SEISMIC SHAKING AND

EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING
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Supplies Needed
• calculator
• metric ruler
• colored pencils (at least three colors)
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PURPOSE
The purpose of the exercise is to familiarize you with the effects of earthquakes on
Earth materials and on buildings. The strength of shaking during an earthquake depends
on the amplitude of seismic waves that reach the site, the earth materials at and near the
surface, and the design of buildings and other structures. The purpose of this exercise is to
outline the methods for describing and measuring seismic shaking, and for predicting its
effects on human structures.

SEISMIC SHAKING
It’s simple to measure the magnitude of an earthquake, but the pattern of shaking
that results from a single earthquake (called seismic shaking, or seismic ground motion) is
much more complex. At the same time, predicting ground motion is crucial for designing
structures that will withstand the earthquakes likely to occur in an area. Several factors have
to be taken into account to be able to predict ground shaking:
• tectonic framework:
number of faults in area, and their distance to the site
types of faults
earthquake recurrence intervals
predicted earthquake magnitudes
• near-surface geology
type of material
thickness of unconsolidated material
• construction materials and techniques.

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 Earthquake intensity, introduced in Exercise 2, is an after-the-fact assessment of the
strength and pattern of seismic shaking. The magnitude of earthquakes before the
existence of seismometers can only be estimated indirectly. Earthquake intensities,
however, can be estimated from historical records. The following relationship between
magnitude and maximum intensity has been proposed (Howell, 1973) for shallow-focus
earthquakes:
Imax. = (2 * M) - 4.6 (11.1)
where I max is the maximum intensity, and M is the magnitude of the earthquake.

One problem with intensity measurements is that they are essentially qualitative,
whereas engineers and architects require more quantitative values. Ground motion is most
commonly calculated as acceleration, expressed as a fraction of the acceleration of gravity
(g, where g=9.8 m/sec2). In addition, seismic acceleration can be broken down into its three
perpendicular components: a vertical component (up-down shaking), and two horizontal
components (typically east-west shaking, and north-south shaking). The horizontal
components of shaking commonly are the most damaging to buildings because structures
are already designed to withstand the vertical force of gravity.
2000

2 1000 Gravity (g=9.8m/sec ) 1.0g

800
700
600
500 0.5g
acceleration
2 400
(cm/sec
300 )

200 0.2g

100 0.1g
80
70
60
50 0.05g
40
30

20
0.02g

10 0.01g
8
I I II IV V VI VII VIII X XI
I I Modified-Mercally
IX Intensity
Scale
 Seismic Shaking and Earthquake Engineering

Condition of earth material

below average (water-saturated soils, mud, man-made fills)
average condition (well-drained compacted soils, sedimentary rocks)
above average (firm bedrock)

Figure 11.1. Seismic acceleration vs. ground shaking intensity for different
earth materials. (After Leed, 1973)

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Seismic Shaking and Earthquake Engineering Exercise 11
2) Using Figure 11.1 and Equation 11.1, find the peak ground acceleration (in g) on
bedrock in San Francisco duringBay Mud
an magnitude 7.0 earthquake.

Alluvium
3) How much greater is the acceleration for man-made fills during a magnitude 7.0
earthquake in this area?

Bedrock

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
time (sec)
Acceleration at a particular site is related to the distance from the site to the epicenter.
Figure 11.2. Horizontal
In addition, accelerationground motions
is related of an underground
to earthquake magnitude nuclear
– theexplosion
greater the earthquake, the
were recorded by accelographs in San Francisco. All materials
bigger the acceleration at all locations. An empirical equation (i.e., were
based on observation
andsubjected to the same
measurement) relatesseismic waves. acceleration
peak ground (After Borcherdt,
(A, in1975)
m/sec2) to earthquake Magnitude
(M) and distance to the hypocenter (R, in km):
4) The vertical axis in Figure 11.2 uses the same scale for all three plots. Calculate how
many times more violent theAground = 1080shaking
e 0.5 M /was on A)1.32
(R+25) bay mud and B) alluvium (11.2)
compared to bedrock.
Remember that e is the natural exponent function (see Exercise 4 for examples of the
function). This equation was created for California, although it may be applicable in other
plate-boundary settings. As discussed in Regional Focus B, however, intraplate
earthquakes are transmitted farther.

