PRINCIPLES OF AGRONOMY

AND
AGRICULTURAL METEOROLOGY

Author
Faculty TNAU
 INDEX
Lecture Page No.
1. Agriculture – Definition – Importance and scope – Branches of
agriculture – Evolution of man and agriculture – Development of
1–7
scientific agriculture – National and International Agricultural
Research Institutes
2. Indian agriculture – Indian economy – National income – per capita 8 – 11
income – Agricultural income in GDP – Women in agriculture and
empowerment
3. History of agricultural development in the world and India. 12 – 14
Agriculture heritage – Agriculture in ancient India
4. Stages of agriculture development – Era of civilization- Importance 15 – 19
of Neolithic civilization
5. Chronology of Agricultural technology development in India 20 – 24
6. Kautilya’s Arthasasthra – Sangam literature – rainfall prediction – 25 – 30
ITK -Tamil Almanac
7. Agronomy – definition – meaning and scope. Agro-climatic zones 31 – 39
of India and Tamil Nadu – Agro ecological zones of India
8. Crops and major soils – Classification – Economic and agricultural 40 – 45
importance in India and Tamil Nadu
9. Factors affecting crop production – climatic – edaphic – biotic- 46 – 50
physiographic and socio economic factors
10. Tillage – Definition – objectives – types of tillage – modern 51 – 54
concepts of tillage – main field preparation
11. Seeds – Seed rate – Sowing methods – Germination – Crop stand 55 – 59
establishment – Planting geometry
12. Role of manures and fertilizers in crop production – agronomic 60 – 63
interventions for enhancing FUE – Inter cultivation – Thinning –
Gap filling and other intercultural operations
13. Irrigation – Time and methods – Modern techniques of irrigation – 64 – 68
Drainage and its importance
14. Planting Geometry and its Effect on Growth and Yield 69 – 78
15. Cropping pattern and cropping system – Intensive cropping- 79 – 82
Sustainable agriculture – IFS
16. Organic / eco-friendly agriculture – Dry farming – Concepts and 83 – 86
principles
17. Agro-climatic zones of India 87 – 90
18. Agro meteorology 91 – 100
19. Weather and climate, micro-climate 101 – 107
20. Weather elements and their influence on different crops 108 – 138
21. Monsoon 139 – 149
22. Clouds 150 – 172
23. Weather aberrations 173 – 174
24. Weather forecasting 175 – 181
25. Weather modification -Artificial rain making and cloud seeding 182 – 186
26. Remote sensing 187 – 196
Agriculture – Definition – Importance and scope - Branches of agriculture - Evolution of man
and agriculture – Development of scientific agriculture - National and International
Agricultural Research Institutes.

Agriculture

The term Agriculture is derived from two Latin words ager or agri meaning soil and cultura
meaning cultivation. Agriculture is an applied science which encompasses all aspects of crop
production including horticulture, livestock rearing, fisheries, forestry, etc.

Agriculture is defined as an art, science and business of producing crops and livestock
for economic purposes.

As an art it embraces knowledge of the way to perform the operations of the farm in a
skillful manner, but does not necessarily include an understanding of the principles underlying the
farm practices.
As a science: utilizes all technologies developed on scientific principles such as crop
breeding, production techniques, crop protection, economics etc. to maximize the yield and profit.
For example, new crops and varieties developed by hybridization, Transgenic crop varieties resistant
to pests and diseases, hybrids in each crop, high fertilizer responsive varieties, water management,
herbicides to control weeds, use of bio-control agents to combat pest and diseases etc.

As the business: As long as agriculture is the way of life of the rural population production is
ultimately bound to consumption. But agriculture as a business aims at maximum net return through
the management of land labour, water and capital, employing the knowledge of various sciences for
production of food, feed, fibre and fuel. In recent years, agriculture is commercialized to run as a
business through mechanization.

AGRICULTURE is defined in the Agriculture act (1947), as including ‘horticulture, fruit

growing, seed growing, dairy farming and livestock breeding and keeping, the use of land as grazing
land, meadow land, osier land, market gardens and nursery grounds, and the use of land for
woodlands where that use ancillary to the farming of land for Agricultural purposes”.

SCOPE AND IMPORTANCE OF AGRICULTURE IN INDIA AND TAMILNADU

 With a 16% contribution to the gross domestic product (GDP), agriculture still provides
livelihood support to about two-thirds of country's population.
 The sector provides employment to 58% of country's work force and is the single largest private
sector occupation.
 Agriculture accounts for about 15% of the total export earnings and provides raw material to a
large number of Industries (textiles, silk, sugar, rice, flour mills, milk products).
 Rural areas are the biggest markets for low-priced and middle-priced consumer goods, including
consumer durables and rural domestic savings are an important source of resource mobilization.
 The agriculture sector acts as a wall in maintaining food security and in the process, national
security as well.
 The allied sectors like horticulture, animal husbandry, dairy and fisheries, have an important role
in improving the overall economic conditions and health and nutrition of the rural masses.
 To maintain the ecological balance, there is need for sustainable and balanced development of
agriculture and allied sectors.

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 Agriculture’s eyes and minds are soothed by dynamic changes from brown (bare soil) to green
(growing crop) to golden (mature crop) and bumper harvests.
 Plateauing of agricultural productivity in irrigated areas and in some cases the declining trend
warrants attention of scientists.
Agriculture helps to elevate the community consisting of different castes and communities to
a better social, cultural, political and economical life. Agriculture maintains a biological equilibrium
in nature. Satisfactory agricultural production brings peace, prosperity, harmony, health and wealth
to individuals of a nation by driving away distrust, discord and anarchy.

REVOLUTIONS IN AGRICULTURE
 Through white revolution, milk production quadrupled from 17 million tonnes at
independence to 108.5 million tonnes.
 Through blue revolution, fish production rose from 0.75 million tonnes to nearly 7.6 million
tonnes during the last five decades.
 Through yellow revolution oil seed production increased 5 times (from 5 million tonnes to 25
million tonnes) since independence.
 Similarly, the egg production increased from 2 billion at independence to 28 billion,
sugarcane production from 57 million tonnes to 282 million tonnes, cotton production from 3
million bales to 32 million bales which shows our sign of progress.
 India is the largest producer of fruits in the world. India is the second largest producer of milk
and vegetable.

BRANCHES OF AGRICULTURE
Seven branches viz.,
1. Agronomy
2. Horticulture
3. Forestry
4. Animal husbandry
5. Fishery science
6. Agricultural Engineering and
7. Home science

1) Agronomy – Deals with the production of various crops which includes food crops, fodder crops,
fibre crops, sugar, oilseeds, etc. The aim is to have better food production and how to control
the diseases.
2) Horticulture - Deals with the production of fruits, vegetables, flowers, ornamental plants, spices,
condiments and beverages.
3) Forestry – Deals with production of large scale cultivation of perennial trees for supplying wood,
timber, rubber, etc. and also raw materials for industries.
4) Animal husbandry – Deals with agricultural practice of breeding and raising livestock in order to
provide food for humans and to provide power (draught) and manure for crops.
5) Fishery science – Deals with practice of breeding and rearing fishes including marine and inland
fishes, shrimps, prawns etc. in order to provide food, feed and manure.
6) Agricultural Engineering – Deals with farm machinery for filed preparation, inter-cultivation,
harvesting and post harvest processing including soil and water conservation engineering and
bio-energy.
7) Home Science – Deals with application and utilization of agricultural produces in a better manner
in order to provide nutritional security, including value addition and food preparation.
On integration, all the seven branches, first three is grouped as for crop production group and
next two animal management and last two allied agriculture branches.
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Evolution of man and Agriculture
There are different stages in development of agriculture, which is oriented with human
civilization. They are Hunting  Pastoral  Crop culture  Trade (stages of human civilization).
1. Hunting – It was the primary source of food in old days. It is the important occupation and it
existed for a very long period.
2. Pastoral – Human obtained his food through domestication animals, e.g. dogs, horse, cow,
buffalo, etc. They lived in the periphery of the forest and they had to feed his domesticated animals.
For feeding his animals, he would have migrated from one place to another in search of food. It was
not comfortable and they might have enjoyed the benefit of staying in one place near the river bed.
3. Crop culture - By living near the river bed, he had enough water for his animals and
domesticated crops and started cultivation. Thus he has started to settle in a place.
4. Trade – When he started producing more than his requirement the excess was exchanged, this is
the basis for trade. When agriculture has flourished, trade developed. This lead to infrastructure
development like road, routes, etc.
Agriculture became civilized from crop culture stage. Some important events for different
periods that lead to development of scientific agriculture.

Period Events
Earlier than Hunting & gathering
10000 BC
7500 BC Cultivation of crops- Wheat & Barley
3400 BC Wheel was invented
3000 BC Bronze used for making tools
2900 BC Plough was invented, irrigated farming started
2300 BC Cultivation of chickpea, cotton, mustard
2200 BC Cultivation of rice
1500 BC Cultivation of sugarcane

1400 BC Use of iron

1000 BC Use of iron plough
1500 AD Cultivation of orange, brinjal, pomegranate
1600 AD Introduction of several crops to India i.e. potato, tapioca, tomato, chillies, pineapple,
groundnut, tobacco, rubber, American cotton

DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENTIFIC AGRICULTURE IN WORLD

Experimentation technique was started (1561 to 1624) by Francis Bacon. He conducted an
experiment and found that water is the principle requirement for plant. If the same crop is cultivated
for many times fertility is lost.
Jan Baptiste Van Helmont (1572-1644) was actually responsible for conducting a pot
experiment. The experiment is called as ‘willow tree experiment’. He took a willow tree of weight 5
pounds. He planted in a pot and the pot contained 200 pounds of soil and continuously monitored
for five years by only watering the plant. By the end of 5th year, the willow tree was weighing 16
pounds. The weight of soil is 198 pounds. He concluded that water is the sole requirement for
plants. The conclusion was erroneous.
In the 18th century, Arthur Young (1741-1820) published ‘Annals of Agriculture’.
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 In the beginning of 19th century, scientist Jean Senebier (1742-1809), a Swiss naturalist, a
historian, gave explanation that increase in the weight of plant was due to the consumption of air.
Theodar Desaussure gave the principle theme of photosynthesis.
Liebig is a German scientist and considered as the ‘Father of agricultural chemistry’. It was
his opinion that the growth of plant was proportional to the amount of mineral substances available
in the soil. This is called as ‘Liebig law of minimum’.

Chronological events in scientific agriculture

Francis Bacon (1561-1624 A.D) Found the water as nutrient of plants

G.R.Glanber (1604-1668 A.D) Salt peter(KNO3) as nutrient and not water

Jethrotull (1674-1741 A.D) Fine soil particle as plant nutrient
Priestly (1730-1799 A.D) Discovered the oxygen
Francis Home (1775 A.D) Water, air, salts, fire and oil form the plant nutrients
Thomas Jefferson (1793 AD) Developed mould board plough
Theodore de-Saussure Found that plants absorb CO 2 from air & release O 2 ; soil
supply N 2
Justus van Liebig (1804- 1873) German chemist developed “law of minimum ”

Advances in Agriculture in 19th Century

• Following Liebig, an agricultural experiment station was started in Rothamsted in England on
1843 (Old Permanent Manurial Experiment – OPME), it dealt with nutrients. Subsequently
many developments took place. In U.S. land grant colleges was started in 19th century. Its
objective was to meet the expenditure of the college from the land around the colleges. USDA
(United States Department of Agriculture) is responsible for the introduction of herbicides 2,4-D
and tractor combine for harvesting and threshing. Under Land Grant College, agriculture
oriented teaching, research, extension are expanded. Many international research institutes were
started for a specific crop.
• 1857–Michigan State University was established to provide agricultural education at college
level.
• Gregor Mendal (1866) discovered the laws of hereditary.
• Charles Darwin (1876) published the results of experiments on cross and self fertilization in
plants.
• Thomas Malthus (1898) proposed Malthusian Theory – states that humans would run-out of food
for everyone inspite of rapid advance in agriculture due to limited land and yield potential of
crops (i.e food may not be sufficient in future for the growing population at this current rate of
growth in agriculture)
• Blackman (1905) theory of “optima and limiting factors” states that when a process is
conditioned as to it’s rapidity by a number of separate factors , the rate of the process is limited
by the pace of the slowest factor”
• Mitscherlich (1909) proposed the theory of law of diminishing returns that increase in growth
with each successive addition of the limiting element is progressively smaller and the response is
curvilinear.
• Wilcox (1929) proposed “inverse yield nitrogen law”. It states that the growth or the yielding
ability of any crop plant is inversely proportional to the mean nitrogen content in the dry matter.

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DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENTIFIC AGRICULTURE IN INDIA

Scientific agriculture got momentum in the 19th century itself. Indian Land Tax was levied in
the middle of 19th century. In 1877, 1878, 1889, 1892, 1897 and 1900, the population was decreased
due to continuous famines. Only due to these famines, the British regime started many development
programmes. Lord Dalhousie (1848-1856) period the ‘Upper Bari Doab Canal’ in Punjab was
constructed. Improvement of agriculture started only in his period. In Lord Curzon’s (1898-1905)
period, the ‘Great Canal system of Western Punjab’ was constructed. During his period Imperial
Agricultural Research Institute was started in Pusa in Bihar. His period is called as ‘Golden period
of agriculture’. During his regime, Department of Agriculture and Agricultural colleges for
provinces were started at Coimbatore in 1906.
Due to earthquake at IARI in Pusa, Bihar it was shifted to New Delhi. In 1926, Royal
Commission on Agriculture was setup and was responsible for giving recommendation to dug canals,
lay roads, etc. Based upon the recommendation of Royal Commission, ICAR (Imperial Council of
Agricultural Research) was started in 1929 with the objective to conduct agriculture research. State
Agricultural Universities (SAU) were started after 1960s). ICAR had also started research institutes
of its own in different centres in India for various crops.
ICAR is the sole body, which controls all the Agricultural Research Institutes in India. It
paved way for green revolution in India. After 1947, ICAR totally adapted to Land Grant Colleges.
In 1962, a Land Grant College was started in Pantnagar (UP). It is the first university with 16,000
acres.
There are 45 state agricultural universities with research institutes on its own. High yielding
wheat varieties like Kalyansona, Sonalika, Lerma roja and Sonara-64 were introduced. Green
revolution took in wheat first, next in rice after the invention of Indo-Japanica variety. Today,
agricultural research is multi-dimensional. In includes tissue culture, biotechnology besides
breeding, crop production and crop protection.

Milestones
1880 - Department of Agriculture was established
1903 - Imperial Agricultural Research Institute (IARI) was started at Pusa, Bihar
1912 - Sugarcane Breeding Institute was established in Coimbatore
1929 - Imperial Council of Agricultural Research at New Delhi (then ICAR) after independence
becomes ICAR
1936 - Due to earth quake in Bihar, IARI was shifted to New Delhi and the place was called with
original name Pusa
1962- First Agricultural University was started at Pantnagar
1965-67 - Green revolution in India due to introduction of HYV –Wheat, rice, use of fertilizers,
construction of Dams and use of pesticides
In Tamil Nadu
1876 - Madras Agricultural College was established at Saidapet
1906 - Agricultural College & Research Institute was established at Coimbatore
1971 - Tamil Nadu Agricultural University was started

For institutes visit http://www.icar.org.in/node/325

For state agricultural universities visit http://www.icar.org.in/en/universities.htm

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Institutions - 45
1. Central Rice Research Institute, Cuttack
2. Vivekananda Parvatiya Krishi Anusandhan Sansthan, Almora
3 Indian Institute of Pulses Research, Kanpur
4. Central Tobacco Research Institute, Rajahmundry
5. Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research, Lucknow
6. Sugarcane Breeding Institute, Coimbatore
7. Central Institute of Cotton Research, Nagpur
8. Central Research Institute for Jute and Allied Fibres, Barrackpore
9. Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute, Jhansi
10. Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Bangalore
11. Central Institute of Sub Tropical Horticulture, Lucknow
12. Central Institute of Temperate Horticulture, Srinagar
13. Central Institute of Arid Horticulture, Bikaner
14. Indian Institute of Vegetable Research, Varanasi
15. Central Potato Research Institute, Shimla
16. Central Tuber Crops Research Institute, Trivandrum
17. Central Plantation Crops Research Institute, Kasargod
18. Central Agricultural Research Institute, Port Blair
19. Indian Institute of Spices Research, Calicut
20. Central Soil and Water Conservation Research & Training Institute, Dehradun
21. Indian Institute of Soil Sciences, Bhopal
22. Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Karnal
23. ICAR Research Complex for Eastern Region including Centre of Makhana, Patna
24. Central Research Institute of Dryland Agriculture, Hyderabad
25. Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur
26. ICAR Research Complex Goa
27. ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Barapani
28. National Institue of Abiotic Stress Management, Malegaon, Maharashtra
29. Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Bhopal
30. Central Institute on Post harvest Engineering and Technology, Ludhiana
31. Indian Institute of Natural Resins and Gums, Ranchi
32. Central Institute of Research on Cotton Technology, Mumbai
33. National Institute of Research on Jute & Allied Fibre Technology, Kolkata
34. Indian Agricultural Statistical Research Institute, New Delhi
35. Central Sheep and Wool Research Institute, Avikanagar, Rajasthan
36. Central Institute for Research on Goats, Makhdoom
37. Central Institute for Research on Buffaloes, Hissar
38. National Institute of Animal Nutrition and Physiology, Bangalore
39. Central Avian Research Institute, Izatnagar
40. Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute, Kochi
41. Central Institute Brackishwater Aquaculture, Chennai
42. Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute, Barrackpore
43. Central Institute of Fisheries Technology, Cochin
44. Central Institute of Freshwater Aquaculture, Bhubneshwar
45. National Academy of Agricultural Research & Management, Hyderabad
National Research Centres - 17
1. National Research Centre on Plant Biotechnology, New Delhi
2. National Centre for Integrated Pest Management, New Delhi
3. National Research Centre for Litchi, Muzaffarpur
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4. National Research Centre for Citrus, Nagpur
5. National Research Centre for Grapes, Pune
6. National Research Centre for Banana, Trichi
7. National Research Centre Seed Spices, Ajmer
8. National Research Centre for Pomegranate, Solapur
9. National Research Centre on Orchids, Pakyong, Sikkim
10. National Research Centre Agroforestry, Jhansi
11. National Research Centre on Camel, Bikaner
12. National Research Centre on Equines, Hisar
13. National Research Centre on Meat, Hyderabad
14. National Research Centre on Pig, Guwahati
15. National Research Centre on Yak, West Kemang
16. National Research Centre on Mithun, Medziphema, Nagaland
17. National Centre for Agril. Economics & Policy Research, New Delhi

Important International Institutions on Agricultural Research

AVRDC- Asian Vegetable Research and Development Centre, Taiwan

CIAT – Centro International de Agricultura Tropical , Cali, Colombia
CIP – Centro International da la Papa ( International potato research institute (Lima, Peru, South
America)
CIMMYT – Centro International de Mejoramiento de Maizy Trigo.(International Centre for maize
and Wheat development (Londress, Mexico)
IITA –International Institute for Tropical Agriculture, Ibadon in Nigeria, Africa)
ICARDA – International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (Aleppo, Syria)
ICRISAT – International Crops Research Institute for the Semi Arid Tropics (Pattancheru in
Hyderabad, India)
IIMI- International Irrigation Management Institute, Colombo, SRILANKA
IRRI – International Rice Research Institute (Los Banos, Philippines)
ISNAR- International Service In National Agricultural Research The Hague, Netherlands
WARDA - West African Rice Development Association Ivory coast, Africa.
IBPGR - International Board for Plant Genetic Resources, Rome, Italy
CGIAR – Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research, Washington D.C
FAO – Food and Agricultural Organization, Rome
WMO- World Meteorological Organization, Vienna.

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 Indian agriculture - Indian economy – National income – per capita income – Agricultural
income in GDP - Women in agriculture and empowerment
Indian Agriculture and Economy:
Indian Agriculture is one of the most significant contributors to the Indian economy.
Agriculture is the only means of living for almost 60% of the employed class in India. The
agriculture sector of India has occupied almost 43% of India's geographical area. Agriculture is
still the only largest contributor to India's GDP (16%) even after a decline in the same in the
agriculture share of India. Agriculture also plays a significant role in the growth of socio-
economic sector in India.
In the earlier times, India was largely dependent upon food imports, but the successive
story of the agriculture sector of Indian economy has made it self-sufficing in grain production.
The country also has substantial reserves for the same. India depends heavily on the agriculture
sector, especially on the food production unit after the 1960 crisis in food sector. Since then, India
has put a lot of effort to be self-sufficient in the food production and this endeavour of India has
led to the Green Revolution. The Green Revolution came into existence with the aim to improve
the agriculture in India.
The services enhanced by the Green Revolution in the agriculture sector of Indian
economy are as follows:
• Acquiring more area for cultivation purposes
• Expanding irrigation facilities
• Use of improved and advanced high-yielding variety of seeds
• Implementing better techniques that emerged from agriculture research
• Water management
• Plan protection activities through prudent use of fertilizers, pesticides.
All these measures taken by the Green Revolution led to an alarming rise in the wheat and
rice production of India's agriculture. Considering the quantum leap witnessed by the wheat and
rice production unit of India's agriculture, a National Pulse Development Programme that covered
almost 13 states was set up in 1986 with the aim to introduce the improved technologies to the
farmers. A Technology Mission on Oilseeds was introduced in 1986 right after the success of
National Pulse Development Programme to boost the oilseeds sector in Indian economy. Pulses
too came under this programme. A new seed policy was planned to provide entree to superior
quality seeds and plant material for fruits, vegetables, oilseeds, pulses and flowers.

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 The Indian government also set up Ministry of Food Processing Industries to stimulate the
agriculture sector of Indian economy and make it more lucrative. India's agriculture sector highly
depends upon the monsoon season as heavy rainfall during the time leads to a rich harvest. But,
the entire year's agriculture cannot possibly depend upon only one season. Taking into account this
fact, a second Green Revolution is likely to be formed to overcome such restrictions. An increase
in the growth rate and irrigation area, improved water management, improving the soil quality and
diversifying into high value outputs, fruits, vegetables, herbs, flowers, medicinal plants and bio-
diesel are also on the list of the services to be taken by the Green Revolution to improve the
agriculture in India.
National income
National Income is important because of the following reasons,
• To see the economic development of the country.
• To assess the developmental objectives.
• To know the contribution of the various sectors to national income.
Internationally some countries are wealthy, some countries are not wealthy and some
countries are in-between. Under such circumstances, it would be difficult to evaluate the
performance of an economy. Performance of an economy is directly proportionate to the amount
of goods and services produced in an economy. Measuring national income is also important to
chalk out the future course of the economy. It also broadly indicates people’s standard of living.
Income can be measured by Gross National Product (GNP), Gross Domestic Product (GDP),
Gross National Income (GNI), Net National Product (NNP) and Net National Income (NNI).
The Indian economy is the 12th largest in USD exchange rate terms. India is the second fastest
growing economy in the world. India’s GDP has touched US$1.25 trillion. The crossing of Indian
GDP over a trillion dollar mark in 2007 puts India in the elite group of 12 countries with trillion
dollar economy. The tremendous growth rate has coincided with better macroeconomic stability.
India has made remarkable progress in information technology, high end services and knowledge
process services.
Agricultural income in GDP
Agriculture sector contributed 32% in 1990-91, 20% during 2005-06 and around 16% now.
Though the contribution of agriculture to the GDP income of India, it is great news that today the
service sector is contributing more than half of the Indian GDP. It takes India one step closer to
the developed economies of the world. Earlier it was agriculture which mainly contributed to the
Indian GDP. The Indian government is still looking up to improve the GDP of the country and so
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several steps have been taken to boost the economy. Policies of FDI, SEZs and NRI investment
have been framed to give a push to the economy and hence the GDP.
Agriculture per capita income
The per capita income of the agriculture sector declines to 1/3 of the national per capita
income during the recent years. The per capita income of the agriculture population is estimated
around Rs. 10,865 in 2010, which is around 32% of the national per capita income at Rs. 33,802/-.
Per capita income of the agriculture population was around half (1/2) at Rs. 5,505 of the national
per capita income at Rs. 11,433/- during 1980 however, it came down to around 42% at Rs.
6,652/- of the national per capita income at Rs. 16,020/- during 2000.
Income Distribution in Agriculture sector
Year/ Period Agriculture Population Dependent Agriculture Per Capita (in Rs.)
Share in GDP on Agriculture
1980 39 70 4745 (56%)
1990 31 65 5505 (48%)
2000 25 59 6652 (42%)
2010 16 58 10865 (32%)
Women in Agriculture and empowerment
Women in India now participate in all activities such as education, sports, politics, media,
art and culture, service sectors, science and technology, etc. Indira Gandhi, who served as Prime
Minister of India for an aggregate period of fifteen years is the world's longest serving woman
Prime Minister.
The Constitution of India guarantees to all Indian women equality (Article 14), no
discrimination by the State [Article 15(1)], equality of opportunity (Article 16) and equal pay for
equal work [Article 39(d)]. In addition, it allows special provisions to be made by the State in
favour of women and children [Article 15(3)], renounces practices derogatory to the dignity of
women [Article 51(a) (e)], and also allows for provisions to be made by the State for securing just
and humane conditions of work and for maternity relief. (Article 42).
The feminist activism in India picked up momentum during later 1970s. Since alcoholism is often
associated with violence against women in India, many women groups launched anti-liquor
campaigns in Andhra Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh and other
states. Many Indian Muslim women have questioned the fundamental leaders' interpretation of
women's rights under the Shariat law and have criticized the triple talaq system.
In 1990s, grants from foreign donor agencies enabled the formation of new women-
oriented NGOs. Self-help groups and NGOs such as Self Employed Women's Association

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(SEWA) have played a major role in women's rights in India. Many women have emerged as
leaders of local movements. For example, Medha Patkar of the Narmada Bachao Andolan.
The Government of India declared 2001 as the Year of Women's Empowerment
(Swashakti). The National Policy for the Empowerment of Women came was passed in 2001.
In 2006, the case of a Muslim rape victim called Imrana was highlighted in the media.
Imrana was raped by her father-in-law. The pronouncement of some Muslim clerics that Imrana
should marry her father-in-law led to widespread protests and finally Imrana's father-in-law was
given a prison term of 10 years, The verdict was welcomed by many women's groups and the All
India Muslim Personal Law Board.
In 2010 March 9, one day after International Women's day, Rajyasabha passed Women's
Reservation Bill, ensuring 33% reservation to women in Parliament and state legislative bodies.
Women empowerment would become more relevant if women are educated, better
informed and can take rational decisions. It is also necessary to sensitize the other sex towards
women. It is important to usher in changes in societal attitudes and perceptions with regard to the
role of women in different spheres of life. Adjustments have to be made in traditional gender
specific performance of tasks. A woman needs to be physically healthy so that she is able to take
challenges of equality. But it is sadly lacking in a majority of women especially in the rural areas.
They have unequal access to basic health resources.
Most of the women work in agricultural sector either as workers, in household farms or as
wageworkers. Yet it is precisely livelihood in agriculture that has tended to become more volatile
and insecure in recent years and women cultivators have therefore been negatively affected. The
government's policies for alleviating poverty have failed to produce any desirable results, as
women do not receive appropriate wages for their labour. There is also significant amount of
unpaid or non-marketed labor within the household. The increase in gender disparity in wages in
the urban areas is also quite marked as it results from the employment of women in different and
lower paying activities. They are exploited at various levels. They should be provided with proper
wages and work at par with men so that their status can be elevated in society.
There is no doubt about the fact that development of women has always been the central
focus of planning since Independence. Empowerment is a major step in this direction but it has to
be seen in a relational context. A clear vision is needed to remove the obstacles to the path of
women's emancipation both from the government and women themselves. Efforts should be
directed towards all round development of each and every section of Indian women by giving
them their due share.
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History of agricultural development in the world and India. Agriculture heritage –
Agriculture in ancient India

History of agricultural development in the world and India

Please refer Lecture 1 theory notes.
Agriculture heritage
History is the continuous record of past events
Heritage is the inherited values carried from one generation to other generation
Agricultural heritage refers to the values and traditional practices adopted in ancient
India which are more relevant for present day system.
Agriculture Heritage in India
Agriculture in India is not of recent origin, but has a long history dating back to
Neolithic age of 7500-6500 B.C. It changed the life style of early man from ‘nomadic
hunter of wild berries and roots’ to ‘cultivator of land’. Agriculture is benefited from the
wisdom and teachings of great saints. The wisdom gained and practices adopted have
been passed down through generations. The traditional farmers have developed the nature
friendly farming systems and practices such as mixed farming, mixed cropping, crop
rotation etc. The great epics of ancient India convey the depth of knowledge possessed by
the older generations of the farmers of India. The modern society has lost sight of the
importance of the traditional knowledge which had been subjected to a process of
refinement through generations of experience. The ecological considerations shown by
the traditional farmers in their farming activities are now-a-days is reflected in the
resurgence of organic agriculture.
The available ancient literature includes the four Vedas (rig, yajur, sama,
atharvana), nineteen Brahmanas (A total of 19 Brahmanas are extant at least in their
entirety: two associated with the Rigveda, six with the Yajurveda, ten with the Samaveda
and one with the Atharvaveda.), Aranyakas, Sutra literature, Susruta Samhita, Charaka
Samhita, Upanishads, the epices Ramayana and Mahabharata, Puranas (20), Buddhist and
Jain literature, and texts such as Krishi-Parashara, Kautilya’s Arthasastra, Panini’s
Ashtadhyayi, Sangam literature of Tamils, Manusmirti (laws), Varahamihira’s Brihat
Samhita (maths & astrology), Amarkosha, Kashyapiya-Krishisukti and Surapala’s
Vriskshayurveda. This literature was most likely to have been composed between 6000

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BC to 1000 AD. The information related to the biodiversity and agriculture (including
animal husbandry) are available in these texts.
Rigveda is the most ancient literary work of India. It believed that Gods were the
foremost among agriculturists. According to Amarakosha (a thesaurus of Sanskrit written
by the Jain or Buddhist scholar Amarasimha), Aryans were agriculturists. Manu and
Kautilya prescribed agriculture, cattle rearing and commerce as essential subjects, which
the king must learn. According to Patanjali (compiler of the Yoga Sūtras) the economy of
the country depended on agriculture and cattle-breeding. Plenty of information is
available in ‘Puranas’, which reveals that ancient Indians had intimate knowledge on all
agricultural operations. Some of the well known ancient classics of India are namely,
Kautilya's‘Arthashastra’; Panini's ‘Astadhyayi’; Patanjali's ‘Mahabhasya’;
Varahamihira's ‘Brahat Samhita’; Amarsimha's ‘Amarkosha’ and Encyclopaedic works
of Manasollasa. These classics testify the knowledge and wisdom of the people of ancient
period. Technical books dealing exclusively with agriculture were Sage Parashara’s
‘Krishiparashara’ in 1000 A.D. Other important texts are Agni Purana and Krishi Sukti
attributed to Kashyap (500 A.D.). Ancient Tamil and Kannada works contain lot of useful
information on agriculture in ancient India. Agriculture in India made tremendous
progress in the rearing of sheep and goats, cows and buffaloes, trees and shrubs, spices
and condiments, food and non-food crops, fruits and vegetables and developed nature
friendly farming practices. These practices had social and religious undertones and
became the way of life for the people. Domestic rites and festivals often synchronised
with the four main agricultural operations of ploughing, sowing, reaping and harvesting.
In the Rigveda, there is reference to hundreds and thousands of cows; to horses
yoked to chariots; to race courses where chariot races were held; to camels yoked to the
chariots; to sheep and goats offered as sacrificial victims, and to the use of wool for
clothing. The famous Cow Sukta indicates that the cow had already become the very
basis of rural economy. In another Sukta, she is defined as the mother of the Vasus, the
Rudras and the Adityas, as also the pivot of Immortality. The Vedic Aryans appear to
have large forests at their disposal for securing timber, and plants and herbs for medicinal
purposes appear to have been reared by the physicians of the age, as appears in the
Atharva Veda. The farmers' vocation was held in high regard, though agriculture solely

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depended upon the favours of Parjanya, the god of rain. His thunders are described as
food-bringing.
The four Vedas mention more than 75 plant species, Satapatha Bhrahamna
mentions over 25 species, and Charkaa Samhita (300 BC) an Aayurvedic (Indian
medicine) treatise-mentions more than 320 plants. Susruta (400 BC) records over 750
medicinal plant species. The oldest book, Rigveda (4000 BC) mentions a large number of
poisonous and non poisonous aquatic and terrestrial, and domestic and wild creatures and
animals. Puranas mention about 500 species of plants. The science of arbori-horticulture
had developed well and has been documented in Surapala’s Vrikshayurveda. Forests
were very important in ancient times. From the age of Vedas, protection of forests was
emphasized for ecological balance. Kautilya in his Artha Sastra (321-296 BC) mentions
that superintendent of forests had to collect forest produce through the forest guards. He
provides a long list of trees, varieties, of bamboos, creepers, fibrous plants, drugs and
poisons, skins of various animals, etc., that come under the purview of this officer.
The preservation of wild animals was encouraged and hunting as a sport was
regarded as detrimental to proper development of the character and personality of the
ruler, according to Manu (Manusmriti, 2nd Century BC). Specifically, in the Puranas
(300-750 AD) the names of Shalihotra on horses and Palakapya on elephants have been
found as experts in animal husbandry. For instance, Garudapurana is a text dealing with
treatment of animal disorders while the classical work on the treatment of horses is
Aswashastra. One chapter in Agnipurana deals with the treatment of livestock and
another on treatment of trees.

