
Using a shank-mounted milling cutter on a vertical milling machine, the operator can more easily set up the workpiece and observe the
machining. On some vertical milling machines the head, that contains the spindle, may be swiveled about a horizontal axis. The milling
cutter may then be set at any angle in a vertical plane parallel to the direction of table movement.
All milling machines have an electric motor, housed in the column, to provide power, through suitable gearing and a clutch, for rotating the
spindle. The gearing provides a means for obtaining different speeds (rpm * s) for the spindle for different cutter diameters and machining
conditions. Power from the electric motor, through the gear train, can be used for moving the table, saddle, or knee. This gearing may be
quickly changed to get a variety of desired movement velocities. When used during machining, this is called power feeds. A more rapid
movement of the table, saddle, or knee, a rapid traverse is available. This is used when setting up a milling machine. Accurate positioning of
the table, saddle, and knee during setup is set by hand, using the hand cranks and micrometer dials.
CUTTER TEETH
Cutters with comparatively few widely spaced teeth have distinct advantages over fine-toothed cutters.,
A coarse-toothed cutter with few widely spaced teeth can remove a maximum amount of metal, without distressing the cutter or overloading
the machine. These cutters have a free cutting action, largely because a smaller amount of cutting is required to remove a given amount of
metal.
Up And Down Milling
SPEEDS
Material Brn. Range H.S.S. Cutter Cast Alloy Cutter Carbide Cutter
S.F.M. Range S.F.M. Range S.F.M. Range
Aluminum 100—150 1000—550 2000—1100 4000—2200
Brass 100—175 650—250 1300—500 2600—1000
Low-Carbon Steel 100—200 325—100 650—200 1300—400
Free-Cutting Steel 150—200 250—150 500—300 1000—600
Alloy Steel 150—250 175—70 350—140 700—280
Alloy Steel 250—350 70—40 140—80 280—160
Cast Iron 125—175 100—40 200—120 400—240
Cast Iron 175—200 60—45 120—90 240—180
Cast Iron 200—225 45—40 90—80 180—160
Cast Iron 225—250 40—35 80—70 160—140
Cutting Speeds For Mills
Other advantages are:
The rake and increased spiral of the teeth gives a shearing action. Wide spacing decreases the tendency of the cutter to slide over the surface.
Less friction is created, resulting in cooler teeth and consequently decreasing the necessity of regrinding operations. There is decreased
power consumption. Increased production is possible.
Positive radial rake angles of 10° to 15° are used on high-speed steel cutters. These angles serve in machining most materials and give good
cutting ability to the cutter without sacrificing strength of the cutter. In milling softer materials, a greater rake angle can be provided to
improve cutting ability.
Negative rake angles are provided on carbide-tipped cutters for high-speed milling operations. Since the angles are both radial and axial, tool
life can be increased by increasing the lip angle. For softer steels, a negative rake angle of 5° to 10° is provided on plain milling cutters with
teeth on the periphery. This angle is increased when medium-carbon and alloy steels are being machined.
Clearance angles are kept on the small side to avoid weakening the cutting edge of the tooth. With a minimum amount of material in back of
the tooth, the strength of the tooth is diminished. Clearance angles of 3″ to 5″ are used on cutters over 3″ in diameter. This is increased on
smaller diameter cutters to prevent the teeth from a rubbing instead of a cutting action.
The type of material being machined affects clearance angles. If cast iron is being machined, 4° to 7° might be used; non-ferrous materials
require clearance angles of 10° to 12°. The land on a cutter can be from 1/32″ to 1/16″ in width, with a secondary clearance back of the land.
ARBOR-MOUNTING MILLING CUTTERS
A milling machine arbor has a shank with a locating taper for locating it so that it will rotate concentrically with the spindle. The arbor shank
is driven by a key on the spindle nose. It is held to the spindle nose by a draw bar that extends through the hollow spindle. After screwing the
drawbar into the end of the arbor shank for at least four full threads. The nut is then tightened to hold the arbor firmly in the taper of the
spindle nose.
An arbor-mounting milling cutter has a central hole that closely fits an arbor diameter. A nut at the outer end of the arbor is turned for
tightening all collars and cutters on the arbor. Running the length of the accurate cylindrical portion upon that the milling cutters are located,
milling machine arbors have a keyway, and thus a key may be used to drive a milling cutter.
Often with lighter cuts and especially with hand feeding, a key is not used. If a milling cutter driven without a key slips when power feed is
being used, the amount of material to be removed by the next cutter tooth may be increased. This may cause either more slippage or possible
breakage.
Plain milling cutters are cylindrical with teeth on the periphery only. The periphery of a milling cutter is the imaginary cylindrical surface
enveloping the outer ends of the peripheral teeth and determining the diameter of the cutter. These cutters are used primarily for milling flat
surfaces. They can be combined with cutters of other types to produce surfaces with various forms. The teeth may be either straight or
helical, depending upon the width of the cutter. Plain milling cutters with helix angles of 45° to 60° and higher are called helical cutters.
ANGULAR MILLING CUTTERS
Angular milling cutters are used for operations such as: cutting V-grooves, notches, dovetails, flutes on milling cutters, and reamer teeth.
Single-angle cutters have one angular surface while double-angle cutters are made with Y-shaped teeth. These cutters, with equal conical
angles on both faces, are made with an included angle of 45°, 60°, or 90°.
Arbor-mounting cutters are cylindrical in form and provided with cutting edges of their outer cylindrical surfaces. There are no cutting edges
on either side of a plain milling cutter. Plain milling cutters are used normally for machining flat surfaces.
Arbor-mounting cutters with small widths, ranging from a few thousandths up to 3/16 inch, are called slitting saws. They are used for cutting
off and narrow slotting operations. Most slitting saws are similar to plain milling cutters as they have cutting edges only on their outer
cylindrical surfaces. These slitting saws are ground slightly concave on their sides to provide side clearance so that their sides will not rub.
Some slitting saws, especially those with greater widths, nearer 3/16 inch, are used as side milling cutters.
FLY CUTTERS
A fly cutter consists of one or more single-point tool bits mounted in a bar of some type that can be attached to the spindle of the milling
machine. Its principle in operation is quite like that of a boring tool. Set screws are used to hold the tool bit in place, This type of tool is used
for special applications.
T-SLOT CUTTERS
T-slot cutters are a special type of end mill having either straight or tapered shanks and designed for cutting T-slots in machine tables and
similar applications.
NOTE: In producing a T-slot, a groove for the narrow portion of the slot is first machined with an end mill or side mill and then finished with
the T-slot cutter.
WOODRUFF KEY SEAT CUTTERS
These cutters are of special design for cutting key seats for Woodruff keys (that have the shape of a half circle). These are available in all
sizes and are of two types, end mill and arbor cutters. The end mill is available in diameters from 1/4″ to 1½″; the arbor type, in diameters
from 2⅛″ to 3½″.
SIDE MILLING CUTTERS
Cylindrical in form, side milling cutters have cutting edges on one or both sides also on their outer-cylindrical surface. Side milling cutters
are quite similar to plain cutters. They also have teeth on one or both sides. In milling operations where two cutters are placed side by side,
they have teeth on only one side. The teeth can be straight, helical, or staggered.
Slots machined with side milling cutters have smoother and more accurate sides than those machined with plain milling cutters. Rake angle
for the cutting edges at the sides of a side milling cutter is called the axial rake angle. It is the angle at the cutting edge between the tooth face
and the machined surface.
METAL-SLITTING SAWS
Metal-slitting saws are designed for cutoff operations and for cutting narrow slots. The sides are slightly tapered toward the hole to prevent
binding. Like other milling cutters, they can be plain or made with side teeth or with staggered teeth.
HOLDING THE WORKPIECE ON THE TABLE
Since more than one cutting edge of a milling cutter is cutting, the total cutting force of the workpiece can be large. A machinist needs
considerable skill and experience to enable him to securely clamp some types of workpieces. A workpiece must be held securely so that it
cannot shift during a cut. A workpiece should also be supported to prevent any springing due to the cutting force, the clamping, or its own
weight. A workpiece is usually clamped to the table using the T slots. Smaller workpieces can be held in a vise bolted to the table. There are
several types of vises that can be used including the plain vise, swivel vise, and the toolmaker’s universal vise.
Most milling vises have two keys on their bases for fitting into a T slot for locating the vise on the milling machine table. Standard vise jaws
are flat. They can be removed and replaced with special vise jaws, designed for locating and holding the workpiece. These special vise jaws
have locating stops, that make possible easy location of the workpieces. The special jaws convert a vise into a milling fixture.
UP MILLING AND DOWN MILLING
DOWN MILLING
If down milling is used, all looseness must be eliminated in the table feed screw, as the motion of the cutter tends to pull the workpiece into
the cutter. The machine must be designed with special features, adapting it to down milling if this type of milling is to be used.
In down milling, the maximum chip thickness is obtained close to where the tooth contacts the workpiece. No built-up pressure is developed
in down milling, and, therefore, no heavy burr (a protruding, ragged metal edge) forms on the surface of the metal.
Down milling that is being done depends upon the side from that the workpiece is fed to the rotating milling cutter. In down milling, the
portion of the tooth contact with the workpiece shows a very good finish. An element of the final milled surface is produced at the end of the
tooth travel when the built-up edge is completely developed. This could mean that the finish of the final surface might be of poorer quality
than produced by up milling.
UP MILLING
In up milling, the cutter rotates against the direction of feed as the workpiece advances toward it from the side where the teeth are moving
upward. The separating forces produced between cutter and workpiece oppose the motion of work.
In up milling, since the cutter teeth come up from the bottom of the cut, the chip is very thin. It the beginning where the tooth first contacts
the workpiece. Gradually, the chip increases in thickness, reaching its maximum thickness where the tooth leaves the workpiece.
In up milling, the material removed by each tooth starts with a minimum thickness and ends with a maximum thickness.
The chip should form at the center, but due to the resistance of the material to penetration, the cutting action is delayed somewhat and cutting
starts slightly ahead of the center. The cutter slides over the workpiece to be machined until sufficient pressure has been built up to force it to
bite into the surface of the workpiece to produce a chip.
The starting of the cutting in up milling is not recommended as the cutting edge of a tooth rubs along the workpiece surface at the start, and
the beginning of the cutting is difficult. The opposite cutting condition, or down milling, is better, since cutting edges remain sharp longer,
and smoother surfaces can usually be obtained.
Up milling is more commonly used because it is safer. With down milling, damage may be caused to the milling cutter, workpiece, and
milling machine. Down milling the resultant force of the cutter upon the workpiece is directed toward and under the cutter.
This pulls the workpiece under the cutter. It is better to have this resultant force directed in the opposite direction as with up milling. If the
workpiece is not securely held, it will be drawn into the cutter so fast that the cutter teeth are unable to make the cut and something will be
damaged. If the workpiece is held properly, damage can still occur.
The entire milling machine table will be pulled ahead if any there is any play, that is known as backlash, exists. The next cutter tooth will
probably have too much material to remove, and the cutter will be chipped or broken. Since down milling is better since it can be done
safely, some milling machines are designed for it. All backlash must be eliminated.
CUTTING SPEED, FEED, AND DEPTH OF CUT
SPEEDS AND FEEDS
Cutting speed as applied to milling can be defined as circumferential speed of the milling cutter expressed in surface feet per minute (sfpm).
It is the distance that the periphery of a milling cutter tooth travels in one minute.
The revolutions (rpm) refers to the number of revolutions that the cutter makes in one minute. A small milling cutter must rotate at a higher
rpm to cut at the given cutting speed of a larger cutter. A small cutter is more efficient because it travels a shorter distance.
To calculate the proper rpm for the spindle, a formula similar to that is used for lathe and drilling operations is used.
RPM of the milling cutter = 12 X cutting speed, ft/min / Pie X diameter of the cutter, in.
Feed is the rate at that a workpiece is moved toward a rotating milling cutter, that removes material from its surface. Feed is limited by the
depth of the material that can be removed by each tooth of the milling cutter per revolution. This depth is called the feed per tooth, and its
units are inches per tooth. For calculating the feed in inches per minute for a milling machine, the following formula is employed:
Feed, in./min = feed per tooth in. tooth) x no. of teeth on milling / Cutter x rpm of milling cutter
Feed for milling machines is given in inches per minute, because various milling cutters with different number of teeth may be employed on
a milling machine. The desired feed in inches per minute is set by quick-change gears, and the power feeds are engaged by control levers at
the front of the machine. Power feeds are usually available for moving the table, saddle, and knee.
Trip dogs are set to disengage power feeds at the correct positions. They are especially useful when more than one similar workpiece is to be
machined. Ordinarily it is best to use the largest feed per tooth that can be employed safely. By doing this it will reduce the time required for
a milling operation and increase the life of a milling cutter between resharpenings.
Milling cutter life is increased, because the number of cutter-tooth contacts with the workpiece surfaces are reduced. A light feed may have
to be used for a fragile workpiece or when it is difficult to hold a workpiece securely. Depth of cut is the normal distance between the
workpiece surfaces before and after milling.
ADJUSTING THE LOCATION OF THE WORKPIECE TO THE CUTTER
A surface of the workpiece should be located by adjustment so that it just contacts the milling cutter when the latter is rotating. I use a thin
piece of paper, of a known thickness. It is held on the workpiece surface, while the workpiece is carefully moved toward the rotating cutter.
Once this contact is made, the workpiece is moved accurately a desired distance from this reference to remove the desired depth of material.
An edge finder can be used to locate the surface with better accuracy.
The depth of material removed can be held to within 0·001 inch. Tolerance of from 0·002 to 0·005 inch is more practicable for milling. To
align a machined surface of a workpiece, vise, or milling fixture with the movement of the table, saddle, or knee, a dial indicator is attached
to the spindle or arbor. This test indicator is positioned to contact the machined surface.
The table, saddle, or knee then is moved, and slight changes of the machined-surface location are made, usually with light hammer blows.
This is done until the reading of the test indicator either does not change or remains within the desired tolerance.
ATTACHMENTS FOR MILLING MACHINES
The principle function of attachments is to increase the variety of work that can be accomplished on milling machines. These attachments
position and hold the workpiece to the table. Two other important milling-machine attachments are the rotary table and the dividing head.
These will be discussed in following paragraphs.
ANGLE PLATE
If your milling machine head doesn’t rotate, the adjustable angle plate can be used. It is bolted to the table of the milling machine, and any
angle can be set on it. A vise can then be bolted to it to hold small work.
ROTARY TABLE
A rotary table is mounted on the table of a milling machine as an auxiliary table to superimpose a rotary motion upon the other movements
for the workpiece. This rotary movement may be used for feeding or for adjustment in locating a cut. This rotary movement is about a
vertical axis, and since the rotary table is mounted on the regular milling machine table.
A worm gear directly fastened to the rotary-table vertical shaft is rotated by a worm on a horizontal shaft. The horizontal worm shaft may be
turned by hand. If power is used suitable shafting may bring the power, when desired, from the milling machine feed-power mechanism. The
workpiece may be accurately rotated by turning the worm shaft by hand with the aid of a micrometer dial, or an index plate.
Fractions of a complete worm-shaft turn are obtained with a micrometer dial or with an index plate on the worm shaft. An index plate is a
disk and has in its surface several holes, arranged in circles. The holes within each circle are equally spaced with accuracy. The circles of
holes are concentric with the worm shaft. A spring-loaded pin in the crank handle is adjustable to fit into holes of a particular circle to be
used.
The index plate with the crank and spring loaded pin provide an accurate means for obtaining desired fractions of a complete worm-shaft
turn. One space between two adjacent holes in a particular circle may represent several degrees or minutes of angular movement of the rotary
table. A vertical milling machine provided with a rotary table may machine a complete or partial cylindrical surface having any desired
radius. Internal cylindrical surfaces with radius that are too small for available end mills may not be cut. Partial cylindrical surfaces may be
joined to flat surfaces by using rotary-table feeds with the regular milling machine feeds.
UNIVERSAL DIVIDING HEAD
Like a rotary table, a universal dividing head may be used for rotating a workpiece through precise angles. A dividing head has a spindle that
supports and rotates the workpiece. A center may be mounted in the tapered hole at the front end of the dividing-head spindle for holding a
workpiece between centers.
Other workpiece holding devices, such as a chuck, also may be mounted on the front end of the dividing-head spindle. The workpiece is
mounted so that it will rotate accurately concentric with the axis of rotation of the dividing- head spindle. The workpiece is rotated by turning
the index crank. Since the gear ratio is 40 to 1, it takes, 40 turns of the crank to rotate the spindle and workpiece through one complete
revolution. In comparison with a rotary table, that rotates only about a vertical axis. A dividing head may rotate a workpiece about an axis at
any angle, and its indexing ability is much greater. The dividing head spindle axis can be positioned at various angles from below the
horizontal to slightly beyond the vertical position.
CHAPTER 7 MAKING CUTTING TOOLS

All the processes that are described in my books involve making special tools. It is important that you become proficient in the art of tool
making.
It is very important and almost a requirement that you also have a Tool Post Grinder if you make tools. In my books I describe how to make
the Tool Post Grinder, special jigs and fixtures as well as Heat Treat Furnaces.
Tool Making is not difficult, it just takes time to learn how to do it. Once you understand the processes involved, all tools, etc. that you need
can be made quickly. No more turning away a job because of not knowing where to find the tooling.
There are many machining operations that are done in the shop, and many are done with reamers or other cutting tools. Most of the time you
will be able to purchase standard ―Jobber‖ reamers and cutters. When you can’t, then you must make what you need. What I describe here is
for making reamers, but all cutting tools are made the same.
TYPES OF REAMERS
Reamers are made with both straight and helical flutes. The latter provided a shearing cut and is especially useful in reaming holes having
key ways or grooves. These are bridged over by the helical flutes, thus preventing binding or chattering. Hand reamers are made in both solid
and expansion forms.
MILLING A CUTTER
SHAPE OF FLUTES
Style and shape of the flute determine its ability to carry away chips and also the relative strength of the tooth. For manufacturing a straight
shank may be used. With fluting reamers, the cutter is so set about to the center of the reamer blank so the tooth gets a slight negative rake.
The amount is so selected that a tangent to the circumference of the reamer at the cutting point makes an angle of about 95 degrees with the
front face of the cutting edge.
When fluting reamers, it is necessary to break up the flutes that are to space the cutting edges uneven around the reamer. The difference in
spacing should be very slight and need not to exceed about ·004 either way.
The manner that you use to break up the flutes, is if the reamers are made on a mill is to set the cutter anywhere from ·002 to ·004 in front of
the center of the reamer blank, and changing it a ·001 or so on each flute.
The relief of the cutting edges should be comparatively slight. They can be ground close on the tool post grinder and stoned flat with an
Arkansas stone. The flat relief is what I have used all along, because the reamer has a keener cutting edge.
CHATTER
This can be the one thing in machining that will cause you the most trouble. Even if the reamer and relief are just about perfect, you can still
get chatter. The first thing you need to do when using a new reamer is to spray the reamer with layout fluid. If the reamer is chattering, you
will when you remove the reamer be able to see if you have enough clearance, etc.
Sometimes a too sharp a reamer will chatter, or it may have too much clearance. If the shank on the reamer is not a close enough a fit, that
can cause chatter. Sometimes reducing or increasing the speed or feed will help. I cut all of my reamers on ―0‖ rake and have very little
trouble. If you are using commercial reamers, there can be too much positive or negative rake, and that can cause chatter.
REAMING SPEEDS
In most of my reaming I find that a good starting point is about two-thirds the drilling speed for a given material. If too high a feed or speed
premature dulling, chatter, and usually a rough a rough finish is the result.
REAMING FEEDS
In reaming, feeds are usually much higher than those employed for drilling, often being 200 to 300% greater. Too low a feed may result in
excessive reamer wear. Always the feed must be high enough so that the tool cuts, rather than rubs. I find that too high a feed will cause the
hole to be oversize, and rough. I also have that a good starting point is somewhere between ·0015 to ·004 feed per flute per revolution.
STOCK ALLOWANCES
Usually only leave enough material to clean up your work.
LUBRICANTS
This is a very an important as the type of lubricant that you use for reaming will determine the quality of the reamed bore. The lubricant is
used to cool the reamer, remove the chips, and to improve the finish of the work. Normally for most steel a sulfurize oil, or a high E.P. value
mineral oil. Contact a business that supplies cutting oil and they will be able to help you. You will have times when you are unable to get a
smooth reamed hole.
CHATTERING
When the flutes are not evenly stoned, or flutes cut back of center line, stoned with too great a clearance. Chips clinging to the flutes - caused
by too high a revolving velocity.
REAMER PLUGGING
Reamer plugging up by not having enough oil pressure and flow, flutes not being stoned out, and allowing saw teeth to form on the cutting
edge. Enlarged holes caused by the reamer being oversized.
ARKANSAS STONE
The cutting edge of the reamer is kept sharp by honing with an Arkansas stone over the cutting edges. The reamer should be touched up
about every two barrels.
REAMER FLUTE SHAPE & DESIGN
Shape of Reamer Flutes