MATERIAL AMPLIFICATION
After tectonic framework, the second major factor that determines the seismic hazard
at a specific location is the type of material under foot. On a local scale, the intensity of
seismic ground motion is mainly a function of surficial geology. The earthquake in 1985
that killed 5600 people in Mexico City was actually centered several hundred kilometers
Inaway
the terminology
in the PacificofOcean.
seismicMany
waves, material
coastal amplification
areas much closerincreases the amplitude
to the epicenter than Mexico
of ground motion,
City, but the
including theperiod
city ofof these waves
Acapulco, is alsofar
sustained important. Like Destruction
less damage. the amplitude, the
in Mexico City
period of ground
was motion
so severe is a function
because the city of
is both
built the
uponseismic
a thicksource
pile ofand thelake
loose localsediments
geologic which
conditions. Different
amplify types
seismic of Earth materials each tend to vibrate at a characteristic period,
shaking.
known as the fundamental period of that material. Buildings also have a fundamental
period, and theMaterial
fundamental periods ofis different
amplification defined as buildings
increasedvary depending
seismic shakingonasthea height of surficial
result of
the structure and other factors
and near-surface (Figure
deposits. 11.4).
Amplification is a function of the composition and thickness of
loose material that underlies an area In particular, sediments and thick soils tend to amplify
seismic waves.

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 Exercise 11

Figure 11.3. The response of a tall building to horizontal ground shaking

compared with the response of a short building. (After Lagorio, 1990)

An important factor in predicting earthquake damage is the relationship between the

fundamental period of a building and the period of the material on which the building is
constructed. If the building’s period equals the fundamental period of the material on
which it is built, or if it equals some whole-number multiple of the material’s fundamental
period, then seismic shaking will create a resonance with the building that can greatly
increase the stresses on the structure. Tall buildings tend to be damaged more on deep, soft
soils because of their similar vibrational period. Small, rigid buildings perform poorly on
short-period materials such as bedrock (Figure 11.4).
Thickness of surficial deposits (m)
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350

Buildings 5 to 9 stories high

80

70

60
Structural damage (%)
50

40
Buildings 10 to 14 stories high
30

20
Buildings over 14 stories high
10

0
0 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
Fundamental period of soil deposit (sec)
Figure 11.4. Relationship between building height, thickness of sediments, and
earthquake damage. (After Seed, 1972)

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Seismic Shaking and Earthquake Engineering Exercise 11
unreinforced masonry, brick and mortar, and adobe constructions. Small wood frame
5) At
structures
what fundamental
are usuallyperiod
the safest
(in seconds)
as long is
as the
they
damage
are securely
greatestanchored
for buildings
to their
of: foundations.
Houses that are not anchored or are improperly anchored can shear off their foundations
a) 5-9
during stories?
lateral ground motion. Steel frame or reinforced-concrete construction methods are
least hazardous for multi-story buildings or other tall structures.
b) 10-14 stories?
The horizontal components of seismic shaking can be converted into a parameter
called base shear. As mentioned earlier, it is the horizontal components of acceleration that
c) over 14 stories?
are potentially the most damaging to buildings. Base shear is the maximum lateral force
imposed on a structure during seismic ground motion. Newton's second law states that
force and acceleration are related as follows:
SECONDARY EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKES
F=m*a (11.3)
Seismic shaking is considered the primary effect of earthquakes, but2 the majority of
damagewhere F is the force
and casualties oftenin Newtons
result from (1theNewton = 1 N = 1 kg*m/sec
indirect,secondary ), mearthquake
effects. The is the massthat
(in kg)
2 In this case, F is
and a is acceleration in g (1 g = the acceleration of gravity = 9.8 m/sec
struck San Francisco is 1906 is often called the “Great Fire” of 1906 because it was the ).
the of
three days base
fireshear, m is the mass
that followed of the structure,
the earthquake that didand
theagreat
is themajority
maximum horizontalnot
of damage, component
the
of seismic acceleration.
seismic shaking itself. Major secondary effects of earthquakes include:
The actual base•shearfire that a building experiences during an earthquake can be calculated
using Equation 11.3. • landslides
A much more applied equation is used by architects and engineers to
calculate the base shear• tsunami
that a structure at a specific site should withstand:
• liquefaction
BS = Z * I * (C/R )w* m * g (11.4)
All of the effects listed above can cause major damage during or shortly after an
where BS is the base shear, Z is the seismic zone factor (a unitless value that incorporates earthquake.
The besttheguide to where
maximum this type
seismic of damage
shaking will occur
at different in the Ifuture
locations), is the is where it has
importance occurred
factor for a
in the past.
structure (high for a school, for example, and low for a warehouse), C is a been
Landslide-hazard, tsunami-hazard, and liquefaction-hazard maps have numerical
compiled in many ofrelated
coefficient the areas thatconditions,
to soil face the greatest
R likelihood of these threats in the future.
w is a parameter that assessed the type of
construction used, m is the total mass of the structure (in kg), and g is gravity (9.8m/sec ) 2
We will focus
(Lagorio, on one of these secondary hazards because it is closely linked to
1990).
seismic ground motion. Liquefaction occurs in fine, water-saturated sands during strong
seismic shaking. Water-saturated
A building resists base sediments
shear withlose their strength
the strength of its as the grains are
load-bearing wallsrearranged
(shear walls).
during shaking and fluid pressure increases. A sixteenth-century
During east-west-oriented shaking, or when the east-west component of shakingearthquake that struck is the
Port Royal, Jamaica
greatest caused much
component, of the town
the north-south and of
walls itsbuilding
inhabitantsmust simply to dissappear
withstand into of the
the majority
the ground. stress. The number and arrangement of shear walls
determines the portion of base shear that each wall
BUILDING must withstand. Solid, regular arrangements of walls
CODES
tend to be the strongest; buildings with unsupported
In designing earthquake-safe structures, the most
walls, such as important criteria
ground-level is to make
carports, oftensure
are the most
that no one critical element of the building isvulnerable.
overstressed (the “weakest link” philosophy).
In other words, the building is only as strong as its weakest link. The standard in designing
a safe building is the capacity or strength of the material to resist
The building in seismic stresses,
Figure 11.5 in of two pairs
consists
particular horizontal acceleration, without failure. It’s important
of perpendicular walls.to understand
Walls A and thatB seismic
each must be
provisions in most building codes are intended to protect
designed life and reduce
to withstand one halfproperty
of the damage
total base shear.
but not completely eliminate losses. The Structural If shaking Engineers Association
is predominantly of California
east-west, then Wall B is
Structures recommend that structures be ableone to (a) resistwalls
of two minor earthquakes
resisting withoutstress; if
the seismic
damage, and (b) resist moderate earthquakes shaking without is structural damagenorth-south,
predominantly but with some thennon-
Wall A is
structural damage. in the same situation.
Buildings that are most vulnerable to lateral
6) forces induced
Suggest simplebymodifications
seismic waves are
or additions to the