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Stages of agriculture development - Era of civilization- Importance of Neolithic
civilization
Stages of agriculture development
12000 to 9500 years ago
• Hunters and food-gathers stage existed.
• Stone implements (microliths) were seen throughout the Indian subcontinent.
• Domestication of dog occurred in Iraq.
• Earliest agriculture was by vegetative propagation (e.g., bananas, sugarcane, yam,
sago, palms, and ginger).
9500 to 7500 years ago
• Wild ancestors of wheat and barley, goat, sheep, pig, and cattle were found.
7500 to 5000years ago
• Significant features were invention of plough, irrigated farming, use of wheel, and
metallurgy and in Egypt, seed dibbling said to be practiced.
5000to 4000years ago
• Harappan culture is characterized by cultivation of wheat, barley and cotton;
plough agriculture and bullocks for drought. Indus Valley is the home of cotton.
• Wheeled carts were commonly used in the Indus valley.
• Harappans not only grew cotton but also devised methods for ginning / spinning /
weaving.
4000 to 2000years ago
• In North Arcot, bone / stone tools were found.
• In Nevasa (Maharastra), copper and polished stone axes were used. First evidence
of the presence of silk was found at this location.
• At Navdatoli on Narmada river (Nemar, Madhya Pradesh), sickles set with stone
teeth were used for cutting crop stalks. Crops grown were wheat, linseed, lentil,
urd (black gram), mung bean, and khesari.
• In Eastern India, rice, bananas, and sugarcane were cultivated.
2000-1500 years ago
• Tank irrigation was developed and practiced widely.

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 • Greek and Romans had trade with South India; pepper, cloth, and sandal wood
were imported by Romans.
• Chola King Karikala (190 AD) defeated Cheras and Pandyas, invaded Srilanka,
captured 12000 men and used them as slaves to construct an embankment along
the Cauvery, 160km along, to protect land from floods. He has built numerous
irrigation tanks and promoted agriculture by clearing forests.
1500-1000 years ago
The Kanauj Empire of Harshavardhana (606-647 AD)
• Cereals such as wheat, rice and millets, and fruits were extensively grown. A 60-
day variety and fragrant varieties of rice are mentioned.
• Ginger, mustard, melons, pumpkin, onion, and garlic are also mentioned.
• Persian wheel was used in Thanesar (Haryana).
The kingdoms of South India
• The kingdoms were of the Chalukyas (Badami), Rashtrakutas (Latur), Pallavas
(Kanchi), Pandyas, Hoysals (Helebid), and Kakatiyas (Warangal).
• Cholas ushered in a glorious phase in South Indian in the 10th century AD.
• New irrigation systems for agriculture were developed- chain tanks in Andhra in
the 9th century; and 6.4 km Kaveripak bund.
• Cholas maintained links with China, Myanmar, and Campodia.
• The tank supervision committee (Eri-variyam) looked after the maintenance of a
village and regulated the water supply.
1000-700 years ago
• Arab conquest of Sind was during 711-712 AD; Md bin Qaism defeated Dahir,
the Hindu king of Sind. Arabs were experts in gardening.
• 1290- 1320AD (Reign of Khiljis): Alauddin Khilji destroyed the agricultural
prosperity of a major part of India. He believed in keeping the farmers poor.
Era of civilization
It is supposed that man was evolved on earth about 1.7 million years ago. This man
was evolved from the monkey who started to move by standing erect on his feet. Such
man has been called Homo erectus (or) Java man (or) Peking man. Later on Java man
transformed into Cro-Magnon and Cro-Magnon into modern man. The modern man is

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zoologically known as Homo sapiens (Homo - Continuous, Sapiens - learning habit). A
primitive form of Homo sapiens, called Neanderthal man (Homo sapiens
neanderthalensis), was common in Europe and Asia. After the last glacial period (about
10,000 years ago), modern Homo sapien sapiens, began to spread all over the globe.
In the beginning such man had been spending his life wildly, but during the period
8700-7700 BC, they started to pet sheep and goat, although the first pet animal was dog,
which was used for hunting. The history of agriculture and civilization go hand in hand as
the food production made it possible for primitive man to settle down in selected areas
leading to formation of society and initiation of civilization. The development of
civilization and agriculture had passed through several stages. Archeologist initially
classified the stages as stone age, Bronze and Iron age. Subsequently the scholars spilt up
the stone age into Paleolithic period (old stone age), Neolithic age (New stone age) and
Mesolithic age (Middle stone age).
Each of three ages, saw distinct improvements. The man fashioned and improved
tools out of stones, bones, woods etc. to help them in day-to-day life. They started
growing food crops and domesticated animals like cow, sheep, goat, dog etc.

I. The Stone Age culture : (2,50,000 Bc to 3500 BC)

The stone age is divided into three periods

A. Palaeolithic period (old stone age)
B. Mesolithic period (middle stone age)
C. Neolithic period (new stone age)

A. Paleolithic age : Hunters and food gatherers (2,50,000 to 10,000 BC)

This period is characterized by the food gatherers and hunters. The stone age man
started making stone tools and crude choppers. The chipped stone tools and chopped
pebbles were used for hinting, cutting and other purposes. He had no knowledge on
cultivation and house building.
The Palaeolithic age in India is divided into three phases according to the nature
of stone tools used by the people and according the nature of climate
a) Early or lower palaeolithic (2,50,000 to 1,00,000 BC)
b) Middle palaeolithic (1,00,000 to 40,000 BC)

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 c) Upper palaeolithic (40,000 to 10,000 BC)

B. Mesolithic period : Hunters and Herders (10,000 to 3,700 BC)

The transitional period between the end of the Paleolithic and beginning of the
Neolithic is called Mesolithic. It began about 10000BC and ended with the rise of
agriculture. This period is characterized by tiny stone implements called microliths. The
Mesolithic people lived on hunting, fishing and good-gathering. At later stages, they also
domesticated animals. The domestication of the dog was the major achievement of the
Mesolithic hunter.

C. Neolithic Age : Food producers (The beginning of Agriculture)

The Neolithic age began between 9000 to 7500 BC. Neolithic revolution occurred
in Western Asia between 9500 and 8500 years ago mainly in the Fertilie Cresent (hilly
regions embracing Israel, Jordon, Turkey, Iran, Caspian basin and adjoining Iranian
plateau). Neolithic revolution brought a major change in the techniques of food
production which gave man control over his environment and saved him from the
precarious existence of mere hunting and gathering of wild berries and roots. For the first
time, he lived in settled villages and apart from security from hunger he had leisure time
to think and contemplate.

The main features of Neolithic culture in India

1. Neolithic culture denotes a stage in economic and technological development in
India
2. Use of polished stone axes for cleaning the bushes
3. Hand made pottery for storing food grains
4. Invented textile, weaving and basketry
5. Cultivation of rice, banana sequence and yams in eastern parts of India
6. Cultivation of millets and pulses in south India
7. Discovery of silk

II. Bronze Age (Chalcolithic culture) (3000-1700 BC):

The end of the Neolithic period saw the use of metal. The metal to be used first
was copper. The term Chalcolithic (stone – copper phase) is applied to communities
using stone implements along with copper and bronze. In more advanced communities,

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the proportion of copper and bronze implements is higher than that of stones. The
chalcolithic revolution began in Mesopotamia in the fourth millennium B.C. from this
area it spread to Egypt, and Indus valley.

The significant features are

1. Invention of plough
2. Agriculture shifted from hilly area to lower river valley
3. Flood water were stored for irrigation and canals were dug
4. Irrigated farming started in this period
5. Sowing of seed by dibbling with a pointed stick
6. Use of wheel.
7. Salinity problem and water logging were noticed due to canal irrigation.

III. The Iron Age

The Iron phase in India started after the advent of Aryans. Aryan land was called
Saptasindhava i.e. the land of seven rivers (Sutlej, Beas, Ravi, Chenab, Jhelum, Sindhu
and Saraswati). Aryans settle along the rivers.

The salient features of iron age are

• The harvesting tool used was sickle.
• The crops grown were mainly sesame and sugarcane.
• Iron plough, shear, axe, sickles and hoes were used
• The domestic animals were sheep, goats, dogs, mule, tortoise, cattle breeds and
elephants.

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Chronology of Agricultural technology development in India

Agriculture in India is broadly classified in to five different periods before India’s

independence.

1. Early history (Before 15000 BCE)

2. Vedic period – Post Maha Janapadas period (1500 BCE – 200 CE)
3. Early Common Era – High Middle Ages (200–1200 CE)
4. Late Middle Ages – Early Modern Era (1200–1757 CE)
5. Colonial British Era (1757–1947 CE)
[Note: BCE - short for "Before the Common Era", "Before the Christian Era", or "Before the
Current Era". CE - Common Era, Current Era (Christian Era is, however, also abbreviated AD,
for Anno Domini]

Indian agriculture began by 9000 BCE as a result of early cultivation of plants and
domestication of crops and animals. Settled life soon followed with implements and techniques
being developed for agriculture. Double monsoons led to two harvests being reaped in one
year. Indian products soon reached the world via existing trading networks and foreign crops
were introduced to India. Plants and animals; considered essential to their survival by the
Indians, came to be worshiped and venerated.

The middle ages saw irrigation channels reach a new level of sophistication in India
and Indian crops affecting the economies of other regions of the world under Islamic
patronage. Land and water management systems were developed with an aim of providing
uniform growth. Despite some stagnation during the later modern era the independent Republic
of India was able to develop a comprehensive agricultural program.

1. Early history (Before 1500 BCE)

• 9000 BCE: Wheat and barley were domesticated in the Indian subcontinent.
Domestication of horse, sheep and goat soon followed. This period also saw the first
domestication of the elephant.
• 8000-6000 BCE: Barley and wheat cultivation, along with the domestication of cattle,
primarily sheep and goat—was visible in Mehrgarh (Balochistan, now in Pakistan).
Agro pastoralism in India included threshing, planting crops in rows—either of two or
of six—and storing grain in granaries.
• 5000 BCE: Agricultural communities became widespread in Kashmir.
• 5000-4000 BCE: Cotton was cultivated. The Indus cotton industry was well developed
and some methods used in cotton spinning and fabrication continued to be practiced till
the modern Industrialization of India. A variety of tropical fruit such as mango and
muskmelon are native to the Indian sub-continent. The Indians also domesticated hemp,
which they used for a number of applications including making narcotics, fibre and oil.
The farmers of the Indus Valley grew peas, sesame, and dates. Sugarcane was
originally from tropical South Asia and Southeast Asia. Different species likely
originated in different locations with S. barberi originating in India and S. edule and S.
officinarum coming from New Guinea.
• 5440 BCE: Wild Oryza rice appeared in the Belan and Ganges valley regions of
northern India. Rice was cultivated in the Indus Valley civilization.
• 4500 BCE: Irrigation was developed in the Indus Valley Civilization. The size and
prosperity of the Indus civilization grew as a result of this innovation, which eventually
led to more planned settlements making use of drainage.

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 • 3000 BCE: Sophisticated irrigation and water storage systems were developed by the
Indus Valley civilization, including artificial reservoirs at Girnar.
• 2600 BCE: An early canal irrigation system from Circa.
• 2500 BCE: Archeological evidence of an animal-drawn plough in the Indus Valley
civilization
• 2000 BCE: Agricultural activity included rice cultivation in the Kashmir and
Harrappan regions.
2. Vedic period-Post Maha Janapadas period (1500 BCE–200 CE)
• Gupta (2004) finds it likely that summer monsoons may have been longer and may
have contained moisture in excess than required for normal food production. One effect
of this excessive moisture would have been to aid the winter monsoon rainfall required
for winter crops.
• In India, both wheat and barley are held to be Rabi (winter) crops and—like other parts
of the world—would have largely depended on winter monsoons before the irrigation
became widespread. The growth of the Kharif crops would have probably suffered as a
result of excessive moisture.
• Jute was first cultivated in India, where it was used to make ropes and cordage.
• Some animals—thought by the Indians as being vital to their survival—came to be
worshiped.
• Trees were also domesticated, worshiped, and venerated—Pipal and Banyan in
particular.
• Others came to be known for their medicinal uses and found mention in the holistic
medical system Ayurveda.
• 1000–500 BCE: There are repeated references to iron. Cultivation of a wide range of
cereals, vegetables and fruits is described. Meat and milk products were part of the diet;
animal husbandry was important. The soil was ploughed several times. Seeds were
broadcasted. Fallowing and a certain sequence of cropping were recommended. Cow
dung provided the manure. Irrigation was practiced.
• 322–185 BCE: The Mauryan Empire categorized soils and made meteorological
observations for agricultural use. Other Mauryan facilitation included construction and
maintenance of dams, and provision of horse-drawn chariots—quicker than traditional
bullock carts.
• 300 BCE: The Greek diplomat Megasthenes, in his book Indika— provides a secular
eyewitness account of Indian agriculture.
3. Early Common Era – High middle ages (200–1200 CE)
• The Tamil people cultivated a wide range of crops such as rice, sugarcane, millets,
black pepper, various grains, coconuts, beans, cotton, plantain, tamarind and
sandalwood. Jackfruit, coconut, palm, areca and plantain trees were also known.
• Systematic ploughing, manuring, weeding, irrigation and crop protection was practiced
for sustained agriculture. Water storage systems were designed during this period.
• Kallanai (1st-2nd century CE), a dam built on river Kaveri during this period, is
considered the as one of the oldest water-regulation structures in the world still in use.
• Spice trade involving spices native to India—including cinnamon and black pepper—
gained momentum as India starts shipping spices to the Mediterranean.
• Roman trade with India followed as detailed by the archaeological record and the
Periplus of the Erythraean Sea.
• Chinese sericulture attracted Indian sailors during the early centuries of the Common
Era.

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 • 320-550 CE: Crystallized sugar was discovered by the time of the Guptas and the
earliest reference of candied sugar come from India.
• 647 CE: Chinese documents confirm at least two missions to India, initiated in, for
obtaining technology for sugar-refining.
• 875-1279 CE : Noboru Karashima's research of the agrarian society in South India
during the Chola Empire reveals that during the Chola rule land was transferred and
collective holding of land by a group of people slowly gave way to individual plots of
land, each with their own irrigation system.
• The growth of individual disposition of farming property may have led to a decrease in
areas of dry cultivation.
• The Cholas also had bureaucrats which oversaw the distribution of water—-
particularly the distribution of water by tank-and-channel networks to the drier areas.
4. Late middle ages – Early modern era (1200–1757 CE)
• The construction of water works and aspects of water technology in India is described
in Arabic and Persian works. The diffusion of Indian and Persian irrigation
technologies gave rise to irrigation systems which bought about economic growth and
growth of material culture.
• Agricultural 'zones' were broadly divided into those producing rice, wheat or millets.
• Rice production continued to dominate Gujarat and wheat dominated north and central
India.
• The Encyclopædia Britannica details the many crops introduced to India during this
period of extensive global discourse.
• 1556-1605 CE: Land management was particularly strong during the regime of Akbar
the Great under whom scholar-bureaucrat Todarmal formulated and implemented
elaborated methods for agricultural management on a rational basis.
• Indian crops—such as cotton, sugar, and citric fruits—spread visibly throughout North
Africa, Islamic Spain, and the Middle East.
• Though they may have been in cultivation prior to the solidification of Islam in India,
their production was further improved as a result of this recent wave, which led to far-
reaching economic outcomes for the regions involved.[9]
5. Colonial British Era (1757–1947 CE)

Sutlej Valley from Rampur ca. 1857 • A number of

irrigation canals
are located on the
Sutlej river.
• Few Indian
commercial
crops—such as
Cotton, indigo,
opium, and rice—
made it to the
global market
under the British
Raj in India.
• The second half
of the 19th century saw some increase in land under cultivation and agricultural
production expanded at an average rate of about 1% per year by the later 19th century.

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 • Due to extensive irrigation by canal networks Punjab, Narmada valley, and Andhra
Pradesh became centers of agrarian reforms.
• The British regime in India did supply the irrigation works but rarely on the scale
required.
• Community effort and private investment soared as market for irrigation developed.
• Agricultural prices of some commodities rose to about three times between 1870-1920.
• A rich source of the state of Indian agriculture in the early British era is a report
prepared by a British engineer, Thomas Barnard, and his Indian guide, Raja
Chengalvaraya Mudaliar, around 1774. This report contains data of agricultural
production in about 800 villages in the area around Chennai in the years 1762 to 1766.
This report is available in Tamil in the form of palm leaf manuscripts at Thanjavur
Tamil University, and in English in the Tamil Nadu State Archives.
• 1871: Government of India created Department of Revenue, Agriculture and
Commerce which formed as base for Initiation of Agriculture in India.
• 1880: Famine Commission Report was submitted which was base for inception of
Agricultural Department.
• 1881: Separate Department of Agriculture at Centre for Famine relief operations
• 1890 : Dr. J.A. Voelcker appointed as a consulting chemist from Royal Agricultural
Society (England) - Laid foundation for agricultural research in India.
• 1892 – 1903 - Appointment of Imperial Agricultural Chemist, Imperial Mycologist and
Imperial Entomologist – Base for Beginning of inducting the scientist in Agriculture.
• 1901-05: To enhance agricultural education, Establishment of Agricultural Colleges at
Pune, Kanpur, Sabour, Nagpur, Coimbatore and Lyallpur (Now in Pakistan).
• 1905: Establishment of Imperial Agricultural Research Institute (IARI) at Pusa (Bihar)
• 1929: Based on Royal Commission on Agriculture’s recommendation (1928), Imperial
Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) was establishment to conduct comprehensive
research.
• 1931-47: Indian Lac Cess Committee, Indian Central Tobacco Committee, Indian
Central Oilseeds Committee were formed to improve research in various crops.
Republic of India (1947 CE onwards)
• Special programs were undertaken to improve food and cash crops supply.
• The Grow More Food
Bhakra Dam (completed in 1963) is Campaign (1940s) and the
the largest dam in India. Integrated Production
Programme (1950s) focused on
food and cash crops supply
respectively.
• 1957 : All India Coordinated
Maize Improvement Project
was initiated (First coordinated
project) to exploit maize
research (Specifically
heterosis).
• Five-year plans of India—
oriented towards agricultural
development—soon followed.
• 1963: Introduction of semi
dwarf wheat varieties from

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 CIMMYT, Mexico Formed basis for green revolution.
• 1966: Introduced semi-dwarf rice varieties TN1 & IR 8 from Taiwan and Philippines
respectively is formed as base for green revolution.
• Land reclamation, land development, mechanization, electrification, use of chemicals—
fertilizers in particular, and development of agriculture oriented 'package approach' of
taking a set of actions instead of promoting single aspect soon followed under
government supervision.
• The many 'production revolutions' initiated from 1960s onwards included Green
Revolution in India, Yellow Revolution (oilseed: 1986-1990), Operation Flood (dairy:
1970-1996), and Blue Revolution (fishing: 1973-2002) etc.
• 1979: National Agricultural Research Project (NARP) was launched to strengthen the
research capabilities of SAUs
• Following the economic reforms of 1991, significant growth was registered in the
agricultural sector, which was by now benefiting from the earlier reforms and the newer
innovations of Agro-processing and Biotechnology.
• 1998: National Agricultural Technology Project (NATP) was initiated Strengthen the
research on location specific problems Contract farming—which requires the farmers to
produce crops for a company under contract—and high value agricultural product
increased.
• 2006: National Agricultural Innovative Project (NAIP) was launched for End to end
approach for solving problems

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Kautilya’s Arthasasthra - Sangam literature - rainfall prediction – ITK -Tamil Almanac.

Agriculture in Arthasasthra
Kautilya (also known as Vishnu Gupta or Chanakya) (321-296 BC) was a great scholar of
time. He wrote a treatise titled, Arthasasthra, which deals with the management of resources.
During Kautilya’s time agriculture, cattle breeding and trade were grouped into a science
called ‘Varta’. Kautilya gave great importance to agriculture and suggested a separate post of
head of agriculture and named as ‘Sitadhakashya’. Agriculture today receives prime
importance, by policy and administrative support from government officials. eg. i) Supply of
good seeds and other inputs, ii) Provision of irrigation water, iii) prediction of rainfall by IMD,
iv) Assistance in purchase of machineries, v) Marketing and safe storage. All the important
aspects are mentioned by Kautilya in his book. He suggested many important aspects in
agriculture which are highly relevant today.
1. The superintendent of agriculture should be a person who is knowledgeable in agriculture
and horticulture. There was a provision to appoint a person who was not an expert but he
was assisted by other knowledgeable person.
2. Anticipation of labours by land owners before sowing. Slaves and prisoners were
organised to sow the seeds in time. He also emphasized that ploughing provides good soil
texture required for a particular crop.
3. Timely sowing is very important for high yield particularly for rainfed sowing for which,
all the implements and accessories have to be kept ready. Any delay in these arrangements
received punitive action.
4. Kautilya suggested that for getting good yield of rainfed crop, a rainfall of 16 dronas
(One drona = 40 mm to 50 mm; so totally 600-800 mm) was essential and 40 dronas
rainfall (1600-200 mm) is sufficient for rice. It is very significant to note that rain gauge
was used during Kautilya’s period. It was apparently a circular vessel (20 fingers width, 8
fingers depth) and the unit to measure rain was adhaka (1 adhaka=12 mm approx.)
5. He also stressed the optimum distribution of rainfall during crop growing season. One
third of the required quantity of rainfall must fall both in the commencement (July/August)
and closing months (October-December) of rainy season; and 2/3 of rainfall in the middle
(August-October) is considered as very even.
6. The crops should be sown according to the the season. E.g. Sali (transplant rice), Virlu
(direct sown rice), Till (Sesame) and millets should be sown at the commencement of rain.
Pulses to be sown in the middle of season. Safflower, linseed, mustard, barley and wheat to
be sown later.
7. He also stressed that rice crop require less labour expense, vegetables are intermediate and
sugarcane is worst as it requires more attention and expenditure.
8. The crops like cucurbits are well suited to banks of rivers, Long-peper, sugarcane and
grapes do well where the soil profile is well charged with water. Vegetable require
frequent irrigation, borders of field suited for cultivation of medicinal plants.
9. Some of the bio-control practices suggested by Kautilya has got relevance. They are:
a) Practice of exposing seeds to mist and heat for seven nights. These practices are followed
even now in wheat to prevent smut diseases.
b) Cut ends of sugarcane are plastered with the mixture of honey, ghee and cow-dung.
Recently evidences proved that honey has widely an antimicrobial property. Ghee could
seal off the cut ends prevent loss of moisture and cow-dung facilitated bio-control of
potential pathogens.

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 10. He also suggested that harvesting should be done at proper time and nothing should be left
in the field not even chaff. The harvested produce should be properly processed and
safely stored. The above ground crop residues were also removed from fields and fed to
cattle.

Agriculture in the Sangam literature

During the Sangam period (200 BC to 100 AD), the main profession of the population of the
Tamil region (now Tamil Nadu) was agriculture. The region extended from Cape Comorin
(Kanniyakumari) in the South to Tirupati (in Andhra Pradesh) in the North, parts of present Kerala
and Karnataka in the West. The methods of cultivation practised during this ancient period were
revealed by several proverbs, village songs and literature of the period which are available even
today. It is rather surprising that the people had good knowledge about agriculture (seed varieties,
seed selection, seed storage, ploughing, manuring, irrigation, weeding, crop protection, pests, and
botanical pesticides).
The Sangam period literature covers wide aspects of the people’s life, such as epics, ethics,
social life and religion. Several poems composed during this period have been passed on from
generation to generation through memorizing and chanting and later through manuscripts written
on Palmyara leaves. With the advent of paper and printing machinary, Shri Swaminatha Iyer who
is popularly called ‘Tamill grandfather’ painstakingly collected them and brought them out as
printed books. Two peoms of the Sangam period, viz., Tholkappiyam and Thirukural, gives us a
vivid picture of agricultural practices in that period.
Tholkappiyam
The poem Tholkapiyam was written by the poet Tholkappier during 200 BC. It gives
descriptions of various agricultural aspects and these are enumerated below.
Land classification
Land was classified into five (but, cultivable land in to four) groups, viz., Mullai (forest),
Kurinji (hills), Marudham (cultivable lands), and Neithal (coastal areas). Palai land was not
brought under cultivation and left as fallow.
Seasons
Six seasons are mentioned: Early spring, late spring, cloudy, rainy, early winter, and late
winter.
Cultivated crops
There are references to rice, millets, sugarcane, banana, cardamom, pepper, cotton, sesame,
coconut and nut. Farmers were aware that rice could be grown as rainfed crops. Banana and
sugarcane were ratooned. Plants were considered as living beings and endowed with sensitivity.
Tholkappier also mentioned about monocots and dicots.
Importance of agriculture
Kings considered agricultural development as their primary duty. They felt that soil fertility
and irrigation facilities should be the country’s assets. Increased agricultural production was
considered a yardstick of prosperity of the country. The stability of a kingdom was ensured not by
army but by agriculture and sufficient crop production. Failure of monsoon rains and reduction in
grain yield were attributed to the king’s sins.
Irrigation
Kings dug-out tanks at locations where water flow from rains was plentiful. Semicircular
bunds were raised adjacent to small hillocks and water reservoirs akin to present day dams were
raised and constructed. It indicates awareness of water harvesting. The king ‘Karikal Cholan’
brought 1000 slaves from a conquered country and raised the bunds of river Cauvery. The stone

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dam constructed across the river Cauvery centuries ago is considered a master piece of
engineering even today. River water was diverted to tanks through canals. It is mentioned that
irrigation should be given both in early morning or late evening, and not during hot mid-day.
Agricultural implements
Buffaloes were used for ploughing with a wooden plough. Deep ploughing was considered
superior to shallow ploughing. A labour saving tool called Parambu was used for leveling paddy
fields. Tools such as Amiry, Keilar, and Yettam were used to lift water from wells, tanks, and
rivers. Tools called Thattai and Kavan were used for scaring birds in millet fields. Traps were
used to catch wild boars in millet fields.
Seeds
Seed was selected from those earheads that first matured. The selected seed was stored for
sowing only and never used as food grain. It was believed that such a diversion would destroy the
family.
Crop rotation
Crop rotation was practised by raising black gram (urd) after rice. This indicates that farmers
were aware of the benefits to the following rice crop which we now know is due to the nitrogen
fixation in the root nodules of urd. They also practised mixed cropping; e.g., foxtail millet with
lablab or cotton.
Threshing
A tool called Senyam was used for harvesting rice. Threshing of rice was done by hand with
the help of a buffalo (and in large holdings by elephants). Hand winnowing was done to remove
chaff. One sixth of the produce was paid as tax to the king. Farm labourers were paid in kind.
The land was immediately ploughed after harvest or water was allowed to the field to
facilitate rooting of stubbles. Operations requiring hard work such as ploughing were done by men
while women attended to light work such as transplanting, weeding, bird scaring, harvesting and
winnowing. In Kandapuranam, it is mentioned that Valli, daughter of a king, was sent for bird
scaring in millet fields where Lord Muruga (son of Lord Shiva) courted her and married.
Marketing
Products were exchanged by weight. In Madurai (the headquarters of Sangam poets), there
was a food grain bazaar where 18 kinds of cereals, millets and pulses were sold. Each shop had a
banner hoisted high so that it could be seen from a distance indicating that the grains are sold here.
Customs duty was collected on imports and exports.
Thirukural
The poem was composed by a gifted poet named Thiruvalluvar during 70 BC. It consists of
1330 couplets (133 topics each having 10 couplets). It is the pride of Sangam Tamil literature and
its greatness can be realized from the fact that it has been translated into English and several other
languages. It devotes one topic (10 couplets) for agriculture under the chapter politics. This clearly
reveals the recognition that the prime duty of a king is to ensure agricultural production.
Importance of agriculture
‘World spins around many industries. All such industries spin around agriculture’
‘Farmers alone live an independent life; others worship them and are second to them’
‘If farmers stop cultivation, even rishis (sages) cannot survive’
Ploughing
‘If land is ploughed deep and soil allowed drying to one fourth weight, even manuring is not
necessary’
Manuring
‘Manuring is more important than ploughing: crop protection is more important than

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irrigation’. Green leaf manuring, farmyard manure, and sheep penning were in vogue though
farmers were not aware that they supplied nitrogen to the crop. One is amazed at the depth of
agricultural knowledge our ancestors possessed.
Irrigation
Bed method was followed as an efficient method of water management.
Weeding
‘Just like the farmer pulls out weeds with the root system, so the king should eliminate
criminals from society’.
Care of crops
‘If the farmer does not regularly visit his field, the crop will not grow’
The foregoing account of agriculture from ancient Tamil literature clearly indicates the
agricultural knowledge of our forefathers. By following their footsteps, the present generation of
agricultural scientists has used the advanced technologies and has tried to stabilize agricultural
production in our country to meet our food requirements.

Rainfall prediction
• Large number of fireflies seen at night on the forest trees is a sign that the monsoon will
start early (Farmers in Maharashtra).
• If there is rain, accompanied with lightning and mild thunder on the second day of Jayastha
month (May – June), there will be no rain for the next 72 days (Farmers Gujarat)

Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITK)

ITK is defined as the sum total of knowledge and practices which are based on people's
accumulated experience in dealing with situations and problems in various aspects of life and such
knowledge and practices are special to a particular culture.
When the farmers continuously practicing indigenous knowledge, it will be also relevant to
enquire why they do so. In other words, what are the advantages of such practices as perceived by
farmers? Understanding the rational of such practices from farmers’ point of view, may also help
researchers to look into the valid factors while they research to farmers need and help extension
workers to select appropriate technologies based on few criteria
• Summer ploughing conserves moisture, eradicates weeds, consolidates soil erosion and
minimizes the number of ploughings at the time of sowing.
• Due to cowdung coating for cotton seeds, the easy dibbling of seeds to remove fuzz, good
germination, no cost and pest-reduction were the advantages.
• Soaking sorghum seeds in cow urine before sowing increase the drought tolerance and the
seeds had germination with minimum rain and it was considered as no cost practice.
• Soaking Bengal gram in water as found with the previous practice, farmers had resorted to
the practice of soaking bengal gram in water before sowing because it considered as no
cost and withstanding water stress.
• Cotton seeds treated with red soils facilitate easy dibbling of seeds and it favours good
germination.
• Cattle penning practices improve the soil fertility owing to organic manure.
• Sorghum mixed with lab-lab given additional yield owing to mixed cropping and it
enhances nitrogen fixation by leguminous lab-lab.
• Use of cow dung cake as burrow fumigant is economical in controlling rats.

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 • Raising castor as a border crop in cotton field is used as trap crop for the cotton pest and it
also provided additional income.
• Easy removal of pest, easy separation of kernels, longer shelf life and higher economics are
advantages of coating red gram with red soil.
• Mixing green gram with ash was one of the post harvest indigenous practice and it had
certain advantages like pest reduction and cheaper method.

Tamil Almanac (Panchangam)

An annual publication including weather forecasts and other miscellaneous information
arranged according to the calendar of a given year
The Tamil Almanac is used in Tamil Nadu and Puducherry in India, and by the Tamil
population in Malaysia, Singapore and Sri Lanka. It is used today for cultural, religious and
agricultural events, with the Gregorian calendar having largely supplanted it for official use both
within and outside India. It is based on the classical Hindu solar calendar also used in Assam,
Bengal, Kerala, Manipur, Nepal, Orissa and the Punjab.
There are several festivals based on the Tamil Hindu calendar. The Tamil New Year
follows the Nirayanam vernal equinox and generally falls on April 13 or 14th of the Gregorian
year. April 13 or 14th marks the first day of the traditional Tamil calendar and this remains a public
holiday in both Tamil Nadu and Sri Lanka. Tropical vernal equinox fall around 22 March, and
adding 23 degrees of trepidation or oscillation to it, we get the Hindu sidereal or Nirayana Mesha
Sankranti (Sun's transition into nirayana Aries).
Hence, the Tamil calendar begins on the same date in April which is observed by most
traditional calendars of the rest of India.
Week
The days of the Tamil calendar relate to the celestial bodies in the solar system: Sun,
Moon, Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, Venus, and Saturn, in that order. The week starts with Sunday.
This list compiles the days of the week in the Tamil calendar:
Lord or Gregorian Calendar
No. Weekday (Tamil) Sanskrit name
Planet equivalent
01. Gnyaayitru-kizhamai Ravivaara Sun Sunday
02. Thingat-kizhamai Somavaara Moon Monday
03. Sevvaai-kizhamai Mangalavaara Mars Tuesday
04. Buthan-kizhamai Budhavaara Mercury Wednesday
05. Viyaazha-kizhamai Guruvaara Jupiter Thursday
06. Velli-kizhamai Sukravaara Venus Friday
07. Sani-kizhamai Shanivaara Saturn Saturday
Months
The number of days in a month varies between 29 and 32.
The following list compiles the months of the Tamil Calendar
No. Month (Tamil) Sanskrit Name Gregorian Calendar equivalent
01. Cittirai Chaitra mid-April to mid-May
02. Vaikaci Vaisakha mid-May to mid-June

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03. Aani Jyaishtha mid-June to mid-July
04. Aadi Ashadha mid-July to mid-August
05. Aavani Shravana mid-August to mid-September
06. Puraṭṭaci Bhadrapada mid-September to mid-October
07. Aippaci/Aippasi Ashwina mid-October to mid-November
08. Karttikai Karttika mid-November to mid-December
09. Markaḻi Margashirsha mid-December to mid-January
10. Tai Pausha mid-January to mid-February
11. Maci Magha mid-February to mid-March
12. Pankuni Phalguna mid-March to mid-April

Seasons
The Tamil year, in keeping with the old Indic calendar, is divided into six seasons, each of
which lasts two months
Season name English translation Sanskrit Name English equivalent Months
Kar Dark, rain Varsha Rainy Aavani, Purataci
Kutir Chill, wind Sharada Autumn Aippaci, Kārthikai
Munpani Early dew Hemanta Early winter Markazhi, Tai
Pinpani Late dew Sishira Late winter Masi, Pankuni
Ilavenil Young warmth Vasanta Spring Chithirai, Vaikasi
Mutuvenil Extreme warmth Grishma Summer Aani, Aadi

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Agronomy – definition – meaning and scope. Agro-climatic zones of India and Tamil Nadu –
Agro ecological zones of India
Agronomy is derived from a Greek word ‘agros’ meaning ‘field’ and ‘nomos’ meaning
‘management’. Principles of agronomy deal with scientific facts in relations to environment in
which crop are produced.
Definition of Agronomy
1. It is defined as an agricultural science deals with principles and practices of crop
production and field management.
2. Agronomy is branch of agricultural science, which deals with principles, & practices of
soil, water & crop management.
3. It is branch of agricultural science that deals with methods which provide favorable
environment to the crop for higher productively,
Boundaries and scale
Crop management, and its scientific study agronomy, are part of a system that comprises
the physical elements of the climate, soil and land, the biological constituents of the vegetation
and soil, the economic opportunities and constraints of markets, sales and profit, and the social
circumstances and preferences of those who work the land.