INDEXING FIXTURE
SURFACE SPEED
The surface speed for reaming should be rather slow. Instead of using an open belt and higher speed, the lathe, drill, or milling machine is set
in back gear, and run at the slowest speed.
MAKING THE REAMER OR CUTTING TOOL BALL CUTTER
BALL CUTTER
To any one not experience with the process of making a sphere in metal it may seem a very difficult operation. It only requires a little
knowledge and experience to make a ball cutter to fit any bore of gun. A rotating piece of pre-turned tool steel is passed through a properly-
shaped circular aperture in a flat steel die. It is held with its upper or cutting in the same plane as the axial line of the body rotating.
We have a rifle of a certain bore to which is to be fitted a round ball. First, take a piece of steel about one-quarter of an inch thick, one inch
wide and six or eight inches long. A piece of 01 tool steel will do the job for this cutter.
Drill a hole near one end, but a little less in size than the bullet to be made. With a taper half-round reamer cut out the hole until that side of it
that is to be the upper or cutting edge is exactly the size of the bullet desired.
TOOL FOR MAKING ROUND BALL CUTTER
The advantage of using this taper half-round reamer is the hole is made perfectly round. At the same time the taper of the reamer gives a
bevel to the hole that forms a good strong and effective cutting edge. With a file cut out a portion of the tool of a V shape, beveling the edges
the same as the hole.
The V may be either cut on the end, a side of the tool, but in use it is best to cut on the side. When done, harden and temper for use. For the
cutter, turn a piece of steel in the lathe to fit a chuck. Half-inch round stock is perhaps the best size of steel from which to make cutters of
less than half-inch, and the length about six inches.
The end on which the cutter is to be made is roughly turned into a ball, leaving the end where the center supports it to be removed by the
lathe tool or by filing.
MAKING THE BALL CUTTER
When fitted so that the rough blank will be held firmly in the chuck, run the lathe at moderate speed. Set the T rest so that the steel die can be
held on it about level with the underside of the rotating blank. On the rest lay the die, and press the opening to receive the rough turned
sphere, applying oil and not pressing too hard.
Let it gradually, scrape its way through the circular aperture, the V- shaped opening in the side receiving the stem to which the cutter is
attached. If it be preferred the die may be held in the hands and not supported on the T rest. Take care to supply plenty of oil to the work, as
this will prevent it from scratching or tearing the cherry while being formed. Make two of these holes, one at each end of the piece of steel,
roughing the blank with the first. The second which is a little larger than the one used to finish the cherry of the exact size.
BALL CUTTER READY FOR FLUTING
When this tool gets dull grind on the upper or cutting edge, but not too much, as it will enlarge the hole, and the result will be to make a
larger cherry.
To form these blanks into cutting tools, the flutes will need to be cut mostly by hand. Keep in mind to leave the grooves deep enough to
receive the metal cut from the blank mold when in operation.
The cutters do not have their cutting edges terminate in that portion of the mold, but usually on one side. This is done to insure a perfectly
spherical form by having a cutting side operating at the bottom of the hole while it is being formed. It is difficult to make this form of cutting
edge, and patience and care must be exercised or the blank may be spoiled.
In using a three-square file, to get a fine-cutting edge that will make a sharp V cut, grind away the teeth of one side, or get a good set of die
maker’s files. This will remove the slightly rounded or blunt edge as usually made on this form of file. By grinding two acute cutting angles
can be had from one file. If they get a little dull on the sharp cutting comer, a little grinding will restore the edge and make it sharp again.
The ball cutter can be made to the exact size ready for use after heat treating. To do this, coat the complete tool with a descaling compound
and then heat treat. After quenching, the compound can be scrubbed off, and it is ready for use.
MAKING THE SIZING REAMER
The sizing reamer is no different in grinding than the standard reamer, except there are more angles, etc. First, look at the following drawings
to see how the to turn the tool steel blank to shape. The blank does not have to have the angles turned on as shown in the drawings, this will
be done during the , grinding process.
TAPER TURNING
Two methods are used to turn a taper in a lathe. You can cut the small angle taper, using the offset tail stock, and it is the quickest. Knowing
the length of the taper (usually 1″) of the work between centers, the amount of the tail-stock offset can be computed to give any taper per
foot, or inch within the capacity of the offset. To cut these tapers you will need two one inch dial indicators. One is set up to read the
longitudinal feed for one inch, the other is to read how much taper is cut on the blank on one inch of carriage travel.
On the cartridge dimensions chart the difference between "J‖ minus ‖I‖ will give the length of the taper area. This will have to be reduced to
a one inch length so you can find the correct angle.
Once the correct taper is achieved, the taper can then be cut on the reamer blank. The correct taper can be calculated from the taper chart.
Formula is—
Difference between large and small end = x

Length between the above divided into x
The angle on the shoulders can be found on the same chart. To check to see if the correct angle is right, a large blank can be turned and the
angle can be measured with the dial indicators.
The centers are working out of line for this work and so are making a line contact, which may cause the tail center to heat. Watch it and
correct the pressure and oil as necessary. As the lathe dog driving the work is operating at an angle to the head stock, the work will not turn
uniformly* At one position the dog will be close to the driving plate, and as the driving leg of the dog is parallel to the center line of the
work. The driving leg will be nearer the lathe center than when it is diametrically opposite.
REAMER BLANKS AFTER TURNING READY FOR FLUTING

DIFFERENT TYPES OF REAMERS
SIZING AND SEATING REAMERS

TAPER PER INCH FOR VARIOUS INCLUDED ANGLES
The Tabulated Quantities = Twice the Tangent of Half the Angle
Deg 0' 10' 20' 30' 40' 50'
0 0·00000 0·00290 0·00582 0·00872 0·01164 0·01454
1 0·001746 0·02036 0·02326 0·02618 0·02910 0·03200
2 0·03492 0·03782 0·04072 0·04364 0·04656 0·04946
3 0·05238 0·05528 0·05820 0·06110 0·06402 0·06692
4 0·06984 0·07276 0·07566 0·07858 0·08150 0·08440
5 0·08732 0·09024 0·09316 0·09606 0·09898 0·10190
6 0·10482 0·10774 0·11066 0·11356 0·11648 0·11940
7 0·12232 0·12524 0·12816 0·13108 0·13400 0·13694
8 0·13986 0·14278 0·14570 0·14862 0·15156 0·15448
9 0·15740 0·16034 0·16326 0·16618 0·16912 0·17204
10 0·17498 0·17790 0·18084 0·18378 0·18670 0·18964
11 0·19258 0·19552 0·19846 0·20138 0·20432 0·20726
12 0·21020 0·21314 0·21610 0·21904 0·22198 0·22492
13 0·22788 0·23082 0·23376 0·23672 0·23966 0·24262
14 0·24556 0 ·24852 0·25148 0·25444 0·25738 0·26034
15 0·26330 0·26626 0·26922 0·27218 O·27516 0·27812
16 0·28108 0·28404 0·28702 0·28998 0·29296 0·29502
17 0·29890 0·30188 0·30486 0·30782 0·31080 0·31378
18 0·31676 0·31976 0·32274 0·32572 0·32870 0·33170
19 0·33468 0·33768 0·34066 0·34366 0·34666 0·34966
20 0·35266 0·35566 0·35866 0·36166 0·36466 0·36768
21 0·37068 0·37368 0·37670 0·37972 0·38272 0·38574
22 0·38876 0·39178 0·39480 0·39782 0·40084 0·40388
23 0·40690 0·40994 0·41296 0·41600 0·41904 0·42208
24 0·42512 0·42816 0·43120 0·43424 0·43728 0·44034
25 0·44338 0·44644 0·44950 0·45256 0·45562 0·45868
26 0·46174 0·46480 0·46786 0·47094 0·47400 0·47708
27 0·48016 0·48324 0·48632 0·48940 0·49248 0·49556
28 0·49866 0·50174 0·50484 0·50794 0·51004 0·51414
29 0·51724 0·52034 0·52344 0·52656 0·52966 0·53278
30 0·53590 0·53902 0·54214 0·54526 0·54838 0·55152
31 0·55464 0·55778 0·56092 0·56406 0·56720 0·57034
32 0·57350 0·57664 0·57980 0·58294 0·58610 0·58926
33 0·59242 0·59560 0·59876 0·60194 0·60510 0·60828
34 0·61146 0·61464 0·61782 0·62102 0·62420 0·62740
35 0·63060 0·63380 0·63700 0·64020 0·64342 0·64662
36 0·64984 0·65306 0·65628 0·65950 0·66272 0·66596
37 0·66920 0·67242 0·67566 0·67890 0·68216 0·68540
38 0·68866 0·69192 0·69516 0·69844 0·70170 0·70496
39 0·70824 0·71152 0·71480 0·71808 0·72136 0·72464
40 0·72794 0·73124 0·73454 0·73784 0·74114 0·74446
41 0·74776 0·75108 0·75440 0·75774 0·76106 0·76440
42 0·76772 0·77106 0·77442 0·77776 0·78110 0·78446
43 0·78782 0·79118 0·79454 0·79792 0·80130 0·80468
44 0·80806 0·81144 0·81482 0·81822 0·82162 0·82502
45 0·82842 0·83184 0·83526 0·83866 0·84210 0·84552
TAPER PER INCH FOR VARIOUS INCLUDED ANGLES
Deg 0' 10' 20' 30' 40' 50'
46 0·84894 0·85238 0·85582 0·85926 0·86272 0·86616
47 0·86962 0·87308 0·87656 0·88002 0·88350 0·88698
48 0·89046 0·89394 0·89744 0·90094 0·90444 0·90794
49 0·91146 0·91496 0·91848 0·92202 0·92554 0·92908
50 0·93262 0·93616 0·93970 0·94326 0·94682 0·95038
51 0·95396 0·95752 0·96110 0·96468 0·96828 0·97186
52 0·97546 0·97906 1·98268 0·98630 0·98930 0·99354
53 0·99716 1·00080 1·00444 1·00808 1·01174 1·01538
54 1·01906 1·02272 1·02638 1·03006 1·03376 1·03744
55 1·04114 1·04484 1·04854 1·05226 1·05596 1·05970
56 1·06342 1·06716 1·07090 1·07464 1·07840 1·08214
57 1·08592 1·08968 1·09346 1·09724 1·10102 1·10482
58 1·10862 1·11242 1·11624 1·12006 1·12388 1·12770
59 1·13154 1·13538 1·13924 1·14310 1·14696 1·15082
60 1·15470 1·15858 1·16248 1·16636 1·17026 1·17418
61 1·17810 1·18202 1·18594 1·18988 1·193S3 1·19776
62 1·20172 1·20568 1·20966 1·21362 1·21762 1·22160
63 1·22560 1·22960 1·23362 1·23764 1·24166 1·24570
64 1·24974 1·25378 1·25784 1·26190 1·26598 1·27006
65 1·27414 1·27824 1·28234, 1·28644 1·29056 1·29468
66 1·29882 1·30296 1·30710 1·31126 1·31542 1·31960
67 1·32378 1·32796 1·33216 1·33636 1·34056 1·34478
68 1·34902 1·35326 1·35750 1·36176 1·36602 1·37028
69 1·37456 1·37984 1·38314 1·38744 1·39176 1·39608
70 1·40042 1·40476 1·40910 1·41346 1·41782 1·42220
71 1·42658 1·43098 1 43538 1·43980 1·44422 1·44864
72 1·45308 1·45754 1·46200 1·46646 1·47094 1·47542
73 1·47992 1·48442 1·48894 1·49348 1·49800 1·50256
74 1·50710 1·51168 1·51624 1·52084 1·52544 1·53004
75 1·53466 1·53928 1·54392 1·54856 1·55322 1·55790
76 1·56258 1·56726 1·57196 1·57668 1·58140 1·58612
77 1·59088 1·59562 1·60040 1·60516 1·60996 1·61476
78 1·61956 1·62440 1·62922 1·63406 1·63892 1·64380
79 1·64868 1·65356 1·65846 1·66338 1·66830 1·67324
80 1·67820 1·68316 1·68814 1·69512 1·6981 2 [ 1·70314
81 1·70816 1·71320 1·71824 1·72332 1·72836 1·73348
82 1·73858 1·74368 1·74882 1·75396 1·75910 1·76428
83 1·76946 1·77464 1·77984 1·78506 1·79030 1·79554
84 1·80080 1·80608 1·81138 1·81668 1·82198 1·82732
85 1·83266 1·83802 1·84340 1·84878 1·85418 1·85960
86 1·86504 1·87048 1·87594 1·88142 1·88690 1·89240
87 1·89792 1·90346 1·90902 1·91458 1·92016 1·92576
88 1·93138 1·93700 1·94266 1·94832 1·95400 1·95968
89 1·96540 1·97112 1·97686 1·98262 1·98840 1·99420
The lathe dog will travel farther when in the outer position than when nearer the center, and this will result is an irregular turning of the
work. The lead screw is turning uniformly with the head stock and advances the cutting tool at a uniform rate. The turning of the work is
regular, making the amount of metal removed by the tool more on one side of the work than on the opposite side. The finished cuts must be
very light to prevent the springing of the work and to assure a true circular cut.
For short tapers with medium to large angle, the compound slide can be set to give the required taper. The feed will be by hand, as there is no
power feed on the compound slide. The compound is graduated in degrees, so that the taper per foot must be converted to degrees to be set
directly by the graduations. Tapers longer than the feed of the compound cannot be cut at one setting, although it is possible by careful work
to move the carriage to a new position and cut an extension of the taper. Never move the work until the taper is completed.
INDEXING FIXTURE
The Taper Charts gives the half-angles for changing a given taper in inches per foot to degrees.
Leave all diameters about ·020 larger than shown. The tool steel blank should be cut 6½ to 7 inches long. Use the smallest center drills for
center drilling the blank. When turning the shoulder can be left square, but there should be a recess cut in front of the shoulder, end of neck,
etc. for clearance when grinding.
I will go through all the steps of making reamers, from the start of reamer blanks from a piece of tool steel, to the finish reamer, ready to be
used. To start you will need a vertical milling machine, and an indexing fixture. These two items are the two main pieces of equipment
necessary to make cutting tools.
Indexer
KEYWAY CUTTER
Use the reamer blank that you turned in the previous chapter to make the keyway cutter. When you finish you will have a good cutter when
completed. Once you have made this cutter, you will be able to make all the different types of cutters and tools that you will need in the shop.
Once you have the reamer blank completed, go to the milling machine and set up the indexing head. This should have centers also with some
way to attach a small lathe dog to hold the reamer blank solid. If the indexing head supports a collet, the stock can be held with a collet.
ANGULAR CUTTER
Next chuck up a 60 degree angular cutter in the mill. The diameter of the cutter should be at least 1½ inch. Slow down the mill to about 100
to 150 rpm as the tool steel tends to get hot.
Measure the blank on the flute end, which in this case has been turned so it is ·760. Bring down the cutter on the milling head while it is
running and just touch the drill rod and stop.
Half of that size is ·380, we do not want to cut the flutes half way as the reamer would probably chatter. The first flute should be cut ·002 in
front of center, the next should be cut ·004 ahead of center, and the third should be cut ·006 ahead of center for the total of 12 flutes.
After the third flute is cut, the fourth should start back at ·002, then ·004 and the finish cut is ·006 ahead of center.
STONING THE REAMER EDGE

Stoning Finish Cutter
THE FLUTE THICKNESS
The flute’s wall should have a thickness of about ·060 to ·080. This would of course be thinner on the smaller reamers and thicker on the
larger reamers. You do not want to make flute walls to thin as they tend to break if the reamer gets to dull, and when this happens the barrel
will more than likely be ruined.
DEPTH OF FLUTES
You want to use an ample supply of coolant when cutting the flutes. Depending on the reamer size you will go in about 3/4 of the depth on
the first cut and then finish to the correct depth the second pass. Watch for bowing as you cut the flutes. If it is bowing you are either taking
too big a cut, or the cutter is dull, or you may be cutting to fast.
Whatever the reason you do not want this to happen as it is putting much internal stress in the reamer blank. When heat treating the blank
will probably warp bad. If you fill there is stress in the reamer blank, I would suggest that when you get ready to heat treat the reamer, that
you put the reamer in the furnace when you turn it on.
Bring the temperature up to 1000 degrees, and let it set for 30 to 40 minutes. Remove and bury it in lime until cool, or turn off the furnace
and let it cool over night.
HEAT TREATING THE REAMER
Bring the temperature of the furnace up to the temperature that is recommended by the maker of the tool steel. Coat the reamer blank with
some decarbonizing powder, put the reamer blanks in the furnace and let set for 10 minutes. Remove and quench in the oil tank, or what
other quenching medium the manufacture recommends.
When you quench the blank make sure that you go straight in the quenching tank, if you quench the reamer at an angle, you will warp it. If
you do warp a reamer you must bring the reamer up to 1500 degrees and let it cool in the oven, then straighten it when cool.
When you have the reamer quenched, lay them down on something where they won’t roll off. They are very hard and brittle, and if they fell
on the cement floor, they would probably break.
GRINDING A TOOL
TEMPERING THE REAMERS
Turn off the furnace, close it up and let it cool down to 350 degrees. We will then put the hardened reamers into the furnace to draw the
hardness, and remove internal stress. Leave the blanks in the furnace until the furnace reaches 100 degrees, or better yet leave them in
overnight. The reamers will be about 61 to 62 Rc in hardness.
TEMPERING THE BALL CUTTER
In tempering the cherry do not leave it too hard, and be careful not to temper too hard above the spherical portion. Leave the shank softer, as
it will be less liable to break. It is not necessary to shape the shank to exactly conform to the shape of the V opening in the forming tool. The
edges of this opening have been beveled the same as the opening that shapes the cherry. They will act as cutters, and will produce the shank
to conform to the V. It is well to mark the cutters in some place on the shank, with their size in hundredths of an inch.
GRINDING THE REAMER
The toolpost grinder is what we will use to grind the tool. It has an electric motor of about 1/4 H. P. and a ballbearing spindle on which
grinding wheels can be mounted. Mount the grinder on the compound slide of the tool post. If you make the grinder, or buy one the spindle
and motor should be equipped to take pulleys of various sizes. The speed of the grinding wheel can then be adjusted according to its size.
The spindle should turn in a counterclockwise direction, as you face the end on which the grinding wheel is mounted. This will cause the
sparks to be directed downward, so that the grindings can be caught on a paper on the lathe ways. The motor is mounted so the belt tension
can be adjusted for each set of pulleys used. The motor should run without any vibration, and the bearings of the spindle should be a sealed,
and permanently greased type that will run smoothly for a long time before needing adjustment.
Each time a wheel is mounted on the spindles, it must be trued up while running at full speed. To do this, hold a diamond tool rigidly against
the wheel, taking light cuts with the diamond until the wheel has an even cutting face over all.
The face of the wheel will show when it is true, since the color will be darker where the diamond has not cut away any low spot. I prefer to
hold the diamond in the tail stock chuck or the headstock three-jaw chuck and then feed the wheel across its point. If you use the tailstock
chuck, the tailstock ram must be locked in position, to stop any looseness that will let the diamond vibrate.
If it is loose it will not cut a smooth surface on the wheel. The point of the diamond must be at the exact center of the grinder and should be
turned frequently to equalize the wear. When it is gripped in the chuck, the point will be slanting downward at a 5° angle and sideways at a
30° angle. This will prevent vibration of the diamond and will make the wear on the diamond tend to keep it sharp.
The rate of feed of the diamond across the face of the wheel will govern the wheel’s cutting characteristics. A quick feed will leave a more
open grain structure to the wheel, so that it will cut, more quickly for roughing but not smoothly enough for finishing. For finishing, a very
slow feed with small infeed is used. This will leave all the grains cut to a very smooth surface and it will not be as sharp but will cut very
smoothly. The smooth surface will become glazed very quickly if heavy cuts are taken with it.
The reamer blanks are now ready to be ground to size. We will grind the flutes first. Set up the tool post grinder on the lathe. Get everything
lined up and put the small lathe dog on the reamer blank, on the shank end and grind the flutes end first.
Clean out the centers on the blank, and set between the centers. Cover the bed of the lathe up to keep the grinding dust off the ways. The
sparks and particles removed from the work will be directed down onto the bed of the machine. This material is very abrasive and, if it gets
under the slides of the saddle or cross feed, it will wear them out fast. The slides should be covered to protect them.
Paper towels or old newspapers fitted under the work and weighted down so that they will remain in place will do a fine job of keeping the
area clean. Since the movement of the slides will disturb the paper covering, watch it and adjust it to any movement as you work. Also put a
small dish under the grinding wheel to catch the sparks. Fill this dish with oil or water, and the sparks will collect in it and not bounce
around.
Set the lathe in back gear drive, turn on the lathe so it will run in reverse. Then turn on the tool post grinder, and starting at the tail stock end,
touch the grinder to the blank.
The work should revolve slowly in the opposite direction so that of the grinding wheel, and the feed should be fairly fast, with light cuts. The
grinding will generate much heat, which will make the work expand lengthwise, putting increased pressure on the tail center. The center
must be kept well lubricated and should be adjusted frequently to prevent damage to the work or center, so work slowly and let it cool often.
Move the grinder past the blank, set in about ·005 and engage the feed. It will not clean up completely, but it will start to clean up any part
that is warped. Make one pass and if it is cleaned up enough so you can get a measurement, check the size of both ends. If you are making
bore reamers there should be about ·002 taper from the shank end to the end of the blank. On this cutter there should be no taper.
The tail stock end should be centered on the cutter end. We will allow the ·0005 to hone into size. Turn the lathe on in reverse, and the
grinder and start feeding the wheel by hand on the cutting edge of the reamer. Take light passes not much over ·005 so you will get a good
finish.
SIZING OR SEATING REAMER
When you first start grinding, grind the pilot first. The pilot should be ground about ·001 smaller than the bore diameter. All of these sizes are
shown on sizing or seating die dimensions. After grinding the pilot to size, grind the angle shown for the end of the neck of the cartridge,
going slightly deeper to give a recess.
The angle can be set using the compound on the carriage. From there grind the neck of the case. The neck can be ground slightly shorter than
shown. The reason for this is that when you grind the shoulder, the neck then can be set to the proper length by taking the shoulder back a
little at a time.
The shoulder angle is next, and it IS VERY IMPORTANT TO GET RIGHT as this is where SET THE DEPTH ON on rimless cases. This
can be set from the taper and angle charts. If you fill that you can set it properly from the angle setting set on the compound of the lathe do
so.
Grind now the taper on the body of the case. This is also set from the angle and taper charts. This is important to have this right so cartridges
will fit in other guns of the same caliber.
GRINDING THE SHANK
When you have completed the cutter end of the cutter, take the blank from the lathe. Turn it around, put the dog on the other end and put it
back in the lathe. Before doing this, make sure you bring the tail stock back to center.
Square the grinding wheel up, it is time to grind the shank to the correct size. Do not take over ·003 per side as it will heat the metal too
much. Go slow and easy. The shank on the cutter will be ground the same way, and the size of the shank will be ·500.
GRINDING THE CLEARANCE
Now comes the time to relieve or grind the clearance on the back of the flutes for clearance. If you do not have indexing on your lathe, it
must be ground by hand. If you have indexing on the lathe, the tool post grinder will grind this clearance. To grind the relief by hand you will
need a small hand grinder. Coat the reamer flutes with a lay out fluid. This will darken the metal so you can see how close you are getting to
the cutting edge.
Grind the relief just back of the cutting edge, and up to within ·005 to ·010 of the cutting edge. It won’t take much to give the necessary
relief, as all you need is clearance so the reamer won’t rub.
GRINDING THE CUTTING EDGES
All the edges of the reamer has to be sharpened so the reamer will cut freely. After making one or two reamers, you will understand fully
how to do this.
STONING THE CUTTING EDGE
Once the face has been honed, it will be necessary to hone the flutes. Hone right up to the edge watching the lay out fluid coating. This will
tell when you have gotten it honed tight.
Start from the area where you ground the relief, and slowly go up to the cutting edge. It should feel sharp when completed.
A new reamer or cutter has more tendency to chatter than one that has been . used for some time. Chatter may often be reduced by reducing
the speed, also sometimes increasing the feed will eliminate chatter. If for some reason there should be to little clearance the reamer will not
cut freely, as the lands or margin will rub instead of cut against the walls.
Sizing and seating dies are made the same and the charts will give you all the dimensions for the different cartridges. Bullet mold cutters are
made and ground the same way as the above reamers.
CHAPTER 8 CARTRIDGE DIMENSIONS