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Seismic Shaking and Earthquake Engineering
building in Figure 11.5 so that both Wall A and Wall B would only need to withstand
one third of the base shear.

CASE STUDY: EARTHQUAKES IN SAN FRANCISCO

The San Francisco Peninsula lies astride the San Andreas fault where it passes
northward from the land to the ocean. In 1906, the city was burgeoning as the preeminent
cultural and economic center west of the Mississippi. At 5:14 a.m. on April 18, the city’s
fortunes suffered a severe setback:
“At first came a sharp but gentle swaying motion that grew less and less; then a
joltingheavy
sideways – then another, heaviest of all. Finally a grinding round of
irregularly tumultuous, spasmodic, jerky.” (Aitken and Hilton, 1906)
everything,

Damage was greatest in the Marina District of the city, where liquefaction and settling in the
underlying soft sediments and artificial fill crumbled many buildings. In most of the city,
however, damage was minor, and some residents simply returned to bed. Over 70% of the
damage done in 1906 occurred in the fire that followed the earthquake. In the Marina
district and other pockets of damage, stoves and lamps toppled, igniting scattered blazes.
Firefighters rushed to contain the fires, but watched water pressure drop to a trickle and
then to nothing because water mains had been cut during the shaking. For four days, fire
ravaged the city, consuming 490 city blocks.

The 1906 earthquake and fire were not the first such events to strike San Francisco.
The city was extensively damaged during an earthquake in 1868, in which it was again the
Marina District that suffered the most. In addition, fire had swept through the city three
times previously: in 1849, 1850, and 1851. The extent to which San Francisco had learned
its lessons were again tested in 1989. The Loma Prieta earthquake, a magnitude 7.1 shock
centered about 120 km southeast of the city, caused shaking damage similar in pattern to
the damage in both 1868 and 1906. Liquefaction again caused buildings to collapse in San
Francisco’s Marina District, igniting scattered fires, and broke a number of water mains.
Fortunately, technical improvements in the city’s water-supply system avoided a repeat of
the 1906 fire. Of the 65 fatalities in the 1989 earthquake, most occurred when a mile-long
(1.6 km) segment of the two-tier I-880 freeway in Oakland collapsed. The freeway
collapsed
Figureexactly wherewalls
11.5. Shear it passed
resistover
basesoft, unconsolidated sediments, which amplified the
shakingshear,
and overstressed the structure.
supporting a building during
horizontal shaking.

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 Seismic Shaking and Earthquake Engineering Exercise 11
Island
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Yerba Buena
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2
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0 1 3 mi
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0 1 2 3 km
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San Francisco Bay

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Pacific Ocean
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__
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___ ___________
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California St.
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_____

_____
Bay mud (in places covered with artificial fill as of 1906)
_____

_____

_____
Alluvium (> 30m thick)
_____
_____

_____ Alluvium (< 30m thick)

Bedrock
_____

16th
_____

Figure 11.7. Surficial geology of San Francisco. (After Borcherdt, 1975) St.

Army
Island St.
0 1 2 3 mi

0 1 2 3 km
San Francisco Bay

very violent

very strong

weak
Figure 11.6. Air-photograph composite of San Francisco. (Image courtesy of
Figure 11.8. Ground-shaking intensity during the 1906 earthquake. (After Borcherdt,
the University of California, Santa Barbara Map and Image Laboratory)
1975)

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