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Scope of Agronomy
Agronomy is a dynamic discipline with the advancement of knowledge and better
understanding of planet, environment and agriculture. Agronomy science becomes imperative in
Agriculture in the following areas.
• Identification of proper season for cultivation of wide range of crops is needed which could
be made possible only by Agronomy science.
• Proper methods of cultivation are needed to reduce the cost of cultivation and maximize
the yield and economic returns.
• Availability and application of chemical fertilizers has necessitated the generation of
knowledge to reduce the ill-effects due to excess application and yield losses due to the
unscientific manner of application.
• Availability of herbicides for control of weeds has led to development for a vast
knowledge about selectivity, time & method of its application.
• Water management practices play grater role in present day crisis of water demand and
Agronomy science answer to the questions ‘how much to apply?’ and ‘when to apply?’.
• Intensive cropping is the need of the day and proper time and space intensification not only
increase the production but also reduces the environmental hazards.
• New technology to overcome the effect of moisture stress under dry land condition is
explored by Agronomy and future agriculture is depends on dry land agriculture.
• Packages of practices to explore full potential of new varieties of crops are the most
important aspects in crop production which could be made possible only by Agronomy
science.
• Keeping farm implements in good shape and utilizing efficient manner to nullify the
present day labour crisis is further broadening the scope of agronomy.
• Maintaining the ecological balance through efficient management of crops, livestock and
their feedings in a rational manner is possible only by knowing agronomic principles.
• Care and disposal of farm and animal products like milk and eggs and proper maintenance
of accounts of all transactions concerning farm business is governing principles of
agronomy.

Relation of agronomy to other sciences

Agronomy is a main branch of Agriculture. It is synthesis of several disciplines like soil
science, Agricultural chemistry, crop physiology, plant ecology, biochemistry and economics.
 The Soil Science helps the agronomist to thoroughly understand the soil physical, chemical
and biological properties to effect modification of the soil environment.
 The Agricultural Chemistry help the agronomist to understand the chemical composition
and changes involved in the production, protection, and use of crops and livestock.
 The crop physiology helps to understand the basic life process of crops to understand
functioning of each parts of plant to determine their input requirement like nutrients etc.
 The plant ecology helps us to understand the associated environment in which the crops
grown like the influence of weather (Temperature, Rainfall etc).
 The biochemistry shows the way in which biochemical process takes place in crops which
helps to understand critical requirements to favourably activate this process.
 The economics paves the way for profit and loss analysis in farming.

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Role of Agronomist
Agronomist is a scientist who is dealing with the study of problems of crop production and
adopting/recommending practices of better field crop production and soil management to get high
yield and income.
• Agronomist aims at obtaining maximum production at minimum cost by exploiting the
knowledge of the basic and applied sciences for higher crop production.
• In a broader sense, agronomist is concerned with production of food and fibre to meet the
needs of growing population.
• He develops efficient and economic field preparation method for sowing crops in different
season. (Flat bed, Ridges and furrows)
• He is also involved to selection of suitable crop and varieties to suit or to match varied
seasons and soils. Eg. Red soil - groundnut, Black soil - cotton, Sandy soil – tuberous
crops, Saline soil – Finger millet (Ragi). In Kharif if water is sufficient go for rice and
water is not sufficient go for maize, sorghum.
• Evolves efficient method of cultivation (whether broadcasting, nursery and transplantation
or dibbling, etc.) provides better crop establishment and maintain required population
• He has to identify various types of nutrients required by crops including time and method
of application (e.g. for long duration rice (150-60-60 kg NPK), short duration: 120:50:50
kg NPK/ha Application P&K basal and N in three splits)
• Agronomist must select a better weed management practice. Either through mechanical or
physical (by human work) or chemical (herbicides or weedicides, e.g. 2-4-D) or cultural
(by having wide space it may increase weed growth by using inter space crops). Weeds
are controlled by integrated weed management method also
• Selection of proper irrigation method, irrigation scheduling i.e. irrigation timing and
quantity based on the crops to be irrigated, whether to irrigate continuously or stop in
between and how much water to be supplied are computed by agronomy science so as to
achieve maximum water use efficiency.
• Crop planning (i.e.) suitable crop sequence are developed by agronomist (i.e.) what type of
crop, cropping pattern, cropping sequence, etc. (Rice - Rice - Pulse)
• Agronomists are also develops the method of harvesting, time for harvesting, etc.
(Appropriate time of harvest essential to prevent yield loss)
• Agronomist is responsible for every decision made in the farm management. (What type
of crop to be produced? How much area to be allotted for each crop? How and when to
market? How and When to take other management activities?) All the decisions should be
taken at appropriate time to efficiently use resources available)

Agro-climatic zones
An agro-climatic zone is a land unit uniform in respect of climate and length of growing
period (LGP) which is climatically suitable for a certain range of crops and cultivars (FAO, 1983).
Classification by Planning Commission
Planning Commission of India (1989) made an attempt to delineate the country into
different agro climatic regions based on homogeneity in rainfall, temperature, topography,
cropping and farming systems and water resources. India is divided into 15 agro-climatic regions.
1. Western Himalayan zone
This zone consists of three distinct sub-zones of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh
and Uttar Pradesh hills. The region consists of skeletal soils of cold region, podsolic mountain

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meadow soils and hilly brown soils. Lands of the region have steep slopes in undulating terrain.
Soils are generally silty loams and these are prone to erosion hazards.
2. Eastern Himalayan zone
Sikkim and Darjeeling hills, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Manipur, Tripura,
Mizoram, Assam and Jalpaiguri and Coochibihar districts of West Bengal fall under this region,
with high rainfall and high forest cover. Shifting cultivation is practiced in nearly one-third of the
cultivated area and this has caused denudation and degradation of soils with the resultant heavy
runoff, massive soil erosion and floods in lower reaches and basins.
3. Lower Gangetic Plains zone
This zone consists of West Bengal-lower Gangetic plain region. The soils are mostly
alluvial and are prone to floods.
4. Middle Gangetic Plains zone
This zone consists of 12 districts of eastern Uttar Pradesh and 27 districts of Bihar plains.
This zone has a geographical area of 16 million hectares and rainfall is high. About 39% of gross
cropped area is irrigated and the cropping intensity is 142%.
5. Upper Gangetic Plains zone
This zone consists of 32 districts of Uttar Pradesh. Irrigation is through canals and tube
wells. A good potential for exploitation of ground water exists.
6. Trans-Gangetic Plains zone
This zone consists of Punjab, Haryana, Union territories of Delhi and Chandigarh and
Sriganganagar district of Rajasthan. The major characteristics of this area are: highest net sown
area, highest irrigated area, high cropping intensity and high groundwater utilization.
7. Eastern Plateau and Hills zone
This zone consists of eastern part of Madhya Pradesh, southern part of West Bengal and
most of inland Orissa. The soils are shallow and medium in depth and the topography is
undulating with a slope of 1-10%. Irrigation is through tanks and tube wells.
8. Central Plateau and Hills zone
This zone comprises of 46 district of Madhya Pradesh, part of Uttar Pradesh and
Rajasthan. The topography is highly variable nearly 1/3rd of the land is not available for
cultivation. Irrigation and cropping intensity are low. 75% of the area is rainfed grown with low
value cereal crops. There is an intensive need for alternate high value crops including horticultural
crops.
9. Western Plateau and Hills zone
This zone comprises the major part of Maharastra, parts of Madhya Pradesh and one
district of Rajasthan. The average rainfall of the zone is 904 mm. The net sown area is 65% and
forests occupy 11%. The irrigated area is only 12.4% with canals being the main source.
10. Southern Plateau and Hills zone
This zone comprises 35 districts of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu which are
typically semi-arid zones. Dryland farming is adopted in 81% of the area and the cropping
intensity is 111 percent.
11. East Coast Plains and Hills zone
This zone comprises of east coast of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Orissa. Soils are
mainly alluvial and coastal sands. Irrigation is through canals and tanks.
12. West Coast Plains and Ghats zone
This zone comprises west coast of Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka, Maharastra and Goa
with a variety of crop patterns, rainfall and soil types.
13. Gujarat Plains and Hills zone

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 This zone consists of 19 districts of Gujarat. This zone is arid with low rainfall in most
parts and only 32.5% of the area is irrigated largely through wells and tube wells.
14. Western Dry zone
This zone comprises nine districts of Rajasthan and is characterized by hot sandy desert,
erratic rainfall, high evaporation, scanty vegetation. The ground water is deep and often brackish.
Famine and drought are common features of the region.
15. Islands zone
This zone covers the island territories of Andaman and Nicobar and Lakshadeep which are
typically equatorial with rainfall of 3000 mm spread over eight to nine months. It is largely a
forest zone with undulated lands.

1 Western Himalayan Region J&K, HP, UP, Utranchal

2 Eastern Himalayan Region Assam Sikkim, West Bengal & North-Eastern states
3 Lower Gangetic Plains Region West Bengal
4 Middle Gangetic Plains Region UP, Bihar
5 Upper Gangetic Plains Region UP
6 Trans-Gangetic Plains Region Punjab, Haryana, Delhi & Rajasthan
7 Eastern Plateau and Hills Region Maharastra, UP, Orissa & West Bengal
8 Central Plateau and Hills Region MP, Rajasthan, UP
9 Western Plateau and Hills Region Maharastra, MP & Rajasthan
10 Southern Plateau and Hills Region AP, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu
11 East Coast Plains and Hills Region Orissa, AP, TN,& Pondichery
12 West Coast Plains and Ghat Region TN, Kerala, Goa, Karnataka, Maharastra

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13 Gujarat Plains and Hills Region Gujarat
14 Western Dry Region Rajasthan
15 The Islands Region Andman & Nicaobar, Lakshya Deep

Classification by ICAR
The State Agricultural Universities were advised to divide each state into sub-zones, under
the National Agricultural Research Project (NARP) under ICAR. Based on the rainfall pattern,
cropping pattern and administrative units, 127 agro-climatic zones are classified. The zones of
each state are given below.
State No. of zones State No. of zones
Andhra Pradesh 7 Madhya Pradesh 12
Assam 6 Rajasthan 9
Bihar 6 Maharashtra 9
Gujarat 8 North Eastern Hill region 6
Haryana 2 Orissa 9
Himachal Pradesh 4 Punjab 5
Jammu and Kashmir 4 Tamil Nadu 7
Karnataka 10 Uttar Pradesh 10
Kerala 8 West Bengal 6

The state of Tamil Nadu has been classified into seven distinct agro-climatic zones listed
below.
1. North Eastern zone
2. North Western zone
3. Western zone
4. Cauvery Delta zone
5. Southern zone
6. High Rainfall zone
7. Hilly zone
1. North Eastern zone
This zone covers the districts of Thiruvallur, Vellore, Kanchipuram, Thiruvannamalai,
Viluppuram, Cuddalore (excluding Chidambaram and Kattumannarkoil taluks), some parts of
Perambalur including Ariyalur taluks and also Chennai. The mean annual rainfall of this region is
1054 mm received in 53 rainy days and is benefited by both the monsoons. The mean monthly
maximum temperature ranges between 28.2 to 38.9 °C and the minimum ranges from 19.5 to
24.8°C.
2. North Western zone
This zone comprises of Dharmapuri and Krishnagiri district (excluding hilly areas), Salem,
Namakkal district (excluding Tiruchengode taluk) and Perambalur taluk of Perambulur district.
The climate prevailing in this region is dry and sub humid. This region has been identified as
moderately drought prone area. The elevation varies from 330 to 1070 m above mean sea level.
The mean annual rainfall of this region is appreciably lower than in North Eastern zone and is 825
mm received in 47 rainy days. The region is benefited by both south-west and north-east monsoon
rains but unlike the NEZ, the former contributed more to the total rainfall. The mean monthly
maximum temperature ranges between 30 to 37°C with minimum temperature ranging between 19
to 25.5°C. The annual PET of this region is 1727 mm compared to the annual precipitation of 825
mm.

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3. Western zone
This zone comprises of Erode, Coimbatore, Dindigal, Theni districts, Tiruchengode taluk
of Namakkal district, Karur taluk of Karur district and some western part of Madurai district. The
mean annual rainfall is 718 mm in 45 rainy days. The monthly mean maximum temperature is
35°C in April and 30°C in January and November. The monthly mean minimum temperature is
19°C in January and 24°C in May.
4. Cauvery Delta zone
This zone comprises the Cauvery Delta area in Thanjavur, Thiruvarur, Nagapattinam
districts and Musiri, Tiruchirapalli, Lalgudi, Thuraiyur and Kulithalai taluks of Tiruchirapalli
district, Aranthangi taluk of Pudukottai district and Chidambaram and Kattumannarkoil taluks of
Cuddalore district. The mean annual rainfall of the zone is 1078 mm out of which 40mm is
received during winter, 69.2mm during summer, 295.4mm during South West Monsoon and
673.8mm during North East Monsoon.
5. Southern zone
This is the biggest among the seven zones of Tamil Nadu. It is typical zone surrounded by
coastal areas on the East and mountains in the West. This zone comprises Sivagangai,
Ramanathapuram, Virudunagar, Tuticorin and Tirunelveli districts and Natham and Dindigul
taluks of Dindigul district, Melur, Tirumangalam, Madurai South and Madurai North taluks of
Madurai district and Pudukkottai district excluding Aranthangi taluk. This zone lies on the
Southern part of the State under rain shadow area. Because of this, the area is prone to drought
very often. The climate is semi-arid tropics. The elevation varies from mean sea level to 300 m.
The mean annual rainfall is 776 mm received in 43 rainy days. The monthly mean maximum
temperature in this region ranges from 28.5°C in December to 38.5°C in June. The monthly mean
minimum temperature varies from 21.0°C in January to 27.5°C in June.
6. High rainfall zone
This zone consists of Kanayakumari district. This district situated in the southern most part
of the Peninsular India, with its high rainfall having a climate which is entirely different from the
rest of the state. The climate is monsoon tropics and there is seasonal in shores flow of moist air.
The elevation ranges from sea level to about 600 m. The mean annual rainfall of the district is
1469 mm received in 64 rainy days. There is not much fluctuation in the mean monthly air
temperature. The monthly mean maximum temperature varies from 28.0°C in December to 33.5°C
in May. The monthly mean minimum temperature varies from 22°C in December to 26.5°C in
May.
7. High altitude and Hilly zone
This zone comprises the hilly regions, namely the Nilgiris, Shevroys, Elagiri-Javvadhu,
Kollimalai, Patchaimalai, Anamalais, Palanis and Podhigaimalais. The rainfall varies from 850
mm in Kalrayan hills to about 4500 mm in Anamalai hills.

Agro-ecological zones of India

An ecological region is characterized by distinct ecological responses to macroclimate as
expressed in vegetation and reflected in soils, fauna and aquatic systems. Therefore, an agro-
ecological region is the land unit on the earth’s surface carved out of agro-climatic region when
superimposed on different landform and soil conditions that act as modifiers of climate and length
of growing period (LGP).
National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning (NBSS & LUP) of the ICAR has
delineated 20 agro-ecological regions (AERs) in the country using the FAO 1978 concept of
superimposition of length of growing periods and bio-climate maps on soil physiographic map.
Arid ecosystem

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 1. Western Himalayas, cold eco-region, shallow soils, LGP <90 days.
2. Western plain Kachohh and parts of Kathiawar Peninsula, hot arid eco-region, desert and
saline soils. LPG <90 days.
3. Deccan plateau, hot arid ecoregion, red and black soils. LGP <90 days.
Semiarid ecosystem
4. Northern plain and central high lands, hot semiarid eco-region, alluvial soils. LGP 90-150
days.
5. Central high lands, Gujarat plains, Kathiawar peninsula, hot semiarid eco-region, medium
and deep black soils. LGP 90-150 days.
6. Deccan plateau, hot semiarid ecoregion. LGP 90-150 days.
7. Telangana, Eastern ghats, hot semiarid eco-region. LGP 90- 150 days.
8. Eastern ghats, Tamil Nadu uplands and Karanataka plateau, hot semiarid eco-region. LGP
90-150 days.
Subhumid Ecosystem
9. Northern plain, hot sub-humid (dry) eco-region, red and black soils. LGP 150-180 days.
10. Central highlands, hot sub-humid eco-region, black and red soils. LGP 150-180 (210)
days.
11. Eastern plateau, hot sub-humid eco-region, red and yellow soils, (210) days. LGP 150-180
days.
12. Eastern plateau (Chotanagpur) and Eastern ghats hot sub-humid eco-region, red and
lateritic soils. LGP 150-180 (210) days.
13. Eastern plain, hot sub-humid (moist) eco-region, alluvial soils. LGP 180-210 days.
14. Western Himalayas, warm sub-humid to humid eco-region with brown forest soils. LGP
180-210+ days.
Humid-Perhumid ecosystem
15. Bengal and Assam plain hot sub-humid (moist) to humid eco-region, alluvial soils. LGP
210+ days.
16. Eastern Himalayas, warm per-humid eco-region, brown and red hill soils. LGP 210 + days.
17. North eastern hills, warm per-humid eco-region, red and lateritic soils. LGP 210+ days.
Coastal Ecosystem
18. Eastern coastal plain, hot sub-humid to semiarid eco-region, coastal alluvium. LGP 90-210
+days.
19. Western Ghats and coastal plain, hot humid-per-humid eco-region, red, lateritic and
alluvium derived soils. LGP 210+ days.
Island Ecosystem
20. Andaman Nicobar and Lakshadeep, hot humid to per-humid eco-region, real loamy and
sandy soils. LGP 210+ days.
The major advantage of LGP based criteria is that the LGP is the direct indicative of moisture
availability of a given landform rather than the total rainfall. For example, both Ratnagiri in
western Maharashtra and Nagpur in eastern Maharashtra have LGP 180-210 + days but the total
annual rainfall of Ratnagiri is more than 2000 mm where as that of Nagpur is only 1100 mm.
Therefore, agro-ecosystems approach allows crop planning based on length of growing period
rather than the quantity of rainfall.

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Crops and major soils - Classification – Economic and agricultural importance in India and
Tamil Nadu
CROPS
In general, crop is an organism grown and / or harvested for obtaining yield. Agronomically,
crop is a plant cultivated for economic purpose.
Classification of crops
Classification is done to generalize similar crop plants as a class for better understanding of
them.
Classification types used in crops
1. Based on ontogeny (Life cycle)
2. Based on economic use (Agronomic)
3. Based on Botany (Scientific)
4. Based on seasons
5. Based on climate
1. Based on Ontogeny (Life cycle)
a) Annual crops:
Crop plants that complete life cycle within a season or year. They produce seed and die
within the season. Ex. Wheat, rice, maize, mustard etc.
b) Biennial crops:
Plants that have life span of two consecutive seasons or years. First years/ season, these
plants have purely vegetative growth usually confined to rosette of leaves. The tap root is often
fleshy and serves as a food storage organ. During the second year / season, they produce flower
stocks from the crown and after producing seeds the plants die. Ex. Sugar beet, beet root, etc.
c) Perennial crops:
They live for three or more years. They may be seed bearing or non-seed bearing. Ex.
Napier fodder grass, coconut, etc.
2. Based economic use (Agronomic)
a) Cereals: Cereal derived from word ‘Ceres’ which denotes as ‘Goddess’ who was believed as the
giver of grains by Romans. Cereals are the cultivated grasses grown for their edible starchy grains.
Larger grains used as staple food – Rice, wheat, maize, barley, oats etc.
Cereal grain contains 60 to 70% of starch and is excellent energy rich foods for humans. In
almost every country and region, cereals provide the staple food. In the world as a whole, only 5%
of starchy staple food comes from root crops (mainly cassava, potato, and yams, depending on
climate), whereas the rest is from cereal. Cereals are an excellent source of fat soluble vitamin E,
which is an essential antioxidant. Whole cereal grains contain 20 to 30% of the daily requirements
of the minerals such as selenium, calcium, zinc and copper.
b) Millets:
Millets are small grained cereals, staple food in drier regions of the developing countries are
called ‘millets’. They are also annual grasses of the group cereals. But’ they are grown in lesser
area or less important area whose productivity and economics are also less important. These are also
staple food for people of poor countries. In India, pearl millet is a staple food in Rajasthan.
Millets are broadly classified in to two, 1) Major millets and 2) Minor millets.
Major millets
1. Sorghum /Jowar/Cholam - Sorghum bicolor
2. Pearl millet /Bajra/Cumbu - Pennisetum glaucum
3. Finger millet or Ragi - Eleusine coracona
Minor millets
1. Foxtail millet / Thenai - Setaria italica
2. Little millet / Samai - Panicum miliare
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 3. Common millet / Panivaraugu - Panicum miliaceum
4. Barnyard millet / Kudiraivali - Echinchloa colona var frumentaceae
5. Kodo millet / Varagu - Paspalum scrobiculatum
c) Pulses:
Seeds of leguminous plants used as food (Dhal) rich in protein. Pod containing grain is the
economic portion. Pulses are preferred for protein rich value & also economic important in cropping
system. The wastes or stalk is called the ‘haulm’ or ‘stover’. Haulm is used as green manure and has
high value cattle feed. Green pods used as vegetables, e.g. cowpea, lablab. Seed coat of pulses are
nutritious cattle feed.
1. Red gram - Cajanus cajan
2. Black gram - Vigna mungo
3. Green gram - V. radiata
4. Cowpea - V. unguiculata
5. Bengalgram - Cicer arietinum
6. Horsegram - Macrotyloma uniflorum
7. Lentil - Lens esculentus
8. Soybean - Glycine max
9. Peas or gardenpea - Pisum sativum
10. Garden bean - Lablab purpureus
11. Lathyrus/Kesari - Lathyrus sativus
d) Oil seeds: Those crops which are rich in fatty acid are cultivated for the production of vegetable
oil. They are used either for edible or industrial or medicinal purposes.
1. Groundnut or peanut - Arachis hypogeae
2. Sesame or gingelly - Sesamum indicum
3. Sunflower - Helianthus annuus
4. Castor - Ricinus communis
5. Linseed or flax - Linum usitatissimum
6. Niger - Guizotia abyssinia
7. Safflower - Carthamus tinctorius
8. Rapeseed & Mustard
Brown or Indian Mustard - Brassica juncea
9. Sarson - Brassica sp.
Groundnut:
Pod is economic portion in groundnut and contains 50% of oil content. Oil is edible or
cooking oil and haulm is a used as cattle feed and also has manure value. The shell has fuel value; it
is used for soil amendment. It is a bed material in the poultry forms. Oil cake is used as cattle feed
and has manural value. Oil is used for production of Vanaspathi and soap making.
Sesame:
Sesame oil is cooking oil and economic parts are generally seeds (in the pod). Gingelly cake
is used as a cattle feed, whereas capsule and stalk are used for composting / burning purpose.
Castor:
Seed (kernal) of castor contains oil and used as medicinal and industrial oil. Mainly aviation
industries use this for lubrication purpose. Castor cake is concentrated organic manure. The shell
and stalk is used for fuel purpose.
Mustard:
Mustard oil is edible oil and seeds are the economic portion. Oil cake is a good cattle feed.
Safflower and sunflower:

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 Oil is used for cooking purpose. Both of these oils contain more of unsaturated fatty acids
and used for heart patients. Cake is used as cattle feed and also organic material and decorticated
manure.
Niger:
Seed is the economic portion and used in soap making, paint, varnish & light lubricant. Crop is
generally an industrial crop.
Linseed:
Oil extracted from seeds is used in preparation of paints and varnishes.
e. Sugar crops
Crops cultivated for sugar. Juice is extracted from stem of sugarcane used for jaggery or
sugar. Number of by products like molasses, bagasse, pressmud etc. is obtained from sugar industry.
Molasses used for alcohol and yeast formation and bagasse for paper making and fuel. Pressmud
used for soil amendment; whereas, trash (green leaf + dry foliage) is used for cattle feed.
Sugar beet is another sugar crop where tubers are mainly used for extraction of sugar.
Tubers and tops are used as a fodder for cattle feed.
1. Sugarcane - Saccharum officinarum
2. Sugar beet - Beta vulgaris
f) Fibre crops:
Plants are grown for obtaining fibre. Different kinds of fibre are, i) seed fibre – cotton;
ii) Stem/ bast fibre – Jute, mesta; iii) leaf fibre – Agave, pineapple.
Cotton:
Important fibre crop of the world, used for garment purpose. Seed for cattle feed and oil is
edible purpose. Epidermal hairs of seed coats is the economic portion. Lint (Kapas-seed) has
industrial value (fibre) and stalk is of fuel nature.
Jute, Sunnhemp, mesta:
The fibre obtained from stems is used for gunny bags, ropes. Stem itself is used as fuel.
Sunnhemp is used for both stem fibre and green manure crop.
g) Fodder / Forage: It refers to vegetative matter, fresh or preserved, utilized as feed for animals. It
includes hay, silage, pasturage and fodder.
Ex. 1. Grasses - Bajra napier grass, guinea grass, fodder sorghum, fodder maize.
2. Legumes - Lucerne, Desmanthus, etc.
h) Spices and condiments: Crop plants or their products used for flavour, taste and add colour to
the fresh or preserved food. Ex.– Ginger, garlic, fenugreek, cumin, turmeric, chillies, onion,
coriander, anise and asafetida.
i) Medicinal plants: Crops used for preparation of medicines. Ex. Tobacco, mint. etc.
j) Beverages: Products of crops used for preparation of mild, agreeable and simulating drinking. Ex.
Tea, coffee, cocoa (Plantation crops).
3. Scientific or botanical classification
Botanical or scientific names of plants which consist of genus and species and are
universally accepted. Carolus Linnaeus, a Swedish botanist, was responsible for the binomial
system of classification.
Group Grass (Wheat) Legume (Alfalfa)
Kingdom Plant Plant
Division Spermatophyta Spermatophyta
Sub-division Angiospermae Angiospermae
Class Monocotyledonae Dicotyledonae
Order Graminales Rosales
Family Gramineae Leguminosae

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Tribe Hordeae -
Genus Triticum Medicago
Species aestivum sativa
4. Based on seasons
Crops are grouped under the seasons in which their major field duration falls.
a) Kharif crops: Crops grown during June-July to September–October which require a warm wet
weather during their major period of growth and shorter day length for flowering.
Ex. Rice, maize, castor, groundnut.
b) Rabi crops: Crops grown during October–November to January-February, which require cold
dry weather for their major growth period and longer day length for flowering.
Ex. Wheat, mustard, barley, oats, potato, bengal gram, berseem, cabbage and cauliflower.
c) Summer crops: Crops grown during February–March to May–June which require warm dry
weather for growth and longer day length for flowering. Ex.Black gram, greengram, seasome,
cowpea etc.
This classification is not a universal one. It only indicates the period when a particular crop
is raised. Ex. Kharif rice, kharif maize, rabi maize, summer pulse etc.
5. Based on climatic condition
1) Tropical crop : Coconut, sugarcane
2) Sub-tropical crop : Rice, cotton
3) Temperate crop : Wheat, barley
4) Polar crop : All pines, pasture grasses
SOILS
Soil is defined as the thin layer of earth’s crust made up of disintegrated and decomposed
rocks, complex mineral compound, organic matter, water/air and living organism like bacteria,
fungi, insects and worms and serves as the natural medium of growth of plants.
It provides nutrients, moisture, anchorage (support) and provides air to root system. There
are different soil groups found in varied regions of India. Each group differs from other in physical
and chemical properties. The variation in behaviour is mainly due to the nature of the parent
material from which the soils are formed. Parent materials are Igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks and
metamorphic rocks. Physical properties like structure, texture, colour, water holding capacity, depth
etc. are to be noted. Chemical properties like the presence of various plant elements, pH, EC, CEC,
acidic or alkaline, etc. are considered.
Classification based on soil taxonomy
Order : Entisols Suborder : Fluvents
Great Group : Torrifluvents Subgroup : Typic Torrifluvents
Family : Fine-loamy, mixed, superactive, calcareous, Typic Torrifluvents
Series : Jocity, Youngston.
Major soils of India
1. Alluvial soil (Entisols, Inceptisols and Alfisol)
2. Black soil (Vertisol)
3. Red soil (Alfisol)
4. Laterite soil (Ultisol)
5. Desert soil (Aridisol)
6. Forest soil and hill soil, peat and marshy soils
7. Problem soils (saline, alkali, acid)
1. Alluvial soil or Indo-Gangetic Alluvium
This is the most extensive soil found in India. Out of total area of India, 48.0 m.ha comes
under river alluvium. These soils include deltaic alluvium, calcareous alluvium and coastal

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alluvium. Alluvial soils are formed by transportation in streams and rivers and are deposited in
flood plains or along the coastal belts. Newly formed alluvium may not have distinct soil horizons
while older alluvium may have soil horizons. They occur in the basins of Indus, Ganges,
Brahmaputra, Godavari, Krishna, Cauvery and Tambiraparani deltas spread in U.P., Bihar, West
Bengal, Gujarat, Punjab, Rajasthan, Andhra Predesh, Tamil Nadu.
Newer alluvium is called as Khadar, is sandy, light colour and less Kankar nodules. Older
alluvium is called as Bhangar, full of clay, dark colour and more Kankar nodules. Alluvial soils of
high altitude are acidic in nature and plains are neutral to alkaline. Alluvial soils of plains are
medium in phosphorous content and high in potassium content. Generally, alluvial soils are rich in
nutrients and are fertile and they support good crop growth with plenty of water. Many crops
including vegetable are cultivated in river alluvium. Crops like rice, wheat, cotton, maize,
sugarcane, vegetables, jute, oil seeds, millets, pulses and fruits are cultivated in these soil.
2. Black soil
Dark-grey in colour due to clay-humus complex. Area around 32.0 m.ha is under this soil.
This soil is also called black cotton soil, mixing of soil along the entire column with
Montmorillonite clay. Cotton grows very well with water available in soil. Black soil holds more
moisture and available for a long time. Found in Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, South Orissa,
South and Coastal Andhra Pradesh, North Karnataka and parts of Tamil Nadu. Black soil contains
high proportion of clay (30-40%), so, the water holding capacity is high. Typical characteristics of
this black soil are swelling (during wet period) and shrinkage (dry period). While dry, it forms very
deep cracks of more than 30-45 cm. In Kovilpatti (Tamil Nadu) areas the cracks may extend to 2 to
3 m with a width of 1 to 6 cm. Field preparation takes longer time compared to other soil. Only after
secondary tillage, the soil is suited for crop production. The soils are fine grained contain high
proportion of Calcium and Magnesium carbonates. They are poor in N, medium in P and medium to
high in K (Characteristic feature of typical Indian soil).
In Tamil Nadu Black soils have high pH (8.5 to 9) and are rich in lime (5-7%), have low
permeability. The soils are with more cation exchange capacity (40-60 m.e./100 g). Crops grown in
this soil are cotton, bengal gram, mustard, millets, pulses, oil seeds (sunflower, safflower) are
commonly grown in this soil. Most of the soils come under rainfed areas.
3. Red soil
Based on the colour (due to presence of ferric oxides) it is called as red soil. Around 30 m.ha
are found in India. They are formed from granites and other metamorphic rocks. Mostly found in
semi-arid areas and the colour varies from red to yellow. The soil is light textured, with Kaolinite
type of clay. Well drained with moderate permeability. Low cation exchange capacity and low
water holding capacity. Red soil is present in Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh,
North and East of Arunachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Parts of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. They are
shallow in depth because they are degraded or drained soil. Lesser clay and more sandy than
Vertisol. Red soil is always in acidic nature. Highly suitable for groundnut crop cultivation. Crops
like millets, pulses, oil seeds (ground nut, gingelly, castor) and tuber crops like cassava are
commonly cultivated.
4. Laterites and Lateritic soil
Laterite soils are formed due to the process of laterisation. i.e., leaching of all cations
leaving Fe and Al oxides. Mostly found in hills and foothill areas. This soil is formed under high
intensive down pour of rainfall. It is modified form of red soil, clay content is minimum. Rich in
organic matter content and rich in fertility and medium water holding capacity. They become very
hard when there is no water. The cohesive nature is high. Acid loving crops (Plantation crops) and
fruits (pineapple, avacado) are more cultivated. Tea, rubber, pepper, spices are cultivated. At lower
elevation places, rice is grown.
5. Desert soil
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 Found in desert regions of Rajasthan (Thar desert), parts of Haryana and Punjab of India.
More sand is found and sand dunes are common. Clay content is < 8% only. Poor fertility, poor
water holding capacity and susceptible to soil erosion. Presence of sodic salts (high Na content)
leads to alkalinity. Crops like date palm, cucumber, millets are cultivated (countries like Saudi
Arabia, UAE, Jordan, Sudan etc).
6. Peaty and Organic soil
These soils are very rich in organic matter. Found in Kerala, coastal regions of West Bengal,
Orissa, South and East coast of Tamil Nadu. Deposition of organic matter by the elevated soil.
Peaty and organic soil is not suitable for majority of crops. Rice is mostly cultivated in coastal area
in rainy season.
7. Problem soil
Saline soils: Contain excess amounts of neutral soluble salts dominated by chlorides and sulphates
of Na, Ca and Mg affects plant growth. White encrustation of salts and hence called white alkali.
These soils are characterized by, EC: 4dSm-1 at 25°C, ESP: < 15; pH; < 8.5. This soil needs
leaching and drainage before cropping for amelioration.
i) High salt tolerant: Sesbania, Rice, sugarcane, oats, berseem, lucerne, indian clover & barley.
ii) Medium salt tolerant: Castor, cotton, sorghum, pearl millet, maize, mustard & wheat.
iii) Low salt tolerant: Pulses, peas, Sunnhemp, gram, linseed and sesame.
Sodic / Alkali soils: High content of carbonates and bicarbonates of Na. Hence, they are with high
exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) with dark encrustation, hence called as black alkali. These
soils are rich in NaHCO 3 and characterized by pH: > 8.5; EC : < 4dSm-1; ESP : > 15. Use gypsum
(CaSO 4 , 2H 2 O) as amendment for reclamation of sodic alkali soils. Iron pyrites (FeS 2 ), bulky
organic manures (especially green manure) and crop residues which produces weak organic acids.
i) Tolerant crops: Karnal / rhodes / para/ bermuda grass, rice and sugar beet.
ii) Semi–tolerant: Wheat, barley, oats, berseem and sugarcane.
iii) Sensitive: Cowpea, gram, groundnut, lentil, peas and maize.
Acid soils: These are low pH with high amounts of exchangeable H+ and Al 3 . Occur in regions with
high rainfall. Significant amount of partly decomposed organic matter exist. Have low CEC and
high base saturation. Liming and judicious use of fertilizers are the management measures
suggested. Suitable crops: Acedophytes (like potato).
Comparison of three types of soils
Parameters Saline soil Saline alkali Alkali soil
EC (dS/m) >4 >4 <4
ESP (%) <15 >15 >15
pH <8.5 <8.5 >8.5
Soils of Tamil Nadu
Type of Soil Areas in Tamil Nadu
Red loam Parts of Kancheepuram, Cuddalore, Salem, Dharmapuri, Coimbatore,
(79.8 L. ha & 61.7%) Tiruchirappalli, Thanjavur, Ramanathapuram, Madurai, Tirunelveli,
Sivagangai, Thoothukudi, Virudhunagar, Dindigul and The Nilgiris Districts.
Laterite soil Parts of The Nilgiris District
(3.8 L.ha & 2.9%)
Black soil Parts of Kancheepuram, Cuddalore, Vellore, Thiruvannamalai, Salem,
(15.0 L. ha & 11.6%) Dharmapuri, Madurai, Ramanathapuram, Tirunelveli, Sivagangai,
Thoothukudi, The Nilgiris, Virudhunagar and Dindigul Districts.
Sandy coastal alluvium On the Coasts in the districts of Ramanathapuram, Thanjavur, Nagapattinam,
(9.8 L. ha & 7.6%) Cuddalore, Kancheepuram and Kanyakumari
River alluvium All river deltaic areas (Cauvery, Vaigai, Tambiraparani)
(21.0 L. ha & 16.2%)
Source: Department of Economics and Statistics, Chennai
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Factors affecting crop production – climatic – edaphic - biotic- physiographic and socio
economic factors

CROP GROWTH

INTERNAL FACTORS EXTERNAL FACTORS

(Genetic or heredity) (Environmental)
A. Climatic
B. Edaphic
C. Biotic
D. Physiographic
E. Socio-economic

I. Internal factors
Genetic factors
The increase in crop yields and other desirable characters are related to Genetic make
up of plants.
• High yielding ability
• Early maturity
• Resistance to lodging
• Drought flood and salinity tolerance
• Tolerance to insect pests and diseases
• Chemical composition of grains (oil content, protein content )
• Quality of grains (fineness, coarseness)
• Quality of straw (sweetness, juiciness)
The above characters are less influenced by environmental factors since they are governed
by genetic make-up of crop.
2. External factors
A. Climatic
B. Edaphic
C. Biotic
D. Phsiographic
E. Socio-economic
A. CLIMATIC FACTORS
Nearly 50 % of yield is attributed to the influence of climatic factors.The following are
the atmospheric weather variables which influences the crop production.
1. Precipitation
2. Temperature
3. Atmospheric humidity
4. Solar radiation
5. Wind velocity
6. Atmospheric gases
1. Precipitation
• Precipitation includes all water which falls from atmosphere such as rainfall, snow,
hail, fog and dew.
• Rainfall one of the most important factor influences the vegetation of a place.
• Total precipitation in amount and distribution greatly affects the choice of a cultivated
species in a place.