It is not difficult to make the reamers that are used for cutting the reamers. You will have to make a few to get proficient at making them.
If you have cartridges that you need loading dies for, but are not listed in the following pages, don’t despair. It is a simple matter to get the
dimensions that you need, then follow the instructions given to make them.
To make dies not listed, you will need a new unfired case to get the dimensions. First, measure the case ·050 in front of the extractor, and the
shoulder to get the different in sizes. The taper charts will give you the correct angle (Doubled). Keep this dimension for later use.
With a caliper, measure the length from the shoulder to the point in front of the shoulder where you took the first measurement. Also, get a
measurement from the front of the shoulder next to the neck.
You can also set this angle with the compound slide and a dial indicator. To do this, put a center in the headstock spindle and tailstock.
Check to see if the tailstock is setting ·000 before measuring this angle.
FINDING THE ANGLE
Set up a case between centers, with the neck of the case in the tailstock center. Set the dial indicator against the case body, give the
compound slide a slight angle. With the crank on the compound slide and with the carriage locked in place, run the dial indicator along the
case body. Reset the angle and repeat the operation until the indicator remains at 0″.
Once this angle is obtained, the body for the reamer can be cut. Do the same thing for the shoulder to get the correct angle.
All dimensions for the sizing die should be about ·005- ·008″ smaller for the sizing die, and about ·010″ larger for the seating die.
In making the reamers, the dimension ―E‖ is not really important, as it is used primarily for chambering. To find the ―J‖ dimension, subtract
―I‖ from ―J‖ for the shoulder length, as this is the proper point for measuring.
LOADING DIES FOR A PRESS
If you are making loading dies for a press, you can cut a stop shoulder ·130 from the back of the case. Using the ·200″, subtract ·130″ from
·200 to get ·070″ for the shoulder. This will guarantee that you do not cut the die too deep.
If you are making a sizing or seating die that you will run the case in fall length, cut a shoulder at the end of ―J‖ for a stop.
As you see it will not be difficult to make these reamers, just a little time. Once you have the reamers, they will make hundreds of dies before
having to be replaced.
DIMENSIONS FOR RIFLE SEATING DIES

A B C D E F G H I J K L M
17 Rem. ·380 ·377 23° ·359 ·3568 ·330 ·201 ·200 ·200 1·346 1·378 1·530 1·808
218 Bee ·418 ·347 15° ·347 ·333 ·287 ·244 ·243 ·200 ·932 1·017 1·097 1·355
22 Hornet ·360 ·296 5° 29' ·279 ·278 ·262 ·245 ·243 ·200 ·844 ·930 1·017 1·408
22-250 Rem. ·476 ·468 28° ·418 ·415 ·347 ·257 ·255 ·200 1·510 1·574 1·659 1·924
220 Swift ·483 ·445 21° ·406 ·403 ·335 ·262 ·261 ·200 1·510 1·574 1·659 1·924
222 Rem. ·380 ·377 23° ·359 ·358 ·330 ·253 ·253 ·200 1·264 1·303 1·387 1·700
222 Rem. Mag. ·379 ·376 23° ·3589 ·358 ·330 ·255 ·254 ·200 1·459 1·502 1·580 1·862
223 Rem. ·380 ·3769 23° ·3594 ·355 ·330 ·255 ·254 ·200 1·433 1·473 1·552 1·772
225 Win. ·483 ·423 25° ·408 ·407 ·350 ·262 ·261 ·200 1·524 1·596 1·680 1·940
6mm Rem. ·478 ·472 26° ·433 ·4317 ·375 ·278 ·277 ·200 1·718 1·786 1·876 2·253
243 Win. ·474 ·471 20° ·456 ·455 ·400 ·278 ·277 ·200 1·554 1·640 1·797 2·055
25-06 Rem. ·474 ·4708 17° 30' ·440 ·442 ·375 ·292 ·291 ·200 1·940 2·058 2·182 2·502
25-35 Win. ·516 ·4168 11° 34' ·370 ·364 ·325 ·289 ·282 ·200 1·3S5 1·482 1·569 2·048
250 Savage ·478 ·469 26° 30' ·420 ·415 ·347 ·289 ·286 ·200 1·510 1·589 1·636 1·922
257 Roberts ·477 ·472 20° 39' ·432 ·431 ·375 ·292 ·291 ·200 1·718 1·803 1·903 2·253
7mn-08 Rem. ·473 ·471 20° ·456 ·455 ·400 ·317 ·316 ·200 1·554 1·640 1·744 2·045
7 mm Express ·474 ·471 17° 15' ·4427 ·442 ·375 ·315 ·315 ·200 1·992 2·110 2·924 2·560
7mm Mauser ·477 ·472 20° 39' ·433 ·431 ·375 ·325 ·3217 ·200 1·720 1·804 2·255 2·312
280 Rem. ·474 ·471 17° 15' ·4427 ·442 ·375 ·317 ·315 ·200 1·992 2·110 2·192 2·560
284 Win. ·504 ·501 35° ·478 ·476 ·420 ·323 ·322 ·200 1·770 1·820 1·879 2·180
30 Carbine ·370 ·357 ·346 ·338 ·200 1·300
30Rem. ·425 ·422 23° ·403 ·4025 ·375 ·333 ·332 ·200 1·496 1·538 1·577 2·055
30-06 ·474 ·470 17° 15' ·440 ·442 ·375 ·339 ·339 ·200 1·939 2·058 2·101 2·502
30-30 Win. ·516 ·421 15° 39' ·404 ·403 ·375 ·333 ·331 ·200 1·454 1·504 1·578 2·083
30-40 Krag ·555 ·459 21° 6' ·423 ·420 ·375 ·338 ·338 ·200 1·728 1·787 1·832 2·322
300 Savage ·475 ·471 30° ·447 ·4473 ·396 ·342 ·340 ·200 1·558 1·611 1·648 1·899
·308 Win. ·474 ·471 20° ·456 ·455 ·400 ·346 ·344 ·200 1·554 1·640 1·703 2·025
303 British ·462 ·457 20° 16' ·416 ·403 ·375 ·345 ·341 ·200 1·812 1·851 1·892 2·222
303 Savage ·515 ·443 16° ·421 ·419 ·375 ·344 ·336 ·200 1·351 1·428 1·482 2·073
32 Rem. ·425 ·422 23° ·403 ·402 ·375 ·347 ·344 ·200 1·496 1·538 1·561 2·055
32 Win. Special ·516 ·421 14° 44' ·405 ·403 ·375 ·346 ·343 ·200 1·449 1·502 1·556 2·083
8mm Mauser ·475 471 19° ·436 ·433 ·392 ·358 ·356 ·200 1·814 1·884 1·923 2·247
348 Win. ·620 ·548 19° 10' ·488 ·486 ·434 ·379 ·376 ·200 1·660 1·735 1·814 2·265
35 Rem. ·463 ·459 23° 25' ·429 ·427 ·405 ·387 ·383 ·200 1·532 1·568 1·578 1·924
351 Win. ·420 ·387 ·383 ·382 ·200 1·404
358 Win. ·474 ·471 20° ·456 ·455 ·420 ·391 ·389 ·200 1·554 1·612 1·642 2·025
375 Win. ·516 ·421 ·401 ·401 2·080
38-55 Win. ·516 ·420 ·395 ·393 2·118
444 Marlin ·524 ·470 ·456 ·454 2·240
DIMENSIONS FOR RIFLE SIZING DIES
17 Rem. ·378 ·3709 23° ·353 ·3508 ·325 ·194 ·194 ·200 1·351 1·381 1·535 1·796
218 Bee ·408 ·3425 15° ·329 ·328 ·283 ·239 ·238 ·200 ·9233 1·007 1·089 1·345
22 Hornet ·350 ·291 5° 38' ·274 ·273 ·258 ·2408 ·238 ·200 ·853 ·930 1·017 1·403
22-250 ·473 ·4628 28° ·413 ·410 ·343 ·252 ·250 ·200 1·515 1·578 1·663 1·912
220 Swift ·473 ·4409 21° ·4015 ·398 ·331 ·257 ·256 ·200 1·722 1·810 1·905 2·205
222 Rem ·378 ·371 23° ·354 ·353 ·325 ·249 ·249 ·200 1·264 1·296 1·387 1·700
222 Rem Mag. ·378 ·371 23° ·354 ·353 ·225 ·249 ·249 ·200 1·463 1·495 1·578 1·850
223 Rem. ·378 ·3719 23' ·354 ·350 ·225 ·249 ·249 ·200 1·438 1·466 1·557 1·760
225 Win. ·473 ·418 25° ·4028 ·402 ·346 ·255 ·255 ·200 1·530 1·590 1·686 1·930
6 mm Rem. ·473 ·467 26° ·4258 ·425 ·371 ·272 ·272 ·200 1·724 1·780 1·882 2·233
243 Win. ·473 ·466 20° ·451 ·450 ·396 ·271 ·271 ·200 1·599 1·634 1·804 2·045
25-35 Win. ·506 ·412 11 34' ·364 ·360 ·320 ·283 ·280 ·200 1·380 1·475 1·565 2·043
250 Savage ·473 ·4628 26° 30' ·4147 ·410 ·343 ·284 ·281 ·200 1·512 1·579 1·637 1·912
257 Roberts ·473 ·467 20° 45' ·427 ·425 ·371 ·285 ·285 ·200 1·727 1·799 1·911 2·233
25-06 Rem. ·473 ·464 17° 30' ·450 ·499 ·396 ·271 ·271 ·200 1·559 1·634 1·804 2·045
270 Win. ·473 ·465 17° 30' ·437 ·436 ·371 ·305 ·303 ·200 1·948 2·052 2·155 2·540
7mm Mauser ·473 ·466 20° 45' ·426 ·425 ·370 ·319 ·315 ·200 1·794 1·901 2·255 2·312
7mm-08 Rem. ·473 ·465 20° ·450 ·449 ·395 ·310 ·310 ·200 1·559 1·634 1·750 2·035
7mm Exp. Rem. ·473 ·465 17° 30' ·437 ·436 ·370 ·310 ·310 ·200 1·999 2·104 2·199 2·540
280 Rem. ·473 ·465 17° 30' ·437 ·436 ·370 ·310 ·310 ·200 1·999 2·104 2·199 2·540
284 Win. ·473 ·495 35° ·472 ·469 ·415 ·315 ·315 ·200 1·775 1·814 1·885 2·170
30 Carbine ·360 ·350 ·3347 ·332 ·332 ·200 ·982 1·290
30 Rem. ·422 ·4157 23° ·3969 ·396 , 370 ·328 ·327 ·200 1·498 1·528 1·578 2·050
30-30 Win ·506 ·414 15° 39' ·397 ·396 ·370 ·328 ·328 ·200 1·440 1·487 1·562 2·039
30-40 Krag ·545 ·452 21° 6' ·417 ·414 ·370 ·3338 ·333 ·200 1·728 1·787 1·832 2·322
300 Sav. ·473 ·4656 30° ·443 ·4416 ·3918 ·335 ·334 ·200 1·558 1·601 1·650 1·871
303 British ·460 ·4504 16° 58' ·4076 ·406 ·370 ·335 ·333 ·200 ·1790 1·832 1·890 2·222
303 Savage ·505 .·434 16° ·411 ·4085 ·370 ·346 ·327 ·200 1·350 1·418 1·477 2·015
308 Win. ·473 ·4653 20° ·4503 ·449 ·395 ·338 ·338 ·200 1·559 1·634 1·711 2·015
32 Rem. ·422 ·4157 23° ·3969 ·396 ·370 ·341 ·338 ·200 1·498 1·528 1·561 2·050
32 Win. Special ·425 ·4149 14° 31' ·398 ·396 ·370 ·340 ·338 ·200 1·446 1·497 1·553 2·040
348 W in. ·610 ·5424 19° 4' ·482 ·480 ·433 ·373 ·370 ·200 1·649 1·723 1·804 2·255
35 Rem. ·460 ·452 23° 25' ·423 ·4209 ·400 ·382 ·379 ·200 1·539 1·563 1·584 1·920
351 Win. ·410 ·3754 ·372 ·372 ·200 1·380
358 Win. ·473 , 465 20° ·4503 ·449 ·415 ·383 ·383 ·200 1·559 1·606 1·650 2·015
375 Win. ·506 ·414 ·395 ·395 ·200 2·020
38-55 Win. ·506 ·414 ·388 ·387 2·129
444 Marlin ·514 ·464 ·449 ·448 2·225
DIMENSIONS FOR BELTED SEATING DIE
6·5 Rem Mag. ·535 ·513 25° ·497 ·496 ·440 ·302 ·300 ·220 1·708 1·768 1·915 2·194
7mm Rem Mag. ·535 ·513 25° ·492 ·491 ·420 ·317 ·316 ·220 2·048 2·125 2·235 2·524
8 mm Rem Mag. ·535 ·513 25s ·487 ·420 ·357 ·356 ·220 2·397 2·496 2·537 2·872
264 Win Mag. ·535 ·513 25° ·493 ·492 ·420 ·301 ·300 ·220 2·048 2·125 2·252 2·524
300 H&H Mag. ·535 ·513 9° ·449 ·375 ·340 ·339 ·220 2·125 2·360 2·468 2·870
300 Win Mag. ·535 ·513 25° ·490 ·420 ·342 ·340 ·220 2·204 2·279 2·362 2·644
338 Win Mag. ·535 ·513 25° ·493 ·492 ·420 ·371 ·370 ·220 2·048 2·125 2·177 2·524
375 H&H Mag. ·535 ·513 15° ·448 ·420 ·405 ·404 ·220 2·416 2·470 2·497 2·870
458 Win Mag. ·535 ·514 ·484 ·220 2·520
DIMENSIONS FOR BELTED SIZING DIE
6·5 Rem Mag ·527 ·507 25° ·491 ·490 ·440 ·295 ·293 ·220 1·380 1·759 1·908 2·170
7mm Rem Mag ·527 ·507 25° ·486 ·485 ·415 ·310 ·310 ·220 2·040 2·116 2·228 2·500
8mm Rem Mag ·527 ·507 25° ·481 ·415 ·350 ·349 ·220 2·380 2·460 2·530 2·850
264 W Mag. ·527 ·507 25° ·487 ·486 ·294 ·260 ·293 ·220 2·040 2·116 2·245 2·500
300 H&H Mag. ·527 ·507 8° 30' ·444 ·375 ·333 ·333 ·220 2·104 2·355 2·478 2·850
300 Win Mag. ·527 ·507 25° ·484 ·415 ·334 ·334 ·220 2·195 2·270 2·356 2·620
338 Win Mag. ·527 ·507 25° , 487 ·486 ·415 ·365 ·364 ·220 2·040 2·116 2·169 2·500
375 H&H Mag. ·527 ·507 15° ·442 ·415 ·397 ·397 ·220 2·412 2·464 2·497 2·850
458 Win Mag. ·527 ·507 ·481 ·220 2·500
DIMENSIONS FOR RIMMED PISTOL SEATING DIES
22 REM JET ·444 ·376 6° 40' 30" ·368, ·366 ·300 ·253 ·252 ·200 ·600 ·883 1·084 1·298
221 Rem Fireball ·380 ·377 23° ·363 ·361 ·330 ·255 ·254 ·200 1·066 1·103 1·192 1·432
256 WIN MAG. ·450 ·380 25° ·370 ·369 ·324 ·287 ·286 ·200 ·988 1·037 1·076 1·292
25-20 Win. ·418 ·347 16° 34' ·336 ·334 ·312 ·281 ·278 ·200 ·858 ·896 ·947 1·365
30 Luger ·397 ·392 18° ·382 ·380 ·355 ·3375 ·332 ·200 ·6225 ·6618 ·6887 ·8599
32-20 Win. ·418 ·352 5° 45' ·342 ·343 ·338 ·331 ·327 ·200 ·881 ·908 ·941 1·315
38-40 Win. ·535 ·468 6° 51' ·458 ·456 ·435 ·419 ·417 ·200 ·912 1·002 1·067 1·317
44-40 Win. ·535 ·469 4° 30’ ·459 ·458 ·452 ·445 ·443 ·200 ·918 ·960 1·002 1·313
DIMENSIONS FOR RIMMED PISTOL SIZING DIES
22 REM. JET ·440 ·370 6° 40' 30" ·363 ·360 ·295 ·246 ·246 ·200 ·600 ·883 1·084 1·298
221 Rem Fireball .·378 ·371 23° ·357 ·355 ·325 ·248 ·248 ·200 1·070 1·106 1·197 1·400
25-20 Win. ·408 ·341 16° 34' ·330 ·328 ·307 ·271 ·268 ·200 ·858 ·893 ·952 1·330
32-20 Win. ·408 ·351 5° 42' ·337 ·336 ·327 ·325 ·321 ·200 ·881 ·933 ·938 1·315
256 Win Mag. ·440 ·374 25° ·364 ·363 ·319 ·280 ·280 ·200 ·983 1·031 1·072 1·281
30 Luger ·394 ·385 18" ·377 ·374 ·351 ·228 ·228 ·200 ·375 ·6225 ·6887 ·8599
38-40 Win. ·525 ·462 6° 48' ·451 ·430 ·413 ·413 ·411 ·200 ·922 1·003 1·074 1·305
44-40 Win. ·525 ·463 4° ·453 ·451 ·441 ·440 ·438 ·200 ·918 ·960 1·002 1·313
DIMENSIONS RIMLESS PISTOL SIZING DIES
A B C D E F G
25 Auto ·302 ·274 ·274 ·274 ·200 ·615
9 mm Luger ·394 ·386 ·376 ·375 ·200 ·500 ·754
9 mm Win Mag. ·394 ·386 ·375 ·374 ·200 ·880 1·160
32 Auto ·358 ·332 ·331 ·331 ·200 ·400 ·680
38 Auto. ·345 ·380 ·380 ·200 ·900
380 Auto ·374 ·369 ·3685 ·368 ·200 ·440 ·680
45 Auto ·480 ·471 ·4684 ·468 ·200 ·650 ·898
45 Auto Match ·480 ·471 ·4686 ·468 ·200 ·650 ·898
45 Win Mag, ·480 ·471 ·4683 ·468 ·200 ·965 1·198
DIMENSIONS RIMLESS PISTOL SEATING DIES
A B C D E F G
25 Auto ·312 ·282 ·2798 ·279 ·200 ·365 ·638
32 Auto ·362 ·3428 ·3397 ·3390 ·200 ·400 ·693
9mm Luger ·395 ·391 ·382 ·381 ·200 ·500 ·754
9 mm Win Mag. ·396 ·3934 ·382 ·381 ·200 ·880 1·160
38 Auto ·408 ·3887 ·3872 ·387 ·200 ·650 ·9179
380 Auto ·382 ·3809 ·3773 ·3770 ·200 ·440 ·681
45 Auto ·481 ·4796 ·4744 ·474 ·200 ·650 ·898
45 Auto Match ·481 ·4796 ·4744 ·474 ·200 ·650 ·898
45 Win Mag. ·482 ·4807 ·4742 ·474 ·200 ·965 1·198
DIMENSIONS RIMMED STRAIGHT RIFLE SIZE DIES
A B C D E F G
375 WIN. ·506 ·414 ·395 ·200 2·020
38-55 WIN. ·506 ·414 ·387 ·200 2·129
·444 MARLIN ·514 ·464 ·450 ·200 2·225
45-70 ·608 ·498 ·476 ·200 2·105
DIMENSIONS RIMMED STRAIGHT RIFLE SEAT DIES
A B C D E F G
375 WIN. ·506 ·421 ·401 ·200 2·080
38-55 WIN. ·506 ·420 ·393 ·200 2·18
·444 MARLIN ·514 ·470 ·4555 ·200 2·240
45-70 ·608 ·507 ·481 ·200 2·109
CHAPTER 9 MAKING THE DIES
In making the loading or sizing you will need to get some one inch steel for the body. For the first die you can get some scrap steel such as an
old axle from a car or truck. You will be able to machine the steel, but I recommend that you anneal it first.
Annealing is necessary to ensure grain refinement and to place the structure of the steel in the proper state for machining and heat treating.
The advantages of this treatment may be summarized as follows:
1. Softens the steel for ease in machining

2. Changes the structure, thereby altering the machining characteristics
3. Relieves stresses induced by mechanical working
4. Produces a structure that will respond uniformly to hardening.
To minimize scaling and decarburization, the material to be annealed should be packed in an inert substance such as dry sand and heated to
the annealing range. Packing ensures a slow cooling rate from the annealing temperature, but packing materials such as charcoal or cast iron
chips should be avoided since they may cause slight decarburization. Time at temperature during the anneal should be controlled according
to section thickness of the steel; up to a 1 inch section size. Then 15 minutes at temperature is adequate, while an 8 inch section would
require about 2½ hour.
Cooling from the annealing temperature should be slow (maximum rate of 50° F per hour) down to 1000° F, at which point more rapid
cooling is permissible.
Care should be taken not to heat the steel much above the decalescence or hardening point. When steel is heated above this temperature, the
grain assumes a definite size for that particular temperature, the coarseness increasing with an increase of temperature.
If you are using a test piece of steel, which I recommend to check the reamer size, cold roll steel will be suitable.
Cut off a piece of steel about five to six inches long for the die body, two if you plan to make a sizing and seating die. Clamp one end of the
steel in the three or four jaw chuck for turning. Make a light, fine clean up pass to remove any imperfections in the steel.
Once it is cleaned up, remove it from the lathe, reverse it and clamp on the cleaned up end. Clamp it tight so there can be no slippage or
movement, as most of the work will be done without removing it from the lathe.
FACING THE STOCK.
It is important to true up the end of the blank before you cut a center in it. If it is cut slightly off, the center drill may start off center and end
up causing you to scrap the work. Use fine cuts here also to clean it up, then center drill the end to a depth of 1/16″ on the shoulder of the
center drill.
TURNING THE BLANK.
Make a pass or two to clean up the steel to get a diameter of one inch and a length of 2¾″ for a pistol cartridge. If you are making a rifle die,
use a length of 3¾″ to 4″. All the dimensions giving in the drawings are for pistol cartridges. The only differences will be the decapper rod,
which will of course will be longer. This rod will vary on the length of the various rifle cartridges. At this point you can knurl the outside of
the die if you want.
STEP NO. ONE-TURNING THE BLANK
STEP NO. TWO-CUTTING THE THREADS ON THE BLANK
STEP NO. THREE-DRILLING PILOT HOLE IN THE BLANK

STEP NO. FOUR-CUTTING THE SIZING OR SEATING CHAMBER IN THE BLANK
STEP NO. FIVE- CUTTING OFF THE BLANK
STEP NO. SIX-DRILLING AND TAPPING DIE FOR EXTRACTOR/SIZING PIN

STEP NO. SEVEN-POLISHING THE SIZING OR SEATING DIE
STEP NO. EIGHT-MAKING THE LOCK NUT

STEP NO. NINE--THE DECAPPER AND EXPANDING PLUG
STEP NO. TEN- THE SEATING DIE WITH SEATING PLUG
When this length has been turned, cut a recess groove in front of the shoulder to a depth ·750 and a width of ·200″. This is the clearance so
you won’t run into the shoulder when threading. Now turn in the tool ·020 and make another pass on the blank, stopping when you have
turned a section 1·875 inch long. Measure the stock and set the tool in and make another pass until you reach a depth of ·875″. This will be
the final size that you use before threading.
On the very front of the blank cut another recess ·750 by ·200″ long. Use a file to slightly round all the shoulders. You are ready to thread the
die that will be cut at 14 TPI.
Set the lathe for a 14 TPI feed, put it in back gear drive and you are ready to cut the threads. The tool is set so its center line is at a right angle
to the axis of the workpiece. This setting can be obtained by the use of the center gage as shown.
When the tool point fits uniformly into the v notch of the gage, the tool is at a 90° angle. The cutting tool is ground to the shape required for
the form of screw thread being cut. For cutting 60° V threads, a center gage is used for checking the angle when grinding the tool to shape.
In cutting a right-hand exterior thread, the compound is turned in the direction of the headstock and set at an angle of 29°.
NOTE: The point of the tool should be at the same elevation as the center line of the workpiece.
The compound slide is set to an angle of 60°, and the tool is set square with the work, using the ―V‖ notch of the thread gauge to set the tool.
The point of the tool must be at the same height as the lathe centers. The tool is run up to the work with the cross feed, and the cross-feed
stop is set to always bring the cross feed back to the same position after backing out the tool to return for another cut.
The compound slide is used to feed the tool into the work. By feeding the tool on the 60° angle to which the compound slide is set, the tool
cuts on one side only, and it can be given a side rake to make the chip clear the thread groove. If the tool is fed in square with the work, it
must cut on both sides. No side rake can be used, and the two opposing chips will interfere and jam in the cut.
The compound is adjusted so the micrometer dial on its collar is at zero. The tool is then brought into contact with the workpiece by
adjusting the crossslide and setting its micrometer dials to zero. All adjustments for depth of cut can be made from these settings.
It is a practice to use both the cross-slide, and the compound. The tool is backed off the workpiece and the carriage is moved to where the
tool is, at a point beyond the end of the workpiece. The cross-slide is then advanced until the micrometer dial reads the same as where the
tool was touching the workpiece.
Next, the compound is advanced ·002 to ·003″ and a trial cut is taken. At the end of the cut, the cross-slide is backed off and the tool returned
to its starting point. The cross-slide is then adjusted to its zero reading and the compound advanced a distance equal to the next cut. The
operation is repeated until the proper depth of thread is obtained.
The carriage is attached to the feed screw by closing the half-nuts. There is a safety interlock between the friction feed for turning and the
half-nuts for thread cutting, so the two cannot be engaged simultaneously, which would wreck something.
At the end of each cut, the half-nuts are opened, and the tool is withdrawn from the cut, so the carriage can be returned to the start for another
cut. To be successful you must work quickly with both hands, back the tool out with one hand while you open the half-nuts with the other.
When you return the tool for another cut, advance the compound slide by the amount of the chip. Never change the setting of the cross-feed
stop after you have started to cut a thread or you will throw the tool out of alignment with previous cuts. If the tool is not withdrawn from the
cut, the backlash of the feed gears would leave the tool out of line with the thread and if the lathe was reversed, the tool would damage the
thread.
If your lathe is not equipped with a thread cutting dial, you must reverse the lathe to return the tool to the start for another cut. Without the
thread dial, the half-nuts cannot be opened until the thread is completed,
The thread-cutting dial indicator is a dial geared to the lead screw. When the carriage is stationary, the dial revolves, but when the carriage is
cutting a thread, the dial is still. There are several graduations on the dial, each numbered. As the dial revolves, the half-nuts are closed when
the correct number comes up to the index mark. For most even numbered threads, there are several places on the dial that can be used to
close the half nuts. For odd- numbered threads there is only one position, and the half-nuts must always be closed on the same number used
to start the first cut.
Start the first cut, close the half-nuts on the number 1 line of the dial and feed the tool with the compound until the tool just scratches a fine
line, indicating the thread. Shut down the lathe and test this line with the thread-pitch gauge to see that the lathe is cutting correctly. The
cross feed of the carriage must always be up tight to the cross-feed stop before moving the tool with the compound feed.
When you are getting close to the final size, use a precut nut (which you can get from a factory loading die) to check the size. If the nut will
not screw on make another light pass and try again. When the nut will just screw on, make two or three additional passes at the same setting
to finish cleaning up the threads.
A lock nut has to be made for each die that you make. To make this you will need to bore and thread a piece of steel. The stock for the lock
nut is 1·250″ and will be cut off to a thickness of 1/8″. You can drill and then bore the bar to the correct I. D. for the ·875 by 14 TPI thread.
You can either thread it on the lathe or buy a tap the correct size. When you drill and bore the bar, go deep enough so after tapping you will
be able to get several nuts from it. If you use a tap, use the tail stock center to hold it straight in the bar.
Lock the spindle and with plenty of oil on the tap work it in with a small wrench, backing it off about every full turn. A cut off tool is used to
cut off these nuts so they will be cut straight.
CHAMBERING THE DIE
Now drill a hole down through the center of the die to a length just past the where the die will be cut off. Use a smaller drill than the finish
size as you will clean up the hole with the correct size drill.
When you make the reamer you will need to make the pilot to the size of the drill that you use to clean up the bored hole. The correct size of
the drill will be one that is slightly smaller than the bullet that will be used. Make a reamer the size of the bullet and ream the drilled hole to
that size. The pilot should just slip in the hole that the drill has made with a close fit.
Drill the hole out with the correct size drill, using a good lubricant and a good speed on the lathe as you want to ream it as well as drill it to
size.
Chambering the dies is the next operation that will be done. Put a small lathe dog on the end of the reamer. Start the pilot into the drilled
hole, and put the tail stock center in the center in the reamer. Move the compound slide in position so that the lathe dog rests on it.
Set the lathe in back gear, and holding the reamer back against the tail stock center, turn the lathe on. Slowly feed the reamer into the die. If
you are using a large case die, first drill it out to slightly smaller than the shoulder of the reamer using a standard drill bit and up to 1/8″ of
where shoulder will be.
It would be better if you use a reamer with a stop shoulder on it so you do not have to worry about the depth. If you are making loading dies
for a press, you can cut a stop shoulder ·130 from the back of the case. Using the ·200″, subtract ·130″ from ·200 to get ·070″ for the
shoulder. This will guarantee that you do not cut the die too deep.
If you are making a sizing or seating die that you will run the case in full length, cut a shoulder at the end of ―J‖ for a stop.
TWO PIECE DIES
BULLET SEATING DIES WITH SEATER
Run the reamer in using the tail stock crank to about a 1/4″ to 1/2″. This depends on how much stock you are removing from the die. Back
out the reamer ALWAYS HOLDING IT AGAINST THE CENTER and blow out the hole and all the chips from the reamer. If you do not
hold it against the center it may grab and wreck the die and break the reamer.
Set up the lathe for a cut off tool and cut off the die from the rest of the blank. Put the die back in the lathe with the cut offend sticking out so
it can be faced off. Face off the end with fine feeds and polish and radius the edges.
When you set the die back in the lathe, use a dial indicator to get it trued up perfect. If you don’t, you will size the neck or seat the bullet
crooked, so be extra careful here.
Now drill and tap the hole for the decapper or seater stem just as you did in making the nuts. The seater neck should just clear the walls of
the reamed hole.
Turn the die back around and clamp it back in the lathe for the final finishing.
When you have reamed to the stop, back out the reamer, turn off the lathe and blow out all the chips from the hole. It is now ready for
polishing and finishing.
If you are going to heat-treat the die now is the time to do it. Be sure to coat the entire die with a anti-scaling compound including inside the
reamed hole.
POLISHING THE DIE
Get a 1/8″ rod about six or seven inches long and using a hack saw cut a slot one inch in the end of the rod. This slot will hold the various
grit sizes that you will use to polish the inside of the die.
Set the lathe to the highest speed and turn it on. Put a piece of medium emery cloth in the slot and stick it in the reamed hole. Polish in long
strokes from the shoulder to the end of the reamer. DO NOT OVER POLISH THE HOLE AND MAKE THE DIE OVERSIZE.
Stop the lathe and blow out the hole and wipe it clean so you can inspect it. If it looks smooth without reamer marks, change the grit to a fine
grit and repeat the process. Finish with crocus cloth to a mirror finish. Repeat the above process on the shoulder and the neck.
The other parts for the die can be machined in the same fashion as the die. When you make the decapping rod it has to be centered and the
hole drilled in the end for the decapping pin. Use a small center drill to start it exactly center, then drill the hole. The expanding plug is made
of tool steel, turned to ·002 smaller than the bullets. It is then polished, tapped, and coated with a anti-scaling compound and heat treated.
You will probably need to make a couple to get the process down pat. All the tools such as reamers can be used on a hundred or more dies
before being discarded.
CHAPTER 10 MAKING BULLET MOLDS

There is nothing difficult in making bullet molds once you have mastered tool making. You will need two main cutting tools:
ROUGH DRILL
1. A drill to drill out the mold before you cut the mold with the bullet cutter or cherry. I have found that it is easier to make this drill from a
suitable size number drill. Get the drill the right size for the bullet that you want to make, minus ·040″. By drilling out the mold first with this
rough drill it will be easier and take less time to finish cutting the mold.
To make this drill, chuck the drill in the lathe, and with the Tool Post Grinder grind the drill to the basic shape of the bullet that you are
making. See the section on making tools.
After you finish grinding the drill to shape, sharpen the ground area so it will cut again. This drill will work for several different bullet sizes.
Be very careful here as if you are working on small calibers it may grab and ruin the cherry.
BULLET CHERRY OR CUTTER
2. There are two ways to make a cherry, both will do just as good a job. The first is to make the bullet cherry from a piece of 01 tool steel and
finish it to size. Once it is to size, cut the grease grooves in the cherry with cutter bits ground to the correct shape.
All that is left then is to set up the Mill and indexer and flute the cherry using six or eight flutes. Here again be very careful and do not take
heavy cuts, as you might bend the cherry. Use plenty of coolant or oil to keep the heat down to minimize chances of warpage.
After finishing the fluting, put the cherry back in the lathe. Now with Machinist Needle Files carefully file in the back clearance from the
cutting edge. It is easier to do it now than to try to grind it in after heat treating. File within about ·010 of the cutting edge and stop.
The clearance needed there can be honed in with an Arkansas stone after heat treating. The cherry can be finished to size, and then coated
with a anti-scaling compound that can be purchased from Brownells. See Appendix.
It can now be heat-treated but be careful that when you quench the cherry go absolutely straight into the oil. If you are using a water
hardening tool steel it can be quenched in a warm brine solution.
DUTCHMAN REAMER
You can also make the cherry the same as above but as a Dutchman reamer. This type of reamer can be used as a chambering reamer or
handle just about any job a fluted reamer can do. You make the cherry the same way as above, finish it and heat-treat it. When completed
you carefully grind the reamer to exactly 1/2 of its diameter. See Drawing. Then you grind the clearance on the back side as shown and stone
the cutting edge. This type of reamer will cut a very smooth hole that may not need to be lapped.
DIFFERENT STYLES OF RIFLE BULLETS

DIFFERENT STYLES OF PISTOL BULLETS
MOLD BLOCK PARTS
BULLET MOLD CONSTRUCTION
AS CHECK AND GREASE GROOVES ON BULLET
MAKING THE DUTCHMAN BULLET REAMER
FINISH CUTTER FOR BULLET MOLD
SETUP FOR CUTTING MOLD BLOCKS

MAKING THE MOLD BLOCKS
Making the blocks are a simple machining operation on the Milling Machine. The blocks can be made from Steel or Aluminum, and the
Aluminum will be the easiest to make and will last a long time with a little care.
The block material can be cut from suitable material with a band saw or cutoff saw. Once it is cut to a rough size, clamp it in the Milling Vise
and fly cut it to the correct size. A standard end mill will work but the finish will not look as good as if you used a fly cutter.
After machining clamp each block in the vise and true it up with a dial indicator. You will need a ·008 slitting saw which you can purchase
from a machine supply house or Wholesale Tools. With the slitting saw cut air vents in the mold blocks as in the drawing. You can buy an
arbor from Wholesale Tools so the slitting saw will work in a Vertical Mill.
After drilling all the holes insert a line up pin into the holes on both blocks. The blocks should line up perfectly. When you drill the holes for
the line up holes, drill one side of the block, clamp them together. Use the holes in the first block as a guide and drill the other block.
Tap all the holes that need tapped and make sure everything fits as it should.
With the pins in the blocks clamp the blocks upright in the Vise, and true it up. Put a drill chuck in the mill and a small center drill for
marking the blocks for rough drilling. Carefully center the center drill exactly over the seam of mold halves. The exact center can be found
with an edge finder that is sold through Wholesale Tools.
Center drill the blocks deep enough so the roughing drill won’t wander when you start it. With the roughing drill you only want to go deep
enough but not so deep that the cutter or cherry will not be able to clean up the mold.
At this time unclamp the vise from the table as when you cut the mold it wants to be free to keep the cutter in the center. Once the roughing
hole is drilled, remove the drill and replace it with the cherry. Unclamp the mold blocks from the vise and spread them apart far enough that
the cherry will just go down inside the roughing hole.
Adjust the cherry to the right depth and lock the spindle then turn on the Milling Machine. Slowly tighten up the vise and the cherry will start
to cut the blocks to shape. Keep closing the vise until it is fully closed, being careful that there are no chips between them. You should not
have to lap the as the finish if you were careful at the final operation of the last four to five thousands.
The mold is done except for the aging process of using.
BULLET SIZES
SIZES OF COUNTER BORES AND CUTTERS
Here is a list of finish sizes of the counter bore drill, and the bullet cutter.
CALIBER BORE DRILL CUTTER

22 short ·185 ·2255
22 LR ·185 ·2255
22WRF ·185 ·2285
22WCF ·185 ·226
22 Hornet ·185 ·226
218 Bee ·185 ·226
221 Fireball ·185 ·226
222 Rem ·185 ·2265
223 Rem ·185 ·2265
222 Mag ·185 ·2265
219 Wasp ·185 ·2265
219 Zipper ·185 ·2265
224 Wea. ·185 ·2265
225 Win ·185 ·2265
22-250 ·185 ·2265
220 Swift ·185 ·2265
22 Savage ·185 ·2285
243 Win ·206 ·246
244 Rem ·206 ·246
6mm ·206 ·246
6mm 2 84 ·206 ·246
25-20 ·220 ·260
25-35 ·220 ·260
256 Win ·220 ·260
250-3000 ·220 ·260
257 Roberts ·220 ·260
257 Roberts Imp ·220 ·260
25-06 ·220 ·260
257 Wea. Mag. ·220 ·260
6·5 Jap ·220 ·266
6·5mm M. S. ·220 ·266
6·5x55 ·220 ·266
6·5 Rem Mag. ·220 ·266
264 Win Mag. ·220 ·266
270 Win ·240 ·2805
270 Wea Mag. ·240 ·2805
7 mm Mauser ·240 ·287
284 Win ·240 ·287
280 Rem ·240 ·287
7x61 S&H ·240 ·287
7 mm Rem Mag ·240 ·287
7mm Wea Mag ·240 ·287
7·5 Swiss ·271 ·311
30 Carbine ·271 ·311
30-30 Win ·271 ·311
300 Sav ·271 ·311
308 Win ·271 ·311
30-40 Krag ·271 ·311
30-06 ·271 ·311
30-06 Imp ·271 ·311
300 H&H Mag. ·271 ·311
308 Norma Mag ·271 ·311
300 Win Mag. ·271 ·311
300 Wea Mag. ·271 ·311
7·65mm Mauser ·271 ·315
303 British ·271 ·315
7·7 Jap ·271 ·315
32 Win Spc. ·271 ·323
8mm Mauser ·271 ·327
8 mm-06 ·271 ·327
338 Win Mag. ·301 ·341
340 Wea Mag. ·301 ·341
348 Win ·311 ·351
35 Rem. ·311 ·361
350 Rem Mag. ·311 ·361
35 Whelen ·311 ·361
358 Norma Mag ·311 ·361
375 H&H Mag ·338 ·3785
378 Wea Mag. ·338 ·3785
44 Rem Mag ·390 ·430
444 Marlin ·390 ·430
45-70 ·420 ·4605
458 Win Mag. ·420 ·4605
460 Wea Mag. ·420 ·4605
PISTOLS AND REVOLVERS

22 LR ·185 ·2255
25 ACP ·220 ·2525
30 Luger ·271 ·313
32 ACP ·271 ·314
32-20 ·271 ·314
32 SW ·271 ·315
357 Mag. ·311 ·360
38 Spec. ·311 ·360
38 SW ·311 ·364
38 ACP ·311 ·359
380 ·311 ·359
9mm ·311 ·357
38-40 ·364 ·404
41 ·364 ·404
44-40 ·390 ·430
44 Russian ·390 ·430
44 Spec. ·390 ·430
45 ACP ·420 ·454
45 Colt ·420 ·455
455 Web. ·420 ·458
CHAPTER 11 THREAD CUTTING