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 • In heavy and evenly distributed rainfall areas, crops like rice in plains and tea, coffee
and rubber in Western Ghats are grown.
• Low and uneven distribution of rainfall is common in dryland farming where drought
resistance crops like pearl millet, sorghum and minor millets are grown.
• In desert areas grasses and shrubs are common where hot desert climate exists
• Though the rainfall has major influence on yield of crops, yields are not always directly
proportional to the amount of Precipitation as excess above optimum reduces the yields
• Distribution of rainfall is more important than total rainfall to have longer growing
period especially in drylands
2. Temperature
• Temperature is a measure of intensity of heat energy. The range of temperature for
maximum growth of most of the agricultural plants is between 15 and 40ºC.
• The temperature of a place is largely determined by its distance from the equator
(latitude) and altitude.
• It influences distribution of crop plants and vegetation.
• Germination, growth and development of crops are highly influenced by temperature.
• Affects leaf production, expansion and flowering.
• Physical and chemical processes within the plants are governed by air temperature.
• Diffusion rates of gases and liquids changes with temperature.
• Solubility of different substances in plant is dependent on temperature.
• The minimum, maximum (above which crop growth ceases) and optimum temperature
of individual’s plant is called as cardinal temperature.
Crops Minimum Optimum Maximum
temperature ºC temperature ºC temperature ºC
Rice 10 32 36-38
wheat 4.5 20 30-32
Maize 8-10 20 40-43
Sorghum 12-13 25 40
Tobacco 12-14 29 35
3. Atmospheric Humidity (Relative Humidity - RH)
• Water is present in the atmosphere in the form of invisible water vapour, normally
known as humidity. Relative humidity is ratio between the amount of moisture present
in the air to the saturation capacity of the air at a particular temperature.
• If relative humidity is 100% it means that the entire space is filled with water and there
is no soil evaporation and plant transpiration.
• Relative humidity influences the water requirement of crops
• Relative humidity of 40-60% is suitable for most of the crop plants.
• Very few crops can perform well when relative humidity is 80% and above.
• When relative humidity is high there is chance for the outbreak of pest and disease.

4. Solar radiation (without which life will not exist)

• From germination to harvest and even post harvest crops are affected by solar radiation.
• Biomass production by photosynthetic processes requires light.
• All physical process taking place in the soil, plant and environment are dependent on
light
• Solar radiation controls distribution of temperature and there by distribution of crops in
a region.
• Visible radiation is very important in photosynthetic mechanism of plants.
Photosynthetically Active Radiation (PAR - 0.4 – 0.7µ) is essential for production of
carbohydrates and ultimately biomass.

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 0.4 to 0.5 µ - Blue – violet – Active
0.5 to 0.6 µ - Orange – red - Active
0.5 to 0.6 µ - Green –yellow – low active
• Photoperiodism is a response of plant to day length
Short day – Day length is <12 hours (Rice, Sunflower and cotton), long day – Day
length is > 12 hours (Barley, oat, carrot and cabbage), day neutral – There is no or less
influence on day length (Tomato and maize).
• Phototropism –– Response of plants to light direction. Eg. Sunflower
• Photosensitive – Season bound varieties depends on quantity of light received
5. Wind velocity
• The basic function of wind is to carry moisture (precipitation) and heat.
• The moving wind not only supplies moisture and heat, also supplies fresh CO 2 for the
photosynthesis.
• Wind movement for 4 – 6 km/hour is suitable for more crops.
• When wind speed is enormous then there is mechanical damage of the crops (i.e.) it
removes leaves and twigs and damages crops like banana, sugarcane
• Wind dispersal of pollen and seeds is natural and necessary for certain crops.
• Causes soil erosion.
• Helps in cleaning produce to farmers.
• Increases evaporation.
• Spread of pest and diseases.
6. Atmospheric gases on plant growth
• CO 2 – 0.03%, O 2 - 20.95%, N 2 - 78.09%, Argon - 0.93%, Others - 0.02%.
• CO 2 is important for Photosynthesis, CO 2 taken by the plants by diffusion process
from leaves through stomata
• CO 2 is returned to atmosphere during decomposition of organic materials, all farm
wastes and by respiration
• O 2 is important for respiration of both plants and animals while it is released by plants
during Photosynthesis
• Nitrogen is one of the important major plant nutrient, Atmospheric N is fixed in the
soil by lightning, rainfall and N fixing microbes in pulses crops and available to plants
• Certain gases like SO 2 , CO, CH 4 , HF released to atmosphere are toxic to plants
B. EDAPHIC FACTORS (soil)
Plants grown in land completely depend on soil on which they grow. The soil factors that
affect crop growth are
1. Soil moisture
2. Soil air
3. Soil temperature
4. Soil mineral matter
5. Soil organic matter
6. Soil organisms
7. Soil reactions
1. Soil moisture
• Water is a principal constituent of growing plant which it extracts from soil
• Water is essential for photosynthesis
• The moisture range between field capacity and permanent wilting point is available to
plants.
• Available moisture will be more in clay soil than sandy soil
• Soil water helps in chemical and biological activities of soil including mineralization
• It influences the soil environment Eg. it moderates the soil temperature from extremes
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 • Nutrient availability and mobility increases with increase in soil moisture content.
2. Soil air
• Aeration of soil is absolutely essential for the absorption of water by roots
• Germination is inhibited in the absence of oxygen
• O 2 is required for respiration of roots and micro organisms.
• Soil air is essential for nutrient availability of the soil by breaking down insoluble
mineral to soluble salts
• For proper decomposition of organic matter
• Potato, tobacco, cotton linseed, tea and legumes need higher O 2 in soil air
• Rice requires low level of O 2 and can tolerate water logged (absence of O2) condition.
3. Soil temperature
• It affects the physical and chemical processes going on in the soil.
• It influences the rate of absorption of water and solutes (nutrients)
• It affects the germination of seeds and growth rate of underground portions of the crops
like tapioca, sweet potato.
• Soil temperature controls the microbial activity and processes involved in the nutrient
availability
• Cold soils are not conducive for rapid growth of most of agricultural crops
4. Soil mineral matter
• The mineral content of soil is derived from the weathering of rocks and minerals as
particles of different sizes.
• These are the sources of plant nutrients
eg; Ca, Mg, S, Mn, Fe, K etc
5. Soil Organic matter
• It supplies all the major, minor and micro nutrients to crops
• It improves the texture of the soil
• It increases the water holding capacity of the soil,
• It is a source of food for most microorganisms
• Organic acids released during decomposition of organic matter enables mineralisation
process thus releasing unavailable plant nutrients
6. Soil organisms:
• The raw organic matter in the soil is decomposed by different micro organisms which
in turn releases the plant nutrients
• Atmospheric nitrogen is fixed by microbes in the soil and is available to crop plants
through symbiotic (Rhizobium) or non-symbiotic (Azospirillum) association
7. Soil reaction (pH)
• Soil reaction is the pH (hydrogen ion concentration) of the soil.
• Soil pH affects crop growth and neutral soils with pH 7.0 are best for growth of most of
the crops
• Soils may be acidic (<7.0), neutral (=7.0), saline and alkaline (>7.0)
• Soils with low pH is injurious to plants due high toxicity of Fe and Al.
• Low pH also interferes with availability of other plant nutrients.

C. BIOTIC FACTORS
Beneficial and harmful effects caused by other biological organism (plants and animals) on the
crop plants
1. Plants
• Competitive and complimentary nature among field crops when grown together
• Competition between plants occurs when there is demand for nutrients, moisture and
sunlight particularly when they are in short supply or when plants are closely spaced

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 • When different crops of cereals and legumes are grown together, mutual benefit results
in higher yield (synergistic effect)
• Competition between weed and crop plants as parasites eg: Striga parasite weed on
sugarcane crop
2. Animals
• Soil fauna like protozoa, nematode, snails, and insects help in organic matter
decomposition, while using organic matter for their living
• Insects and nematodes cause damage to crop yield and considered as harmful
organisms.
• Honey bees and wasps help in cross pollination and increases yield and considered as
beneficial organisms
• Burrowing earthworm facilitates aeration and drainage of the soil as ingestion of
organic and mineral matter by earthworm results in constant mixing of these materials
in the soils.
• Large animals cause damage to crop plants by grazing (cattle, goats etc)
D. Physiographic factors:
• Topography is the nature of surface earth (leveled or sloppy) is known as topography.
Topographic factors affect the crop growth indirectly.
• Altitude – increase in altitude cause a decrease in temperature and increase in
precipitation and wind velocity (hills and plains)
• Steepness of slope: it results in run off of rain water and loss of nutrient rich top soil
• Exposure to light and wind: a mountain slope exposed to low intensity of light and
strong dry winds may results in poor crop yields (coastal areas and interior pockets)
E. Socio-economic factors
• Society inclination to farming and members available for cultivation
• Appropriate choice of crops by human beings to satisfy the food and fodder
requirement of farm household.
• Breeding varieties by human invention for increased yield or pest & disease resistance
• The economic condition of the farmers greatly decides the input/ resource mobilizing
ability (marginal, small, medium and large farmers)

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Tillage – Definition – objectives – types of tillage - modern concepts of tillage – main field
preparation
Tillage
Tillage operations in various forms have been practiced from the very inception of growing
plants. Primitive man used tools to disturb the soils for placing the seeds. The word tillage is
derived from ‘Anglo-Saxon’ words Tilian and Teolian, meaning ‘to plough and prepare soil for seed
to sow, to cultivate and to raise crops’. Jethrotull, who is considered as father of tillage suggested
that thorough ploughing is necessary so as to make the soil into fine particles.
Tillage is the mechanical manipulation of soil with tools and implements for obtaining conditions
ideal for seed germination, seedling establishment and growth of crops.
Tilth is the physical condition of soil obtained out of tillage (or) it is the result of tillage. The tilth
may be a coarse tilth, fine tilth or moderate tilth.
Objectives of tillage
The main objectives of tillage are,
• To prepare a good seed bed which helps the germination of seeds.
• To create conditions in the soil suited for better growth of crops.
• To control the weeds effectively.
• To make the soil capable for absorbing more rain water.
• To mix up the manure and fertilizers uniformly in the soil.
• To aerate the soil.
• To provide adequate seed-soil contact to permit water flow to seed and seedling roots.
• To remove the hard pan and to increase the soil depth.
To achieve these objectives, the soil is disturbed / opened up and turned over.
Types of tillage: Tillage operations may be grouped into
1. On season tillage 2. Off-season tillage
1. On-season tillage
Tillage operations that are done for raising crops in the same season or at the onset of the
crop season are known as on-season tillage. They may be preparatory cultivation and after
cultivation.
A. Preparatory tillage: This refers to tillage operations that are done to prepare the field for raising
crops. It consists of deep opening and loosening of the soil to bring about a desirable tilth as well as
to incorporate or uproot weeds and crop stubble when the soil is in a workable condition.
Types of preparatory tillage
a. Primary tillage
b. Secondary tillage
a. Primary tillage: The tillage operation that is done after the harvest of crop to bring the land under
cultivation is known as primary tillage or ploughing. Ploughing is the opening of compact soil with
the help of different ploughs. Country plough, mould board plough, bose plough, tractor and power
tiller drawn implements are used for primary tillage.
b. Secondary tillage: The tillage operations that are performed on the soil after primary tillage to
bring a good soil tilth are known as secondary tillage. Secondary tillage consists of lighter or finer
operation which is done to clean the soil, break the clods and incorporate the manure and fertilizers.
Harrowing and planking is done to serve those purposes.
Planking is done to crush the hard clods, level the soil surface and to compact the soil
lightly. Harrows, cultivators, Guntakas and spade are used for secondary tillage.
c. Layout of seed bed: This is also one of the components of preparatory tillage. Leveling board,
buck scrapers etc. are used for leveling and markers are used for layout of seedbed.

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B. After cultivation (Inter tillage): The tillage operations that are carried out in the standing crop
after the sowing or planting and prior to the harvesting of the crop plants are called after tillage.
This is also called as inter cultivation or post seeding/ planting cultivation. It includes harrowing,
hoeing, weeding, earthing up, drilling or side dressing of fertilizers etc. Spade, hoe, weeders etc.
are used for inter cultivation.
2. Off-season tillage: Tillage operations done for conditioning the soil suitably for the forthcoming
main season crop are called off-season tillage. Off season tillage may be, post harvest tillage,
summer tillage, winter tillage and fallow tillage.
Special purpose tillage: Tillage operations intended to serve special purposes are said to be special
purpose tillage. They are,
a. Sub-soiling: To break the hard pan beneath the plough layer, special tillage operation (chiseling)
is performed to reduce compaction. Sub-soiling is essential and once in four to five years where
heavy machineries are used for field operations, seeding, harvesting and transporting. Advantages
of sub-soiling are, greater volume of soil may be obtained for cultivation of crops, excess water may
percolate downward to recharge the permanent water table, reduce runoff and soil erosion and roots
of crop plants can penetrate deeper to extract moisture from the water table.
b. Clean tillage: It refers to working of the soil of the entire field in such a way no living plant is
left undisturbed. It is practiced to control weeds, soil borne pathogen and pests.
c. Blind tillage: It refers to tillage done after seeding or planting the crop (in a sterile soil) either at
the pre-emergence stage of the crop plants or while they are in the early stages of growth so that
crop plants (sugarcane, potato etc.) do not get damaged, but, extra plants and broad leaved weeds
are uprooted.
d. Dry tillage: Dry tillage is practiced for crops that are sown or planted in dry land condition
having sufficient moisture for germination of seeds. This is suitable for crops like broadcasted rice,
jute, wheat, oilseed crops, pulses, potato and vegetable crops. Dry tillage is done in a soil having
sufficient moisture (21-23%). The soil becomes more porous and soft due to dry tillage. Besides,
the water holding capacity of the soil and aeration are increased. These conditions are more
favourable for soil micro-organisms.
e. Wet tillage or puddling: The tillage operation that is done in a land with standing water is
called wet tillage or puddling. Puddling operation consists of ploughing repeatedly in standing
water until the soil becomes soft and muddy. Puddling creates an impervious layer below the
surface to reduce deep percolation losses of water and to provide soft seed bed for planting rice.
Puddling is done in both the directions for the incorporation of green manures and weeds. Wet
tillage destroys the soil structure and the soil particles that are separated during puddling settle later.
Wet tillage is the only means of land preparation for transplanting semi-aquatic crop plant such as
rice. Planking after wet tillage makes the soil level and compact. Puddling hastens transplanting
operation as well as establishment of seedlings. Wet land ploughs or worn out dry land ploughs are
normally used for wet tillage.
Depth of ploughing
The desirable depth of ploughing is 12 to 20 cm for field crops. The ploughing depth varies
with effective root zone of the crop. The depth of ploughing is 10-20 cm for shallow rooted crops
and 15-30 cm for deep rooted crops.
Number of ploughing
Number of ploughing depends on soil conditions, time available for cultivation between two
crops and type of cropping systems. Zero tillage is practiced in rice fallow pulses. Minimum
number of ploughing is taken up at optimum moisture level to bring favourable tilth depending on
need of the crop.

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Time of ploughing
The optimum soil moisture content for tillage is 60% of field capacity.
Modern concepts in tillage:
Conventional tillage involves primary tillage to break open and turn the soil followed by
secondary tillage to obtain seed bed for sowing or planting. With the introduction of herbicides in
intensive farming systems, the concept of tillage has been changed. Continuous use of heavy
ploughs create hard pan in the subsoil, results in poor infiltration. It is more susceptible to run-off
and erosion. It is capital intensive and increase soil degradation. To avoid these ill effects, modern
concepts on tillage is in rule.
1. Minimum tillage: It aims at reducing tillage operations to the minimum necessity for ensuring a
good seed bed. The advantages of minimum tillage over conventional tillage are,
• The cost and time for field preparation is reduced by reducing the number of field
operations.
• Soil compaction is comparatively less.
• Soil structure is not destroyed.
• Water loss through runoff and erosion is minimum.
• Water storage in the plough layer is increased.
Tillage can be reduced in 2 ways
1. By omitting operations which do not give much benefit when compared to the cost.
2. By combining agricultural operations like seeding and fertilizer application.
The minimum tillage systems can be grouped into the following categories,
1. Row zone tillage
Primary tillage is done with mould board plough in the entire area of the field; secondary
tillage operations like discing and harrowing are reduced and done only in row zone.
2. Plough plant tillage
After the primary tillage, a special planter is used for sowing. In one run over the field, the
row zone is pulverized and seeds are sown by the planter
3. Wheel track tillage
Primary ploughing is done as usual. Tractor is used for sowing; the wheels of the tractor
pulverize the row zone in which planting is done.
In all these systems, primary tillage is as usual. However, secondary tillage is replaced by
direct sowing in which sown seed is covered in the row zone with the equipment used for sowing.
2. Zero tillage (No tillage): In this, new crop is planted in the residues of the previous crop without
any prior soil tillage or seed bed preparation and it is possible when all the weeds are controlled by
the use of herbicides. Zero tillage is applicable for soils with a coarse textured surface horizon, good
internal drainage, high biological activity of soil fauna, favourable initial soil structure and an
adequate quantity of crop residue as mulch. These conditions are generally found in Alfisols,
Oxisols and Ultisols in the humid and sub-humid tropics.
Till planting
Till planting is one method of practicing zero tillage. A wide sweep and trash bar clears a
strip over the previous crop row and planter opens a narrow strip into which seeds are planted and
covered. Here, herbicide functions are extended. Before sowing, the vegetation present has to be
destroyed for which broad spectrum non selective herbicides like glyposate, paraquat and diquat are
used.
Advantages
• Zero tilled soils are homogenous in structure with more number of earthworms.
• Organic matter content increases due to less mineralization.

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 • Surface run-off is reduced due to presence of mulch.
Disadvantages
• Higher amount of nitrogen has to be applied for mineralization of organic matter in zero
tillage.
• Perennial weeds may be a problem.
• High number of volunteer plants and buildup of pests.
3. Stubble mulch tillage or stubble mulch farming
Soil is protected at all times either by growing a crop or by leaving the crop residues on the
surface during fallow periods. Sweeps or blades are generally used to cut the soil up to 12 to 15 cm
depth in the first operation after harvest and depth of cut is reduced during subsequent operations.
When large amount of residues are present, a disc type implement is used for the first operation to
incorporate some of the residues into the soil. This hastens the decomposition but still keeps enough
residues on top soil.
Two methods for sowing crops in stubble mulch tillage are,
1. Similar to zero tillage, a wide sweep and trash bars are used to clear a strip and a narrow
planter shoe opens a narrow furrow into which seeds are placed.
2. A narrow chisel of 5-10 cm width is worked through the soil at a depth of 15-30 cm leaving
all plant residues on the surface. The chisel shatters the tillage pans and surface crusts.
Planting is done with special planters.
Disadvantages of stubble mulch farming
• The residues left on the surface interfere with seed bed preparation and sowing operations.
• The traditional tillage and sowing implements or equipments are not suitable under these
conditions.
4. Conservation tillage: The major objective is to conserve soil and soil moisture. It is a system of
tillage in which organic residues are not inverted into the soil such that they remain on surface as
protective cover against erosion and evaporation losses of soil moisture. If stubble forms the
protective cover on the surface, it is usually referred to as stubble mulch tillage. The residues left on
soil surface interfere with seed bed preparation and sowing operations. It is a year round system of
managing plant residue with implements that undercut residues, losses the soil and kills the weeds.
Advantages
• Energy conservation through reduced tillage operations.
• Improve the soil physical properties.
• Reduce the water runoff from fields.
Main field preparation:
Tillage operations are generally classified in to two, preparatory cultivation and after
cultivation. The preparatory cultivation or tillage is operations that are done before the cultivation.
This preparatory cultivation is generally called as main field preparation. The main field preparation
involves three processes, viz., primary tillage, secondary tillage and lay-out for sowing. Some of the
important primary tillage implements are country plough, mould board plough, disc plough, chisel
plough etc. Cultivators and harrows are generally used for secondary tillage purpose. However, in
practical means, the first two (primary and secondary tillages) may not have any key difference,
since; both operations are mainly carried out with same implement. Country plough and cultivators
are used for both the purposes. After thorough ploughing, the field modified in to suitable way for
planting such as ridges and furrows or beds and channels or pit according to the need of the crops.
Such field modifications are mandatory for better crop production.

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Seeds - Seed rate - Sowing methods - Germination - Crop stand establishment - Planting
geometry
SEEDS
Plant propagation is made in two ways, Sexual (by seeds) and asexual (by vegetative
means). Biologically, seed is a ripe, fertilized ovule and a unit of reproduction of flowering plants.
SEED RATE
The required number of plants/unit area is decided by calculating the seed rate. The seed rate
depends on spacing or plant population, test weight, germination percentage. The formula is as
follows.

Plant population (per ha) x No. of seeds/hill x Test weight (g) x 100
Seed rate (kg/ha) = ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1000 x 1000 x Germination percentage (%)
SOWING METHODS
1. Broadcasting
2. Dibbling
3. Sowing behind the country plough (manual and mechanical drilling)
4. Seed drilling
5. Nursery transplanting
1. Broadcasting
Broadcasting is otherwise called as random sowing. Literally means ‘scattering the seeds’.
Broadcasting is done for many crops. Broadcasting is mostly followed for small sized to medium
sized crops. This is the largest method of sowing followed in India, since; it is the easiest and
cheapest and requires minimum labours. To have optimum plant population in unit area certain
rules should be followed.
• Only a skilled person should broadcast the seeds for uniform scattering.
• The ploughed field should be in a perfect condition to trigger germination.
The seeds are broadcasted in a narrow strip and the sowing is completed strip by strip. To
ensure a good and uniform population, it is better to broadcast on either direction. This is called
criss-cross sowing. If the seed is too small, it is mixed with sand to make a bulky one and for easy
handling. Ex. Seasame seeds are mixed with sand at 1:15 or 1:10 ratio and sown.
In certain cases the person sowing will be beating the seeds against the basket for uniform
scattering. Ex. Sorghum, pearl millet.
After broadcasting, the seeds are covered gently either using a country plough with a very
shallow ploughing or some wooden planks (boards / levelers) are used to cover the surface. In some
cases, tree twigs or shrub branches are used. If the seeds are large, levelers collect the seeds and
leave in the other side. Comb harrow is the best used one.
Disadvantages
• All the seeds broadcasted do not have contact with the soil. 100% germination is not
possible.
• Enhanced seed rate is required.
• Seeds cannot be placed in desired depth. Desired depth ensures perfect anchorage. Lodging
(falling down) is common in broadcasting.
2. Dibbling
This is actually line sowing. Inserting a seed through a hole at a desired depth and covering
the hole. Dibbling is practiced on plain surface and ridges and furrows or beds and channels. This
type of sowing is practiced only under suitable soil condition. Rice fallow cotton is dibbled on a
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plain surface. The seeds are dibbled at 2/3rd from top or 1/3rd at bottom of the ridge. Before sowing,
furrows are opened and fertilizers are applied above which seeds are sown. The seeds do not have
contact with the fertilizers. This is done for wider spaced crops and medium to large sized seeds.
Ex. Sorghum, maize, sunflower, cotton are dibbled on ridges and furrows. Both beds and channels;
and ridges and furrows come under line sowing. While earthing up, the plant occupies middle of
the ridge. Earthing up is essential for proper anchorage of the root system.
Advantages of line sowing are, (i) uniform population, (ii) better germination, (iii) reduced
seed rate.
Sl. No. Dibbling (Line sowing) Broadcasting (Random sowing)
1. Costlier Cheaper
2. Takes considerable time Quickest and time saving
3. Fixed seed rate Higher seed rate
4. Mechanization is possible, e.g. weeding, harvesting Not possible
5. Uniform utilization of resources (land, water, light, Resource utilization is un-uniform
nutrient, etc.)
3. Sowing behind the plough
Sowing behind the plough is done by manual or mechanical means. Seeds are dropped in
the furrows opened by the plough and the same is closed or covered when the next furrow is
opened. The seeds are sown at uniform distance. Manual method is a laborious and time
consuming process. Seeds like redgram, cowpea and groundnut are sown behind the country
plough. Major sown crop is ground out. Seeds are sown by mechanical means by Gorus – seed
drill. A seed drill has a plough share and hopper. Seeds are placed on hopper. Different types of
seed drill are available, e.g., simple Goru – Guntakas.
Advantages: i) The seeds are placed at desired depth covered by iron planks, ii) except very small,
very large seeds most of the seeds can be sown, e.g. maize, sorghum, millets, sunflower, etc.
4. Drill sowing (or) Drilling
Drilling is the practice of dropping seeds in a definite depth covered with soil and
compacted. In this method, sowing implements are used for placing the seeds into the soil. Both
animal drawn Gorus and power operated (seed drills) implements are available. Seeds are drilled
continuously or at regular intervals in rows. In this method, depth of sowing can be maintained and
fertilizer can also be applied simultaneously. It is possible to take up sowing of inter crops also. It
requires more time, energy and cost, but maintains uniform population per unit area. Seeds are
placed at uniform depth, covered and compacted.
5. Transplanting
This method of planting has two components, a. nursery and b. transplanting. In nursery,
young seedlings are protected more effectively in a short period and in a smaller area. Management
is easy and economical.
Advantages
• Can ensure optimum plant population
• Sowing of main field duration, i.e., management in the main field is reduced
• Crop intensification is possible under transplanting
Disadvantages
• Nursery raising is expensive
• Transplanting is another laborious and expensive method
Age of seedlings is 1/4th of the total duration of the crop. If the total duration is 16 weeks,
four week period (1 month) is under nursery beds. Nursery age is not very rigid, e.g., thumb rule – 3
months crop – nursery duration 3 weeks, minimum 4 months – 4 weeks minimum period; 5 months
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– 5 weeks. After the nursery period, seedlings are pulled out and transplanted. This is done on the
main field after thorough field preparation or optimum tilth. The seedlings are dibbled in lines or in
random. Closer spaced crops are mostly raised in random method even after nursery, Ex. rice and
finger millet. For vegetables, desired spacing is required during transplanting. Transplanting shock
is a period after transplanting, the seedlings show no growth. This is mostly due to the change in the
environment between root and the soil. The newly planted seedlings should adjust with new
environment. It is for a period of 5-7 days depending upon season, crop, variety, etc. At higher
temperature, dehydration is possible and leaves dried out. Area required for nursery normally is
1/10th of the total area.
GERMINATION
• Germination is a protrusion of radicle or seedling emergence.
• Germination results in the rupture of the seed coat and emergence of seedling from
embryonic axis.
Factors affecting seed germination
1. Soil: Soil type, texture, structure and microorganisms greatly influence the seed
germination.
2. Moisture: When the seeds do not get required moisture in the soil, the viability is lost.
When the moisture is excess after germination, it will lead to rotting of the sprouts.
3. Temperature: When it is above and below the optimum temperature, the germination rate
will be affected.
4. Light: The most effective wavelength for promoting germination is red (662 nm) and 730
nm inhibits germination.
5. Soil condition: a. Tilth is the most important soil factor influences on germination of seed.
Small seeds require fine tilth whereas, moderate and larger seeds requires medium and
coarse tilth soils, respectively.
b. Depth of sowing: The seeds should be placed at optimum depth. When the seeds are
placed at deeper layers they have to spend more energy for germination. When it is placed
on soil surface, it will be taken away by birds/worked away. The thumb rule is to sow seeds
to a depth of approximately 3 to 4 times diameter of the seed. The optimum depth of sowing
for most of the field crops ranged between 3 and 5 cm depth. The seeds sown should be
protected from rodents or birds before germination by employing labourers to scare the birds
at least for three days after sowing.
CROP STAND ESTABLISHMENT
Good crop establishment is one of the most important features in better crop production. The
better crop establishment is in turn expressed as optimum plant population in fields. Number of
plants per unit area in the cropped field is called as plant population.
Optimum plant population
It is the number of plants required to produce maximum output or biomass per unit area.
Any increase beyond this stage results in either no increase or reduction in biomass.
Importance of plant population
• Yield of any crop depends on final plant population.
• The plant population depends on germination percentage and survival rate in the field.
• Under rain fed conditions, high plant population will deplete the soil moisture before
maturity, where as low plant population will leave the soil moisture unutilized.
• When soil moisture and nutrients are not limited high plant population is necessary to utilize
the other growth factors like solar radiation efficiently.
• Under low plant population, individual plant yield will be more due to wide spacing.

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 • Under high plant population, individual plant yield will be low due to narrow spacing
leading to competition between plants.
• Yield per plant decreases gradually as plant population per unit area is increased, but yield
per unit area increases up to certain level of population. That level of plant population is
called as optimum population.
• So, to get maximum yield per unit area, optimum plant population is necessary. So the
optimum plant population for each crop should be identified.
Factors affecting plant population
A. Genetic Factors
1. Size of the plant
• The volume occupied by the plant at the time of flowering decides the spacing of the crop.
• Plants of red gram, cotton, sugarcane etc. occupy larger volume of space in the field
compared to rice and wheat.
• Even the varieties of the same crop differ in size of the plant.
2. Elasticity of the plant
• Variation in size of the plant between minimum size of the plant that can produce some
economic yield to the maximum size of the plant that can reach under unlimited space and
resources is the elasticity of the plant.
• The optimum plant population range is high in indeterminate plants. Ex. Redgram – 55,000
to1,33,000 plants/ha.
• The elasticity is due to tillering and branching habit of the plants.
• For determinate plants like pearl millet, sorghum elasticity range is less.
• For indeterminate plants like cotton and Redgram, more branches will be produced by the
crop.
3. Foraging area or soil cover
• Crop should cover the soil as early as possible so as to intercept maximum sunlight.
• Higher the intercepted radiation more will be the dry matter produced.
• Close spaced crops intercept more solar radiation than wide spaced crops.
4. Dry matter partitioning
• Dry matter production is related to amount of solar radiation intercepted by the canopy
which depends on plant density.
• As the plant density increases, the canopy expands more rapidly, more radiation is
intercepted and more dry matter is produced.
5. Crop and variety
Depending on the crops and varieties, the plant population varies.
Rice : Short duration - 6,66,666 plants/ha (15 cm x 10 cm)
Medium - 5,00,000 plants/ha (20 cm x 10 cm)
Long - 3,33,000 plants/ha (20 cm x 15 cm)
Cotton : Medium - 55,555 plants/ha (60 cm x 30 cm)
Long - 44444 plants/ha (75 cm x 30 cm)
Hybrids - 18,518 plants/ha (120 cm x 45 cm)
Maize : Varieties - 83,333 plants/ha (60 x 20 cm)
Hybrids - 47,620 plants/ha (60 x 35 cm)
B. Environmental factors
1. Time of sowing
• The crop is subjected to various weather conditions when sown at different periods.