TEST BAR
Before you start the threading operation, set the tail stock back to 000 using a 18 inch bar that is turned to exactly the same diameter on each
end. To make this bar, get a 1 inch bar 18 inches long, center it and set it up between centers.
Make a light pass and check both ends to see if they measure the same. If not, adjust the tailstock and make another pass. Repeat the above
operations until the bar measures the same on both ends.
This bar, you save as you will be using it again each time you true up the tailstock. Once you have the bar completed, all that is necessary is
to put it between centers. Clamp a dial indicator to the carriage on the lathe.
With the plunger of the indicator on the bar, start from the headstock end (without the lathe being turned on) and move the carriage to the tail
stock end. If there is any difference in size, adjust the tail stock and repeat until the dial indicator reads the same on each end.
In order to produce an American Standard thread on the engine lathe, the ratio of tool feed to workpiece speed must be adjusted. The width
of the crest will correspond with the width of the tool’s nose when the thread is cut to its full depth. Thus, the root and crest are the same
width.
SETTING THE TAIL STOCK
THREAD-CUTTING TOOLS AND THREAD FORMS
For each of the types of thread a tool bit to form that particular thread must be ground. Since the form of thread is the end product, the
grinding of the tool bit must take into consideration the clearance angle side rake form and other factors to achieve the result desired.
CLEARANCE
Because of the rapid advance of the cutting tool across the workpiece* the clearance angle is an important factor. Clean, accurate threads are
impossible unless both sides and front of the tool are given enough clearance to permit the tool to move freely in the groove being formed.
When the tool is fed into the work at an angle, as for form threads, the tool should have 3 to 5° of side clearance.
Threading Point Gauge
V thread tools are ground flat across the top, with about a 5-degree side-clearance angle. If the top of the tool is at an angle, the thread will be
incorrect.
CENTER GAGE FOR CHECKING CUTTING TOOLS
The center gage is a tool used for checking the points of cutter bits for the American standard screw threads that must be ground to an angle
of 60°. The 60-degree included angle on one end of the gage is used when grinding the tool to the exact angle. This same tool is useful in
checking the angle of lathe centers.
The V on the edge of the gage is used for setting the tool in the tool post of the lathe. The center line of the V-point is perpendicular to the
axis of rotation of the cylinder to be threaded. This setting will give the correct thread form.
The two opposite sides of the gage are parallel and have graduations on the edges for checking the number of threads per inch.
One side of the gage at the point is engraved to show the sizes of tap drills for 60-degree V-threads (internal threads), and to show, in
thousandths of an inch, the double depth of commonly used threads.
The 60-degree angle at the point is useful to gage the thread after it is cut. A single-point cutting form tool corresponding to the contour of
one desired thread space is used to accomplish thread chasing. A thread-cutting tool is set on center and adjusted with a center gage so that
the thread will not lean. This adjustment will ensure that the center line of each thread will be perpendicular to the rotational axis of the
workpiece.
When thread chasing, a number of successive light helical cuts is taken around the cylindrical surface to be threaded. Depth of cut for the
first cut may be about 0·05 inch, depending upon the thread size. This becomes progressively smaller for succeeding cuts, and it should be
about from 0·0005 to 0·001 inch for the last cut. Usually the cutting tool is moved in for depth of cut with the use of the compound rest that is
set at an angle.
This causes the majority of the metal to be cut on one side of the cutting tool. This in turn allows the chip to curl more easily, and positive
rake, or other desired rake, can be provided for the cutting edge on the side where the majority of metal removal occurs. The cutting edge at
the right side of the cutting tool is made to cut lightly by setting the compound rest to 29° instead of to 30°.
Threads that must be accurate with some turned part must be turned in the lathe at the same setting used to turn the work. For this work, a
proper cutting tool is set up in the tool post, and the lead screw is geared to the head-stock spindle to give the required lead to the thread.
Cutting threads on the engine lathe is usually done when only a few threads are to be cut or when special forms of threads are necessary. For
the operation, the lead screw is revolved at a desired ratio with the spindle of the lathe through a series of gears. Quick change gear boxes
enable the operator to produce various pitches of threads, using control levers.
In the thread-cutting operation, the lathe should be set at the correct ratio of feed to speed for the desired thread to be cut.
Next, the compound is adjusted so the micrometer dial on its collar is at zero. The tool is then brought into contact with the workpiece by
adjusting the crossslide and setting its micrometer dial to zero. All adjustments for depth of cut can be made from these settings.
It is common practice to use both the cross-slide, and the compound. The tool is backed off the workpiece and the carriage is moved to where
the tool is, at a point beyond the end of the workpiece. The cross-slide is then advanced until the micrometer dial reads the same as where the
tool was touching the workpiece.
Next, the compound is advanced ·002 to ·003″ and a trial cut is taken. At the end of the cut, the cross-slide is backed off and the tool returned
to its starting point. The cross-slide is then adjusted to its zero reading and the compound advanced a distance equal to the next cut. The
operation is repeated until the proper depth of thread is obtained.
The gears to use for each thread are shown on a plate attached to the lathe by the maker. You should know how to gear the lathe without the
plate. There is a gear of a known number of teeth permanently attached to the head-stock spindle. -
If the lead screw can be made to advance the cutting tool one thread-space, or thread-pitch, per revolution of the work, the result will be a
thread of that pitch.
The rule for finding the ratio of teeth in the lead-screw gear to the teeth in the stud gear is to multiply the pitch of the thread to be cut by the
teeth in the stud gear and divide by the pitch of the lead screw, which will give the number of teeth in the lead-screw gear.
A gear with 40 teeth on the screw will cut a thread with a pitch of 10 threads per inch.
TO CHECK THE GEAR TRAIN
Pitch of lead screw, multiplied by the product of all the driving gears, divided by the product of all the driven gears will give the pitch of the
thread to be cut.
With lathes equipped with quick-change gears, most common threads can be set up by moving the required gears. When it is necessary to cut
a thread of an odd pitch, the train of gears between the stud gear and the quick change-gear box must be changed. Metric threads can be cut
on a lathe having a lead screw with the pitch in inches by using the ratio of 50 on the stud to 127 on the screw. This is because there are 127
centimeters in 50 inches.
The cutting tool is ground to the shape required for the form of screw thread being cut. For cutting 60° V threads, a center gage is used for
checking the angle when grinding the tool to shape.
In cutting a right-hand exterior thread, the compound is turned in the direction of the headstock and set at an angle of 29°.
The tool is set so its center line is at a right angle to the axis of the workpiece. This setting can be obtained by the use of the center gage as
shown.
When the tool point fits uniformly into the v notch of the gage, the tool is at a 90° angle.
NOTE: The point of the tool should be at the same elevation as the center line of the workpiece.
The compound slide is set to an angle of 60°, and the tool is set square with the work, using the ―V‖ notch of the thread gauge to set the tool.
The point of the tool must be at the same height as the lathe centers. The tool is run up to the work with the cross feed, and the cross-feed
stop is set to always bring the cross feed back to the same position after backing out the tool to return for another cut. -
The compound slide is used to feed the tool into the work. By feeding the tool on the 60° angle to which the compound slide is set, the tool
cuts on one side only, and it can be given a side rake to make the chip clear the thread groove. If the tool is fed in square with the work, it
must cut on both sides. No side rake can be used, and the two opposing chips will interfere and jam in the cut.
The carriage is attached to the feed screw by closing the half-nuts. There is a safety interlock between the friction feed for turning and the
half-nuts for thread cutting, so the two cannot be engaged simultaneously, which would wreck something.
At the end of each cut, the half-nuts are opened, and the tool is withdrawn from the cut, so the carriage can be returned to the start for another
cut. If the tool is not withdrawn from the cut, the backlash of the feed gears would leave the tool out of line with the thread and if the lathe
was reversed, the tool would damage the thread.
If your lathe is not equipped with a thread cutting dial, you must reverse the lathe to return the tool to the start for another cut. Without the
thread dial, the half-nuts cannot be opened until the thread is completed,
The thread-cutting dial indicator is a dial geared to the lead screw. When the carriage is stationary, the dial revolves, but when the carriage is
cutting a thread, the dial is still. There are several graduations on the dial, each numbered. As the dial revolves, the half-nuts are closed when
the correct number comes up to the index mark. For most even numbered threads, there are several places on the dial that can be used to
close the half nuts. For odd- numbered threads there is only one position, and the half-nuts must always be closed on the same number used
to start the first cut.
After making the first cut return the tool until it nearly touches but does not cut and try the several numbers on the dial to see which ones
track the tool in the first cut. Then any of these can be used for the rest of the job.
In starting the first cut, close the half-nuts on the number 1 line of the dial and feed the tool with the compound until the tool just scratches a
fine line, indicating the thread. Shut down the lathe and test this line with the thread- pitch gauge to see that the lathe is cutting correctly. The
cross feed of the carriage must always be up tight to the cross-feed stop before moving the tool with the compound feed.
At the end of the cut, if the thread just fades out, it is necessary to withdraw the tool while the feed is still on so that the thread will finish
with a taper. To do this requires working at slow speed, and it helps to put a chalk mark on the work so the work so the tool can be backed
out at the same place each revolution.
When the thread finishes close to a shoulder, turn a small groove next to the shoulder as deep as the bottom of the thread so the tool can
finish in this groove. Leaving a complete thread up to the shoulder so the nut will tighten up tight to the shoulder. It is wise to set the carriage
stop so the tool cannot run into the shoulder. The cutting tool should be ground so the point will be in the groove while the side clears the
shoulder.
When it is not necessary that the nut ran up tight against a shoulder, the tool can cut its own finishing groove if you open the half nuts at the
same place each time.
To use successfully any of these methods of finishing. a cut. you must work quickly with both hands, back the tool out with one hand while
you open the half-nuts with the other, When you return the tool for another cut advance the compound slide by the amount of the chip. Never
change the setting of the cross-feed stop after you have starred to cut a thread or you will throw- the tool out of alignment with previous cuts.
Since the tool is traveling on the 60° angle of the compound, you must divide half the DD figure by the sine of 60°, or ·866; the resulting
figure will be the amount by which the tool is to be advanced on the compound slide.
Since there is always some springiness or backlash in both the cutting tool and the work, you will have to take several finishing cuts with the
tool at its final setting, without advancing it any deeper, so It can work out the oversize cutting when possible, keep handy a nut of the
required size that has an accurate thread, and use this to test the new thread.
If the work is driven by a lathe dog while on centers, be sure the slot in the driving plate is marked so the dog will be replaced in the same
slot each time after removal for testing.
Use plenty of cutting oil when cutting steel. Brass and cast iron can be cut dry, but aluminum tends to stick to the tool and leave a rough
surface unless a little oil is used.
THREAD DIAL
THREAD DIAL INDICATOR
Most modem lathes are equipped with a thread dial indicator, which saves time when cutting long screw threads. The thread-chasing dial is
an indicator with a revolving dial. It is either fastened to the carriage of the lathe or built into it. The dial of the indicator, serves as a guide to
the operator. It tells him when to close the half-nut in the apron onto the lead screw so he may take successive cuts in the same groove, or to
space grooves properly for multiple threads.
When this is done, the lead screw and carriage bear the same relative positions as before. In other words, when the operator engages the half-
nut as the proper mark on the dial comes into position, the threading tool moves into the same groove made on previous cuts.
The face of the dial is numbered to show positions at which the half nuts may be engaged. When the lathe is set up for cutting screw threads,
the thread dial shows the relative position of the lead screw, spindle, and carriage of the lathe.
This permits disengaging the half nuts from the lead screw at the end of the cut, returning the carriage quickly to the starting point by hand,
and reengaging the half nuts with the lead screw at a point that will assure that the tool follows exactly in the original cut.
The position at which the half nut should be closed depends upon the pitch of thread.
For odd-numbered threads, close half nuts on any numbered line, such as 3½ threads per inch, the half-nut must be engaged at any odd-
numbered line on the dial.
For quarter-threads, such as 2¼ or 3¼ threads per inch, the half-nut must be engaged at the same point on the dial each time a cut is started.
For all numbered threads, close half nuts upon any line on the dial.
For threads involving half threads-any numbered line.
For threads involving quarter threads-return to the original starting point before closing half nuts.
The dial is engaged to the lead screw, as the operator desires, by a feed lever on the apron. This lever is called a half-nut lever. When the
lathe is running but the half-nut lever is not engaged, the dial revolves. When the half-nut lever is engaged, the carriage moves but the dial
remains motionless.
Before you can start the thread-cutting operation, you must decide, from the number of threads required per inch, at what point on the dial to
engage the half-nut. For chasing all even numbers of threads per inch, such as 4, 6, 8, 10, etc., the half-nut is engaged for the first, and for all
successive cuts, at any of the eight graduation marks on the face of the dial.
For an odd number of threads per inch, engage the half nut at any quarter-turn or numbered line on the dial (the main graduation marks.)
SETTING THE COMPOUND FOR RIGHT AND LEFT-HAND THREADS
To cut right-hand external threads on the lathe the compound rest is turned at a 29-degree angle. This prevents tearing of the thread and
makes it easier to rechase the thread if the tool must be reset. The carriage is made to travel from right to left or, toward the headstock.
Before each successive cut, the tool is fed in with the compound rest. To cut a left-hand thread, the compound is turned at a 29-degree angle
toward the headstock, and the carriage is made to travel from left to right.
SETTING THREADING TOOL
The threading tool is mounted in the tool post. Adjust the cutter point vertically to the exact center of the work. Then place a center gage with
its back edge in contact with, or parallel to, the work or the tailstock spindle.
Now adjust the tool horizontally by fitting the cutter point exactly into the 60 degree angle notch in the front edge of the center gage. Tighten
the tool post screw. Be sure not to change the position of the holder. Recheck the tool setting after tightening the tool post screw.
CUTTING AN EXTERNAL THREADS
After setting the compound rest and positioning the threading tool properly in relation to the work, it is necessary to select the proper speed
and feed. Good thread-cutting practice requires that the back gears be engaged for this operation.
This reduces the r. p. m. or speed to a minimum, and is necessary if best results are to be obtained. The correct selection of feed is
determined by a gear box on all modem lathes. Directions are shown on the gear box regarding the setting of levers to obtain the correct feed,
depending upon the threads per inch to be cut.
Now the compound feed-screw graduated collar is set to zero and the tool point is brought into contact with the work by turning the cross
feed screw. The tool point should contact the work lightly. Then run the carriage to the right, using the carriage hand wheel, until the tool
clears the end of the work. Notice w hat the setting is on the cross-feed collar.
This adjustment must be remembered so at the end of each cut, the cross-feed is always brought back to the same number or setting. Feed in
on the compound ·002″ and then start the machine and take the first trial cut.
If using the thread dial, be sure to engage the half-nut lever at the correct line on the dial, depending upon the threads per inch you are
cutting. This causes the carriage to start in motion.
A check should be made after this first trial cut to see that the correct pitch of thread is being machined. This is done by using a thread-pitch
gage or a rule.
To decide the total number of thousandths of an inch that the threading tool must be fed in by the compound feed screw, and in order to cut
the thread to the desired depth, a simple formula is used. This formula is: divide the constant . ·750 by the number of threads per inch.
If it is required that 8 threads per inch are to be cut, then divide ·750 by 8, which gives a result of ·0937″ (094″ can be used).
This is the total number of thousandths of an inch the tool is to be fed into the work to cut 8 threads per inch. However, the compound feed is
used until the tool has been fed in ·090″. Then the cross-feed is used to remove the final four thousandths of an inch from the thread, making
our cuts and feeding the tool in ·001″ on each cut. This will help to polish the right side of the thread.
A good grade of lubricant should be used on the tool when threads are being cut. Mineral lard oil is a very good lubricant for threading.
RESETTING THE TOOL
If it is necessary for any reason to remove the tool before the thread is finished, reset the tool to the gage regardless of the part of the thread
already cut. Having the compound rest at an angle of 29° makes it easy to reset the tool if it needs regrinding. The tool is clamped in the tool
post after it is reground. Then it can be set with the center gage as before.
In resetting the tool, proceed as follows: first, reset the tool to the gage; then back the tool away from the workpiece. Start the machine and
engage the thread-chasing lever as before. Let the workpiece make two or three turns and shut off the power with the threading lever still
engaged.
Adjust the tool into the thread previously cut by moving the compound and cross-feed until the tool is lined up properly in the thread groove.
Back the tool out from the workpiece slightly and turn on the power. When the tool is aligned Properly, proceed as before.
To move in for depth of cut for another type of thread, such as acme, square, and worm threads, the tool is moved in a direction that is
perpendicular to the rotational axis of the spindle. The angle of the compound rest is set at 0°. For thread chasing, the lathe carriage is moved
at the proper speed in relation to the rotation of the work piece with the use of the lead screw instead of the feed rod.
A method for quickly changing the gearing provides a large number of available leads, or numbers of threads per inch. To take a cut, the
carriage is connected to the rotating lead screw with the two halves of the split nut that are fastened to the carriage. When the two halves of
the split nut are closed on the lead screw, they act as one complete nut, and the carriage is moved as the lead screw rotates.
Since the lead screw is geared to the spindle, the carriage will move a predetermined distance per revolution of the workpiece. This distance
is equal to the lead of the desired thread. A thread dial shows the correct time at which the lead screw should be engaged with the split nut. It
is used because after each cut the split nut is disengaged from the lead screw.
The thread dial, mounted on the carriage, is connected to the lead screw with a small worm gear. Whenever the lead screw rotates and the
split nut is not engaged, the thread dial rotates. One complete revolution of the thread dial corresponds to the movement of a certain number
of threads on the lead screw, such as 24, past the split nut.
With this arrangement it will be possible to engage the split nut at 24 different places on the lead screw in one complete revolution of the
thread dial. Eight equally spaced marks alternately numbered and unnumbered around the circumference of the thread dial show when to
engage the split nut.
Standard Screw Thread Parts

CUTTING THE THREADS
Set up a V tool bit ground right for threading. This is a 60 degree tool. Set the point of the tool right on center, using the center on the tail
stock. The compound should be set at 30°, when you clamp the tool. Set the quick change gears for 12 threads per inch, make sure your
feeding dial is engaged, and you are ready to cut the threads.
Set both dials to where the tool is just touching the shank. Set the dials on 000. Set the tool in so you will take a ·005 cut. Have the lathe in
back gear, running it at the slowest speed. When the threading dial comes around to 0 engage the feed. It feeds fast, so be ready to disengage
the feed and back out the tool in one operation.
When it has completed set the tool in ·010 and when the dial comes back to 0, engage the feed. The carriage is then returned to its starting
position for another cut. The threading tool is again moved in with the cross slide so that the cross slide is always returned to the same
position for each successive cut.
The depth of cut is adjusted with the compound rest handwheel and graduated dial. Another cut then is taken by engaging the split nut with
the lead screw. These successive cuts are continued until the thread reaches its correct depth.
Keep repeating the process until you have gone to the correct depth and make a final clean up pass at the last setting. Use a good cutting oil
when cutting threads. Always turn in the compound dial, leave the other at 0, and back this out each time.
If engaged at an incorrect time, the threading tool will not enter the helical groove of the cut previously, produced. Instead it may remove
some of the desired threads. After each cut, the split nut is disengaged and the threading tool is withdrawn sufficiently to clear the thread on
the workpiece by using the crossslide handwheel and graduated dial.
SIZE OF WORKPIECE BEFORE THREADING
Before the threading operation is begun, the workpiece needs to be turned to the maximum or major diameter of the thread specified on the
blueprint or other specifications. This size is usually given as O.D. (outside diameter) expressed in inches and decimal parts of an inch. When
cutting V type threads, it is also good practice, to chamfer or bevel the ends of the shaft to be threaded. The chamfer can be at any angle from
30 to 45°. For instructions on straight turning, see the section on that operation.
SETUP FOR CUTTING AN EXTERNAL (V) THREAD ON THE LATHE
The setup for external threading will depend largely upon the shape and size of the workpiece. Threads are often turned on shafts mounted
between centers and revolved by a lathe dog.
After this setup is made and the work is turned to the proper outside diameter, the workpiece is left right in the lathe and the threading
operation is performed. The jobs are threaded while held in a three or four jaw chuck in which they were mounted to be turned to size.
Due to the pressure exerted by any threading tool, it is necessary, when threading long, narrow shafts, to use a steady rest.
THREAD CUTTING TERMINOLOGY
The following will give you information on the threads so they can be better understood. Thread cutting on the lathe is the most common
way to make screws, etc. in the shop. Just about any type of screw, and thread that is needed in the shop, can be made on a lathe.
MAJOR DIAMETER
The major or outside diameter (O.D.) of an external thread is the diameter of the piece on which the thread is cut. LTL is the largest diameter
of the thread.
DEPTH OF THREAD
The depth of a thread is the distance from the top or crest of the thread to the root measured vertically.
MINOR DIAMETER
The minor diameter is the smallest diameter of the thread of the screw. LTL is sometimes called the root diameter (R.D.) and can be found
by subtracting twice the depth of the thread from the major diameter.
NUMBER OF THREADS PER INCH
The number of threads per inch (N) can be counted by Placing a rule against the threaded part, and counting the threads in one inch. The first
thread is not counted since, in reality, not the crests but the spaces between the crests are what is being counted. A second method is to use a
screw pitch gage. This method is more suitable for checking the finer pitches of screw threads.
PITCH
The pitch (P) of a thread is the distance from a point on a screw thread to a corresponding point on the next thread, measured parallel to the
work axis. The pitch of a thread in inches can be found by dividing the whole number i by the number of threads per inch (N).
PITCH DIAMETER
On a screw thread, the pitch diameter is that of an imaginary cylinder. The outer surface of this cylinder would pass through the threads at
such points as to make equal the width of the threads and the width of the spaces. On a 60 degree V type thread and on National form
threads, the pitch diameter can be found by subtracting the single depth of the thread from the major diameter of the thread.
LEAD
The lead of a thread is the distance a screw will advance into a nut in one complete revolution. The lead is the same as the pitch on a single-
thread screw.
The lead for a screw with 9 threads per inch is ·1111, which is the same as the pitch in inches (·1111).
On a double-thread screw; the lead is twice the pitch. On a screw with 9 threads per inch with a double-thread screw the lead would be
doubled or ·2222. On a triple-thread screw, the lead is three times the pitch, and so on.
SINGLE SCREW THREADS
Most screw threads are single. The single screw thread has a single ridge and groove.
ANGLE OF THREAD
The thread angle is the angle included between the sides of the thread. The thread angle of the Unified National Form is 60°.
FORMS OF SCREW THREADS
Screw threads are so widely used to connect parts that they are of prime importance when produced in the machine shop.
Great amounts of study and research have been devoted to the standardization of screw thread forms.
The basic form of the screw and nut, with a 60 degree angle of thread 55. The crest of the thread may be flat or rounded. The flat crest is
preferred in American practice, and the rounded crest is given preference in British practice.
Over many years, different screw thread forms and standards have been adopted in the United States. These different forms originated
chiefly because of special requirements or because they were considered superior to other forms. In addition to the American Standard
thread, they are the Acme, Square, and the 29° Worm threads.
AMERICAN STANDARD THREAD FORM
The American Standard thread form is used as the standard locking thread form in the United States. This thread form is used on practically
all mating parts in modem machine construction. The Unified thread form is essentially identical to the former standard, the American
National thread form. The two forms are interchangeable for most diameter-pitch combinations. A 1-64 National Coarse thread is
interchangeable with a 1-64 Unified National Coarse thread.
Unified National Coarse (UNC)
Unified National Fine (UNF)
Unified National Extra-Fine (UNEF)
Unified National 8-Pitch (8 UN)
Unified National 12-Pitch (12 UN):
Unified National 16-Pitch (16 UN)
In the coarse, fine, and extra-fine series, the number of threads per inch increases as the diameters decrease. The coarse and fine threads are
widely employed for general use.
THREAD FITS
There are three classes of fit designated by American Standards now being used. Classes 1A, 2A, and 3A apply to external threads only, and
class 1B, 2B, and 3B apply to internal threads only. The three classes of fit are:
Class 1. Loose Fit