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 • Among weather factors, day length and temperature influence much on the plant
population. As low temperature retards growth, high plant population is required to cover
the soil.
2. Rainfall / irrigation
1. Plant population has to be less under rainfed than irrigated condition.
2. Under more plant densities, more water is lost through transpiration.
3. Under adequate rainfall / irrigation, high plant population is recommended.
3. Fertilizer application
1. Higher plant population is necessary to fully utilize higher level of nutrients in the soil to
realize higher yield.
2. Nutrient uptake increases at optimum plant population.
3. High population under low fertility soils leads to nutrient deficiency symptoms leading low
yield.
4. Seed rate
• Quantity of seed sown/unit area, viability and establishment rate decides the plant
population. Under broadcasting the seed rate is higher when compared with line
sowing/transplanting, Ex. Rice.
Direct sowing - 100 kg/ha; Line sowing - 60 kg/ha; Transplanting - 40 kg/ha.
PLANT GEOMETRY
The arrangement of the plants in different rows and columns in an area to utilize the natural
resources efficiently is called crop geometry. It is otherwise area occupied by a single plant Ex..
Rice – 20 cm x 15 cm. This is very essential to utilize the resources like light, water, nutrient and
space. Different geometries are available for crop production
Different crop geometries are available for crop production
1) Random plant geometry
Random plant geometry results due to broadcasting method of sowing and no equal space is
maintained. Resources are either under utilized or over exploited.
2) Square plant geometry
The plants are sown at equal distances on either side. Mostly perennial crops, tree crops
follow square method of cultivation. Ex. Coconut – 7.5 x 7.5 m; banana – 1.8 x 1.8 m. But, due to
scientific invention, the square geometry concept is expanded to close spaced field crops like rice
too.
Advantages
Light is uniformly available, movement of wind is not blocked and mechanization can be
possible.
3) Rectangular method of sowing
There are rows and columns, the row spacing are wider than the spacing between plants.
The different types exist in rectangular method are,
a) Solid row: Each row will have no proper spacing between the plants. This is followed only for
annual crops which have tillering pattern. There is definite row arrangement but no column
arrangement, Ex. Wheat.
b) Paired row arrangement: It is also a rectangular arrangement. It a crop requires 60 cm x 30 cm
spacing and if paired row is to be adopted the spacing is altered to 90 cm instead of 60 cm in order
to accommodate an intercrop. The base population is kept constant.
c) Skip row: A row of planting is skipped and hence there is a reduction in population. This
reduction is compensated by planting an intercrop; practiced in rainfed or dryland agriculture.
d) Triangular method of planting: It is recommended for wide spaced crops like coconut, mango,
etc. The number of plants per unit area is more in this system.
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Role of manures and fertilizers in crop production – agronomic interventions
for enhancing FUE - Inter cultivation - Thinning - Gap filling and other
intercultural operations
MANURES
Manures are plant and animal wastes that are used as source of plant
nutrients. They release nutrients after their decomposition. Manures can be grouped
into bulky organic manures and concentrated organic manures.
a. Bulky organic manures - Farm Yard Manure (FYM), compost from organic
waste, night soil, sludge, sewage, green manures.
b. Concentrated organic manures - oilcakes (edible, non-edible), blood meal,
fishmeal and bone meal.
FERTILIZERS
Fertilizers are industrially manufactured chemical containing plant nutrients.
Nutrient content is higher in fertilizers than organic manures and nutrients are
released almost immediately. The fertilizers has three groups;
Straight fertilizers – supplies single nutrient Ex: Urea, Muriate of Potash
Complex fertilizers - supplies two or more nutrient Ex: 17:17:17 NPK complex
Mixed fertilizers- supplies two or more nutrient Ex: Groundnut mixture
ROLE OF MANURES AND FERTILIZERS
1. Organic manures bind the sandy soil and improve its water holding capacity.
2. Organic manures open the clayey soil and help in aeration for better root growth.
3. Organic manures add plant nutrients in small percentage and also add
micronutrients, which are essential for plant growth.
4. Manures increases the microbial activity which helps in releasing plant nutrients
to available form.
5. Organic manures should be incorporated before the sowing or planting because
of slow release of nutrients.
6. Fertilizers play an important role in crop production as they supply large
quantities of essential nutrient to crops
7. Fertilizers are manufactured in forms that are readily utilized by plants directly or
after rapid transformation.
8. Fertilizers dose can be adjusted to suit the requirement as determined by soil
testing.
9. Balanced application of nutrient based on crop requirement is possible by
appropriate mixing of fertilizers.
10. Fertilizers applied as straight fertilizers (providing single nutrient) or complex and
mixed fertilizers (supplies two or more nutrients) based on crop requirement.
AGRONOMIC INTERVENTIONS FOR ENHANCING FUE
The following are the agronomic measures to improve the Fertilizer use
efficiency (FUE).
1. Using best fertilizer source
2. Using adequate rate & diagnostic techniques
3. Usage of balanced fertilization
4. Integrated nutrient management
5. Utilization of residual nutrients
1. Using best fertilizer source:

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 Identification of best source of fertilizer is pre-requisite for better crop
production. Source of fertilizer depends on crop and variety, climatic and soil
condition, availability of fertilizer, etc.
• Nitrogen: Ammoniacal or Nitrate
• Phosphorus: Water soluble or Citrate soluble
• Potassium: Muriate of potash
• Sulphur: Sulphate or Elemental S
• Multinutrient fertilizers: MAP, DAP, SSP, Nitrophosphates
• Multi-nutrient mixtures: Several combinations of NPK
• Fortified fertilizers: Neem-coated urea, Zincated urea, Boronated SSP, NPKS
mix.

2. Using adequate rate & diagnostic techniques:

The fertilizer recommendation must be in adequate quantity so as to meet the
demand of crop at any point of growth. The fertilizer supply is made by diagnosing
its requirement by any of the following method.
• State recommended generalized fertilizer dose or blanket recommendation
• Soil-test based fertilizer recommendations
• Soil-test crop response based recommendation
• Plant analysis for diagnosing nutrient deficiencies
• Chlorophyll meter and Leaf colour charts, etc.
3. Balanced fertilization
Balanced fertilization includes adequate supply of all essential nutrients, proper
method of application, right time of application and nutrient interrelationships.
a. Adequate supply of all essential nutrients: Due to more concentration and
application on primary nutrients (NPK), soils developed deficiency symptoms for
secondary and micro-nutrients. Hence, ignored elements must be added with the
NPK (may be in minor quantity) to get higher yields in crops. Experimental results
shown that about 20-25 kg of micro-nutrient application or two foliar sprays
increases the yield of crops up to 20%.
b. Proper method: N and K can be applied as broadcasting and band placement.
Water soluble P fertilizers are preferred to apply as band placement in neutral &
alkaline soils. Citrate soluble P fertilizers are applied as broadcast method in acidic
soils. Sulphate forms of S fertilizers are applied as broadcasting or band placement,
whereas, elemental S and pyrite are applied as broadcasting method. Micronutrients
are applied in minor quantity as foliar sprays and water soluble fertilizers are applied
in fertigation.
c. Right time: (according to physiology of crop)
• Upland crops - 2 splits (seeding, 3-5 weeks after first dose)
• Flooded rice - 3 splits (Transplanting, 3 and 6 weeks after first dose)
d. Nutrient interrelationships:
Antagonistic nature of fertilizers is to be considered while applying into the
soil. Some of the fertilizer application in excess, cause loss of yield and quality of
crops. Ex. Application of excessive 120 kg P ha-1 created an imbalance and reduced
the seed and oil yields in soybean compared to 80 kg P ha-1.
4. Integrated nutrient management

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 Organic manures, crop residues, green manures, bio-fertilizers etc. are to be
blended in right manner along with inorganic fertilizers to meet the crop demand. All
the possible and available organic sources are to be utilized efficiently to reduce the
usage of inorganic fertilizers.
5. Utilization of residual nutrients
Some of the strategies to utilize the crop residues in efficient manner are,
• Knowledge on climatic conditions & carry-over effects of residues.
• Blending rightly on cereal-legume rotations
• Mixing shallow-deep rooted crop rotations
INTER CULTIVATION
Cultivation practices taken up after sowing of crop is called inter-cultivation. It
is otherwise called as after operation. There are three important after cultivation
processes viz., Thinning and gap filling, weeding and hoeing and earthing up.

1. Thinning and Gap filling

The objective of thinning and gap filling process is to maintain optimum plant
population. Thinning is the removal of excess plants leaving healthy seedlings. Gap
filling is done to fill the gaps by sowing of seeds or transplanting of seedlings in gap
where early sown seed had not germinated. It is a simultaneous process. Normally,
these are practiced a week after sowing to a maximum of 15 days. In dryland
agriculture, gap filling is done first. Seeds are dibbled after 7 days of sowing.
Thinning is done after gap filling; in order to avoid drought. It is a management
strategy to remove a portion of plant population to mitigate stress is referred to as
mid season correction.
2. Weeding and Hoeing
Weeding is removal of unwanted plants. Weeding and hoeing is a
simultaneous operation. Hoeing is disturbing the top soil by small hand tools and
helps in aerating the soil.
3. Earthing up
It is a dislocation of soil from one side of a ridge and to be placed nearer the
cropped side. It is carried out in wide spaced and deep rooted crops. It is done
around 6-8 weeks after sowing / planting in sugarcane, tapioca, banana, etc.
4. Other inter cultivation practices
Harrowing
Stirring or scraping the surface soil in inter and intra row spacing of the crop
using tools or implements.
Roguing
Removal of plants of a variety admixed with other variety of same crop. Ex.
In IR 50 rice field, the other rice varieties are rogue. It is practiced in seed
production to maintain purity.
Topping
Removal of terminal buds. It is done to stimulate auxillary growth. Practiced
in cotton and tobacco.
Propping
Provision of support to the crop is called propping. Practiced in sugarcane
commonly. It is done to prevent lodging of the crop. Cane stalks from adjacent rows
are brought together and tied with their own trash and old leaves.
De-trashing

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 Removing of older leaves from the sugarcane crop.
De-suckering
Removal of axillary buds and branches which are considered non essential
for crop production and which removes plant nutrients considerably are called
suckers. Ex. Tobacco.

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Irrigation - Time and methods - Modern techniques of irrigation - Drainage and its
importance
IRRIGATION
Irrigation is defined as the artificial application of water to the soil for the purpose of crop
production in supplement to rainfall and ground water contribution.
Importance of water to plants
1. Plants contain 90% water which gives turgidity and keeps them erect
2. Water is an essential part of protoplasm
3. It regulates the temperature of the plant system
4. It is essential to meet the transpiration requirements
5. It serves as a medium for dissolving the nutrients present in the soil
6. It is an important ingredient in photosynthesis
TIME OF IRRIGATION
Crops draw water from the moisture stored in the soil. When the moisture present in the
soil is low, then the plant requirements are not met with. When the soil is supplied with moisture
in excess the supply of air is reduced that limits the plants growth. In between, there is a range of
moisture content that is called as optimum soil moisture range for plant growth.
The upper limit of the optimum soil moisture range is the field capacity (-0.01 to -0.03
Mpa) and the lower limit is just above the wilting point (-1.5 Mpa). The objective of irrigation is
to store the moisture in the soil between these limits. Immediately after irrigation, all the macro
and micropores will be filled with water. All the water present in macropores will drain to subsoil
within 48 hours and moisture in micropores will be available to plants.
As the soil dries due to loss of water by evaporation and transpiration, the plant wilts
during day time to conserve moisture and become normal at night. When the same condition
continues, the plant will wilt without dieing. This condition is called as wilting coefficient. The
irrigation is given whenever plants require water. This is decided by the crop and soil appearance.
IRRIGATION METHODS
1. Surface 2. Sub-surface 3. Pressurized irrigation
Criteria for selection of irrigation method
• Water supply source
• Topography
• Quantity of water to be applied
• The crop
• Method of cultivation
Surface irrigation methods
Oldest (4000 years back) and most common method. 90% of world’s total irrigated area is
under this method. In USA also, 66% is by surface irrigation. This method is most suitable for low
to moderate infiltration rates and leveled lands and having <2-3% slope. It is labour intensive.
Surface is grouped as Border, check basin and furrow irrigations. Border is again classified
in to two as straight and contour. Check basins may be of rectangular, contour or ring, furrow
irrigation is classified as deep furrow and corrugated furrows. These may be again straight or
contour according to direction and leveled and graded as per their elevation.
1. Border irrigation
The land is divided into number of long parallel strips called borders. These borders are
separated by low ridges. The border strip has a uniform gentle slope in the direction of irrigation.
Each strip is irrigated independently by turning the water in the upper end. The water spreads and
flows down the strip in a sheet confined by the border ridges.

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 Suitability: Suitable to soils having moderately low to moderately high infiltration rates. It is not
used in coarse sandy soils that have very high infiltration rates and also in heavy soils having very
low infiltration rate. Suitable to irrigate all close growing crops like wheat, barley, fodder crops
and legumes and not suitable for rice
Advantages
a) Border ridges can be constructed with simple farm implements like bullock drawn “A”
frame ridger or bund former.
b) Labour requirement in irrigation is reduced as compared to conventional check basin
method.
c) Uniform distribution of water and high water application efficiencies are possible.
d) Large irrigation streams can be efficiently used.
e) Adequate surface drainage is provided if outlets are available.

IRRIGATION METHODS

SURFACE SUB SURFACE DRIP SPRINKLER

Flooding Check Basin Border Furrow Surface Sub

basin surface Overhead

Micro Overhead
Straight Contour sprinkler sprinklers Raingun Center
Rectangular Ring Pivot

Deep furrow Corrugated furrow

Level Contour Graded Level Contour Graded

2. Check basin irrigation

It is the most common surface irrigation method. Here, the field is divided into smaller unit
areas so that each has a nearly level surface. Bunds or ridges are constructed around the area
forming basins within which the irrigation water can be controlled. The water applied to a desired
depth can be retained until it infiltrates into the soil. The size of the basin varies from 10 m2 to 25
m2 depending upon soil type, topography, stream size and crop.
Adaptability
• Small gentle and uniform land slopes and soils having moderate to low infiltration rates.
• Adapted to grain and fodder crops in heavy soils and suitable to permeable soils
Advantages
• Check basins are useful when leaching is required to remove salts from the soil profile.
• Rainfall can be conserved and soil erosion is reduced by retaining large part of rain
• High water application and distribution efficiency.
Limitations

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 • The ridges interfere with the movement of implements.
• More area occupied by ridges and field channels.
• The method impedes surface drainage
• Precise land grading and shaping are required
• Labour requirement is higher.
• Not suitable for crops which are sensitive to wet soil conditions around the stem
3. Furrow irrigation
It is used for row crops. The furrows are formed between crop rows. The dimension of
furrows depend on the crop grown, equipment used and soil type. Water is applied by small
running streams in furrows between the crop rows. Water infiltrates into soil and spreads laterally
to wet the area between the furrows. In heavy soils, furrows can be used to dispose the excess
water.
Adaptability
• Method used for wide spaced row crops including vegetables.
• Suitable for maize, sorghum, sugarcane, cotton, tobacco, groundnut, potatoes
• Suitable to most soils except sandy.
Advantages
• Water in furrows contacts only 1/2 to 1/5 of the land surface.
• Labour requirement for land preparation and irrigation is reduced.
• Compared to check basins, there is less wastage of land in field ditches
There are three types of furrow irrigation, they are, all furrow irrigation, alternate furrow
irrigation and skip furrow irrigation
4. Surge irrigation
• Surge irrigation is the application of water into the furrows intermittently in a series of
relatively short ON and OFF times of irrigation cycle.
• It has been found that intermittent application of water reduces the infiltration rate over
surges thereby the water front advances quickly. Hence, reduced net irrigation water
requirement.
• This also results in more uniform soil moisture distribution and storage in the crop root
zone compared to continuous flow.
• The irrigation efficiency is in between 85 and 90%.
II. SUB-SURFACE IRRIGATION
In subsurface irrigation, water is applied beneath the ground by creating and maintaining
an artificial water table at some depth, usually 30-75 cm below the ground surface. Moisture
moves upwards towards the land surface through capillary action. Water is applied through
underground field trenches laid 15-30 m apart. Open ditches are preferred because they are
relatively cheaper and suitable to all types of soil. The irrigation water should be of good quality
to prevent soil salinity.
Advantages
• Minimum water requirement for raising crops
• Minimum evaporation and deep percolation losses
• No wastage of land
• No interference to movement of farm machinery
• Cultivation operations can be carried out without concern for the irrigation period.
Disadvantages
• Requires a special combination of natural conditions.

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 • There is danger of water logging
• Possibility of choking of the pipes lay underground.
• High cost.
III. PRESSURIZED OR MODERN IRRIGATION SYSTEMS
a. Drip irrigation system
Or trickle irrigation is one of the latest and modern methods of irrigation. It is suitable for
water scarcity and salt affected soils. Water is applied in the root zone of the crop. Standard water
quality test needed for design and operation of drip irrigation system.
Drip components
• A drip irrigation system consists of a pump or overhead tank, main line, sub-mains, laterals
and emitters.
• The mainline delivers water to the sub-mains and the sub-mains into the laterals.
• The emitters which are attached to the laterals distribute water for irrigation.
• The mains, sub-mains are usually made of PVC (poly vinyl chloride) pipes and and laterals
of LLDPE tubes. The emitters are also made of PVC material.
• The other components include pressure regulator, filters, valves, water meter, fertilizer
application devices etc.
Advantages of drip irrigation
• High water use efficiency (~95%, compared to less than 50% in surface)
• Flexibility of wetted area
• Versatile selection of emitters: type, discharge rate, position
• Economy in weed control
• Low interference with cultivation
• Day and night irrigation
• Prevention of leaf wetting
• Energy saving
• Salinity control
• Irrigation at variable topographic conditions.
Limitation of drip Irrigation
• High investment
• High level of knowledge for optimal and economical operation
• Susceptibility to mechanical damage
• Large number of emitters
• Long application time
• High level of filtration and other controls
• Maintenance.
b. Sprinkler irrigation system
This is another important modern irrigation techniques followed all over the globe.
Sprinkler irrigation is application simulating rainfall overhead so overhead sprinklers. The
sprinkler (overhead or pressure) irrigation system conveys water to the field through pipes
(aluminium or PVC) under pressure with a system of nozzles. This system is designed to distribute
the required depth of water uniformly, which is not possible in surface irrigation. Water is applied
at a rate less than the infiltration rate of the soil hence the runoff from irrigation is avoided.
Types of sprinkler system
On the basis of arrangement for spraying irrigation water, they are classified as, rotating
head (or) revolving sprinkler system and perforated pipe system

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 Based on the portability, sprinkler systems are classified as, portable system, semi
permanent system, solid set system and permanent system.
Advantages of sprinkler
• Suitable for undulating topography (sloppy lands)
• Water saving (35-40%) compared to surface irrigation methods.
• Fertilizers and other chemicals can be applied through irrigation water
• Saving in fertilizers, even distribution and avoids wastage.
• Reduces erosion
• Suitable for coarse textured soils (sandy soils)
• Frost control - protect crops against frost and high temperature
• Drainage problems eliminated
• Saving in land
Limitations
• High initial cost
• Efficiency is affected by wind
• Higher evaporation losses in spraying water
• Not suitable for tall crops like sugarcane
• Not suitable for heavy clay soils
• Poor quality water can not be used (Sensitivity of crop to saline water and clogging of
nozzles)
Drainage
Drainage is the artificial removal of water in excess of the quantity required for the crop.
Drainage includes removal of excess water of both surface and subsurface in the root zone of
crops. Irrigation and drainage go together and are not mutually exclusive. Irrigation aims at
supplying optimum quantities of water throughout the crop period, whereas, drainage aims at
removing excess quantity of water in a short time. Often, both may be required together to assure
sustained and high level production of crops.
Role of drainage
• Draining the land provides conditions favorable for crop production.
• The greatest benefit of drainage relates to aeration. Good drainage facilitates the ready
diffusion of oxygen to the root zone and escape of carbon dioxide from the root zone into the
atmosphere. Several harmful gases also escape from the root zone into the atmosphere.
• The activity of aerobic organisms which influence the availability of nutrients such as nitrogen
and sulphur to plants depends on soil aeration and hence, drainage improves aerobic
organisms.
• Toxicity in acid soils due to excess iron and manganese is decreased by drainage (due to
presence of oxygen in the root zone).
• Drainage permits roots to grow deeper and spread wider thereby increasing the volume of soil
from which nutrients can be extracted.
• The removal of excess water helps in drying of the soil quickly and optimum soil temperature
permits timeliness of field operations.
• The provision of a good drainage system permits the removal of excess salts in the soil or
irrigation water and prevents their build up in the upper soil layers.

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 PLANTING GEOMETRY AND ITS EFFECT ON GROWTH AND YIELD

Methods of Sowing and Transplanting

1. Broadcasting

2. Dibbling

3. Sowi ng behind the country plough (manual and mechanical drilling)

4. Seed Drilling

5. Nursery transplanting

1) Broadcasting

Literally means scattering the seeds. Broadcasting is done for many crops.

Broadcasting is mostly followed for small sized to medium sized crops. This is the largest

method of sowing followed in India since it is the easiest and cheapest and requires minimum

labours. To have optimum plant population in unit area certain rules should be followed.

i) Only a skilled person should broadcast the seeds for uniform scattering

ii) The ploughed field should be in a perfect condition to trigger germination

The seeds are broadcasted in a narrow strip and the sowing is completed strip by strip.

To ensure a good and uniform population, it is better to broadcast on either direction. This is

called criss-cross sowing. If the seed is too small, it is mixed with sand to make a bulky one and

for easy handling. In certain cases the person sowing will be beating the seeds against the

basket for uniform scattering. After broadcasting the seeds are covered gently either using a

country plough with a very shallow ploughing or some wooden planks (boards / levelers) are

used to cover the surface. In some cases tree twigs or shrub branches are used. If the seeds

are large, levelers collect the seeds and leave in the other side. Comb harrow is the best used

one.

Disadvantages

1) All the seeds broadcasted do not have contact with the soil. 100% germination is not

possible.

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2) Seed rate is not sufficient. Enhanced seed rate required

3) Seeds cannot be placed in desired depth. Desired depth ensures perfect anchorage.

Lodging (falling down) is common in broadcasting

2) Dibbling

Line sowing: Inserting a seed through a hole at a desired depth and covering the hole.

Dibbling on plain surface and ridges and furrows or beds and channels.This types of sowing is

practiced only under suitable soil condition. Rice – fallow – cotton is dibbled on a plain surface.

The seeds are dibbled at 2/3rd from top or 1/3rd at bottom. Before sowing furrows are opened

and fertilizers are applied above which seeds are sown. The seeds do not have contact with the

fertilizers. This is done for wider spaced crops and medium to large sized seeds, e.g., sorghum,

maize, sunflower, cotton are dibbled on ridges and furrows. Both beds and channels and ridges

and furrows come under line sowing. While earthing up the plant occupies middle of the ridge.

Earthing up is essential for proper anchorage of the root system.

Advantages of ridges and furrows

(i) Uniform population

(ii) Better germination

(iii) Reduced seed rate.

3) Sowing behind the plough

Sowing behind the plough (line sowing) is done manually or mechanical means. Seeds

are dropped in the furrows opened by the plough and the same is closed or covered when the

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next furrow is opened. The seeds are sown at uniform distance. Manual method is a laborious

and time consuming process. Seeds like redgram, cowpea and groundnut are sown behind the

country plough. Major sown crop is ground out. Seeds are sown by mechanical means by

‘Gorus’ – seed drill. A seed drill has a plough share and hopper. Seeds are placed on hopper.

Different types of seed drill are available, e.g., simple Goru – Guntakas.

Advantages – i) The seeds are placed at desired depth covered by iron planks, ii)

except very small, very large seeds most of the seeds can be sown, e.g. maize, sorghum,

millets, sunflower, etc.

Sl. No. Line sowing Random sowing

1. Costlier Cheaper

2. Takes considerable time Quickest and time saving

3. Fixed seed rate Higher seed rate

4. Mechanization is possible, e.g. Not possible

weeding, harvesting

5. Uniform utilization of resources Resource utilization ununiform

(land, water, light, nutrient, etc.)

4. Drill Sowing (or) Drilling

Drilling is the practice of dropping seeds in a definite depth covered with soil and

compacted. In this method, sowing implements are used for placing the seeds into the soil. Both

animal drawn gorrus and power operated (seed drills) implements are available. Seeds are

drilled continuously or at regular intervals in rows. In this method, depth of sowing can be

maintained and fertilizer can also be applied simultaneously. It is possible to take up sowing of

inter crops also. It requires more time, energy and cost, but maintains uniform population per

unit area Seeds are placed at uniform depth, covered and compacted

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5) Nursery Transplanting

In nursery, young seedlings are protected more effectively in a short period and in a

smaller area. Management is essential.

Advantages

i) Can ensure optimum plant population

ii) Sowing of main field duration, i.e., management in the main field is reduced

iii) Crop intensification is possible under transplanting

Disadvantages

i) Nursery raising is expensive

ii) Transplanting is another laborious and expensive method

Age – 1/4th of the total duration is on the nursery beds. If the total duration is 16 weeks,

four week period (1 month) is under nursery beds. Nursery age is not very rigid, e.g., thumb

rule – 3 months crop – nursery duration 3 weeks, minimum 4 months – 4 weeks minimum

period; 5 months – 5 weeks. After the nursery period, seedlings are pulled out and

transplanted. This is done on the main field after thorough field preparation or optimum tilth.

The seedlings are dibbled in lines or in random. Closer spaced crops are mostly raised in

random method even after nursery, e.g. rice, ragi. For vegetables, desired spacing is required

during transplanting. Transplanting shock is a period after transplanting, the seedlings show no

growth. This is mostly due to the change in the environment between root and the soil. The

newly planted seedlings should adjust with new environment. It is for a period of 5 – 7 days

depending upon season, crop, variety, etc. At higher temperature – dehydration – leaves dry

out. Area: normally 1/10th of the total area is required for nursery.

Plant Population or Plant Density

Number of plants per unit area in the cropped field is the plant population.

Optimum plant population

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 1. Optimum plant population – It is the number of plants required to produce maximum

output or biomass per unit area.

2. Any increase beyond this stage results in either no increase or reduction in biomass.

Crop Geometry

The arrangement of the plants in different rows and columns in an area to efficiently utilize the

natural resources is called crop geometry.It is otherwise area occupied by a single plant e.g.

rice – 20 cm x 15 cm. This is very essential to utilize the resources like light, water, nutrient and

space.Different geometries are available for crop production

Importance of plant population / crop geometry

1. Yield of any crop depends on final plant population

2. The plant population depends on germination percentage and survival rate in the field

3. Under rain fed conditions, high plant population will deplete the soil moisture before

maturity, where as low plant population will leave the soil moisture unutilized

4. When soil moisture and nutrients are not limited high plant population is necessary to utilize

the other growth factors like solar radiation efficiently

5. Under low plant population individual plant yield will be more due to wide spacing.

6. Under high plant population individual plant yield will be low due to narrow spacing leading

to competition between plants.

7. Yield per plant decreases gradually as plant population per unit area is increased, but yield

per unit area increases upto certain level of population

8. That level of plant population is called as optimum population

9. So to get maximum yield per unit area, optimum plant population is necessary. So the

optimum plant population for each crop should be identified.

Factors affecting plant population

Genetic Factors

1. Size of the plant 2. Elasticity of the plant 3.Foraging area or soil cover

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 4. Dry matter partitioning

Environmental factors

1. Time of sowing 2. Rainfall / Irrigation. 3.Fertilizer application

4. Seed rate

1. Size of the plant

1. The volume occupied by the plant at the time of flowering decides the spacing of the

crop

2. Plants of red gram, cotton, sugarcane etc occupy larger volume of space in the field

compared to rice, wheat, ragi

3. Even the varieties of the same crop differ in size of the plant

2. Elasticity of the plant

1. Variation in size of the plant between minimum size of the plant that can produce some

economic yield to the maximum size of the plant that can reach under unlimited space

and resources is the elasticity of the plant.

2. The optimum plant population range is high in indeterminate plants

Eg : Opt. population range for redgram is 55000-133, 000 plants/ha

3. The elasticity is due to tillering and branching habit of the plants

4. For determinate plants like bajra, sorghum elasticity range is less

5. For indeterminate plants like cotton and redgram more branches will be produced the

crop

3. Foraging area or soil cover

1. should cover the soil as early as possible so as to intercept maximum sunlight

2. Higher the intercepted radiation more will be the dry matter produced

3. Close spaced crops intercept more Solar radiation than wide spaced crops

4. Dry matter partitioning

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 1. Dry matter production is related to amount of solar radiation intercepted by the canopy

which depends on plant density

2. As the plant density increases the canopy expands more rapidly, more radiation is

intercepted and more dry matter is produced.

5. Crop and variety

Rice : Short duration - 15 cm x 10 cm - 6,66,666 pl/ha

Medium - 20 cm x 10 cm -5,00,000 pl/ha

Long - 20 cm x 15 cm -3,33,000 pl/ha

Cotton : Medium - 60 cm x 30 cm

Long - 75 cm x 30 cm

Hybrids - 120 cm x 45 cm

Maize : 60 x 20 cm (varieties)

60 x 35 cm (hybrids)

Environmental factors

1. Time of sowing

1. The crop is subjected to various weather conditions when sown at different

periods.

2. Among weather factors, day length and temperature influence the plant

population. As low temperature retards growth, high plant population is required

to cover the soil

2. Rainfall / irrigation

1. Plant population has to be less under rainfed than irrigated condition

2. Under more plant densities, more water is lost through transpiration

3. Under adequate rainfall / irrigation, high plant population is recommended.

3. Fertilizer application

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 1. Higher plant population is necessary to fully utilize higher level of nutrients in the soil to

realize higher yield.

2. Nutrient uptake increases with in plant population

3. High population under low fertility soil leads to nutrient deficiency symptoms leading low

yield

4. Seed rate

1. Quantity of seed sown/unit area, viability and establishment rate decides the plant

population Under broadcasting the seed rate is higher when compared with line

sowing/transplanting, e.g. for rice

Direct sowing - 100 kg/ha

Line sowing - 60 kg/ha

Transplanting - 40 kg/ha

Different crop geometries are available for crop production

1) Broadcasting

Results in random geometry, no equal space is maintained, resources are either under

exploited or over exploited.

2) Square method or square geometry

The plants are sown at equal distances on either side. Mostly perennial crops, tree crops follow

square method of cultivation.

Advantages

i) Light is uniformly available,

ii) Movement of wind is not blocked and

iii) Mechanization can be possible.

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3) Rectangular method of sowing

There are rows and columns, the row spacing are wider than the spacing between

plants. The different types exist in rectangular method

a) Solid row – Each row will have no proper spacing between the plants. This is followed only

for annual crops which have tillering pattern. There is definite row arrangement but no column

arrangement, e.g., wheat.

b) Paired row arrangement – It is also a rectangular arrangement. It a crop requires 60 cm x

300 m spacing and if paired row is to be adopted the spacing is altered to 90 cm instead of 60

cm in order to accommodate an intercrop. The base population is kept constant.

SPRING MAIZE INTER-CROP IN PAIRED

ROW PLANTING

c) Skip row – A row of planting is skipped and hence there is a reduction in population. This

reduction is compensated by planting an intercrop; practiced in rainfed or dryland agriculture.

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 Conventional planting on the left, compared with plant1 – skip1 on the right

d) Triangular method of planting - It is recommended for wide spaced crops like coconut,

mango, etc. The number of plants per unit area is more in this system.

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Cropping pattern and cropping system - Intensive cropping- Sustainable agriculture – IFS

CROPPING PATTERN AND CROPPING SYSTEM

Traditionally, increased food production has come from putting more land under
cultivation. However, in large areas of the world, especially in Asia, all the land that can be
economically cultivated is already in use. In future, most of the extra food needs must come from
higher production from land already being farmed. A major share of this increase is likely to
come from increasing the number of crops produced per year on a given land using improved crop
cultivars. Such multiple cropping offers potential not only to increase food production but also
land degradation.
In India, the concept of cropping systems is as old as agriculture. Farmers preferred mixed
cropping, especially under dry land conditions, to minimise the risk of total crop failure. Even in
Vedas, there is a mention of first and second crops, indicating the existence of sequential cropping.
A system is defined as a set of components that are interrelated and interact among
themselves. A cropping system refers to a set of crop systems, making up the cropping activities
of a farm system. Cropping system comprises all components required for the production of a
particular crop and the interrelationships between them and environment (TAC, CGIAR, 1978).
In other words, a cropping system usually refers to a combination of crops in time and space.
Combination in time occurs when crops occupy different growing period and combinations in
space occur when crops are inter planted. When annual crops are considered, a cropping system
usually means the combination of crops within a given year (Willey et al., 1989
Cropping pattern
The yearly sequence and spatial arrangement of crops or of crops and fallow on a given
area.
Cropping system
The cropping patterns used on a farm and their interaction with farm resources, other farm
enterprises, and available technology which determine their make up.
INTENSIVE CROPPING
Principles
The turn around period between one crop and another is minimised through modified land
preparation. It is possible when the resources are available in plenty. Ex. Garden land cultivation.
Cropping intensity is higher in intensive cropping system. Crop intensification technique includes
intercropping, relay cropping, sequential cropping, ratoon cropping, etc. All such systems come
under the general term multiple cropping.
Need for intensive cropping
• Cropping systems has to be evolved based on climate, soil and water availability for
efficient use of available natural resources.
• The increase in population has put pressure on land to increase productivity per unit area,
unit time and for unit resource used.
• This cropping system should provide enough food for the family, fodder for cattle and
generate sufficient cash income for domestic and cultivation expenses.
Intensive cropping: Growing number of crops on the same piece of land during the given period
of time.
Cropping intensity: Number of crops cultivated in a piece of land per annum is cropping
intensity. In Punjab and Tamil Nadu, the cropping intensity is more than 100% (i.e. around 140-
150%). In Rajasthan, the cropping intensity is less.