Class 2. Medium Fit
Class 3. Close Fit
LOOSE FIT
This class possesses the largest allowance and is used where rapid assembly of parts is required and looseness is not objectionable.
MEDIUM FIT
This is used on the bulk of standard screws, bolts and nuts. A very small amount of looseness or shake may be present or if the parts are
carefully made no movement can be noted, yet the nut can he screwed on by hand.
CLOSE FIT
This is used on fasteners where accuracy of fit is highly important, and where no looseness is permitted. A wrench or another tool must be
used to force the nut onto the bolt.
Tighter fits than those mentioned require special fabrication, and are carefully specified for the job being assembled.
TAPS AND THREADING
Different Types Of Taps

The tap is used to cut internal threads. There are many forms of taps used in manufacturing work, but the hand tap is the only one used in a
home workshop. Three taps are used for each size of thread. The Taper Tap is used to start the thread. This has a long taper ground on the
point that will enter the drilled hole and act as a pilot to guide and center the tap. Even with this self-guiding feature, you must hold it in line
with the hole or it will start crooked.
The tapered end will try to get it back to the center of the hole, and this will bend the tap and is liable to break it.
Due to the long taper of the starting, or taper, tap, it cannot reach very far into the hole. A tap with a shorter taper, called a Plug Tap, is used
after the thread has been started with the taper tap.
It is possible to start a thread with a plug tap by carefully guiding it and using sufficient pressure. It is not possible to start a thread with a
bottom tap. If your budget does not permit the purchasing of the three taps, get a plug tap and a bottom tap.
Taps are easily broken and must be handled very carefully. Never use a tap wrench too large for the tap and do not force it as it cuts a chip.
After the chip has formed, turn the tap backwards until it breaks the chip. With very small taps, it helps to run the plug tap in as far as it will
stand without breaking. Then back it out and cut with the bottom tap until it reaches its limit.
This way, each tap cuts less metal each time and is less liable to be broken by twisting. It takes longer, but is worth the extra time by saving
broken taps.
It helps to have two small tap wrenches so the two taps can be left set up in the wrenches. Bending a small tap sideways is one of the easiest
ways of breaking it. Turn the tap with the fingertips of one hand and use the other hand to steady the first by resting your wrist on the vise.
When tapping a hole where the tap must line up with a clearance hole, place the two parts together and tap the thread through the clearance
hole, which acts as a guide. If the two holes are not in line, the tap will be forced against the tight side of the clearance hole and will cut
threads that will allow the screw to enter the threaded lower part.
These part threads cut in the clearance hole may prevent the screw from clamping the two parts tight, and it may be necessary to remove
them with a round file.
When a thread must be exactly parallel to a drilled hole, it is best to start the tap in the drill press before the work has been released from the
clamps used to drill the hole. Insert the tap in the drill chuck and adjust the chuck so the tap will slip if it is biting too hard. Use a short rod
that will fit into the key holes of the chuck to turn it, simultaneously using a little pressure on the drill-press feed to start the tap. The entire
thread can be cut this way, which is rather slow or, after it is well started, the work can be removed from the drill press and the thread
finished by hand in the vise.
If it was necessary to move the drill-press table to remove the drill and insert the tap, make sure it is returned to the exact position used to
drill the hole. Adjust the collar on the column so the table will not drop down and fix the turn indicator to its position, before moving the
table.
If there is no turn indicator, make a chalk mark on the column. This same method of starting a tap in a drilled hole applies to holes drilled in
the lathe. In this case the tap is placed in the tail-stock chuck, and the work is turned by hand, using a wrench on turn with and feeding with
the tail stock.
Larger taps, like pipe taps, cannot be held in the drill-press chuck. These taps generally have a center reamed in the head end, and a 60° stub
center can be set up in the drill press to line up the tap. Then the tap is turned with a wrench on its square end. This stub center is a piece of
1/2 inch stock turned to a 60° point. It does not need to be hardened, although it would last longer if it were hard. This stub center is very
useful in locating a punch mark under the center of the drill. Set the stub center in the drill chuck and center the work under it before
clamping to the table.
Many firms supplying drills have printed cards showing the size of hole to be drilled for taps and the clearance holes for threads. These also
show the size of drills and their decimal equivalent.
Get two of these cards, one showing the tap drills and the other the decimal equivalents. Mount them on the wall near the drill press.
Different Parts Of A Tap
Dies are used to cut external threads. The small button dies of 1 inch diameter are very handy for threads up to 1/2 inch, but for threads over
1/2 inch, larger dies are required. Even the button die of 1 inch for 1/2 inch threads is so narrow that only a few teeth can cut the thread. This
size is very useful for rerunning a thread that has been damaged.
Only one die of each size is needed. One side of the die has a taper for starting and is used for cutting the thread. The other side has the full
thread clear to the face of the die, and the die can be turned this side to the work to finish the thread up to a shoulder.
It is difficult to start a die square with the work. If it is not started square, it will try to follow its own threads, while simultaneously running
off-center to the work, which tries to force it back to center. The result is a very crooked thread. There are die stocks that have three
adjustable fingers on the starting side. -
DIE AND DIE WRENCH
These can be set to bear on the work and guide the die square. You should also have a plain die stock to finish threads in close quarters where
the stock with the guide is too wide to use.
When you purchase the dies, get the kind that are split on one side so the size can be adjusted. There are a lot of these button dies sold at
bargain stores that are not true to size. These can cause a lot of trouble by cutting an over sized thread. Get dies made by one of the
recognized, nationally established firms, so you will be sure of getting good ones. It is often required to cut a thread a little under size, say,
for a free-running nut, and the adjustable die can do this.
It is also possible to cut an undersize thread by rerunning the thread with the die held at an angle. This makes the die cut some off the side of
the previously cut thread, but it will not be a true and even thread. It is to be used only when an adjustable die is not at hand and never where
accurate threads are required.
For cutting threads in the lathe with these button dies, use a die holder that fits in the tail stock. This has a guide portion on which the die can
slide as it feeds onto the work. The thread is started by putting pressure on the die with the tail stock.
After it is started, the die will feed itself. The lathe can be run under power, using the slowest speed of the back gears. On completion of the
thread, the lathe is reversed and backed off the die.
When backing off the die, be sure to remove the amount of feed used to start the die, or the die will stop backing off when the free travel is
used up and will chew up the threads.
It is best to unclamp the entire tail stock from the bed as you start to back off, you can then be sure the die can work all the way off without
doing any damage. A little sulphur-base cutting oil should be used on both taps and dies. With brass and aluminum, the taps and dies tend to
stick to the metal unless oil is used.
CHAPTER 12 THE TOOL GRINDER

If you need to do tool making in the shop, you will need a tool post grinder. It is a simple matter to make a small grinder for small tools. You
must do a little looking around in some appliance shops to find a motor that will run at a speed of 15,000 to 20,000 RPM. You can find new
high speed electric motors sold by w. w. Granger. Most large cities have a store, or an appliance store will be able to give you an address of
the nearest store.
Most vacuum cleaner motors will run at this speed. It will require a bit of work to cut down the housing to be able to make one work.
There are several types of small motors that will run at this speed, and they will mount directly to the base with very little alternations.
BEARING HOUSING
The bearing housing is made from a piece of mild steel shafting, bored and turned as showed. You might be able to find a ready built
mandrel from some . bearing supply business, or a tool supplier.
This piece cannot be held in a chuck while boring, as it projects to far out, so hold the head end in the three jaw chuck and support the tail
end in the steady rest. This means that the ends must be centered and the outside finished before you bore and finish the inside. The recess
for the bearings should be a good push fit on the outer races.
MAKE SHAFT SIZES TO FIT BEARINGS
SPINDLE FOR SMALL GRINDER

Tool Grinder Arbor
PULLYS
The pulleys are made from mild steel. Since you need to use a flat belt, they should have a crown turned on the face under the belt. A flat belt
always tries to run on the highest place on the pulley. If there is a crown in the center, making it the highest place, the belt will run there and
not need the flanges on the sides.
TOOL POST GRINDER
Shop Made Tool Post Grinder
These are only to help if the belt stretches out of shape and one edge gets longer than the other, in which case it will run to the side off the
crown. When the belt starts to do this, discard it, as it can start to whip at the high speed and cause vibration.
Make a pulley for the spindle, and a similar one for the motor, but fitted to the motor shaft. As these very small mounted grinding wheels
must run very fast, you may have to make several sets of pulleys to find the maximum speed you can run it. This will be limited by the belt
action.
Because of the high speed required, it is not possible to use a belt of much weight, such as a ―V‖ belt. Such a belt would stand out away from
the pulleys, due to centrifugal force, and would not only do very little work but would be apt to start whipping. The small flat rubber belts,
made for some floor polishing machines, work very well at this speed. Since the total length of the belt is about 16 inches, you should get one
before making the base of the grinder.
Then, when the pulley diameters are known, the distance between pulley centers can be worked out. This will govern the length of the 7/16
inch slot and the position of the bolt to the ―T‖ slot of the compound slide.
Make up two collars with parallel faces to grip the grinding wheel. After boring and reaming the hole, mount them on a mandrel and finish
both faces at the same setting. Use very light cuts so that the collars will not slip on the mandrel. The face of the collar that bears on the
grinding wheel is relieved so that pressure on the wheel is concentrated well out on the wheel.
A layer of onion skin paper should be placed between wheel and collar to equalize the pressure. If the collars are not relieved, one collar may
put pressure on the wheel near the shaft while the other bears near the rim. This could put a strain on the wheel and damage it.
GRINDING THE TOOL
CHAPTER 13 HEAT-TREAT FURNACE

Building a small heat-treat furnace for the shop. This furnace is made from . standard fire brick, 2½ x 4½ x 8 inches. Fire brick does vary in
size, so the size shown in the drawing may have to be changed to fit your needs. Another style of furnace is where the main opening is at the
top, and the part hangs down on the inside. This seems to give a more uniform heating.
A-Gas/Air outlet; B-Furnace opening; C-Side view; D-Opening for temperature sensor; E-Blower; F-Gas intake; G-Heat sensor pipe; H-Heat
sensor opening;
You will need 8 firebricks to make this. When completed you will have a furnace with an inside size of 4½ x 3 x 8 inches. This size will
handle just about any job in the shop.
FIRE BRICK
The fire brick is mortared together with the cement used in fireplaces, and it should not be any problem to get from any business that sells
fireplaces or wood burning stoves. The brick is placed 2, flat side by side, mortared, and then one brick on each side is stood on edge, (see
drawing) mortared to the two laying flat.
Two more are then placed on top of the first two. To finish it off, two more are mortared and set on edge on one end, as per drawing. Let it
set for 24 hours before starting any more work on it.
FURNACE AND GAS VALVE
Gas Furnace
Next you must get a cement drill 1½ inch, and drill one hole 1/4 inch above the base in the center on the side. This is where the 1 inch pipe
from the blower will be inserted.
You will need to get your pipe cut and threaded to the correct length. Connect a 2 inch pipe to the 1 inch pipe, this will go to the blower.
Next you will need to cover the fire brick on the outside. Cut 1/8 inch metal to fit to the outside and top and weld this together, to form a box
for the fire brick. Be sure to have a metal bottom already cut out to put under the brick so the sides can be welded to it.
FURNACE TORCH VALVE
Gas Metering Valve
You can when building this go with the opening in the top, and then you need not make a door for the front. This is the simplest way to go
and I believe the best. You hang the part down through the opening in the top. At the front there is a small opening for the temperature probe.
This is a 1/4 or 3/8 inch hole.
FRONT LOADING FURNACE
If you decide to build a front loading furnace you will need a 2 inch opening in the top of the furnace for the gas. Also you must build a metal
door for the front and line it fire brick. You now will need to find a used Kirby vacuum cleaner blower, or any other type of high speed
blower to provide the air for the furnace.
A shop Vacuum blower also works great. You will need to find an adjustable rheostat to control the speed of the blower. The speed that it
runs would make it impossible to light the oven. The final step is to tap into the air line with a line from your gas supply. .
COMPLETED HEAT-TREAT FURNACE
Top Loading Furnace
The basic tools for heat-treating is the gas torch. The torch is a simple apparatus consisting of a mixing tube into which fuel gas and a blast of
air are introduced to be mixed and burned at the end of the tube. An old vacuum cleaner can be used for the air blast.
The hose used for the various attachments for the cleaner can be used to deliver the blast of air to the torch. You must make a fitting for
attaching the hose at the dust-bag outlet and arrange the cleaner so that air can enter at the suction end.
At the torch, a gate of sheet metal is arranged to regulate the amount of air entering the mixing tube. You can also reduce the air flow by
reducing the speed of the blower. A simple light dimmer found at any hardware store, will do the job very good if you have a DC blower
motor.
The fuel is supplied through a rubber tube of a size to fit the supply pipe and the fitting on the torch. You should have a 1/4 inch needle valve
to adjust the gas to air mixture. Using Butane or Propane from a 5 gallon bottle works better as there may not be enough pressure from
natural gas. If you use butane, make sure all your fittings, and hose is for high pressure.
PROPANE BURNER
Propane Gas Burner
It has rubber ends that will fit on the gas nipples at each end. Any other good rubber tube can be used, such as a 3/8 inch garden hose. The
mixing tube must be long enough so that the gas and air are thoroughly mixed by the time it gets to the burner end.
Artificial gas will bum at the end of a plain mixing tube, but for natural gas there must be a special tip on the burner end to maintain the
flame, or else the air blast will snuff it out. This special tip consists of a jacket fitted around the end of the mixing tube with several small
holes drilled into the mixing tube. This gives a low-velocity supply of gas and air to the jacket.
This will maintain a small circular flame around the end of the mixing tube, which will keep the mixture ignited as it comes out of the end of
the main burner tube.
STARTING THE FURNACE
The air blast tends to blow the main flame so far away from the end of the mixing tube that it will mix with so much outside air that it will no
longer be a combustible mixture and will be snuffed out. This annular ring of low velocity flame surrounding the outlet of the mixing tube
will keep the main flame ignited unless so strong an air blast is used that the entire flame is blown away from the end of the mixing tube.
When you start up the burner, shut off the gas until you have the air adjusted, and then slowly turn on the gas, while holding a lit Butane
torch over the opening of the furnace. It is best to reduce the air blast until the gas is ignited and then slowly open it until the desired flame is
obtained. The flame should bum with a firm blue center cone, and the hottest spot will be at the tip of the blue cone. A yellow flame is not as
hot and is very sooty. After the bricks of the furnace have become well heated, the air blast may be opened a little farther, and the blast will
be increased.
The flame from this torch is very hot and will heat steel to a white heat for forging, but it is not hot enough for welding, however a supply of
oxygen for the air intake will increase the temperature.
Get a large enough cement drill to drill a hole through the fire brick about 2 inches from the top. The heat sensor will fit in there. I find a
short length of iron pipe, that is large enough on the ID to allow the sensor to fit inside. This pipe is then mortared in place. See Drawing.
A High Temperature gauge can be purchase from an industrial supply dealer. If you can find one, a 2000 degree gauge is best.
In the air intake pipe (A) you will need some kind of manually controlled valve. You must be able to shut the air down quite a bit. If you
tried to use the full amount of air, it would blow out the flame.
When you are ready to start the furnace, hook up the gas, check for leaks with soap, and if OK you are ready to fire up.
BLOWER FURNACE
High Pressure Blower
NOTE It is important to do things at first very carefully to prevent an accident This is the way I have my furnace set up, and have
had no problems. I have no control over what is done by other people, and cannot accept responsibility for what another person
does. If you build a gas furnace you are on your own. Check it outside of the building for safety’s sake.
Turn on the air, and close down the valve until there is almost no flow through the pipe. Now take a butane torch and light it. Open the main
valve on the gas tank.
BE SURE THAT THE SMALL ADJUSTING VALVE IS CLOSED ALL THE WAY.
Holding the lit torch over the opening, slowly turn on the gas. In a few seconds it should light. There probably won’t be much flame, so
slowly open the air valve/gas valve until the furnace has a ―roar‖ to it. Don’t open the air valve too much as you need a slow heat. Adjust the
fuel so that you get 3 to 4 inches of flame from the top. Let it heat up to dry out, and then it is ready to use.
BURNER FOR FURNACE
Gas Air Mixture For Furnace
Once it has cooled down, it can be moved back in the shop. This furnace can be changed to where it is front loading, made larger, or altered
for whatever is needed.
This furnace is very fast. Normally it takes only 10 to 15 minutes to get to operating temperature. I find that hanging the knife parts down
from the top will cause even heating. You can use 2 bricks to close down the opening more to confine the heat better. When through heat
treating, close the top up with the bricks, and let cool down to tempering temperature.
This furnace works great with 01 and other tool steels. It can be used for forging steel as well.
430 degrees, Very pale yellow, extra file hard, dies, milling cutters, cut off tools.
440 degrees, Light Yellow, file hard, reamers, thread chasers, fly cutters, hollow mills.
450 degrees, Pale straw yellow, profile cutters for milling machines, rolling dies, knurling tools.
460 degrees, Straw yellow, knife hard, swages.
470 degrees, Deep straw yellow.
480 degrees, Dark yellow, cutting dies.
490 degrees, Yellow brown, extra hard, taps, dies.
500 degrees, Brown yellow, thread dies for general work.
510 degrees, Spotted red brown.
520 degrees, Brown purple, hard.
550 degrees, Dark purple.
560 degrees, Full purple.
570 degrees, Dark blue, half hard.
620 degrees, Blue gray, spring temper.