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Multiple cropping: The intensification of cropping in time and space dimensions. Growing two
or more crops on the same field in a year.
Forms of multiple cropping
Intercropping: Growing two or more crops simultaneously on the same field. Crop intensification
is in both time and space dimensions. There is intercrop competition during all or part of crop
growth.
(a) Mixed intercropping: Growing two or more crops simultaneously with no distinct row
arrangement. Also referred to as mixed cropping. Ex: Sorghum, pearl millet and cowpea
are mixed and broadcasted in rainfed conditions.
(b) Row intercropping: Growing two or more crops simultaneously where one or more crops
are planted in rows. Often simply referred to as intercropping. Maize + greengram (1:1),
Maize + blackgram (1:1), Groundnut + Rredgram (6:1)
(c) Strip intercropping: Growing two or more crops simultaneously in strips wide enough to
permit independent cultivation but narrow enough for the crops to interact agronomically.
Ex. Groundnut + redgram (6:4) strip.
(d) Relay intercropping: Growing two or more crops simultaneously during the part of the life
cycle of each. A second crop is planted after the first crop has reached its reproductive
stage of growth, but, before it is ready for harvest. Often simply referred to as relay
cropping. Rice- rice fallow pulse.
Advantages of intercropping
• Better use of growth resources including light, nutrients and water
• Suppression of weeds
• Yield stability; even if one crop fails due to unforeseen situations, another crop will yield
and gives income
• Successful intercropping gives higher equivalent yields (yield of base crop + yield of
intercrop), higher cropping intensity
• Reduced pest and disease incidences
• Improvement of soil health and agro-eco system
Sequential cropping: Growing two or more crops in sequence on the same field in a farming
year. The succeeding crop is planted after the preceding crop has been harvested. Crop
intensification is only in time dimension. There is no intercrop competition.
(a) Double, triple and quadruple cropping: Growing two, three and four crops, respectively,
on the same land in a year in sequence.
Ex. Double cropping: Rice: cotton; Triple cropping: Rice: rice: pulses; Quadruple cropping:
Tomato: ridge gourd: Amaranthus greens: baby corn
(b) Ratoon cropping: The cultivation of crop re-growth after harvest, although not necessarily
for grain. Ex. Sugarcane: ratoon; Sorghum: ratoon (for fodder).
The various terms defined above bring out essentially two underlying principles, that of
growing crops simultaneously in mixture, i.e., intercropping; and of growing individual crops in
sequence, i.e., sequential cropping. The cropping system for a region or farm may comprise either
or both of these two principles.
SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE
Definition:
A farming systems that are "capable of maintaining their productivity and usefulness to
society indefinitely and must be resource-conserving, socially supportive, commercially
competitive, and environmentally sound."

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USDA (legal)
Sustainable agriculture means, an integrated system of plant and animal production
practices having a site-specific application that will, over the long term:
 satisfy human food and fiber needs;
 enhance environmental quality and the natural resource based upon which the agricultural
economy depends;
 make the most efficient use of nonrenewable resources and on-farm resources and
integrate, where appropriate, natural biological cycles and controls;
 sustain the economic viability of farm operations;
 enhance the quality of life for farmers and society as a whole.
Advantages
 Production cost is low
 Over all risk of the farmer is reduced
 Pollution of water is avoided
 Very little or no pesticide residue is ensured
 Ensures both short and long term profitability
Disadvantages
 Since sustainable agriculture uses least quantum of inputs, naturally the output (yield) may
also be less.

Major components of sustainable agricultural system

• Soil and water conservation to prevent degradation of soil productivity
• Efficient use of limited irrigation water without leading to problems of soil salinity,
alkalinity and high ground water table
• Crop rotations that mitigate weed, disease and insect problems, increase soil
productivity and minimise soil erosion
• Integrated nutrient management that reduces the need for chemical fertilizers improves
the soil health and minimise environmental pollution by conjunctive use of organics,
in-organics and bio-fertilizers.
• ‘Integrated pest management that reduces the need for agrochemicals by crop rotation,
weather monitoring, use of resistant cultivar, planting time and biological pest control.
• Management system to control weed by preventive measures, tillage, timely inter
cultivation and crop rotation to improve plant health.
INTEGRATED FARMING SYSTEM (IFS)
Integration of two or more appropriate combination of enterprises like crop, dairy, piggery,
fishery, poultry, bee keeping etc., for each farm according to the availability of resources to
sustain and satisfy the necessities of the farmer

Definition: A farming system is a collection of distinct functional units such as crop, livestock,
processing, investments and marketing activities which interact because of the joint use of inputs
they receive from the environment which have the common objective of satisfying the farmers’
(decision makers) aims. The definition of the borders of the options depends on circumstances;
often it includes not only the farm (economic enterprise) but also the household (farm – household
system)”
Possible enterprises
Wetland based farming system
• Crop + Fish + Poultry/poultry/pigeon

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 • Crop + Fish + Mushroom
Gardenland based farming system
 Crop + Dairy + Biogas
 Crop + Dairy + Biogas + Sericulture
 Crop + Dairy + Biogas + Mushroom + Sylvi-culture
Dry land based farming system
 Crop + Goat + Agroforestry
 Crop + Goat + Agroforestry + Horticulture
Benefits of IFS
 Higher Productivity
 Profitability
 Sustainability
 Balanced food
 Recycling reduces pollution
 Money round the year
 Employment generation
 Increase input efficiency
 Standard of living of the farmer increased
 Better utilisation of land, labour, time and resources

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Organic / eco-friendly agriculture - Dry farming - Concepts and principles
Organic farming: Organic farming is a production system where all kinds of agricultural
products are produced organically, including grains, meat, dairy, eggs, fibers such as cotton,
flowers and processed food products.
Organic farming avoids or largely excludes the use of synthetic fertilizers, pesticides,
growth regulators and livestock feed additives.

Need & scope of organic farming

 Increase in awareness and health consciousness
 Global consumers are increasingly looking for organic food, which is considered safe, and
hazard free.
 The global prices of organic food are more lucrative and remunerative.
 The potential of organic farming is signified by the fact that the farm sector has abundant
organic nutrient resources like livestock, water, crop residue, aquatic weeds, forest litter,
urban, rural solid wastes and agro industries, bio-products.
 India offers tremendous scope for organic farming as it has local market potential for
organic products

Principles (International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements - IFOAM, 1972)

1. To produce food of high quality in sufficient quantity.
2. To interact in a constructive and life-enhancing way with natural systems and cycles.
3. To consider the wider social and ecological impact of the organic production and processing
systems.
4. To encourage and enhance biological cycles within the farming system, involving micro-
organisms, soil flora and fauna, plants and animals.
5. To maintain and increase the long-term fertility of soils.
6. To maintain the genetic diversity of the production system and its surroundings, including the
protection of wildlife habitats.
7. To promote the healthy use and proper care of water, water resources and all life therein.
8. To use, as far as possible, renewable resources in locally organized production systems.
9. To give all livestock conditions of life with due consideration for the basic aspects of their
innate behaviour.
10. To minimize all forms of pollution.
11. To allow every one involved in organic production and processing a quality of life which
meets their basic needs and allows an adequate return and satisfaction from their work, including a
safe working environment.
12. To progress towards an entire production, processing, and distribution chain which is both
socially just and ecologically responsible.

Advantages of organic farming

 Nutrition - Improved soil health makes food dramatically superior in mineral content
 Poison-free - Free of contamination with health harming chemicals like pesticides,
fungicides and herbicides.
 Food tastes better
 Food keeps longer - can be stored longer
 Disease and pest resistance - because of healthy plants
 Weed competitiveness - Healthier crops able to compete
 Lower input costs - No costly chemicals used, nutrients are created in-situ (in the farm)

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  Drought resistance
 More profitable - Due to greater food value of organic produce consumers are willing to
pay premium prices

Disadvantages of organic farming
 Productivity - Low productivity is often reported as the quantum nutrient used
comparatively lower
 Labour intensive - Cultivation requires more labour especially for weed control
 Skill - requires considerable skill to farm organically Ex. Choice of alternatives for control
of pests
 Lack of convenience in management compared to easier management like fertilizer
application in conventional methods

Synonyms of organic farming

Eco-farming
Biological farming
Bio-dynamic farming
Macrobiotic agriculture

Eco-farming
 Farming in relation to ecosystem.
 It has the potential for introducing mutually reinforcing ecological approaches to food
production.
 It aims at the maintenance of soil chemically, biologically and physically the way nature
would do it left alone.
 Soil would then take proper care of plants growing on it.
 Feed the soil, not the plant is the watchword and slogan of ecological farming.

Biological farming
Farming in relation to biological diversity.

Biodynamic farming
Farming which is biologically organic and ecologically sound and sustainable farming.

Dryland Agriculture

Indian agriculture is predominantly a rainfed agriculture under which both dryfarming and
dryland agriculture are included. Out of the 143 million ha of total cultivated area in the country,
101 million ha (i.e. nearly 70%) area are rainfed. In dryland areas, variation in amount and
distribution of rainfall influence the crop production as well as socio-economic conditions of
farmers. The dryland areas of the country contribute about 42% of the total food grain production.
Most of the coarse grains like sorghum, pearl millet, finger millet and other millets are grown in
drylands only. The attention has been paid in the country towards the development of dryland
farming. Efforts were made to improve crop yields in research projects at Manjari, Solapur,
Bijapur, Raichur and Rohtak. An all India co-ordinated research project for Dryland Agriculture
was launched by ICAR in 1970 in collaboration with Government of Canada and later Central
Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture (CRIDA) was established at Hyderabad.

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 Characteristics of Dryland Agriculture
Dry land areas may be characterized by the following features,
1. Uncertain, ill-distributed and limited annual rainfall
2. Occurrence of extensive climatic hazards like drought, flood etc.
3. Undulating soil surface
4. Occurrence of extensive and large holdings
5. Practice of extensive agriculture, i.e., prevalence of monocropping etc.
6. Relatively large size of fields
7. Similarity in types of crops raised by almost all the farmers of a particular region
8. Very low crop yield
9. Poor economy of the farmers

Dryland Agriculture

It is the profitable production of useful crops, without irrigation, on lands (arid and semi arid)
that receive annual rainfall of less than 750mm

Rainfed Agriculture

It is the profitable production of useful crops, without irrigation, on lands (humid & subhumid
regions) that receive annual rainfall of more than 750mm

Difference between rainfed and irrigated farming

Rainfed farming Irrigated farming

1 In a certain part of the year crop is grown Through out the year depending upon
where rainfall received the water availability
2 Crops/crop varieties having drought According to the need, crops or their
tolerance or less water requirement are varieties are selected
used
3 Duration of crops depends on the rainfall Depending upon the need
duration/ growing period most of the
times short duration (LGP)
4 Mixed cropping is beneficial Generally pure cropping is done
5 Due to limitation of moisture one or two More than two crops in a year are
crops in a year is possible grown, subject to availability of water

6 The field is ploughed to deep to increase No need for deep ploughing to conserve
infiltration of rains soil moisture
7 Land is prepared immediately after rainfall Land is prepared according to optimum
time of sowing
8 Risk of crop failure is expected due to No risk of crop failure
insufficient soil moisture or drought

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Improved dryland technologies
Following are the various improved techniques and practices recommended for achieving the
objective of increased and stable crop production in dryland areas.
• Crop planning: Crop varieties for dryland areas should be of short duration through resistant
tolerant and high yielding which can be harvested within rainfall periods and have sufficient
residual moisture in soil profile for post-monsoon cropping.
• Planning for weather: Variation in yields and output of the dryland agriculture is due to the
observation in weather conditions especially rainfall. An aberrant weather can be categorized
in three types viz.,
a. Delayed onset of monsoon.
b. Long gaps or breaks in rainfall and
c. Early cessation of rains towards the end of monsoon season.
Farmers should make some changes in normal cropping schedule for getting some
production in place of total crop failure.
• Crop substitution: Traditional crops/varieties which are inefficient utilizer of soil moisture,
less responsive to production input and potentially low producers should be substituted by
more efficient ones.
• Cropping systems: Increasing the cropping intensities by using the practice of intercropping
and multiple cropping is the way of more efficient utilization of resources. The cropping
intensity would depend on the length of growing season, which in turn depends on rainfall
pattern and the soil moisture storage capacity of the soil.
• Fertilizer use: The availability of nutrients is limited in drylands due to the limiting soil
moisture. Therefore, application of the fertilizers should be done in furrows below the seed.
The use of fertilizers is not only helpful in providing nutrients to crop but also, helpful in
efficient use of soil moisture. A proper mixture of organic and inorganic fertilizers improves
moisture holding capacity of soil and increase during tolerance.
• Rain water management: Efficient rain water management can increase agricultural
production from dryland areas. Application of compost and farm yard manure and raising
legumes add the organic matter to the soil and increase the water holding capacity. The
water, which is not retained by the soil, flows out as surface runoff. This excess runoff water
can be harvested in storing dugout ponds and recycled to donar areas in the server stress
during rainy season or for raising crops during winter.
• Watershed management: Watershed management is a approach to optimize the use of land,
water and vegetation in a area and thus, to provide solution drought, moderate floods,
prevent soil erosion, improve water availability and increase fuel, fodder and agricultural
production on a sustained basis.
• Alternate Land use: All drylands are not suitable for crop production. Same lands may be
suitable for range/ pasture management and for tree farming and ley farming, dryland
horticulture, agro-forestry systems including alley cropping. All these systems which are
alternative to crop production are called as alternate land use systems. This system helps to
generate off-season employment mono-cropped dryland and also, minimizes risk, utilizes
off-season rains, prevents degradation of soils and restores balance in the ecosystem. The
different alternate land use systems are alley cropping, agri-horticultural systems and silvi-
pastoral systems, which utilizes the resources in better way for increased and stabilized
production from drylands.

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 AGRO-CLIMATIC ZONES OF INDIA AND ANDHRA PRADESH

Planning Commission has demarcated the geographical area of India into 15 agro-climatic

regions. These are:

1. Western Himalayan Region: Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh,

Uttaranchal. The region consists of skeletal soils of cold region, podsolic soil,

mountainous soil, hilly brown soil. Lands have steep slopes in undulating terrain.

2. Eastern Himalayan Region: Assam Sikkim, West Bengal and all North-Eastern states.

These region falls under high rainfall and high forest cover. Shifting cultivation is

practiced in nearly one third of the cultivated area and this causes degradation of the

soil, with heavy runoff, soil erosion and flood.

3. Lower Gangetic Plains Region: West Bengal, soils are mostly alluvial and are prone

to floods.

4. Middle Gangetic Plains Region: Uttar Pradesh, Bihar. About 39 percent of the gross

cropped area of this region is irrigated.

5. Upper Gangetic Plains Region: Uttar Pradesh. Irrigation is trough canals and tube

wells. A good potential for exploitation of ground water.

6. Trans-Gangetic Plains Region: Punjab, Haryana, Delhi and Rajasthan. These regions

have the highest sown areas, highest irrigated area, high cropping intensity and high

ground water utilization.

7. Eastern Plateau and Hills Region: Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Orissa and West

Bengal. Irrigation is through canals and tanks. The soils are shallow and medium in

depth.

8. Central Plateau and Hills Region: Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh.

9. Western Plateau and Hills Region: Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan.

The average rainfall of this zone is 904 mm.

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10. Southern Plateau and Hills Region: Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu. Dry

farming is adopted and the cropping intensity is 111 percent.

11. East Coast Plains and Hills Region: Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and

Pondicherry. Irrigation is through canals and tanks.

12. West Coast Plains and Ghats Region: Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Goa, Karnataka,

Maharashtra. Variety of cropping pattern, rainfall and soil types.

13. Gujarat Plains and Hills Region: Gujarat. This zone is arid with low rainfall in most

parts. Irrigated through tube wells and wells.

14. Western Dry Region: Rajasthan. Hot sandy desert, erratic rainfall, high evaporation,

scanty vegetation. The ground water is often deep and often brackish. Famine and

drought are common features of this region.

15. The Islands Region: Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep. These regions are

typical equatorial with rainfall of 3000 mm spread over eight to nine months. Largely

forest zone with undulated land.

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Agro climatic Zones of Andhra Pradesh

The cropped area in Andhra Pradesh is divided into seven zones based on the agro-

climatic conditions. The classification mainly concentrates on the range of rainfall received, type

and topography of the soils.

1. Krishna – Godavari Zone: It covers East Godavari Part, West Godavari, Krishna,

Guntur, and contiguous areas of Khammam, Nalgonda and Prakasam. Rainfall of this

zone is 800-1100mm. Soil type is deltaic alluvium, red soils with clay, red loams, coastal

sands and saline soils. Paddy, Groundnut, Jowar, Bajra, Tobacco, cotton, chillies,

Sugarcane and Horticultural Crops are the important crops grown.

2. North Coastal Zones: Covers Srikakulam, Vizianagaram, Visakhapatnam and uplands

of East Godavari districts. This zone receives a rainfall of 1000-1100 mm mainly from

south west monsoon. Soil type is red soils with clay base, pockets of acidic soils, laterite

soils, Soils with PH 4-5. Main crops grown in these zones are Paddy, Groundnut, Jowar,

Bajra, Mesta, Jute, Sun hemp, Sesame, Black gram and Horticultural Crops.

3. Southern Zone: Districts in this zone are Nellore, Chittoor, Southern parts of Prakasam

and Cuddapah and Eastern parts of Anantapur. Rainfall received is about 700-1100 mm.

Soil type is Red loamy soils, Shallow to moderately deep. Crops like Paddy,

Groundnut,cotton Sugarcane. Millets and Horticultural Crops are mainly grown.

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4. North Telangana Zone: Adilabad, Karimnagar, Nizamabad, Medak (Northern part),

Warangal (Except N.W.Part), Eastern tips of Nalgonda and Khammam are the districts

in this zone. Rainfall received is about 900-1500 mm. Soil type is Chalkas, Red sandy

soils, Dubbas, Deep Red loamy soils, Very deep black cotton soils.

Paddy,Sugarcane,Castor,Jowar, Maize, Sunflower, Tuemeric, Pulses and Chillies are

the important crops.

5. Southern Telangana Zone: Hyderabad, Rangareddy, Mahabubnagar (except southern

border), Nalgonda (except North eastern border), Medak (Southern parts), Warangal

(North Western Part) are the districts covered. This zone receives a rainfall of about 700-

900 mm. Soil type is red earth with loamy sub soil (Chalkas). Paddy, Sunflower,

Safflower, Grapevine, Sorghum, Millets, Pulses and Orchard crops are the important

crops.

6. Scarce rainfall zone: the districts covered are Kurnool, Anantapur, Prakasam (western

parts), Cuddapah (Northern part), Mahabubnagar (Southern border). Receives a rainfall

of 500-750 mm. Soil type is red earths with loamy soils (Chalkas), red sandy soils and

black cotton soils in pockets. Cotton,Korra,Sorghum,Millets, Groundnut, Pulses, Paddy

are the important crops.

7. High altitude and Tribal areas: Northern borders of Srikakulam, Vizianagaram and

Visakhapatnam, East Godavari and Khammam are the districts covered. This zone

receives a rainfall more than 1400 mm. Horticultural Crops, Millets, Pulses Chillies,

Turmeric and Pepper are the important crops grown.

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 AGRO METEOROLOGY
Meteorology

Greek word “Meteoro” means ‘above the earth’s surface’ (atmosphere) “logy” means

‘indicating science’. Branch of science dealing with that of atmosphere is known as

meteorology. Lower atmosphere extending up to 20km from earth’s surface is where frequent

physical process takes place.

Meteorology is a combination of both physics and geography Meteorology is a

combination of both physics and geography. This science utilizes the principles of Physics to

study the behaviour of air. It is concerned with the analysis of individual weather elements for a

shorter period over a smaller area. In other words, the physical state of the atmosphere at a

given place and time is referred to as “weather”. The study of weather is called ‘meteorology’. It

is often quoted as the “physics of atmosphere”.

Weather: Physical state of the atmosphere at a given place and given time. Eg. Cloudy day

Climate: Long term regime of atmospheric variables of a given place or area. Eg. Cold season

Agricultural meteorology

1. A branch of applied meteorology which investigates the physical conditions of the

environment of growing plants or animal organisms

2. An applied science which deals with the relationship between weather/climatic conditions and

agricultural production.

3. A science concerned with the application of meteorology to the measurement and analysis of

the physical environment in agricultural systems. The word ‘Agro meteorology’ is the

abbreviated form of agricultural meteorology.

4. To study the interaction between meteorological and hydrological factors on the one hand

and agriculture in the widest sense, including horticulture, animal husbandry and forestry on the

other (WMO).

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IMPORTANCE TO CROP PRODUCTION

1. Helps in planning cropping patterns/systems.

2. Selection of sowing dates for optimum crop yields.

3. Cost effective ploughing, harrowing, weeding etc.

4. Reducing losses of applied chemicals and fertilizers.

5. Judicious irrigation to crops.

6. Efficient harvesting of all crops.

7. Reducing or eliminating outbreak of pests and diseases.

8. Efficient management of soils which are formed out of weather action.

9. Managing weather abnormalities like cyclones, heavy rainfall, floods, drought etc. This can be

achieved by

(a) Protection: When rain is forecast avoid irrigation. But, when frost is forecast apply irrigation.

(b) Avoidance: Avoid fertilizer and chemical sprays when rain is forecast

(c) Mitigation: Use shelter belts against cold and heat waves.

10. Effective environmental protection.

11. Avoiding or minimizing losses due to forest fires.

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FUTURE SCOPE

1. To study climatic resources of a given area for effective crop planning.

2. To evolve weather based effective farm operations.

3. To study crop weather relationships in all important crops and forecast crop yields based on

agro climatic and spectral indices using remote sensing.

4. To study the relationship between weather factors and incidence of pests and diseases of

various crops.

5. To delineate climatic/agro ecological/agro climatic zones for defining agro climatic analogues

so as to make effective and fast transfer of technology for improving crop yields.

6. To prepare crop weather diagrams and crop weather calendars.

7. To develop crop growth simulation models for assessing/obtaining potential yields in different

agro climatic zones.

8. To monitor agricultural droughts on crop-wise for effective drought management.

9. To develop weather based agro advisories to sustain crop production utilizing various types

of weather forecast and seasonal climate forecast.

10. To investigate microclimatic aspects of crop canopy in order to modify them for increased

crop growth

11. To study the influence of weather on soil environment on which the crop is grown

12. To investigate the influence of weather in protected environment (eg. Glass houses) for

improving their design aiming at increasing crop production.

COORDINATES OF INDIA- ATMOSPHERE – COMPOSITION OF ATMOSPHERE -

VERTICAL LAYERS OF ATMOSPHERE BASED ON TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE /

LAPSE RATE.

Coordinates of India

Lies between º N and º N latitude

ºE and º E longitude

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Earth is elliptical in shape and has three spheres

Hydrosphere - the water portion

Lithosphere - the solid portion

Atmosphere - the gaseous portion

Atmosphere

The atmosphere is the colourless, odourless and tasteless physical mixture of gasses which

surrounds earth on all sides. It is mobile, compressible and expandable. It contains huge

number of solid and liquid particles called aerosol. Some gases are permanent atmospheric

constituents in fixed proportions to the total gas volume. Others very from place and time to

time. The lower atmosphere where the chemical composition of gas is uniform is called

homosphere. At higher levels the chemical composition of air changes considerably and known

as heterosphere.

Uses of atmosphere

1. Provides oxygen which is useful for respiration in crops

2. Provides carbon-dioxide to build biomass in photosynthesis.

3. Provides nitrogen which is essential for plant growth.

4. Acts as a medium for transportation of pollen.

5. Protects crops plants on earth from harmful U.V.rays.

6. Maintains warmth to plant life and

7. Provides rain to field crops as it is a source of water vapour, cloud, etc.

Composition of atmosphere

The following all the different gases that are present in percentage by volume approximately.

Nitrogen (N2) = 78.08

Oxygen (O2) = 20.95

Argon (Ar) =0.93 CO2 =0.03

Neon (Ne) = 0.0018 Helium(He) =0.0005

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Ozone(O3) =0.00004 Hydrogen(H2) =0.00006

Methane (CH4) =0.00017

Vertical Layers of atmosphere based on temperature

On the basis of vertical temperature variation the atmosphere is divided into different spheres

or layers.

A. Troposphere

1. The word “Trop” means mixing or turbulence and “sphere” means region.

2. The average height o this lower most layer of the atmosphere is about 14 km above the men

sea level; at the equator it is 16 km and 7-8 km at the poles.

3. Under normal conditions the height of the troposphere changes from place to place and

season to season.

4. Various types of clouds, thunderstorms, cyclone and anticyclones occur in this sphere

because of the concentration of almost all the water vapour and aerosols in it. So, this layer is

called as “seat of weather phenomena”.

5. The wind velocities increase with height and attain the maximum at the top of this layer.

6. Another striking feature of the troposphere is that there is a decrease of temperature with

increasing elevation at a mean lapse rate of about 6.5°C per km.

7. Most of the radiation received from the sun is absorbed by the earth’s surface. So, the

troposphere is heated from below.

8. In this layer, about 75 per cent of total gases and most of the moisture and dust particles

present.

9. A the top of the troposphere there is a shallow layer separating it from the stratosphere which

is known as the “Tropopasue “.

10. The tropospause layer is thin and its height changes according to the latitudes and it is a

transitional zone and distinctly characterized by no major movement of air.

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B). Stratosphere

1). This layer exists above the tropopause (around 20 km onwards) and extends to altitudes of

about 50-55 km.

2). This layer is called as “Seat of photochemical reactions”

3). The temperature remains practically constant at around 20 km and is characterized as

isothermal because air is thin, clear, cold and dry near tropopause.

4). The temperature of this layer increases with height and also depends upon the troposphere

because the troposphere is higher at the equator than at the poles.

5). In the upper parts of the stratosphere the temperatures are almost as high as those near the

earth’s surface, which is due to the fact that the ultra-violet radiation from the sun is absorbed by

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ozone in this region. The air density is so much less that even limited absorption of solar

radiation by the atmospheric constituents notably ozone produces a temperature increase.

6). Less convection takes place in the stratosphere because it is warm at the top and cold at the

bottom.

7). There is also persistence of circulation patterns and high wind speeds.

8). The upper boundary of the stratosphere is called the stratopause.

C). Mesosphere/Ozonosphere

1. There is a maximum concentration of ozone between 30 and 60 km above the surface

of the earth and this layer is known at the ozonosphere.

2. A property of the ozone is that it absorbs UV rays. Had there been no layer of the ozone in

the atmosphere, the ultraviolet rays might have reached the surface of the earth and no life can

exist.

3. Temperature of the ozonosphere is high (warm) due to selective absorption of U.V radiation

by ozone.

4. Because of the preponderance of chemical process this sphere is called as the

“chemosphere”

5. In this layer the temperature increases with height at the rate of 5°C per km.

6. According to some leading scientists the ionosphere is supposed to start at a height of 80 km

above the earth’s surface. The layer between 50 and 80 km is called as “Mesosphere”. In this

layer the temperature decreases with height. The upper boundary of this layer is called the

“Mesospause”.

7. Mesosphere is the coldest region in the atmosphere with temperature reaching the lowest

value of nearly -95°C at the mesopause (80km)

D). Thermosphere(Ionosphere)

1) The thermosphere layer lies beyond the ozonosphere (mesosphere) at a height of about 80

km above the earth’s surface and extends upto 400 km.

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2) The atmosphere in the ionosphere is partly ionised enriched ion zones exist in the form of

distinct ionised layers. So, this layer is called as the ionosphere.

3) Above the mesosphere the temperature increases again and is in the order of 1000°C.

4) The ionosphere reflects the radio waves because of one or multiple reflections of shortwave

radio beams from the inoised shells. So, long distance radio communication is possible due to

this layer.

E). Exosphere.

1) The outer most layer of the earth’s atmosphere is named as the exosphere and this layer lies

between 400 and 1000 km.

2) At such a greater height the density of atoms in the atmosphere is extremely low.

3) Hydrogen and Helium gases predominate in this outer most region.

4) At an altitude of about 500 to 600 km the density of the atmosphere becomes so low that

collisions between the natural particles become extremely rare.

Lapse rate

The decrease in air temperature with height is known as the normal / environmental lapse rate

and it is 6.5°C/km.

Adiabatic lapse rate

The rate of change of temperature in an ascending or descending air mass through adiabatic

process is called as adiabatic lapse rate. The thermodynamic transformation which occurs

without exchange of heat between a system and its environment is known as adiabatic process.

In adiabatic process, adiabatic cooling accompanies expansion, and adiabatic warming

accompanies compression.

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Monsoon Rainfall Variability

Indian continent receives its annual rainfall by the peculiar phenomenon known as

monsoon. It consists of series of cyclones that arise in India Ocean. These travel in northeast

direction and enter the Peninsular India along its west coast. The most important of these

cyclones usually occur from June to September resulting in summer monsoon or southwest

monsoon. This is followed by a second rainy season from October to December. A third and

fourth rainy seasons occur from January to February and from March to May respectively. Of

the four rainy seasons, southwest monsoon is the most important as it contribute 80 – 95% of

the total rainfall of the country.

Two types of monsoon systems are a) South West Monsoon, b) North East Monsoon.

(a) South West Monsoon

Beginning of the year temperature of the Indian Peninsular rapidly rises under the

increasing heat of the sun. A minimum barometric pressure is established in the interior parts of

the Peninsular by the month of March. Westerly winds prevail on the west Kerala and south

winds on the west of northern Circars, Orissa and Bengal. During April and May the region of

high temperature is shifted to north viz., upper Sind, lower Punjab and Western Rajasthan. This

area becomes the minimum barometric pressure area to which monsoon winds are directed.

The western branch of South West monsoon touches North Karnataka, Southern

Maharashtra and then it make its way to Gujarat. When the South West Monsoon is fully

operating on the Western India, another branch of the same is acting in the Bay of Bengal. It

carries rains to Burma, Northern portions of the east coast of India, Bengal, Assam and the

whole of North India in general.

b) North east Monsoon

During September end, the South West Monsoon penetrates to North Western India but

stays on for a full month in Bengal. On account of the increase in barometric pressure in

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Northern India, there is a shift of the barometric pressure to the South East and North Easterly

winds begin to flow on the eastern coast. These changes bring on heavy and continuous rainfall

to the Southern and South Eastern India.

c) Winter Rainfall

It is restricted more to Northern India and is received in the form of snow on the hills and

as rains in the plains of Punjab, Rajasthan and central India. Western disturbance is a dominant

factor for rainfall during these months in northwestern India.

d) Summer Rainfall

The summer Rainfall is received from March to May as local storms. It is mostly received

in the South East of Peninsular and in Bengal. Western India does not generally receive these

rains.

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 WEATHER AND CLIMATE, MICRO-CLIMATE

Weather

i) ‘A state or condition of the atmosphere at a given place and at a given instant of time’.

ii) ‘The daily or short term variations of different conditions of lower air in terms of temperature,

pressure, wind, rainfall, etc’.

iii) State of atmosphere at a particular time as defined by the various meteorological elements.

(WMO)

The aspects involved in weather include small areas and duration, expressed in

numerical values, etc. The different weather elements are solar radiation, temperature,

pressure, wind, humidity, rainfall evaporation, etc. is highly variable. It changes constantly

sometimes from hour to hour and at other times from day to day.

Climate

i) ‘The generalized weather or summation of weather conditions over a given region during

comparatively longer period’.

ii) ‘The sum of all statistical information of weather in a particular area during a specified

interval of time, usually, a season or a year or even a decade’.

iii) Synthesis of weather conditions in a given area, characterized by long-term statistics (mean

values, variances, probabilities of extreme values, etc,) of the meteorological elements in

that area. (WMO)

The aspects involved are larger areas like a zone, a state, a country and is described by

normal. The climatic normals are generally worked out for a period of 30 years.

Differences between weather and climate:

Weather Climate

1. A typical physical condition of the 1. Generalized condition of the atmosphere

atmosphere. which represents and describes the

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 characteristics of a region.

2. Changes from place to place even in a small 2. Different in different large region

locality

3. Changes according to time (every moment) 3. Change requires longer (years) time.

4. Similar numerical values of weather of 4. Similar numerical values of climate of different

different places usually have same weather places usually have different climates.

5. Crop growth, development and yield are 5. Selection of crops suitable for a place is

decided by weather in a given season. decided based on climate of the region.

6. Under abnormal weather conditions planners 6. Helps in long-term agricultural planning.

can adopt a short-term contingent planning.

Factors affecting climate

i) Latitude

The distance from the equator, either south or north, largely creates variations in the

climate. Based on the latitude, the climate has been classified as

i) Tropical ii) Sub-tropical iii) Temperate & iv) Polar.

ii) Altitude (elevation)

The height from the MSL creates variation in climate. Even in the tropical regions, the

high mountains have temperate climate. The temperature decreases by 6.5 ºC/Km from the sea

level. Generally, there is also a decrease in pressure and increase in precipitation and wind

velocity. The above factors alter the kind of vegetation, soil types and the crop production.

iii) Precipitation

The quantity and distribution of rainfall decides the nature of vegetation and the nature of

the cultivated crops. The crop regions are classified on the basis of average rainfall which is as

follow.