752 degrees, Red heat, visible in the dark.
885 degrees, Red heat, visible in the twilight.
975 degrees, Red heat, visible in the daylight.
1077 degrees, Red heat, visible in the sunlight.
1292 degrees, Dark red.
1472 degrees, Dull cherry red.
1652 degrees, Cherry red.
1832 degrees, Bright cherry red.
2015 degrees, Orange red.
2192 degrees, Orange Yellow.
2372 degrees, Yellow white.
2552 degrees, White welding heat.
2732 degrees, Brilliant white.
2912 degrees, Dazzling white, bluish white.
In tempering I let the oven cool down to the temperature that I need to draw the temper for the job that I need, I then put the part in the oven,
then let it cool down over night.
APPENDIX
MULTIPLY BY TO OBTAIN
Acres 43560 Square feet
Acres 4047 Square meters
Acres 0·0016 Square miles
Acres 4840 Square yards
Acre feet 43560 Cubic feet
Acre feet 1233. 48 Cubic meters
Atmospheres 76·0 Centimeters - mercury
Atmospheres 29·92 Inches - mercury
Atmospheres 14·70 Pounds/in.2
Atmospheres 1·058 Tons/ft.2
Barrels - oil 42 Gallons - oil
Board feet 144 Cubic inches
British Thermal Units 777·6 Foot-pounds
British Thermal Units 3·927 x 104 Horsepower-hours
British Thermal Units 2·928 x 104 Kilowatt-hours
Btu/min 12·96 Foot-pounds/s
Btu/min 0·0236 Horsepower
Btu/min 17·57 Watts
Centares (Centares) 1 Square meters
Centigrams 0·01 Grams
Centimeters 0·3937 Inches
Centimeters 0·01 Meters..
Centimeters 10 Millimeters
Centimeters - mercury 0·0132 Atmospheres
Centimeters - mercury 0·4460 Feet - water (4° C)
Centimeters - mercury 136·0 Kilograms/m2
Centimeters - mercury 27·85 Pounds/ft2
Centimeters-mercury 0·1934 Pounds/in.2
Centimeters/s 0·0328 Feet/s
Centimeters/s 0·036 Kilometers/h
Centimeters/s 0·6 Meters/m in
Centimeters/s 0·0224 Miles/h
Centimeters/s 0·0004 Miles/min
Cubic centimeters 3·531 x 105 Cubic feet
Cubic centimeters , 0610 Cubic inches
Cubic centimeters 1 x 106 Cubic meters
Cubic centimeters 1·3079 x 10-6 Cubic yards
Cubic centimeters 2·642 x 10-4 Gallons
Cubic centimeters 0·0010 Liters.
Cubic centimeters 0·0021 Pints (liq.)
Cubic centimeters 0·0011 Quarts (liq.)
Cubic feet 1728 Cubic inches
Cubic feet 0·0283 Cubic meters
Cubic feet 7·4805 Gallons
Cubic feet 28·32 Liters
Cubic feet 59·84 Pints (liq.)
Cubic feet 29·92 Quarts (liq.)
Cubic feet/min 0·1247 Gallons/s
Cubic feet/min 0·4719 Liters/s
Cubic feet/s 448·831 Gallons/m in
Cubic inches 16·39 Cubic centimeters
Cubic inches 0·0005787 Cubic feet
Cubic inches 1·6387 x 10-5 Cubic meters
Cubic inches 2·1433 x 10-5 Cubic yards
Cubic inches 0·004329 Gallons
Cubic inches 0·0164 Liters
Cubic inches 0·0346 Pints (liq.)
Cubic inches 0·0173 Quarts (liq.)
Cubic meters 1 x 106 Cubic centimeters
Cubic meters 35·31 Cubic feet
Cubic meters 61023 Cubic inches
Cubic meters 1·308 Cubic yards
Cubic meters 264·2 Gallons
Cubic meters 1000 Liters
Cubic meters 2113 Pints (liq.)
Cubic meters 1057 Quarts (liq.)
Cubic yards 27 Cubic feet
Cubic yards 46·656 Cubic inches
Cubic yards 0·7645 Cubic meters
Cubic yards 202·0 Gallons
Cubic yards 764·5 - Liters
Cubic yards 1616 Pints (liq.)
Cubic yards 807·9 Quarts (liq.)
Cubic yards/min 0·45 ― Cubic feet/s
Cubic yards/min 3·367 Gallons/s
Cubic yards/min 12·74 Liter/s
Degrees (angle) 60 minutes
Degrees (angle) 0·0174 Radians
Degrees (angle) 3600 Seconds
Degree/s 0·1667 Revolutions/min
Degree/s 0·0028 Revolutions/s
Drams 27·34 Grains
Drams 0·0625 Ounces
Drams 1·7718 GRAMS
Fathoms 6 Feet
Feet 30·48 Centimeters
Feet 12 Inches
Feet 0·3048 meters
Feet 0·3333 Yards
Feet- water (4°C) 0·8826 Inches - mercury
Feet-water 62·43 Pounds/ft2
Feet/min 0·5080 Centimeters/s
Feet/min 0, 0183 Kilometers/h
Feet/min 0·3048 Meters/min
Feet/min 0·0114 Miles/h
Feet/s 30·48 Centimeters/s
Feet/s 1·097 Kilometers/h
Feet/s 18·29 Meters/min
Fee/s 0·6818 Miles/h
Feet/s 0·0114 Miles/min
Foot-pounds 0·0013 British Thermal units
Footpounds 5·0505 x l0-7 Horsepower-hours
Footpounds 3·766 x l0-7 Kilowatt-hours
Footpounds/m in 0·0167 Footpounds/s
Footpounds/m in 3·030xl0-5 Horsepower
Footpounds/min 2·2597x10-5 Kilowatts
Gallons 3785 Cubic centimeters
Gallons 0·1337 Cubic feet
Gallons 231 Cubic inches
Gallons 0·0038 Cubic meters
Gallons 3·785 Liters
Gallons 8 Pints (liq.)
Gallons 4 Quarts (liq.)
Gallons Imperial 1·2009 u. s. gallons
Gallons U. S. 0·8327 Imperial gallons
Gallons-water 8·34 Pounds-water
Grains 980·7 Dynes
Grams 15·43 Grains
Grams 0·0353 Ounces
Grams 0·0322 Ounces (troy)
Grams 0·0022 Pounds
Grams/cm3 0·0361 Pounds, in3
Hectares 2·471 Acres
Horsepower 42·44 Btu/min
Horsepower 33000 Foot-pounds/min
Horsepower 550 Foot-pounds/s
Horsepower 1·014 Horsepower (metric)
Horsepower 0·7457 Kilowatts
Horsepower -hours 0·7457 Kilowatt-hours
Inches 2·540 Centimeters
Inches - mercury 0, 033 Atmospheres
Inches - mercury 3·45. 3 Kilograms/m2
Inches - mercury 70·73 Pounds/ft2
Inches - water 0·0735 Inches - mercury
Kilograms 980665 Dynes
Kilograms 2·205 Pounds
Kilometers 3281 Feet
Kilometers 1000 Meters
Kilometers 0·6214 Miles
Miles/h 1·609 Kilometers/h
Miles/h 0·8690 Knots
Miles/h 6·82 Meters/min
Miles/min 2682 Centimeters/s
Miles/min 88 Feet/s
Meters/min 1·609 Kilometers/min
Meters/min 60 Miles/h
Milligrams 0·001 Grains
Milliliters 0·001 Liters
Millimeters 0·1 Centimeters
Millimeters 0·0394 Inches
Ounces 16 Drams
Ounces 437·5 Grains
Ounces 0·0625 Pounds
Ounces 0·9115 Ounces (troy)
Ounces 2·8349 x 10-5 Tons (metric)
Ounces (troy) 1·0971 Ounces (avoir.)
Ounces (fluid) 1·805 Cubic inches
Ounces (fluid) 0·0296 Liters
Pounds 16 Ounces
Pounds 256 Drams
Pounds 7000 Grains
Pounds 0·0005 Tons (short)
Pounds 1·2153 Pounds (troy)
Pounds/in3 1728 Pounds/ft.3
Pounds/ft. 1488 Kilograms/m
Pounds/in. 178·6 Grams/cm
Pounds/ft. 2 4·882 Kilograms/m2
Pounds/in. 2 0·0680 Atmospheres
Pounds/in. 2 2·036 Inches-mercury
Quadrants (angle) 1·571 Radians
Quarts (liq.) 57·75 Cubic inches
Quintal, metric 220·46 Pounds
Radians 57·30 Degrees
Radians 3438 Minutes
Radians 0·637 Quadrants
Radians/s 9·549 Revolutions/min
Revolutions/s 360 Degrees/s
Revolutions/s 6·283 Radians/s
Revolutions/s 60 Revolutions/min
Seconds (angle) 4·8481 x 10-6 Radians
Square centimeters 0·0011 Square feet
Square centimeters 0·1550 Square inches
Square centimeters 0·0001 Square meters
Square centimeters 100 Square millimeters
Square feet 2·2957xl05 Acres
Square feet 929·0 Square centimeters
Square feet 144 Square inches
Square feet 0·0929 Square meters
Square feet 3·5870x108 Square miles
Square feet 0·1111 Square yards
Square inches 6·452 Square centimeters
Square inches 0·0069 Square feet
Square Kilometers 247·1 Acres
Square kilometers 1·0764xl07 Square feet
Square kilometers lxlO6 Square meters
Square Kilometers 0·3861 Square miles
Square kilometers 1·1960xl06 Square yards
Square meters 10·76 Square feet
Square meters 1·1960 Square yards
Square miles 640 Acres
Square miles 2·590 Square kilometers
Square miles 3·0976xl06 Square yards
Square millimeters 0·01 Square centimeters
Square millimeters 0·0016 Square inches
Square yards 9 Square feet
Square yards 0·8361 Square meters
Square yards 3·2283xl07 Square miles
Tons (metric) 1000 Kilograms
Tons (metric) 2205 Pounds
Tons (short) 2000 Pounds
Tons (short) 0·89286 Ton (long)
Tons (short) 0·9072 Tons (metric)
Watts 0·0586 Btu (mean)/min
Watts 0·7377 Foot-pounds/s
Watts 0·0013 Horsepower
Watts 0·001 Kilowatts
Watt-hours 3·4144 British Thermal units
Watt-hours 2655 Foot-pounds
Watt-hours 0·00134 Horsepower-hours
Watt-hours 0·001 Kilowatt-hours
Yards 91·44 Centimeters
Yards 3 Feet
Yards - 36 Inches
Yards 0·9144 Meters
Cutting Speeds for High-Speed Steel Drills
Drill size (inches) Brass Cast iron Mild steel Stainless steel
1/16 12,000 6,000 4,800 3,000
1/8 6,000 3,000 2,400 1,500
¼ 3,000 1,530 1,200 1,000
3/8 2,000 1,000 815 500
½ 1,530 760 610 380
5/8 1,220 610 490 300
¾ 1,000 500 400 250
7/8 875 440 350 220
1 760 380 300 190
Diameters with Relative Circumferences

Diameter Circumference Diameter Circumference
(inches (feet) (inches) (feet)
1/2 ·131 3½ ·92
3/4 ·196 4 1·05
1 ·26 4½ 1·18
1¼ ·33 5 1·31
1½ ·40 5½ 1·45
1¾ ·45 6 1·56
2 ·53 6½ 1·83
2½ ·65 7 1·83
3 ·79 7½ 1·95
R. P. M. Speeds for Fraction Size Drills1

Feet 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
per
Min.
Diam. Revolutions per Minute
(Inches)
1/16 1833 2445 3056 3667 4278 4889 5500 6111 6722 7334 7945 8556
1/8 917 1222 1528 1833 2139 2445 2750 3056 3361 3667 3973 4278
3/16 611 815 1019 1222 1426 1630 1833 2037 2241 2445 2648 2852
¼ 458 611 764 917 1070 1222 1375 1528 1681 1833 1986 2139
5/16 367 489 611 733 856 978 1100 1222 1345 1467 1589 1711
3/8 306 407 509 611 713 815 917 1019 1120 1222 1324 1426:
7/16 262 349 437 524 611 698 786 873 960 1048 1135 1222
½ 229 306 382 458 535 611 688 764 840 917 993 1070:
5/8 183 244 306 367 428 489 550 611 672 733 794 856
¾ 153 203 255 306 357 407 458 509 560 611 662 713
7/8 131 175 218 262 306 349 393 436 480 524 568 611
1 115 153 191 229 267 306 344 382 420 458 497 535
1⅛ 102 136 170 204 238 272 306 340 373 407 441 475
1¼ 92 122 153 183 214 244 275 306 336 367 397 428
1⅜ 83 111 139 167 194 222 250 278 306 333 361 389
1½ 76 102 127 153 178 204 229 255 280 306 331 357
1⅝ 70 94 117 141 165 188 212 235 259 282 306 329
1¾ 65 87 109 131 153 175 196 218 240 262 284 306
1⅞ 61 81 102 122 143 163 183 204 224 244 265 285
2 57 76 95 115 134 153 172 191 210 229 248 267
2¼ 51 68 85 102 119 136 153 170 187 204 221 238
2½ 46 61 76 92 107 122 137 153 168 183 199 214
2¾ 42 56 69 83 97 111 125 139 153 167 181 194
3 38 51 64 76 89 102 Ho 127 140 153 166 178
1
Courtesy of Cleveland Twist. Drill Co,
Fractional Thread Sizes
Screw Thread Tap "V" 60° USS: 60°
size series drill DD DD
(inches)
¼-20 NC 7 ·087 ·050 ·065 ·038
¼-28 NF 3 ·062 ·036 ·046 ·027
5/16-18 NC F(1/4) -096 ·056 ·072 ·042
5/16-24 NF I(9/32) ·072 ·042 ·054 ·031
3/8-16 NC 5/16 ·108 ·063 ·081 ·047
3/8-24 NF Q(11/32) ·072 ·042 ·054 ·031
7/16-14 NC U(3/8) ·124 ·071 ·093 ·054
7/16-20 NF 25/64 ·087 ·050 ·065 ·038
½-13 NC 27/64 ·133 ·077 ·100 ·058
½-20 NF 29/64 ·087 050 ·065 ·038
9/16-12 NC 31/64 ·144 ·083 ·108 ·062
9/16-18 NF 33/64 ·096 ·056 ·072 ·042
5/8-11 NC 17/32 ·157 ·091 ·118 ·068
5/8-18 NF 37/64 ·096 ·056 ·072 ·042
¾-10 NC 21/32 ·173 ·100 ·130 ·075
¾-16 NF 11/16 ·108 ·063 ·081 ·047
7/8-9 NC 49/64 ·192 ·111 ·144 ·083
7/8-14 NF 13/16 ·124 ·071 ·093 ·054
1-8 NC 7/8 ·217 ·125 ·162 ·094
1-14 NF 15/16 ·124 ·071 ·093 ·054
1⅛-7 NC 63/64 ·247 ·143 ·186 ·107
1⅛-12 NF 1 3/64 ·144 ·083 ·108 ·062
1¼-7 NC 1 7/64 ·247 ·143 ·186 ·107
1¼-12 NF 1 11/64 ·144 ·083 ·108 ·062
1⅜-6 NC 1 7/32 ·289 ·167 217 ·125
1⅜-12 NF 1 19/64 ·144 ·083 ·108 ·062
1½-6 NC 1 11/32 ·289 ·167 ·217 ·125
1½-12 NF 1 27/64 ·144 ·083 ·108 ·062
1¾-5 NC 1 9/16 ·346 ·200 ·260 ·150
2-4½ NC 1 25/32 ·385 ·222 ·289 ·167
Lathe Cutting Speeds1
Feet 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 120 140 160
per
Min.
Diam. REVOLUTIONS PER MINUTE
Inches
¼ 611 764 917 1070 1222 L375 1528 1833 2140 2444
⅜ 408 509 611 713 815 916 1018 1222 1426 1630
½ 306 382 458 535 611 088 764 916 1070 1222
⅝ 244 306 367 428 489 550 611: 733 856 978
¾ 204 254 306 357 407 458 509 611 714 814
⅞ 175 218 262 306 349 393 436 523 612 698
1 153 191 229 267 306 344 382 458 534 612
1⅛ 136 170 204 238 272 305 339 407 476 544
1¼ 122 153 183 214 244 275 305 366 428 488
1⅜ 111 139 166 194 222 249 277 332 388 444
1½ 202 127 153 178 204 229 254 305 356 408
1¾ 87 109 131 153 175 196 218 262 306 350
2 76 95 114 133 153 172 191 229 266 306
2¼ 68 85 102 119 136 153 170 204 238 272
2½ 61 76 92 107 122 137 153 183 214 244
2¾ 55 69 83 97 111 125 139 166 194 222
3 51 64 76 89 102 115 127 153 178 204
3¼ 47 59 70 82 94 106 117 141 164 188
3½ 44 54 65 76 87 98 109 131 152 174
3¾ 41 51 61 71 81 92 102 122 142 162
4 38 48 57 67 76 86 95 114 134 152
4½ 34 42 51 59 68 76 85 102 118 136
5 30 38 46 53 61 69 76 92 106 122
5½ 28 35 42 49 55 62 69 83 98 110
6 25 32 38 44 51 57 64 76 88 102
6½ 23 29 35 41 47 53 69 70 82 94
7 22 27 33 38 44 49 54 65 76 88
7½ 20·4 25 31 36 41 46 51 61 72 82
8 19·1 24 29 33 38 43 48 57 66 76
8½ 18 22 27 31 36 40 45 54 62 72
9 17·0 21·2 25 30 34 38 42 51 60 68
9½ 16·1 20·1 24 28 32 36 40 48 56 64
10 15·3 19·1 23 27 31 34 38 46 54 62
11 13·9 17·4 20·8 24 28 31 35 41 48 56
12 12·7 15·9 19·1 22 25 29 32 38 44 50
13 11·8 14·7 17·6 20·6 23 26 29 35 41 46
14 10·9 13·6 16·4 19·1 22 24 27 33 38 44
15 10·2 12·7 15·3 17·8 20·4 23 25 30 35 41
16 9·5 11·9 14·3 16·7 19·1 21·4 24 29 33 38
17 9·0 11·2 13·5 15·7 18·0 20·2 22 27 31 36
18 85 10·6 12·7 14·8 17·0 19·1 21 25 30 34
1
Source: Turret Lathe Operator’s Manual, The Warner & Swaney Co.
Machine-Screw Threads
Screw Thread Tap Clearance
size series drill drill
(inches)
2/64 NC 50 42
2/56 NF 50 42
4/40 NC 43 31
4/48 NF 42 31
6/32 NC 36 26
6/40 NF 38 26
8/32 NC 29 17
8/36 NF 29 17
10/24 NC 25 8
10/32 NF 21 8
12/24 NC 16 1
12/28 NF 14 1
R.P.M. Speeds for Number Size Drills
Feet 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 Decimal
per Equivalents
Min
No Revolutions per Minute
Size
1 503 670 838 1005 1173 1340 1508 1675 1843 2010 2179 ·2290
2 518 691 864 1037 1210 1382 1555 1728 1901 2074 2247 ·2210
3 538 717 897 1076 1255 1434 1614 1793 1974 2152 2331 ·2130
4 548 731 914 1097 1280 1462 1645 1828 2010 2193 2376 ·2090
5 558 744 930 1115 1301 1487 1673 1859 2045 2230 2416 ·2055
e 562 749 936 1123 1310 1498 1685 1872 2060 2247 2434 ·2040
7 570 760 950 1140 1330 1520 1710 1900 2090 2281 2470 ·5010
8 576 768 960 1151 1343 1535 1727 1919 2111 2303 2495 ·1990
9 585 780 975 1169 1364 1559 1764 1949 2144 2339 2534 ·1960
10 592 790 987 1184 1382 1579 1777 1974 2171 2369 2566 ·1935
11 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600 ·1910
12 606 80S 1010 1213 1415 1617 1819 2021 2223 2425 2627 ·1890
13 620 826 1032 1239 1450 1652 1859 2065 2271 2479 2684 ·1850
14 630 840 1050 1259 1469 1679 1889 2099 2309 2518 2728 ·1820
15 638 851 1064 1276 1489 1702 1914 2127 2334 2546 2759 ·1800
16 647 863 1079 1295 1511 1726 1942 2158 2374 2590 2806 ·1770
17 662 883 1104 1325 1546 1766 1987 2208 2429 2650 2870 ·1730
18 678 904 1130 1356 1582 1808 2034 2260 2479 2704 2930 ·1695
19 690 920 1151 1381 1611 1841 2071 2301 2531 2761 2991 ·1660
20 712 949 1186 1423 1660 1898 2135 2372 2610 2847 3084 ·1610
21 721 961 1201 1441 1681 1922 2162 2402 2644 2883 3123 ·1590
22 730 973 1217 1460 1703 1946 2190 2433 2676 2920 3164 ·1570
23 744 992 1240 1488 1736 1984 2232 2430 2728 2976 3224 ·1540
24 754 1005 1257 1508 1759 2010 2262 2513 2764 3016 3267 ·1520
25 767 1022 1276 1533 1789 2044 2300 2555 2810 3066 3322 ·1495
26 779 1039 1299 1559 1819 2078 233£ 2598 2858 3118 3378 ·1470
27 796 1061 1327 1592 1857 2122 238$ 2653 2919 3183 3448 ·1440
28 816 1088 1360 1631 1903 2175 2447 2719 2990 3202 3534 ·1405
29 843 1124 1405 1685 1966 2247 252$ 2809 3090 3370 3651 ·1360
30 892 1189 1487 1784 2081 2378 2676 2973 3270 3567 3864 ·1285
31 955 1273 1592 1910 2228 2546 2865 3183 3501 3821 4138 ·1200
32 988 1317 1647 1976 2305 2634 2964 3293 3622 3951 4281 , 1160
33 1014 1352 1690 2028 2366 2704 3043 3380 3718 4056 4394 ·1130
34 1032 1376 1721 2065 2409 2753 3093 3442 3785 4129 4474 ·1110
35 1042 1389 1736 2083 2430 2778 3125 3472 3821 4167 4514 ·1100
36 1076 1435 1794 2152 2511 2870 3228 3587 3945 4304 4663 ·1065
37 1102 1469 1837 2204 2571 2938 3306 3673 4040 4407 4775 ·1040
38 1129 1505 1882 2258 2634 3010 3587 3763 4140 4516 4892 ·1015
39 1152 1530 1920 2303 2687 3071 3455 3839 4222 4607 4991 ·0995
40 1169 1559 1949 2339 2729 3118 3508 3898 4287 4677 5067 ·0980
41 1194 1592 1990 2387 2785 3183 3581 3979 4377 4775 5172 ·0960
42 1226 1634 2043 2451 2860 3268 3677 4085 4494 4902 5311 ·0935
43 1288 1717 2146 2575 3004 3434 3863 4292 4721 5150 5579 ·0890
44 1333 1777 2221 2665 3109 3554 3999 4442 4886 5330 3774 ·0660
45 1397 1863 2329 2795 3261 3726 4192 4658 5124 5590 3056 ·0820
1
Courteny of Cleveland Twist Drill Co,
R.P.M. Speeds for Number Size Drills (Continued)
Feet 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 Decimal
per Equivalents
Min
No. Revolutions per Minute
Size
46 1415 1886 2358 2830 3301 3773 4244 4716 5187 5659 6130 ·0810
47 1460 1946 2433 2920 3406 3893 4379 4866 5352 5839 6326 ·07S5
48 1508 2010 2513 3016 3518 4021 4523 5026 5528 6031 6534 ·0760
49 1570 2093 2617 3140 3663 4186 4710 5233 5756 6279 6808 ·0730
50 1637 2183 2729 3274 3820 4366 4911 5457 6002 6548 7094 ·0700
51 1710 2280 2851 3421 3991 4561 5131 5701 6271 6841 7413 ·0670
52 1805 2406 3008 3609 4211 4812 5414 6015 6619 7218 7820 ·0635
53 1924 2566 3207 3848 4490 5131 5773 6414 7062 7704 8346 ·0595
54 2084 2778 3473 4167 4862 5556 6251 6945 7639 8334 9028 ·0550
55 2204 2938 3673 4408 5142 5877 6611 7346 8080 8815 9549 ·0520
56 2465 3286 4108 4929 5751 6572 7394 8215 9036 9857 10678 ·0465
57 2671 3561 4452 5342 6232 7122 8013 8903 9771 10660 11548 ·0430
58 2729 3637 4547 5456 6367 7275 8186 9095 10004 10913 11823 ·0420
59 2795 3726 4658 5590 6521 7453 8388 9316 10248 11180 12111 ·0410
60 2865 3820 4775 5729 6684 7639 8594 9549 10504 11459 12414 ·0400
61 2938 3918 4897 5876 6856 7835 8810 9794 10774 11753 12732 ·0390
62 3015 4020 5025 6030 7035 8040 9045 10050 11057 12060 13068 ·0380
63 3096 4128 5160 6192 7224 8256 9288 10320 11366 12398 13421 ·0370
64 3183 4244 5305 6366 7427 8488 0549 10610 11671 12732 13793 ·0360
65 3273 4364 5455 6546 7637 8728 9819 10910 12005 13096 14187 ·0350
66 3474 4632 5790 6948 8106 9264 10422 11580 12732 13890 15047 ·0330
67 3582 4776 5970 7164 8358 0552 10746 11940 13130 14324 15517 ·0320
68 3696 4928 6160 7392 8624 9856 11088 12320 13554 14786 16018 ·0310
69 3918 5224 6530 7836 9142 10488 11754 13060 14389 15697 17006 ·0292
70 4091 5456 6820 8184 9548 10912 12276 13640 15006 16370 17734 ·0280
71 4419 5892 7365 8838 10311 11784 13257 14730 16160 17629 19099 ·0260
72 4584 6112 7640 9168 10696 12224 13752 15280 16807 15335 19863 ·0250
73 4776 6368 7960 9552 11144 12736 14328 15920 17507 19099 20690 ·0240
74 5106 6808 8510 10212 11914 13616 15318 17020 18674 20372 22069 ·0225
75 5457 7276 9095 10914 12733 14552 16371 18190 20008 21827 23646 ·0210
76 5730 7640 9550 11460 13370 15280 17100 19100 21008 22918 24828 ·0200
77 6366 8488 10610 12732 14854 16976 19098 21220 23343 25465 27587 ·0180
78 7161 9548 11935 14322 16709 19096 21483 23870 26260 28648 31035 ·0160
79 7902 10536 13170 15804 18438 21072 23706 26340 28988 31611 34246 ·0145
80 8490 11320 14150 16980 19810 22640 25470 28300 21123 33953 36782 ·0135
Courtesy of Cleveland Twist Drill Co.
Milling Machine R.P.M Necessary to Give a Desired Cutting Speed1
Cutting Speeds is Feet Per Minute
¼ 611 764 917 1,070 1,222 1,375
5/16 489 611 733 856 978 1,100
3/8 407 509 611 713 815 917
7/16 349 437 524 611 698 786
½ 306 382 458 535 611 688
5/8 244 306 367 428 489 550
¾ 204 255 306 357 407 458
7/8 175 218 262 306 349 393
1 153 191 229 267 306 344
1⅛ 136 170 204 238 272 306
1¼ 122 153 183 214 244 275
1⅜ 111 139 167 194 222 250
1½ 102 127 153 178 204 229
1⅝ 94 117 141 165 188 212
1¾ 87 109 131 153 175 196
1⅞ 81 102 122 143 163 183
2 76 95 115 134 153 172
2¼ 68 85 102 119 136 153
2½ 61 76 92 107 122 137
2¾ 56 69 83 97 111 125
3 51 64 76 89 102 115
3½ 44 55 65 76 87 98
4 38 48 57 67 76 86
4½ 84 42 51 59 68 77
5 31 38 46 54 61 69
5½ 28 35 42 49 56 63
6 25 32 28 45 51 57
7 22 27 33 38 44 49
8 19 24 29 33 38 43
9 17 21 25 30 34 38
10 15 19 23 27 31 34
11 14 17 21 24 28 31
12 13 16 19 22 25 29
13 12 15 18 21 24 27
16 10 12 14 17 19 22
18 8 11 13 15 17 19
1
Source: American Machinist.
Suggested Drill Speeds for Various Materials1
Material to be Drilled Cutting Speed (Surface Feet per Minute)
Aluminum and its alloys 200-300
Bakalite 100-150
Brass and bronze, soft 200-300
Bronze, high tensile 70-150
Carbon, pure (carbide drills) 100
Cast iron, soft 100-150
Cast iron, hard 70-100
Cast iron, chilled 30-40
Copper graphite alloy (carbide drills) 60-70
Glass (carbide drills) 20-30
Magnesium and its alloys 250-400
Malleable iron 80-90
Marble 15-25
Marble (carbide drills) 60-80
Nickel and monel 40-60
Slate 15-25
Slate (carbide drills) 40
Steel, machinery (0·2-0·3 c) 80-110
Steel, annealed (0·4-0·5 c) 70-80
Steel, tool (1·2 c) 50-60
Steel, forged 50-60
Steel, alloy (300 to 400 Brinnel) 20-30
Steel, stainless, free machining 30-40
Steel, stainless, hard 30-40
Steel, manganese 15
Stone 15-25
Stone (carbide drills) 30
Wood 300-400
1
Source: American Machinist.
Tap Drill Sizes