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 Rainfall(mm) Name of the climatic region

Less than 500 Arid

500-750 Semi-arid

750-1000 Sub-arid

More than 1000 Humid

iv) Soil type

Soil is a product of climatic action on rocks as modified by landscape and vegetation

over a long period of time. The colour of the soil surface affects the absorption, storage and re-

radiation of heat. White colour reflects while black absorbs more radiation. Due to differential

absorption of heat energy, variations in temperature are created at different places. In black soil

areas, the climate is hot while in red soil areas, it is comparatively cooler due to lesser heat

absorption.

v) Nearness to large water bodies

The presence of large water bodies like lakes and sea including its current affect the

climate of the surrounding areas, eg: Islands and coastal areas. The movement of air from

earth’s surface and from water bodies to earth modifies the climate. The extreme variation in

temperature during summer and winter is minimized in coastal areas and island.

vi) Topography

The surface of landscape (leveled or uneven surface areas) produces marked change in

the climate. This involves the altitude of the place, steepness of the slope and exposure of the

slope to light and wind.

vii) Vegetation

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 Kinds of vegetation characterize the nature of climate. Thick vegetation is found in

tropical regions where temperature and precipitation are high. General types of vegetations

present in a region indicate the nature of the climate of that region.

Scales of climate and their importance

i) Microclimate

Microclimate deals with the climatic features peculiar to small areas and with the

physical processes that take place in the layer of air very near to the ground. Soil-ground

conditions, character of vegetation cover, aspect of slopes, and state of the soil surface, relief

forms – all these may create special local conditions of temperature, humidity, wind and

radiation in the layer of air near the ground which differ sharply from general climatic conditions.

One of the most important tasks of agricultural meteorology is to study the properties of air near

the ground and surface layer of soil, which falls under the micro climate.

ii) Meso climate

The scale of meso climate falls between micro and macro climates. It is concerned with

the study of climate over relatively smaller areas between 10 & 100 km across.

iii) Macro climate

Macro climate deals with the study of atmosphere over large areas of the earth and with

the large scale atmospheric motions that cause weather. The scales of air motion in different

climates are given in the Table below.

Type of climate Horizontal scale Vertical scale(km) Time Scale(hrs)

(km)

A. Macro climate

1. Planetary scale 2000-5000 & more 10 200 to 400

2. Synoptic scale 500-2000 10 100

B. Meso climate 1 to 100 1-10 1-10

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C. Micro climate <100m 200 m 6-12 minutes

If any weather system develops under different types of climate, it persists longer

periods under the macroclimate while smaller periods under micro climates.

CLIMATES OF INDIA AND TAMILNADU AND THEIR CHARACTERIZATION

Climate classification was tried by many scientists from beginning of 19th century using many

parameters. Thornthwaite during 1931 and 1948 classified the climate using precipitation and

evaporation /Potential evaporation and was subsequently modified by Mathur (1955) for the

Moisture Index (Im) and is give below

Im = 100 [(P-PE)/PE]

Where P = Precipitation, PE = Potential evapo-transpiration

Using the moisture Index (Im) the following classification was made

Im Quantity Climate classification

100 and above Per humid

20 to 100 Humid

0 to 20 Moist sub humid

-33.3 to 0 Dry sub humid

-66.7 to -33.3 Semi arid

-100 to -66.7 Arid

Another classification by Troll (1965) based on number of humid months, said to be of more

agricultural use was modified by ICRISAT for India. Humid month is one having mean rainfall

exceeding the mean Potential evapo transpiration.

Climate Number of humid months % geographical area of India

Arid <2.0 17.00

Semiarid-dry 2.0-4.5 57.17

Semiarid-wet 4.5-7.0 12.31

Humid >7.0 1.10

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The ICAR under All India Coordinated Research Project on Dryland Agriculture adopted

classification based Moisture Deficit Index (MDI)

P - PET

MDI = --------- x 100

PET

Where P is annual precipitation (cm) and PET is Potential Evapotranspiration. Based on MDI

the climate is divided into three regions as below.

Type of climate MDI

Subhumid 0.0 to 33.3

Semiarid -33.3 to -66.6

Arid > -66.6

Temperature based classification

The tropic of cancer, which passes through the middle of the country, divides it into two distinct

climates. The tropical climate in the South where all the 12 months of the year have mean daily

temperature exceeding 20°C; and in the North where a sub-tropical climate prevails. In sub-

tropics during the winter months, it is cool to cold. Frosts occur sometime during the months of

December and January. Some areas in the Northern India have a temperate climate. Here it

snows during the winter months and freezing temperatures may extend to two months or more

during the year. Three main climatic zones of India based on temperature are shown in the map

below.

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 WEATHER ELEMENTS AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON DIFFERENT CROPS

The weather elements are solar radiation, temperature, soil temperature and

light, radiation.

Solar radiation – Spectrum of radiation – Characteristics of different wave lengths

and their effect on crop production.

Sun

 Sun is the prime source of energy

 Sun is the nearest star to the planet earth

 Diameter of the sun is 1.39 X 106 km

 It rotates on its axis about once every four weeks(27 days near equator & 30

days –polar)

 Sun is on an average 1.5 X 108 km away from the earth (149.64 M km deviation

is 2.41 Mkm)

 Surface temperature of the sun is 5462° K

 Every minute, the sun radiates approximately 56 X 1026 calories of energy.

 The interior mass of the sun has a density of 80 to 100 times that of water.

 Energy is due to the fusion, Hydrogen is transformed to helium.

 99% of the energy to biosphere is only from the sun and the rest one percent is

from stars,lightning discharge, sun’s radiation reflected from the moon, re-

radiation from the earth etc.

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Insolation

Electro magnetic energy radiated into the space by the sun

Factors affecting insolation

1. The solar constant which depends on

a. Energy output of the sun

b. Distance from earth to sun

2. Transparency of the atmosphere

3. Duration of daily sunlight period

4. Angle at which sun’s noon rays strike the earth.

Transfer of heat

All mater, at a temperature above the absolute zero, imparts energy to the

surrounding space. Three processes viz. conduction, convection and radiation are

involved in heat flow or heat transfer.

Conduction

Heat transfer through matter without the actual movement of the substances or

matter. Heat flows from the warmer to cooler part of the body so that the temperatures

between them are equalized. Eg. The energy transmission through an iron rod which is

made warmer at one end.

Convection

Processes of transmission of heat through actual movement of molecules of the

medium. This is predominant form of energy transmission on the earth as all the weather

related processes involve this process. Eg. Boiling of water in a beaker

Radiation.

Transfer of energy from one body to another without the aid of the material medium

(solid, liquid or gas). Radiation is not heat, only when radiation is absorbed by surface of

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a body heat is produced. Eg. The energy transmission through space from the sun to the

earth.

Solar radiation

The flux of radiant energy from the sun is solar radiation.

Heavenly bodies emit – short wave radiation

Near surfaces including earth emit - long wave radiation

Radiation flux

The amount of radiant energy emitted, received, transmitted across a particular

area is known as radiant flux.

Radiant flux density

The radiant flux divided by the area across which the radiation is transmitted is

called radiant flux density.

Emissive power

The radiant flux density emitted by a source is called its emissive power.

Energy measurement

Units Cal cm-2 min-1 J cm-2 mi-1 W cm-2

Cal cm-2 min-1 1 4.1868 0.069

J cm-2 mi-1 0.238 1 0.00165

W cm-2 14.3 60.6 1

Spectrum of Radiation

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Units of measurements of wavelength

Micron 1μ = 10-6 m = 10-4 cm

Milli micron 1 mμ = 10-9 m = 10-7 cm

Angstrom Å = 10-10 m = 10-8 cm

Solar radiation and crop plants

Crop production is exploitation of solar radiation

Three broad spectra

1. Shorter than visible range: Chemically very active

 When plants are exposed to this radiation the effects are detrimental.

 Atmosphere acts as regulator for this radiation and none of cosmic, Gamma and

Xrays

reaches to the earth.

 The UV rays of this segment reaching to the earth are very low and it is normally

tolerated by the plants.

2. Higher than visible wavelength

 Referred to IR radiation

 It has thermal effect on plants

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  In the presence of water vapour, this radiation does not harm plants, rather it

supplies the necessary thermal energy to the plant environment.

3. Visible spectrum

 Between UV & IR radiation and also referred as light

 All plant parts are directly or indirectly influenced by the light

 Intensity, quality and duration are important for normal plant growth

 Poor light leads to plant abnormalities

 Light is indispensable to photosynthesis

 Light affect the production of tillers, the stability, strength and length of

Culms

It affects the yield, total weight of plant structures, size of the leaves and

root development.

Critical stages of plant growth for light

- Radiation intensity during the third month of Maize plant

- Rice – 25 days prior to flowering

- Barley – flowering period

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Radiation balance – Solar constant – albedo – Sensible heat – Heat energy –

Latent heat

A part of the incident radiation on the surface is absorbed, while a part is

reflected and the remaining is transmitted.

Absorptivity

Absorptivity of a substance is defined as the ratio of the amount of radiant energy

absorbed to the total amount incident upon that substance. The absorptivity of a

blackbody is unity. Natural bodies like sun and earth are near perfect black bodies

Reflectivity

Reflectivity is defined as the ratio of the radiant energy reflected to the total

incident radiation upon that surface. If it is expressed in percentage it becomes albedo.

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Transmittivity

Transmittivity is defined as ratio of the transmitted radiation to the total incident

radiation

upon the surface.

Emissivity

Emissivity is defined as the ratio of the radiant energy emitted by a given surface

to the total heat energy emitted by a black body. The emissivity of a black body is unity.

Blackbody radiation

A Blackbody is defined as a body, which completely absorbs all the heat

radiations falling on it without reflecting and transmitting any of it. It means reflectivity

and transmittivity become zero. When such a black body is heated it emits radiation of

all wavelengths depending upon its temp.

Radiation balance

The difference between all incoming and outgoing radiation at the earth’s surface

and top of the atmosphere is known as radiation balance at the earth’s surface.

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Solar constant

Solar constant is the energy received on a unit area at the outer most boundary

of the earth (atmosphere) surface held perpendicular to the sun’s direction, at the mean

distance between the sun and the earth.

Solar constant is not a true constant. It fluctuates by as much as ± 3.5 % about

its mean

value depending upon the distance of the earth from the sun.

Value is 2 cal / cm2 / min. (1.92 and 2.02) Recent measurements indicate value

of 1.94

cal / cm2 / min (133 wm-2) [1 Langley = 1cal]

35% of the energy is contributed by U.V. and visible parts and 65% by Infra Red.

Albedo

It is the percentage of reflected radiation to the incident radiation. (Varies with

colour and composition of the earth’s surface, season, angle of the sun rays). Value is

Highest in winter and at sunrise and sunset. Pure water – 5-20%, Vegetation 10-40%,

Soils 15-50%, Earth 34-43% and clouds 55%. High albedo indicates that much of the

incident solar radiation is reflected rather than absorbed.

Depends up on

1. Angle of incidence of radiation. Albedo increase with decreasing elevation of sun with

minimum during noon.

2. Physical characteristics of surface

3. Season

4. Time of the day

For plant community albedo depends upon

1. Age of the crop

2. Percentage of ground cover

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3. Colour and reflectivity of the foliage

Outgoing long wave radiation

After being heated by solar radiation, the earth becomes source of radiation.

Average temperature of the earth’s surface 285º k (12º C)

99% of radiation is emitted in the farm of IR range (4 to 120 μ)

About 90% of the outgoing radiation is absorbed by the atmosphere.

Water vapour absorb in wavelengths of 5.3 to 7.7 μ and beyond 20μ.

Ozone 9.4 to 9.8 μ.

CO2 – 13.1 to 16.9 μ

Clouds – in all wavelengths

Long wave radiation escapes to the space between 8.5 and 11 μ and this is

known as the atmospheric window. Atmosphere for this spectrum acts as transparent

medium instead of absorbing. This spectral region is used in microwave remote sensing

to monitor the features of the sky in case of overcast sky.

A large part of the radiation absorbed by the atmosphere is sent back to the

earth’s surface as counter – radiation. This counter radiation prevents the earth’s surface

from excessive cooling at night.

Radiation laws

The direct transfer of heat from the sun to the earth through the space and

atmosphere indicates that radiation of heat from one place to other occurs in the form of

electromagnetic waves in the same manner and with same speed of as light. The

wavelength of electromagnetic radiation is given by the equation

λ=

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Where λ = Wavelength (The shortest distance between consecutive crests in the wave

trance)

C = Velocity of light (3x1010 cm sec-1)

V = Frequency means number of vibrations of cycles per second

Plank’s law

Plank introduced the ‘particle concept’. The electromagnetic radiation consists of

a stream or flow of particles or quanta, each quantum having energy content E

determined by of each quantum is proportional to the frequency given by the equation.

E= h v where

h= Plank’s constant (6.62x10-34 J sec-1

V= Frequency

The law states that greater the frequency (shorter wave length) greater is the energy of

quantum.

Kirchoff’s law

A good absorber of radiation is a good emitter, in similar circumstances. This law

states that the absorptivity ‘a’ of an object for radiation of a specific wavelength is equal

to the emissivity ‘e’ for the same wavelength. The equation of the law is :

a (λ) = e (λ)

Stefan-Boltzmann’s law

The intensity of radiation emitted (E) by a radiating body is directly proportional to

the fourth power of the absolute temperature of that body. (Emissivity of black body = 1)

E = σ T4

Where,

T= (273+°C) because temperature is in Kelvins

= Stefan-Boltzmann’s constant which is equal to 5.673 x 10-8 W m-2 K-4

Wein’s Displacement laws

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 The wavelength of the maximum intensity of emission (λmax) from a radiating

black body is inversely proportional to its absolute temperature

λ max = 2897 T-1 μ = 2897/T μ Where T is in ºK

If the temperature of a body is high, radiation maximum is displaced towards

shorter wavelengths. For the sun’s surface temperature of 5793°K, the λ max is 0.5μ

(2897/5793). The most intense solar radiation occurs in the blue-green range of visible

light. The wavelength of maximum intensity of radiation for the earth’s actual surface

temperature of 14°C or 287°K is about 10.0 (2897/287) microns, which is in the infrared

band.

Energy balance or heat balance

The net radiation is the difference between total incoming and outgoing

radiations and is a measure of the energy available at the ground surface. It is the

energy available at the earth’s surface to drive the processes of evaporation, air and soil

heat fluxes as well as other smaller energy consuming processes such as

photosynthesis and respiration. The net radiation over crop is as follows.

Rn = G + H + LE + PS + M

Rn is net radiation, G is surface soil heat flux, H is sensible heat flux, LE is laten heat

flux, PS and M are energy fixed in plants by photosynthesis and energy involved in

respiration, respectively. The PS and M are assumed negligible due to their minor

contribution (about 1-2% of Rn). The net radiation is the basic source of energy for

evapotranspiration (LE), heating the air (H) and soil (S) and other miscellaneous M

including photosynthesis.

Temperature

It is defined as the measure of the average speed of atoms and molecules

Kinetic energy

Energy of motion.

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Heat

It is the aggregate internal energy of motion and molecules of a body. It is often

defined as energy in the process of being transferred from one object to another

because of the temperature between them.

Sensible heat

It is the heat that can be measured by a thermometer and thus sensed by

humans. Normally measured in Celsius, Fahrenheit and Kelvin.

Latent heat

It is the energy required to change a substance to a higher state of matter. This

same energy is released on the reverse process. Change of state through Evaporation

and condensation is known as latent heat of evaporation and latent heat of

condensation. From water to water vapour takes 600 calories and water to ice takes 80

calories.

Blue colour of the sky

If the circumference of the scattering particle is less than about 1/10 of the

wavelength of the incident radiation, the scattering co-efficient is inversely proportional to

the fourth power of the wavelength of the incident radiation. This is known as Rayleigh

scattering. This is the primary cause of the blue colour of the sky. For larger particles

with circumference >30 times of wavelength of the incident radiation, scattering is

independent of the wavelength (i.e) white light is scattered. This is known as Mei

scaring

Red Colour of the sky at sunset & sunrise.

It is because of increased path length in the atmosphere. % of solar energy in the

visible part decreases. With in the visible part, the ratio of the blue to the red part

decreases with increased path length.

Disposition of Solar radiation

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a. 25% of solar radiation is reflected back to the space by clouds (more by middle and

high latitudes and less in the sub tropics)

b. 6% reflected back by air, dust and water vapour.

c. 30% scatted downwards (more in the form of shorter wavelengths able) them that in

longer wave length (red).

d. 17% of solar radiation is absorbed by the atmosphere. (Mostly by Oxygen, O3, CO2 &

H2O

vapour).

O 2 – absorb the extreme UV wavelengths (0.12 to 0.6 μ)

O 3 – UV (0.2 to 0.32 μ) and Visible part of radiation (0.44 to 0.7 μ)

H 2 O vapour – Near infra red (0.93, 1.13, 1.42 μ)

CO 2 - IR band 2.7 μ.

e. About 50% of solar radiation reaches earth’s surface, after reflection, scattering and

absorption.

LIGHT – EFFECT OF LIGHT INTENSITY, QUALITY, DIRECTION AND DURATION ON

CROP PRODUCTION – AIR TEMPERATURE – FACTORS AFFECTING

TEMPERATURE.

Light

Light is the visible portion of the solar spectrum with wavelength range is from

0.39 to 0.76μ. Light is one of the important climatic factors for many vital functions of the

plant. It is essential for the synthesis of the most important pigment ie. Chlorophyll,

Chlorophyll absorbs the radiant energy and converts it into potential energy of

carbohydrate. The carbohydrate thus formed is the connecting link between solar energy

and living world. In addition, it regulates the important physiological functions. The

characteristics of light viz. intensity, quality, duration and direction are important for

crops.

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Light intensity

 The intensity of light is measured by comparing with a standard candle. The

amount of light received at a distance of one metre from a standard candle is

known as “Metre candle or Lux”. The light intensity at one foot from a standard

candle is called ‘foot candle’ or 10.764 luxes and the instrument used is called as

lux metre.

 About one percent of the light energy is converted into biochemical energy.

 Very low light intensity reduces the rate of photosynthesis resulting in reduced

growth.

 Similarly, very high intensity is detrimental to plant in many ways as below.

 It increases the rate of respiration.

 It also causes rapid loss of water (ie) increases the transpiration rate of water

from the plants.

 The most harmful effect of high intensity light is that it oxidises the cell contents

which is termed as ‘Solarisation’. This oxidation is different from respiration and

is called as photo-oxidation.

 Under field conditions the light is not spread evenly over the crop canopy but

commonly passed by reflection and transmission through several layers of

leaves.

 The intensity of light falls at exponential rate with path length through absorbing

layers according to Beer’s law. ie the relative radiation intensity decreases

exponentially with increasing leaf area.

 At ground level the light intensity is below the light compensation point (The light

intensity at which the gas exchange resulting from photosynthesis is equal to that

resulting from respiration)

Based on the response to light intensities the plants are classified as follows.

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(i) Sciophytes (shade loving plants): The plants grow better under partially shaded

conditions. (eg) Betel vine, buck wheat etc.

(ii) Hetrophytes (Sun loving): Many species of plants produce maximum dry matter

under high light intensities when the moisture is available at the optimum level. (eg)

Maize, sorghum, rice etc.

Quality of Light

When a beam of white light is passed through a prism, it is dispersed into

wavelengths of different colours. This is called the visible part of the solar spectrum. The

different colours and their wave length are as follows:

Violet 400 – 435 m μ Blue 435 – 490 m μ

Green 490 – 574 m μ Yellow 574 – 595 m μ

Orange 595 – 626 m μ Red 626 – 750 m μ

The principal wavelength absorbed and used in photosynthesis are in the violet –

blue and the orange - red regions. Among this, short rays beyond violet such as X rays,

gamma rays and larger rays beyond red such as infrared, are detrimental to plant

growth. Red light is the most favourable light for growth followed by violet – blue. Ultra –

violet and shorter wave lengths kill bacteria and many fungi.

c) Duration of light

The duration of light has greater influence than the intensity for canopy

development and final yield. It has a considerable importance in the selection of crop

varieties. The response of plants to the relative length of the day and night is known as

phtoperiodism. The plants are classified based on the extent of response to day length

which is as follows.

(i) Long day plants

The plants which develop and produce normally when the photoperiod is greater

than the critical minimum (greater than 12 hours). eg. Potato, Sugarbeet, Wheat, Barley

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etc.

(ii) Short day plants

The plants which develop normally when the photoperiod is less than the critical

maximum (less than 12 hours). Rice, Sorghum, cotton, Sunflower

(iii) Day neutral plants / Indeterminate

Those plants which are not affected by photoperiod.

(eg) Tomato, Maize

The photoperiodism influences the plant character such as floral initiation or

development, bulb and rhizome production etc. In long day plant, during periods of short

days, the growth of internodes are shortened and flowering is delayed till the long days

come in the season. Similarly when short day plants are subjected to long day periods,

there will be abnormal vegetative growth and there may not be any floral initiation.

Direction of light

 The direction of sunlight has a greater effect on the orientation of roots and

leaves.

 In temperate regions, the southern slopes plants produce better growth than the

northern slopes due to higher contribution of sunlight in the southern side.

 The change of position or orientation of organs of plants caused by light is

usually called as phototropism ie the leaves are oriented at right angles to

incidence of light to receive maximum light radiation.

Photomorphogenesis

Change in the morphology of plants due to light. This is mainly due to U.V and

violet ray of the sun.

AIR TEMPERATURE

Temperature is defined as, “The measure of speed per molecule of all the

molecules of a body”. Where as heat is, “the energy arising from random motion of all

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the molecules of a body’. (Degree of molecular activity). It is the intensity aspect of heat

energy.

Conduction

Heat transfer when two bodies of unequal temperatures come into contact. Heat

passes from point to point by means of adjacent molecules.

Convection

Transfer through movement of particles (part of mass) in fluids and gasses.

These ar able to circulate internally and distribute heated part of the mass.

Radiation

It is the process of transmission of energy by electromagnetic waves between

two bodies without the necessary aid of an intervening material medium.

Factors affecting air temperature

i. Latitude

ii. Altitude

iii. Distribution of land and water

iv. Ocean currents

v. Prevailing winds

vi. Cloudiness

vii. Mountain barriers

viii. Nature of surface

ix. Relief

x. Convection and turbulence etc.

1. Latitude

The time of occurrence of maximum monthly mean temperature and minimum

monthly mean temperature also depends on latitude of a place. (eg.) The coldest month

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is January in northern regions of India while December in the south. Similarly, the

warmest month is May in the south while June in the north across the country.

2. Altitude

The surface air temperature decreases with increasing altitude from the mean

sea level as the density of air decreases. Since the density of air is less at higher

altitudes, the absorbing capacity of air is relatively less with reference to earth’s

longwave radiation.

3. Distribution of land and water

Land and water surfaces react differently to the insolation. Because of the great

contrasts between land and water surfaces their capacity for heating the atmosphere

varies. Variations in air temperature are much greater over the land than over the water.

The differential heating process between land and sea surfaces are due to their

properties. It is one of the reasons for Indian monsoon.

4. Ocean currents

The energy received over the ocean surface carried away by the ocean currents

from the warm areas to cool areas. This results in temperature contrast between the

equator and poles. The occurrence of El-Nino is due to change in sea surface

temperature between two oceanic regions over the globe.

5. Prevailing winds

Winds can moderate the surface temperature of the continents and oceans. In

the absence of winds, we feel warm in hot climates. At the same time, the weather is

pleasant if wind blows.

6. Cloudiness

The amount of cloudiness affects the temperature of the earth’s surface and the

atmosphere. A thick cloud reduces the amount of insolation received at a particular

place and thus the day time temperature is low. At the same time, the lower layers in the

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atmosphere absorb earth’s radiation. This results in increasing atmospheric temperature

during night. That is why, cloudy nights are warmer. This is common in the humid

tropical climates.

7. Mountain barriers

Air at the top of the mountain makes little contact with the ground and is therefore

cold while in the valley at the foothills makes a great deal of contact and is therefore

warm. That is, the lower region of the earth’s atmosphere is relatively warmer when

compared to hillocks.

Diurnal and seasonal variation of air temperature

 The minimum air temperature occurs at about sunrise, after which there is a

constant

rise till it reaches to maximum.

 The maximum air temperature is recorded between 1300 hrs and 1400 hrs

although the

maximum solar radiation is reaches at the moon.

 A steady fall in temperature till sunrise is noticed after is attains maximum. Thus

the daily March displays one maximum and one minimum. The difference

between the two is called the diurnal range of air temperature.

 The diurnal range of air temperature is more on clear days while cloudy weather

sharply reduces daily amplitudes.

 The diurnal range of temperature is also influenced by soils and their coverage in

addition to seasons.

 Addition of daily maximum and minimum temperature divided by two is nothing

but daily mean / average temperature.

 In northern hemisphere winter minimum occurs in January and summer

maximum in July.

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Horizontal air temperature distribution

 The lines connecting points of equal temperature is called as isotherm

 It is largely depends latitude. A general decrease in temperature from equator

towards poles is one of the most fundamental factors of climatology.

 Irregular distribution of land and water on earth’s surface breaks the latitudinal

variation in temperature.

 Land areas warm and cool rapidly than water bodies

 Mountain barriers influence horizontal distribution of temperature by restricting

movement of air masses.

 On local scale topographic relief exerts an influence on temperature distribution.

Vertical air temperature distribution

Decrease in temperature with increase in height

Temperature inversion

 Occasionally at some altitude the temperature abruptly increases instead of

decreasing. This condition in which this abrupt rise instead of fall in temperature

occurs in the air is known as the temperature inversion. This may occurs under

the following conditions.

 When the air near the ground cools off faster than the overlying layer, because of

heat loss during cooling nights.

 When an actual warm layer passing over a lower cold layer

 Cold air from hill tops and slopes tend to flow downward and replaced by warm

air.

Significance of Temperature inversion

 Cloud formation, precipitation and atmospheric visibility are greatly influenced by

inversion phenomenon

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  Fog formation may take place near the ground which may affect the visibility to

both human beings and animals. Affects air navigation.

 Diurnal temperature is affected by temperature inversions.

 The incoming solar radiation and its conversion in to heat is affected.

Heat Units

 It is a measure of relative warmth of growing season of a given length. Normally

it is indicated as Growing Degree Days (GDD). A heat unit is the departure from

the mean daily temperature above the minimum threshold temperature.

 The minimum threshold temperature is the temperature below which no growth

takes place.

 Usually ranges from 4.5 to 12.5 ºC for different crops (Most commonly used

value is 6.0ºC)

Degree Day

A degree day is obtained by subtracting the threshold temperature from daily

mean temperature. Summation of the daily values over the growth period gives degree

days of the crops.

T max + T min
GDD = Σ ------------------- - T b
2
Where

T max – Maximum air temperature of the day

T min – Minimum air temperature of the day

T b - Base temperature of the crop

The base temperature is the threshold temperature.

Advantages / Importance of growing degree Day Concept

1. In guiding the agricultural operations and planting land use.

2. To forecast crop harvest dates, yield and quality

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3. In forecasting labour required for agricultural operations

4. Introduction of new crops and new varieties in new areas

5. In predicting the likelihood of successful growth of a crop in an area.

HEAR INJURIES

‘Thermal death point” – the temperature at which the plant cell gets killed when

the temperature ranges from 50-60°C. This varies with plant species. The aquatic and

shade loving plants are killed at comparatively lower temperature (40°C).

High temperature

- results in desiccation of plants

- disturbs the physiological activities like photosynthesis and respiration

- increases respiration leading to rapid depletion of reserve food.

Sun clad

Injury caused on the barks of stem by high temperature during day time and low

temperature during the night time.

Stem griddle

The stem at ground level scorches around due to high soil temperature. It causes

death of plant by destroying conductive tissues. Eg. This type of injury is very common in

young seedlings of cotton in sandy soil when soil temperature exceeds 60°C.

COLD INJURY

(i) Chilling injury

Plants which are adapted to hot climate, if exposed to low temperature for

sometime, are found to be killed or severely injured or development of chloratic condition

(yellowing) (eg.) cholratic bands on the leaves of sugarcane, sorghum and maize in

winter months when the night temperature is below 20°C.

(ii) Freezing injury

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 This type of injury is commonly observed in plants of temperate regions. When

the plants are exposed to very low temperature, water freezes into ice crystals in the

intercellular spaces of plants. The protoplasm of cell is dehydrated resulting in the death

of cells. (eg.) Frost damage in potato, tea etc.

(iii) Suffocation

In temperature regions, usually during the winter season, the ice or snow forms a

thick cover on the soil surface. As a result, the entry of oxygen is prevented and crop

suffers for want of oxygen. Ice coming in contact with the root prevents the diffusion of

CO2 outside the root zone. This prevents the respiratory activities of roots leading to

accumulation of harmful substances.

(iv) Heaving

This is a kind of injury caused by lifting up of the plants along with soil from its

normal position. This type of injury is commonly seen in temperate regions. The

presence of ice crystals increases the volume of soil. This causes mechanical lifting of

the soil.

Role of temperature in crop production:

1. Temperature influences distribution of crop plants and vegetation.

2. The surface air temperature is one of the important variables, which influences all

stages of crop during its growth development and reproductive phase.

3. Air temperature affects leaf production, expansion and flowering.

4. The diffusion rates of gases and liquid changes with temperature.

5. Solubility of different substances is dependent on temperature.

6. Biochemical reactions in crops (double or more with each 10°C rise) are influenced by

air temperature.

7. Equilibrium of various systems and compounds is a function of temperature.

8. Temperature affects the stability of enzymatic systems in the plants.

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9. Most of the higher plants grow between 0°C – 60°C and crop plants are further

restricted from 10 – 40°C, however, maximum dry matter is produced between 20 and

30°C

10. At high temperature and high humidity, most of the crop plants are affected by pests

and diseases.

11. High night temperature increases respiration and metabolism.

12. A short duration crop becomes medium duration or long duration crop depending

upon its environmental temperature under which it is grown.

13. Most of the crops have upper and lower limits of temperature below or above which,

they may not come up and an optimum temperature when the crop growth is maximum.

These are known as cardinal temperatures and different crops have different

temperatures.

Sl No Crop Minimum Optimum Maximum

1 Wheat and Barley 0–5 25 – 31 31 – 37

2 Sorghum 15 – 18 31 – 36 40 – 42

Thermo periodic response

Response of living organism to regular changes in temperature either day or

night or seasonal is called thermoperiodism.

Soil temperature

The soil temperature is one of the most important factors that influence the crop

growth. The sown seeds, plant roots and micro organisms live in the soil. The physio-

chemical as well as life processes are directly affected by the temperature of the soil.

Under the low soil temperature conditions signification is inhibited and the intake of

water by roof is reduced. In a similar way extreme soil temperatures injures plant and its

growth is effected.

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Eg. On the sunny side, plants are likely to develop faster near a wall that stores and

radiates heat. If shaded by the wall, however, the same variety may mature later. In such

cases soil temperature is an important factor.

Importance of soil temperature on crop plants:

The soil temperature influences many process.

1. Governs uptake of water, nutrients etc needed for photosynthesis.

2. Controls soil microbial activities and the optimum range is 18-30°C.

3. Influences the germination of seeds and development of roots.

4. Plays a vital role in mineralization of organic forms of nitrogen.(inc with inc in temp)

5. Influences the presence of organic matter in the soil.(more under low soil

temperature)

6. Affects the speed of reactions and consequently weathering of minerals.

7. Influences the soil structure (types of clay formed, the exchangeable ions present,

etc.)

Factors affecting soil temperature:

Heat at ground surface is propagated downward in the form of waves. The amplitude

deceases with depth. Both meteorological and soil factors contribute in bringing about

changes of soil temperature.

I) Meteorological factors

1. Solar radiation

a) The amount of solar radiation available at any given location and point of time is

directly proportional to soil temperature.

b) Even though a part of total net radiation available is utilised in evapotranspiration

and heating the air by radiation (latent and sensible heat fluxes) a relatively substantial

amount of solar radiation is utilized in heating up of soil (ground heat flux) depending up

on the nature of

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surface.

c) Radiation from the sky contributes a large amount of heat to the soil in areas where

the sun’s rays have to penetrate the earth’s atmosphere very obliquely.

2. Wind

Air convection or wind is necessary to heat up the soil by conduction from the

atmosphere.

(eg.) The mountain and valley winds influence the soil temperature.

3. Evaporation and condensation

a) The greater the rate of evaporation the more the soil is cooled. This is the reason for

coolness of moist soil in windy conditions.

b) On the other hand whenever water vapour from the atmosphere or from other soil

depths condenses in the soil it heats up noticeably. Freezing of water generates heat.

4. Rainfall (Precipitation)

Depending on its temperature, precipitation can either cool or warm the soil.

II. Soil factors

1. Aspect and slope

a) In the middle and high latitudes of the northern hemisphere, the southern slopes

receive more insolation per unit area than the northern exposure.

b) The south west slopes, are usually warmer than the south east slopes. The reason is

that the direct beam of sunshine on the south east slope occur shortly after prolonged

cooling at night, but the evaporation of dew in the morning also requires energy.

2. Soil texture

a) Because of lower heat capacity and poor thermal conductivity, sandy soils warm up

more rapidly than clay soils. The energy received by it is concentrated mainly in a thin

layer resulting in extraordinary rise in temperature.

b) Radiational cooling at night is greater in light soils than in heavy soils. In the top layer,

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sand has the greatest temperature range, followed by loam and clay.

c) The decrease of range with depth is more rapid in light soils than heavy soils when

they are dry but slower when they are wet.

d) A soil with rough surface absorbs more solar radiation than one with a smooth

surface.

3. Tillage and Tilth

a) By loosening the top soil and creating a mulch, tillage reduces the heat flow between

the surface and the sub soil.

b) Since, the soil mulch has a greater exposure surface than the undisturbed soil and no

capillary connection with moist layers below, the cultivated soil dries up quickly by

evaporation, but the moisture in the sub-soil underneath the dry mulch is conserved.

c) In general soil warms up faster than air. The diurnal temperature wave of the

cultivated soil has a much larger amplitude than that of the uncultivated soil.

d) The air 2-3 cm above the tilled soil is often hotter (10°C or above) than that over an

untilled soil.

e) At night loosened ground is colder and more liable to frost than the uncultivated soil.