American National Coarse Standard Thread (N.C,) Formerly U.S. Standard American National Fine Standard Thread (N.F.) Formerly S.A.E. Thread
Sizes Threads Outside Tap Decimal Sizes Threads Outside Tap Decimal
per Diameter Drill Equivalent per Diameter Drill equivalent
Inch of Screw Sixes of Drill Inch of Screw Sizes of Drill
1 64 ·073 53 ·0595 0 80 ·060 3/64 ·0469
2 66 ·086 50 ·0700 1 72 ·073 53 ·0595
3 48 ·099 47 ·0785 2 64 080 50 ·0700
4 40 ·112 43 ·0890 3 58 ·099 45 ·0820
5 40 ·125 38 ·1035 4 48 ·112 42 ·0935
6 32 ·138 36 ·1065 5 44 ·125 37 ·1040
8 32 ·164 29 ·1360 6 40 ·138 33 ·1130
10 24 ·190 25 ·1495 8 36 ·164 29 ·1360
12 24 ·216 16 ·1770 10 32 ·190 21 ·1590
¼ 20 ·250 7 ·2010 12 28 ·216 14 ·1820
5/16 18 ·3125 F ·2570 ¼ 28 ·250 3 ·2130
⅜ 16 ·375 5/16 ·3125 5/16 24 ·3125 I ·2720
7/16 14 ·4375 U ·3080 3/8 24 , 375 Q ·3320
½ 13 ·500 27/64 ·4219 7/16 20 ·4375 25/64 ·3006
9/16 12 ·5625 51/64 ·4843 ½ 20 ·500 29/64 ·4531
⅝ 11 ·625 17/32 ·5312 9/16 18 ·5625 ·5062 ·5062
¾ 10 ·750 21/32 ·6562 5/8 18 ·625 ·5687 ·5687
⅞ 9 ·875 49/64 ·7636 ¾ 16 ·750 11/16 ·6575
1 8 1·000 7/8 ·875 7/8 14 ·875 ·8020 ·8020
1⅛ 7 1·125 63/64 ·9843 1 14 1·000 ·9274 ·9274
1¼ 7 1·250 1 7/64 1·1093 1⅛ 12 1·123 1 3/64 1·0468
1¼ 12 1·250 1 11/64 1·1718
Courtesy of South Bend Lathe Works
Unified and American Standard Coarse Thread Series-Basic Dimensions
Size Basic Thds. Basic Minor Minor Lead Area
Major per Pitch Diam. Diam. Angle, Minor
Diam Inch Diam. Ext. Int. Basic Diam.
Thds Thds. Pitch
Diam.
Inches Inches Inches Inches Deg. Min. Sq. In.
1 (073) ·0730 64 ·0629 ·0538 ·0561 4 31 ·0022
2 (086) ·0860 56 ·0744 ·0641 ·0667 4 22 ·0031
3 (099) ·0990 48 ·0855 ·0734 · 0764 4 26 ·0041
4 (112) ·1120 40 ·0958 ·0813 ·0849 4 45 ·0050
5 (125) ·1250 40 ·1088 ·0943 ·0979 4 11 ·0067
6 (138) ·1380 32 ·1177 ·0997 ·1042 4 50 ·0075
8 (164) ·1640 32 ·1437 ·1257 ·1302 3 58 ·0120
10 (190) ·1900 24 ·1629 ·1389 ·1449 4 39 ·0145
12 (216) ·2160 24 ·1889 ·1649 ·1709 4 1 ·0206
¼ ·2500 20 ·2175 ·1887 ·1959 4 11 ·0269
5/16 ·3125 18 ·2764 ·2443 ·2524 3 40 ·0454
3/8 ·3750 16 ·3344 ·2983 ·3073 3 24 ·0678
7/16 ·4375 14 ·3911 ·3499 ·3602 3 20 ·0933
½ ·5000 13 ·4500 ·4056 ·4167 3 7 ·1257
9/16 ·5625 12 ·5084 ·4603 ·4723 2 59 ·1620
5/8 ·6250 11 ·5660 ·5135 ·5266 2 56 ·2018
¾ ·7500 10 ·6850 ·6273 ·6417 2 40 ·3020
7/8 ·8750 9 ·8023 ·7387 ·7547 2 31 ·4193
1 1·0000 8 ·9188 ·8466 ·8647 2 29 ·5510
1⅛ 1·1250 7 1·0322 ·9497 ·9704 2 31 ·6931
1¼ 1·2500 7 1·1572 1·0747 1·0954 2 15 ·8898
1⅜ 1·3750 6 1·2667 1·1705 1·1946 2 24 1·0541
1½ 1·5000 6 1·3917 1·2955 1·3196 2 11 1·2938
1¾ 1·7500 5 1·6201 1·5046 1·5335 2 15 1·7441
2 2·0000 4½ 1·8557 1·7274 1·7594 2 11 2·3001
2¼ 2·2500 4½ 2·1057 1·9774 2·0094 1 55 3·0212
2½ 2·5000 4 2·3376 2·1933 2·2294 1 57 3·7161
2¾ 2·7500 4 2·5876 2·4433 2·4794 1 46 4·6194
3 3·0000 4 2·8376 2 6933 2·7294 1 36 5·6209
3¼ 3·2500 4 3·0876 2·9433 2·9794 1 29 6·7205
3½ 3·5000 4 3·3376 3·1933 3·2294 1 22 7·9183
3¾ 3·7500 4 3·5876 3·4433 3·4794 1 16 9·2143
4 4·0000 4 3·8376 3·6933 3·7294 1 11 0·6084
Source: Machinery's Handbook.
Unified and AMERICAN Standard Fine and Extra-Fine Thread Series
Size Basic Thds. Basic Mirror Minor Lead Area,
Major per Pitch Diam. Diam. Angle. Minor
Diam. Inch Diam. Ext. Int. Pitch Diam.
Inches Inches Thds. Thds. Diam. Sq. In.
Inches Inches Deg. Min.
FINE THREAD SERIES
0 (·060) ·0600 80 ·0519 ·0447 ·0465 4 23 ·0015
1 (·073) ·0730 72 ·0640 ·0560 ·0580 3 57 ·0024
2 (·086) ·0860 64 ·0759 ·0658 ·0691 3 45 ·0034
3 (·099) ·0990 56 ·0874 ·0771 ·0797 3 43 ·0045
4 (·112) ·1120 48 ·0985 ·0864 ·0894 3 51 ·0067
5 (·125) ·1250 44 1102 ·0971 ·1004 3 45 ·0072
6 (·138) ·1380 40 ·1218 ·1073 ·1109 3 44 ·0087
8 (·164) ·1640 36 ·1460 ·1299 ·1339 3 28 ·0128
10 (·190) ·1900 32 ·1697 ·1517 ·1562 3 21 ·0175
12 (·216) ·2160 28 ·1928 ·1722 ·1773 3 22 ·0226
¼ ·2500 28 ·2268 ·2062 ·2113 2 52 ·0326
5/16 3125 24 ·2854 ·2614 ·2674 2 40 ·0524
3/8 ·4750 24 ·3479 ·3239 ·3299 2 11 ·0809
7/16 ·4375 20 ·4050 ·3762 ·4834 2 15 ·1090
½ ·5000 20 ·4675 ·4387 ·4459 1 57 ·1486
9/16 ·5625 18 ·5264 ·4943 ·5024 1 55 ·1888
5/8 ·6250 18 ·5889 ·5568 ·5649 1 43 ·2400
¾ ·7500 16 ·7094 ·6733 ·6823 1 36 ·3513
7/8 ·8750 14 ·8286 ·7874 ·7977 1 34 ·4805
1 1·0000 14 ·9536 ·9124 ·9227 1 22 ·6464
1 1·0000 12 ·9459 ·8978 ·9098 1 36 ·6245
1⅛ 1·1250 12 1·0709 1·0228 1·0348 1 25 ·8118
1¼ 1·2500 12 1·1959 1·1478 1·1598 1 16 1·0237
1⅜ 1-3750 12 1·3209 1·2728 1·2848 1 9 1·2602
1½ 1·5000 12 1·4459 1·3978 1·4096 1 3 1·5212
EXTRA-FINE THREAD SERIES

12 (·216) ·2160 32 ·1957 ·1777 ·1822 2 55 ·0242
¼ ·2500 32 ·2297 ·2117 ·2162 2 29 ·0344
5/16 ·3125 32 ·2922 ·2742 ·2787 1 57 ·0581
3/8 ·3750 32 ·3547 ·3367 ·3412 1 36 ·0678
7/16 ·4375 28 ·4143 ·3937 ·3988 1 34 ·1201
½ ·5000 28 ·4768 ·4562 ·4613 1 22 ·1616
9/16 ·5625 24 ·5354 ·5114 ·5174 1 25 ·2030
5/8 ·6330 24 ·5079 ·5739 ·5799 1 16 ·2560
11/16 ·6875 24 ·6604 ·6364 ·6424 1 9 ·3151
¾ ·7500 20 ·7175 ·6887 ·6959 1 16 ·3585
13/16 ·8125 20 ·7800 ·7512 ·7584 1 10 ·4388
7/8 ·8750 20 ·8425 ·8137 ·8209 1 5 ·5153
15/16 ·9375 20 ·9050 ·8762 ·8834 1 0 ·5979
1 1·0000 20 ·9675 ·9387 ·9459 0 57 ·6866
1 1/16 1·0625 18 1·0264 ·9943 1·0024 0 59 ·7702
1 1/8 1·1250 18 1·0889 1·0568 1·0649 0 56 ·8705
1 3/16 1·1875 18 1·1514 1·1193 1·1274 0 53 ·9770
1¼ 1·2500 18 1·2139 1·1818 1·1899 0 50 1·0895
1 5/16 1·3125 18 1·2764 1·2443 1·2524 0 48 1·2082
1 3/8 1·3750 18 1·3389 1·3068 1·3149 0 45 1·3330
1 7/16 1·4375 18 1·4014 1·3693 1·3774 0 43 1·4640
1½ 1·5000 18 1·4639 1·4318 1·4399 0 42 1·6011
1 9/16 1·6625 18 1·5264 1·4943 1·5024 0 40 1·7444
1 3/8 1·6250 18 1·5889 1·5568 1-5649 0 38 1·8937
1 11/16 1·6875 18 1·6514 1·6193 1·6274 0 37 2·0493
1 3/4 1·7500 16 1·7094 1·6733 1·6823 0 40 2·1873
2 2·0000 16 1·9594 1·9233 1·9323 0 35 2·8917
Source: Machinery's Handbooks
Hardness Conversion Relations for Tool Steels
Rockwell Rockwell Brinell Vickers Scleroscope Superficial
C Scale, B Scale, Impression Hardness diamond hardness Rockwell
diamond 1/16-in. ball diam, mm number pyramid number 30N scale
hardness
68 940 97 84
67 900 95 84
66 865 92 83
65 332 91 82
64 800 88 81
63 772 67 60
62 746 85 79
61 720 83 78
60 697 81 78
59 674 90 77
58 653 78 76
57 633 76 75
56 613 75 74
55 595 74 73
54 577 72 72
53 560 71 71
52 544 69 70
51 528 68 69
50 513 67 69
49 2 85 461 438 66 68
48 451 464 64 67
47 2·90 444 471 63 66
46 2· 95 429 458 62 65
45 421 446 60 64
44 3·00 415 434 58 63
43 3·05 401 423 57 62
42 3·10 338 412 56 61
41 381 402 55 60
40 3·15 375 392 54 60
39 3·20 363 382 52 59
38 3·25 352 372 51 58
37 3·30 341 363 50 57
36 109 336 354 49 56
35 109 3·35 331 345 48 55
34 108 3·40 321 336 47 54
33 108 3·45 311 327 46 53
32 107 3·50 302 318 44 52
31 106 3·55 293 310 43 51
30 106 3·60 28$ 302 42 50
29 105 3·65 277 294 41 50
28 104 3·70 269 286 41 49
27 103 3·75 262 279 40 46
26 103 258 272 39 47
25 102 3·80 255 266 38 46
24 101 3·85 248 260 37 45
23 100 3·90 241 254 36 44
22 99 3·95 235 248 35 43
ROCKWELL HARDNESS-CONTINUED
Rockwell Rockwell Brinell Vickers Scleroscope Superficial
C Scale, B Scale, Impression Hardness diamond hardness Rockwell
diamond 1/16-in. ball diam, mm number pyramid number 30N scale
hardness
21 98 4·00 228 243 35 42
20 97 4·05 223 238 34 42
96 4·10 217 230 33
95 4·15 212 222 32
94 4·20 207 217 31
93 4·25 202 213 31
92 4·30 196 209 30
91 4·35 192 204 29
90 4·40 187 195 28
89 4·45 183 191 27
88 4·50 179 187 27
87 4·55 174 184 26
86 4·60 170 180 26
85 4·65 166 173 25
84 4·70 163 170 25
83 4·75 159 168 24
82 4·80 156 166 24
81 4·85 153 161 23
81 4·90 149 156 23
80 4·95 146 153 22
79 5·00 143 150 22
SPEEDS
Cast Alloy Carbide
H.S.S. Cutter Cutter Cutter
Material Brn. Range S.F.M. Range S.F.M. Range S.F.M. Range
Aluminum 100—150 1000—550 2000—1100 4000—2200
Brass 100—175 650—250 1300—500 2600—1000
Low-Carbon Steel 100—200 325—100 650—200 1300—400
Free-Cutting Steel 150—200 250—150 500—300 1000—600
Alloy Steel 150—250 175—70 350—140 700—280
Alloy Ste«l 250—350 70—40 140—80 280—160
Cast Iron 125—175 100—60 200—120 400—240
Cast Iron 175—200 60—45 120—90 240—180
Cast Iron 200—225 45—40 90—80 180—160
Cast Iron 225—250 40—35 80—70 160—140
Speeds For Machining

Milling Machine R.P.M- Necessary to Give a Desired Cutting Speed
Cutting Speeds in Feet per Minute

1/4 611 764 917 1,070 1,222 1,375
5/16 489 611 733 856 978 1,100
3/8 407 509 611 713 815 917
7/16 349 437 524 611 698 786
½ 306 382 458 535 611 688
5/8 244 306 367 428 489 550
¾ 204 255 306 357 407 458
7/8 175 218 262 306 349 393
1 153 191 229 267 306 344
1⅛ 136 170 204 238 272 306
1¼ 122 153 183 214 244 275
1⅜ 111 139 167 194 222 250
1½ 102 127 153 178 204 229
1⅝ 94 117 141 165 188 212
1¾ 87 109 131 153 175 196
1⅞ 81 102 122 143 163 183
2 76 95 115 134 153 172
2¼ 68 85 102 119 136 153
2½ 61 76 92 107 122 137
2¾ 56 69 83 97 111 125
3 51 64 76 89 102 115
3½ 44 55 65 76 87 98
4 38 48 57 67 76 86
4½ 34 42 51 59 68 77
5 31 38 46 54 61 69
5½ 28 35 42 49 56 63
6 25 32 28 45 51 57
7 22 27 33 38 44 49
8 19 24 29 33 38 43
9 17 21 25 30 34 38
10 15 19 23 27 31 34
11 14 17 21 24 28 31
12 13 10 19 22 25 29
13 12 15 18 21 24 27
16 10 12 14 17 19 22
18 8 11 13 15 17 19

Making Loading Dies and Bullet Molds - Harold Hoffman (1991)

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Making Loading Dies and Bullet Molds - Harold Hoffman (1991)

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MAKING LOADING

DIES & BULLET

Copyright © 1991 Harold Hoffman

H & P Publishing 7174 Hoffman Rd. San Angelo, Tx. 76905

CHAPTER I EQUIPMENT AND TOOLS

CHAPTER 2 HEAT TREATING TOOL STEEL

CHAPTER 3 MICROMETER CALIPER

CHAPTER 4 CUTTING TOOLS AND TOOLHOLDERS

CHAPTER 5 TURNING STEEL

CHAPTER 7 MAKING CUTTING TOOLS

CHAPTER 8 CARTRIDGE DIMENSIONS

CHAPTER 9 MAKING THE DIES

CHAPTER 11 THREAD CUTTING

CHAPTER 12 THE TOOL GRINDER

CHAPTER 13 HEAT TREAT FURNACE

SUPPLIERS – Removed as out of date.

INDEX – Removed as page numbers do not apply.

1. Held between centers.

ENGINE LATHE SIZE

TOOL POST GRINDER

HEAT TREAT FURNACE

MEASURING AND LAYOUT TOOLS

MICROMETER (INSIDE AND OUTSIDE)

ANGLE AND RADIUS GAUGE

In over 30 years I have found 01 hard to beat. More on this later.

CHAPTER 2 HEAT TREATING TOOL STEEL

WEAR RESISTANCE AND TOUGHNESS OF TOOL STEELS

Wear Resistant & Toughness Chart

PLAIN CARBON TOOL STEELS

OIL HARDENING TOOL STEEL

HIGH CARBON HIGH CHROMIUM TOOL STEEL

GENERAL PROPERTIES OF W SERIES

HEAT TREATING DATA FOR CARBON TOOL STEELS

HOW HEATING CHANGES THE STRUCTURE

LOW ALLOY TOOL STEELS

GRAIN SIZE AND TOUGHNESS

LOW ALLOYS PROPERTIES

LOW ALLOY HEAT TREAT DATA

Hardening - AISI SAE 01

Forging, 1800 to 1925 degrees F., never below 1550 degrees F.

OIL-HARDENING COLD WORK TOOL STEELS

Hardening, 1400 to 1475 degrees F. Annealing, 1375 to 1425 degrees F.

As Quenched 300° 400° 500° 600° 700°

HEAT-TREATMENT OF TOOL STEEL

OIL HARDENING TOOL STEELS

COLORS FOR TEMPERING

HIGH TEMPERATURES BY COLOR

752 degrees, Red heat, visible in the dark.

1. Softens the steel for ease in machining

STANDARD 1 INCH MICROMETERS

PARTS OF THE MICROMETER

MICROMETER DEPTH GAGE

HOW TO READ A MICROMETER

sleeve parallel to its axis.

CHAPTER 4 CUTTING TOOLS AND TOOLHOLDERS

CUTTING TOOL HOLDER

PARTING OR CUTTING OFF

A groove can be produced with a parting tool or with a form tool.

DRILLING ON THE LATHE