4. Organic matter:

a) The addition of organic matter to a soil reduces the heat capacity and thermal

conductivity. But, the water holding capacity increases.

b) The absorbtivity of the soil increases because of the dark colour of the organic matter.

c) At night, the rapid flow of heat from sub-soil by radiation is reduced with the addition

of organic matter because of its low thermal conductivity.

d) The darker the colour, the smaller the fraction of reflected radiation.

e) The dark soils and moist soils reflect less than the light coloured and dry soils.

5. Soil moisture

a) Moisture has an effect on heat capacity and heat conductivity.

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b) Moisture at the soil surface cools the soil through evaporation.

c) Therefore, a moist soil will not heat up as much as a dry one.

d) Moist soil is more uniform in temperature throughout its depth as it is a better

conductor of heat than the dry soil.

Variations in soil temperature:

There are two types of soil temperature variations; daily and seasonal variation of

soil temperature

1. Daily variations of soil temperature:

a) These variations occur at the surface of the soil.

b) At 5 cm depth the change exceeds 10°C. At 20 cm the change is less and at 80 cm

diurnal changes are practically nil.

c) On cooler days the changes are smaller due to increased heat capacity as the soils

become wetter on these days.

d) On a clear sunny day a bare soil surface is hotter than the air temperature.

e) The time of the peak temperature of the soil reaches earlier than the air temperature

due to the lag of the air temperature.

f) At around 20 cm in the soil the temperature in the ground reaches peak after the

surface reaches its maximum due to more time the heat takes to penetrate the soil. The

rate of penetration of heat wave within the soil takes around 3 hours to reach 10 cm

depth.

g) The cooling period of the daily cycle of the soil surface temperature is almost double

than the warming period.

h) Undesirable daily temperature variations can be minimised by scheduling irrigation.

2. Seasonal variations of soil temperature:

a) Seasonal variations occur much deeper into the soil.

b) When the plant canopy is fully developed the seasonal variations are smaller.

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c) In winter, the depth to which the soil freezes depends on the duration and severeness

of the winter.

d) In summer the soil temperature variations are much more than winter in tropics and

sub tropics.

HUMIDITY –ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY – SPECIFIC HUMIDITY –RELATIVE HUMIDITY –

MIXING RATIO, DEW POINT TEMPERATURE – VAPOUR PRESSURE DEFICIT –
DIURNAL VARIATION IN RELATIVE HUMIDITY AND ITS EFFECT ON CROP
PRODUCTION.

Humidity

The amount of water vapour that is present in atmosphere is known as

atmospheric moisture or humidity.

Absolute humidity

The actual mass of water vapour present in a given volume of moist air. It is

expressed as grams of water vapour per cubic meter or cubic feet.

Specific humidity

Weight of water vapour per unit weight of moist air. It is expressed as grams of

water vapour per kilogram of air (g/kg).

Mixing ratio

The ratio of the mass of water vapour contained in a sample of moist air to the

mass of dry air. It is expressed as gram of water vapour per kilogram dry air.

Relative Humidity

The ratio between the amount of water vapour present in a given volume of air

and the amount of water vapour required for saturation under fixed temperature and

pressure. There are no units and this is expressed as percentage. In other terms it is the

ratio of the air’s water vapour content to its maximum water vapour capacity at a given

temperature expressed in percentage. The relative humidity gives only the degree of

saturation of air. The relative humidity of saturated air is 100 per cent.

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Dew Point temperature

The temperature to which a given parcel of air must be cooled in order to

become saturation at constant pressure and water vapour content. In this case, the

invisible water vapour begins to condense into visible form like water droplets.

Vapour Pressure deficit

The difference between the saturated vapour pressure (SVP) and actual vapour

pressure (AVP) at a given temperature. This is an another measure of moisture in the

atmosphere which is useful in crop growth studies. When air contains all the moisture

that it can hold to its maximum limit, it is called as saturated air, otherwise it is

unsaturated air, at that temperature. The vapour pressure created at this temperature

under saturated conditions is vapour pressure or saturated vapour pressure (SVP).

Importance of Humidity on crop plants

The humidity is not an independent factor. It is closely related to rainfall, wind

and temperature. It plays a significant role in crop production.

1. The humidity determines the crops grown in a given region.

2. It affects the internal water potential of plants.

3. It influences certain physiological phenomena in crop plants including transpiration

4. The humidity is a major determinant of potential evapotranspiration. So, it determines

the water requirement of crops.

5. High humidity reduces irrigation water requirement of crops as the evapotranspiration

losses from crops depends on atmospheric humidity.

6. High humidity can prolong the survival of crops under moisture stress. However, very

high or very low relative humidity is not conducive to higher yields of crops.

7. There are harmful effects of high humidity. It enhances the growth of some

saprophytic and parasitic fungi, bacteria and pests, the growth of which causes

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extensive damage to crop plants. Eg: a. Blight disease on potato. b. The damage

caused by thrips and jassids on several crops.

8. High humidity at grain filling reduces the crop yields.

9. A very high relative humidity is beneficial to maize, sorghum, sugarcane etc, while it is

harmful to crops like sunflower and tobacco.

10. For almost all the crops, it is always safe to have a moderate relative humidity of

above 40%.

Variation in Humidity:

1. Absolute humidity is highest at the equator and minimum at the poles.

2. Absolute humidity is minimum at sunrise and maximum in afternoon from 2 to 3 p.m.

The diurnal variations are small in desert regions.

3. The relative humidity is maximum at about the sunrise and minimum between 2 to 3

p.m.

4. The behaviour of relative humidity differs a lot from absolute humidity. At the equator it

is at a maximum of 80 per cent and around 85 per cent at the poles. But, near horse

latitudes it is around 70 per cent.

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 MONSOON

Atmospheric pressure

The atmospheric pressure is the weight of the air, which lies vertically above a unit area

centered at a point. The weight of the air presses down the earth with the pressure of 1.034 gm

/ cm2. It is expressed in millibar (mb) equal to 100 N/m2 or 1000 dynes/cm2. Unequal heating of

the earth and its atmosphere by the sun and rotation of the earth bring about differences in

atmospheric pressure.

Isobars

The distribution of pressure is represented on maps by ‘isobars’. Isobars are defined as

the imaginary lines drawn on a map to join places having the same atmospheric pressure.

Diurnal and seasonal variation

(a) Diurnal pressure variation

a. There is a definite rhythm in the rise and fall of the pressure in a day.

b. Radiational heating (air expansion) and radiational cooling (air contraction) are the main

reasons for diurnal variation in the air pressure.

c. Diurnal variation is more prominent near the equator than at the mid latitudes.

d. The areas closer to sea level record relatively larger amount of variation than in land areas.

e. Equatorial regions absorbs more heat than it loses while the polar region gives up more heat

than they receive

b) Seasonal pressure variation

a. Due to the effect caused by annual variation in the amount of insolation, distinct seasonal

pressure variations occur.

b. These variations are larger in the tropical region than the mid latitude and polar regions.

c. Usually, high pressures are recorded over the continents during the cold season and over the

oceans during the warm season.

Pressure systems of the world

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 The shape of the earth is not uniform and subjected to uneven distribution of solar

radiation, when it revolves around the sun. The uneven distribution of solar radiation over

different regions of the globe leads to contrast in surface air temperature. This results in

variations of surface atmospheric pressure systems, which are known as standard atmospheric

pressure systems / belts. There are altogether seven alternating low and high pressure belts on

the earth’s surface. They are as follows:

i. Equatorial trough of low pressure (between 5°N and 5°S)

ii. Subtropical high pressure belt (Northern hemisphere) (25° and 35°N)

iii. Subtropical high pressure belt (Southern hemisphere) (25° and 35°S)

iv. Subpolar low pressure belt (Northern hemisphere) (60° and 70°N)

v. Subpolar low pressure belt (Southern hemisphere) (60° and 70°S)

vi. Polar high (Northern hemisphere)

vii. Polar high (Southern hemisphere)

The equatorial region receives more solar radiation and thus the surface air temperature

is high, which creates lighter air near the ground compared to higher latitudes. The above

condition leads to low atmospheric pressure over the equatorial region while sub tropical high

pressure belts develop in both the hemispheres between 25 and 35 degree latitudes due to

relatively low surface air temperature. It is due to low solar radiation received due to inclined

sun’s rays over the subtropical region when compared to the equatorial belt. Like wise alternate

low and high atmospheric pressure belt systems are developed across the globe from the

equator to the poles.

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Causes of variation

The atmospheric pressure changes continuously due to several factors. The most

important factors are changes with temperature, altitude, water vapour content and rotation of

earth.

a) Temperature

Hot air expands and exerts low pressure. Cold air contracts and exerts high pressure.

So the equator has a low pressure due to prevalence of high temperature but poles have a high

pressure.

b) Altitude

At sea level, the air column exerts its full pressure, but when we stand on a hill or when

we go in the upper layers of atmosphere, we leave a portion of air which cannot exert its full

pressure. At sea level, a coastal town enjoys high pressure but on high altitude one will register

a low pressure. For every 10 m of ascend, the pressure get reduced by 1 hPa.

c) Water vapour

The water vapour content is lighter in cold area than in air which is dry with the result

that moist air of a high temperature exerts a less pressure when compared to cold air.

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d) Rotation of the earth

On account of rotation of the earth, the pressure at 60-70°N and S becomes low. The

rotation of the earth near sub-polar belts, makes the air to escape from these belts which move

towards the horse latitude (30° - 35°N and 30 – 35°S). These latitudes absorb the air from sub

polar belts making the pressure high. G.D.Coriolis (1844) a French Mathematician indicated that

air is deflected towards right in the Northern Hemisphere and Left in the Southern hemisphere

due to rotation of earth and this was termed after him as Coriolis force. Coriolis force is not

actually a force but it is effect created by rotation of earth.

Low / Depression

When the isobars are circular or elliptical in shape, and the pressure is lowest at the

centre, such a pressure system is called ‘Low’ or ‘Depression’ or ‘Cyclone’. The movement will

be anti-clockwise in the Northern hemisphere while it is clockwise in the southern hemisphere.

Wind spped hardly exceeds 40 km per hour.

Anticyclone

When isobars are circular, elliptical in shape and the pressure is highest at the

centresuch a pressure system is called ‘High’ or ‘Anticyclone’. When the isobars are elliptical

rather than circular the system is called as ‘Ridge’ or ‘Wedge’. The movement will be clockwise

in the Northern hemisphere while it is anti-clockwise in the southern hemisphere.

Storm

Low pressure centre surrounded by winds having their velocities in the range of 40 to

120 km/hour. A more favourable atmosphere condition for their occurrence exists during the

summer season. The Bay of Bengal and Arabian sea offer ideal condition for origin and growth

of the storms. These storms produce heavy precipitation and bring about a change in the

existing weather. It occurs very rarely. It causes wide spread damage.

Hurricane

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 A severe tropical cyclone with wind speed exceeding 120 km per hour. The name

hurricane is given to the tropical cyclones in the North Atlantic and the eastern North Pacific

Ocean. The tropical cyclones of Hurricane force in the western North pacific are known as

typhoons. In Australia this type of storm is given the name willy-willy, whereas in the Indian

Ocean they are called as Cyclones. Hurricanes are fueled by water vapour (i.e.) pushed up from

the warm ocean surface, so they can last longer and sometimes move much further over water

than over land. A combination of heat and moisture along with the right wind conditions can

create a new hurricane.

Thunderstorms

Storms produced by cumulonimbus clouds and always accompanied by lightening and

thunder. They are usually of short duration, seldom over 2 hours. They are also accompanied

by strong wind gusts, heavy rain and sometimes hail.

Tornadoes

Defined as a violently rotating column of air attended by a funnel-shaped or tubular cloud

extending downward from the base of cumulonimbus cloud. Tornadoes are the most violent

storms of lower troposphere. They are very small in size and of short duration. They mostly

occur during spring and early summer. They have been reported at widely scattered locations in

the mid latitudes and tropics. Crop losses are heavy due to this event. Unknown in other parts of

the world.

Waterspouts

It is column of violently rotating air over water having a similarity to a dust devil of

tornado. In other words, tornadoes are weak visible vortices occurring over water are called

waterspouts. They are formed over tropical and subtropical oceans.

Wind

Air in horizontal motion is known as wind. Vertical movement is noticed but negligibly

small compared to horizontal movement as the height of the atmosphere is only for few

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kilometers. However vertical movement or uplift of air only causes significant weather changes

in cloud formation and rain.

Wind systems of the world

The wind belts found on earth’s surface in each hemisphere are:

a. Doldrums

b. Trade wind belt

c. Prevailing westerlies

d. Polar easterlies

1. Doldrums

Owing to continuous heating of the earth by insolation, pressures are low and winds

converge and rise near the equator. This intertropical convergent zone is known as ‘Doldrums’.

a) These are the equatorial belts of calms and variable winds.

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b) The location is 5°S and 5°N latitudes.

c) Wind is light due to negligible pressure gradient.

d) Mostly, there are vertical movements in the atmosphere.

e) The atmosphere is hot and sticky.

2. Trade winds (Tropical Easterlies)

a) The regular high temperature at the equator results in a high pressure forming in the upper

levels of the equator.

b) Then, the air is transferred to the northward and southward directions until 35° North and

South in both the hemisphere.

c) Due to this reduction in surface pressure on the equator (doldrums) there is an increase in

pressure at 35°N and 35°S which are known as horse latitude (sub-tropical high).

d) As a result, the winds flow from the horse latitude to the equatorial region.

e) While moving, these winds are deflected by Coriolis force to the right in northern hemisphere

and to the left in southern hemisphere.

f) These winds flow from 35°N to the equator in NE direction in the northern hemisphere and

from 35°S to the equator in SE direction in the southern hemisphere. These are known as

‘Trade winds’. These are known as ‘Tropical easterlies’.

g) These are most constant winds in force and direction and flow over nearly half the globe.

3. Anti-trade winds

a) This is a supplementary wind system of the earth which is effective at higher levels.

b) This system works in opposite direction to the surface winds.

c) The anti-trade winds mostly flow from land to ocean and brings no rain.

4. Prevailing Westerlies

a) The winds that flow from sub-tropical high to the low-pressure area about 60-70° latitudes in

both the hemispheres are known as ‘Prevailing westerlies’.

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b) In the northern hemisphere the direction of Prevailing westerlies is SW and in southern

hemisphere NW.

c) These winds are forceful and are irregular as compare to the trade winds in the tropical

regions.

d) High precipitation zone

5. Polar Easterlies / Polar winds

b) A permanent high pressure exists on the poles.

c) From these high pressure polar regions, cold winds flow to areas at about 60-65° latitudes in

both the hemispheres.

d) The winds flow in NE direction in the northern hemisphere and in SE direction in the southern

hemisphere.

Mountain winds

a) Blows from mountain up slope to base

b) Occurs during night time

c) Cooling of air close to slope takes place

d) Adiabatic heating decreases this phenomenon

e) Also known as ‘Katabalic winds’

Valley winds

a) Blow from valley base to up slope.

b) Occurs during day time

c) Over heating of air adjacent to slope takes place

d) Adiabatic cooling decreases this phenomenon

e) Also known as ‘Anabatic winds’

Sea breeze

During the daytime, more so in summer, land is heated more than the adjacent body of

water. As a result warmed air over the land expands producing an area of low pressure. The

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isobaric surfaces bend upward as a result of which the cooler air starts moving across the coast

line from sea to land. This is the ‘Sea breeze; or ‘On shore breeze’.

Land breeze

At night because of nocturnal radiation land is colder than adjacent sea and the pressure

gradient is directed from land to sea. There is a gentle flow of wind from land to sea. This ‘off-

share’ wind is called ‘Land breeze’.

Sl. Sea Breeze Land Breeze

1. Occurs in day time Occurs in night time

2. Flows from sea Flows from land

3. Have more moisture than land breeze Do not have more moisture

4. Occurrence depends on topography of Occurrence depends on

Of coast to greater extent on topography of land to little

extent

5. Modifies weather on hot summer Produces cooler winters and

afternoon warmer summers

6. Stronger than land breeze Weaker than sea breeze

Effect of wind on crop plants

1) Transports heat in either sensible or latent heat form from lower to higher altitudes

2) Wind affects the plant directly by increasing transpiration and the intake of CO 2 and also

causes several types of mechanical damage.

3) Wind helps in pollination and dispersal of seeds.

4) Light and gentle winds are helpful for cleaning the agricultural produce.

5) Hot dry winds frequently do much damage to vegetation in the growing crops by promoting

excessive water loss.

6) Wind has powerful effect on humidity.

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7) Long, continued warm, dry winds injured blossoms by evaporating the secretion of the

stigma.

8) Provides moisture which is necessary for precipitation

9) Wind prevents frost by disrupting atmospheric inversion

10) Causes soil erosion

Wind speed in different season

Winds represent air in motion. The primary cause of all winds is regional differences in

temperature, producing regional differences in pressure. When these pressure differences

persist for several hours, the rotation of the earth modifies the direction of motion, till the winds

blow along lines of equal pressure. Wind direction and speed are modified frequently due to

seasonal variation in solar radiation and differential heating of the earth’s surface.

Wind Speed

The winds are generally measured over level, open terrain at 3 meters above ground.

Yet, a general idea of the distribution of the mean daily wind speed, on an annual basis as well

as on a monthly basis, would be useful. The mean daily wind speed is the value obtained by

averaging the wind speed (irrespective of direction) for a whole day. This averaged for all the

days of a month is the mean daily wind speed for that month. The daily values averaged for all

the 365 days of the year is the annual mean daily wind speed.

Wind Direction

Winds are always named after the direction they come from. Thus, a wind from the

south, blowing towards north is called south wind. The wind vane is an instrument used to find

out the direction of the wind. Windward refers to the direction wind comes from, and leeward

refers to the direction it blows to. When a wind blows more frequently from one direction than

from any other, it is called a prevailing wind.

South West Monsoon wind direction

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 During South West Monsoon period of June to September, the westerly winds prevail on

the west of Kerala and south winds on the west of northern Circars, Orissa and Bengal. During

April and May the region of high temperature is shifted to north viz., upper Sind, lower Punjab

and Western Rajasthan. This area becomes the minimum barometric pressure area to which

monsoon winds are directed.

North East Monsoon wind direction

During North East Monsoon period of October to December, on account of the increase

in barometric pressure in Northern India, there is a shift in the barometric pressure to the South

East and North Easterly winds begin to flow on the eastern coast, by the end of September.

These changes bring on heavy and continue rainfall to the Southern and South Eastern India.

Winter Rainfall

It is restricted more to Northern India and is received in the form of snow on the hills and

as rains in the plains of Punjab, Rajasthan and central India. Western disturbance is a dominant

factor for rainfall during these months in northwestern India.

Summer Rainfall

The summer Rainfall is received from March to May as local storms. It is mostly received

in the South East of Peninsular and in Bengal. Western India does not generally receive these

rains.

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 CLOUDS

CLOUDS

“An aggregation of minute drops of water suspended in the air at higher altitudes” is

called as cloud. A cloud is a visible aggregate of tiny water droplets and/or ice crystals

suspended in the atmosphere and can exist in a variety of shapes and sizes. Some clouds are

accompanied by precipitation; rain, snow, hail, sleet, even freezing rain. Clouds can occur at

any level of the atmosphere wherever there is sufficient moisture to allow condensation to take

place. The layer of the atmosphere where almost all cloud exists is the troposphere, although

the tops of some severe thunderstorms occasionally pierce the tropopause.

A cloud can be defined as hydrometeor consisting of minute particles of liquid water or

ice, or of both, suspended in the free air and usually not touching the ground. It may also

include larger particles of liquid water or ice as well as non-aqueous or solid particles such as

those present in fumes, smoke or dust.

DEVELOPMENT OF CLOUDS

Water is known to exist in three different states; as a solid, liquid or gas.

Clouds, snow, and rain are all made of up of some form of water. A cloud is comprised

of tiny water droplets and/or ice crystals, a snowflake is an aggregate of many ice crystals, and

rain is just liquid water.

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 Water existing as a gas is called water vapor. When referring to the amount of moisture

in the air, we are actually referring to the amount of water vapor. If the air is described as

"moist", that means the air contains large amounts of water vapor. Moisture is a necessary

ingredient for the production of clouds and precipitation

All clouds are a form of water. Clouds are condensed atmospheric moisture in the form

of minute water droplets or ice crystals. The creation of a cloud begins at ground level. The sun

heats the earth's surface, the warm ground heats the air, which rises. The air contains variable

amounts of water, as vapor, that has evaporated from bodies of water and plants. Air at ground

level is denser than air higher up, and as the warm air rises, it expands and becomes less

dense.

Air rises for three main reasons

• Sunshine – heat from the sun or warm ground warms the air and makes it lighter. It

therefore rises into the sky.

• The terrain – air may rise as it is forced upwards due to changes in the terrain

(landscape). This often occurs when wind blows air either over mountains, or over cliffs

onto land from the sea.

• A front – air can also rise at a weather front. At cold fronts, cold air is pushed under

warm air, forcing it upwards and at a warm front, warm moist air is forced up and over

the cold air.

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Expansion cools the air and as the air cools, the water vapor that is present in the air,

condenses into tiny microscopic droplets. Cloud formation depends on how much water is in the

atmosphere, the temperature, the air current, and topography. If there is no water, no clouds

can form. If condensation occurs below the freezing point, the cloud is made of ice crystals.

Warm and cold air fronts, as well as topography can control how air rises. Clouds that form

during vigorous uplift of air have a tall, stacked appearance and clouds formed by gentle uplift of

air currents have a flat or stratified appearance. One can make short-term forecasts by

observing clouds, as any change in the way a cloud looks indicates a change in the weather.

After cloud droplets (or ice crystals) form, then what happens to them? One of two things. Either

they collide with each other and grow by joining together to such a large size that they fall to the

ground as rain or snow, or they evaporate and change back into water vapor. It is estimated

that, on average, about one-half of all cloud material eventually falls to the Earth as

precipitation, while the other half re-evaporates back into water vapor.

DROP SIZE AND CLOUD APPEARANCE

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 The smaller the drops in a cloud the brighter the tops appear (and the darker the bases).

Smaller droplets scatter more sunlight, while large drops allow more sunlight to pass through.

This explains why the heavily raining part of a shower cloud or thunderstorm is usually brighter

than just the cloudy part. The cloud droplets have combined into large raindrops, which allow

more sunlight to pass through them.

CLOUD CLASSIFICATION

A) A scheme of distinguishing and grouping clouds according to their

appearance, and, where possible, to their process of formation.

The one in general use, based on a classification system introduced by Luke Howard in

1803, is that adopted by the World Meteorological Organization and published in the

International Cloud Atlas (1956). This classification is based on the determination:

1) genera - the main characteristic forms of clouds

2) species - the peculiarities in shape and differences in internal structure of clouds

3) varieties - special characteristics of arrangement and transparency of clouds

4) supplementary features and accessory clouds - appended and associated minor

cloud forms and

5) mother-clouds - the origin of clouds if formed from other clouds.

 The ten cloud genera are cirrus, cirrocumulus, cirrostratus, altocumulus, altostratus,

nimbostratus, stratocumulus, stratus, cumulus, and cumulonimbus.

 The fourteen cloud species are fibratus, uncinus, spissatus, castellanus, floccus,

stratiform, nebulosus, lenticularis, fractus, humilis, mediocris, congestus, calvus, and

capillatus.

 The nine cloud varieties are intortus, vertebratus, undulatus, radiatus, lacunosus,

duplicatus, translucidus, perlucidus, and opacus.

 The nine supplementary features and accessory clouds are incus, mamma, virga,

praecipitatio, arcus, tuba, pileus, velum, and pannus. (Note: Although these are Latin

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 words, it is proper convention to use only the singular endings, e.g., more than one

cirrus cloud is cirrus, not cirri.)

B). A scheme of classifying clouds according to their usual altitudes.

Three classes are distinguished: high, middle, and low. High clouds include cirrus,

cirrocumulus, cirrostratus, occasionally altostratus, and the tops of cumulonimbus. The middle

clouds are altocumulus, altostratus, nimbostratus and portions of cumulus and cumulonimbus.

The low clouds are stratocumulus, stratus and most cumulus and cumulonimbus bases, and

sometimes nimbostratus.

C) A scheme of classifying clouds according to their particulate composition, namely,

water clouds, ice-crystal clouds, and mixed clouds.

The first are composed entirely of water droplets (ordinary and/or supercooled), the

second entirely of ice crystals, and the third a combination of the first two. Of the cloud genera,

only cirrostratus and cirrus are always ice-crystal clouds; cirrocumulus can also be mixed; and

only cumulonimbus is always mixed. Altostratus is nearly always mixed, but can occasionally be

water. All the rest of the genera are usually water clouds, occasionally mixed; altocumulus,

cumulus, nimbostratus, and stratocumulus.

WMO cloud classification

The World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) classified the clouds according to their

height and appearance into 10 categories. From the height, clouds are grouped into 4

categories (viz., family A, B, C and D) as stated below and there are sub- categories in each of

these main categories.

The 4 clouds families, which are in different heights of the troposphere are

High level clouds (altitudes of 5-13 km)

Medium level clouds (2-7 km)

Low level clouds (0-2 km) and

Clouds with large vertical extending (0-13 km)

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Family A

The clouds in this category are high. The mean lower level is 7 kilometers and the mean

upper level is 12 kilometers in tropics and sub-tropics. In this family there are three sub-

categories.

1. Cirrus (Ci)

 In these clouds ice crystals are present.

 Looks like wispy and feathery. Delicate, desist, white fibrous, and silky appearance.

 Sun rays pass through these clouds and sunshine without shadow.

 Does not produce precipitation.

2. Cirrocumulus (Cc)

 Like cirrus clouds ice crystals are present in these clouds also.

 Looks like rippled sand or waves of the sea shore.

 White globular masses, transparent with no shading effect.

 Meckerel sky.

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3. Cirrostratus (Cs)

 Like the above two clouds ice crystals are present in these clouds also.

 Looks like whitish veil and covers the entire sky with milky white appearance.

 Produces “Halo”.

CIRRUS AND CIRROSTRATUS

Cirrus clouds are higher level clouds that develop in filaments or patches. They are

virtually brilliant white attributed to their ice crystal composition. However, they lack in contrast

between the top and base. They occur in flat sheets with a low height to base ratio and are

usually isolated with large breaks of sky. Cirrus also vary dramatically in 'shape' or patterns they

portray but these represent the fluctuating wind flow at that level both in the horizontal and

vertical direction.

Cirrostratus represent clouds that are more widespread than cirrus but containing some

similar features. Like cirrus, they are brilliant white and lack in contrast. Sunlight can pass

through cirrostratus but this again depends on the varying thickness of the clouds.

Both cirrus and cirrostratus clouds vary in thickness. The sun can easily be observed

through both types of clouds although the intensity of light that is observed depends on the

thickness of their layers. In their thickest form, cirrus and cirrostratus will allow a similar intensity

of light to pass through to that of thin altostratus. They do not only develop in one complete

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layer. It may be difficult to observe because of the lack of contrast but these clouds can consist

of several thin layers.

Cirrus and cirrostratus tend to move in the direction of the wind at that level which differ

to that at the surface. The most common direction of motion of these clouds are from a westerly

direction. This varies with factors such as the latitude, weather conditions and time of the year.

Their apparent velocities are relatively slow as compared to lower clouds.

Both cirrus and cirrostratus can occur in conjunction with any of the other cloud types.

Obviously, all the lower and middle level clouds will obscure the view of the higher level clouds,

appear to move faster and appear less defined. They can only be observed above other clouds

when breaks in the clouds occur. Any type of higher level clouds can develop simultaneously.

Cirrus clouds tend to develop on days with fine weather and lighter winds at the surface.

cirrostratus can develop on days with light winds but normally increasing in strength. Although

both cirrus and cirrostratus tend to develop in fine weather conditions, they also acts as a sign

of approaching changes in the weather conditions. Such changes could include any of the

various types of cold front situations, thunderstorms or developing and advancing troughs of low

pressure, normally with preceding cloud masses.

Except in the latter case, cirrus and cirrostratus will typically precede any other types of

clouds as part of a cloud band. In fact cirrus normally precedes cirrostratus. Nevertheless, the

higher level clouds will persist until the actual change in the weather occurs. The higher clouds

can develop from a few hours up to a few days before an actual change in the weather

conditions occurs. They may develop during one afternoon and dissipate but redevelop the next

day and so on until the actual change occurs. If the amount of moisture in the lower layers of the

atmosphere increases, other lower clouds may also develop changing the appearance of the

cirrus or the cirrostratus clouds as well as partially or totally hiding them from view. The same

situation occurs in the case where cirrus develop ahead of thunderstorms. Cirrus normally

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precede cirrostratus which are then followed by the anvil of the approaching thunderstorm. In

fact, cirrus and cirrostratus in this case are the remnants downwind of the weakening anvil.

Both cirrus and cirrostratus can develop and persist after a change has passed through

a certain location. In this situation, cloud will decrease within a few hours up to a few days

following the change. If it persists for longer periods, a jet stream cloud mass may be involved.

Another situation where cirrus and cirrostratus can be observed is when lower cloud

breaks or clears during days with showers or rain. This case is far less common but can indicate

a few situations. The higher clouds may be the remnants of the cloud mass that produced the

actual wet weather. They can also be developing ahead of other cloud masses associated with

another system, leading to the situation already discussed above. It all depends on the weather

situation at that time but the observation of the movement of the higher level clouds can be

critical in determining what weather may follow.

Cirrus generally does not produce precipitation except when it results from dissipating

thunderstorms. Precipitation from such cirrus usually consists of larger droplets and the cloud

normally dissipates and vanishes completely. cirrostratus does not produce precipitation.

Cirrus and cirrostratus can develop and persist at any time of the day despite the

perception that it tends to occur during the day. This perception arises because it is much easier

to observe cirrus during the day as compared to night time. The background darkness and the

fact that the stars can easily be observed through cirrus and cirrostratus as thin layers allows

them to camouflage from the view of the observer.

Cirrocumulus

Cirrocumulus is a higher level cloud that is brilliant white but with a spotty appearance

created by the many small turrets. The turrets indicate vertical turbulence within the cloud.

Despite this spotty appearance, cirrocumulus contains many features associated with

cirrostratus discussed above. It moves in directions similar to that of the other higher clouds.

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 This cloud can develop in conjunction with any other clouds as well as with cirrostratus

clouds. In Sydney, cirrocumulus is not as common as the other high clouds and mainly develops

during the winter times with west to south westerly air streams. The development of

cirrocumulus sometimes occurs in conditions similar to those associated with the development

lenticular altocumulus. cirrocumulus clouds do not produce precipitation and are normally

associated with fine weather.

Family B

The clouds in this category are middle clouds. Middle level clouds are those clouds that

develop in the middle layers of the atmosphere. These clouds are brighter and less fragmented

in appearance due to their distance from the ground and the higher composition of ice crystals.

Middle level clouds vary in thickness from relatively flat sheets of cloud to a more cumuliform

appearance. In fact, the sun (and moon) can be observed through some thin middle level

clouds. The mean lower level is 2.5 kilometers and the mean upper level is 7 kilometers in

tropics and sub-tropics.

Middle level clouds tend to have apparent speeds slower than the lower level clouds.

They move in the direction of the wind at that level which does not necessarily be the same of

that at the surface.

In this family there are 2 sub-categories as details below:

1. Altocumulus (Ac)

 In these clouds ice water is present.

 Greyish or bluish globular masses.

 Looks like sheep back and also known as flock clouds or wool packed clouds.

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2. Alto-stratus (As)

 In these clouds water and ice are present separately.

 Looks like fibrous veil or sheet and grey or bluish in colour.

 Produces coronos and cast shadow.

 Rain occurs in middle and high latitudes.

Altocumulus

Altocumulus refers to the middle level cloud that exhibit to some extent the features

normally associated with cumulus. This includes cumuliform tops and bases that are usually

relatively darker than the tops. This cloud type can be widespread or patchy depending on the

conditions. It can vary in appearance from broken to smooth, and vary in thickness.

Altocumulus can vary in its apparent movement (speed) depending on the wind and

direction at that level. However, since altocumulus (like most other cloud types) represents an

ever changing system, an observer must be careful in determining cloud motion. On some days,

altocumulus continuously develop as it moves in the direction of the wind. Upstream, more

altocumulus may develop giving the impression that the cloud is progressing slower than its

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actual speed. This process can occasionally create an illusion in terms of direction. Considering

an example of altocumulus observed moving to the south east, because of development on the

north and north-eastern side of the cloud band, the apparent direction may be more to the east.

Altocumulus can develop in more than one layer and also in conjunction with other cloud types.

The lower layer will obscure part or all of the higher altocumulus cloud layer. This situation also

applies to higher level clouds. Higher level clouds will be obscured by the altocumulus. Lower

level clouds, however, will obscure part or all of the altocumulus cloud layer.

ALTOSTRATUS

Altostratus refers to middle level cloud that appears as a flat, smooth dark grey sheet.

These clouds are most often observed as large sheets rather than isolated areas. However, in

the process of development, altostratus may develop in smaller filaments and rapidly develop to

larger sheets. These types of clouds in certain conditions normally indicate an approaching

cloud mass associated with a cold front, a trough system or a jet stream.

Altostratus can develop into a thick or thin layer. As a thin layer, the sun can be

observed through the cloud. In its thinner form, the developing altostratus can sometimes be

confused with approaching cirrostratus. In its thicker form, the sun can only occasionally be

observed through the thinner sections if not at all. Obviously, the thicker the altostratus, the

darker it becomes. When observed closely, it becomes apparent that altostratus is not just one

complete layer but a composition of several thin layers.

Altostratus can produce precipitation. It will normally develop and then thicken. The

precipitation is observed as relatively thick dark sections since precipitation cascades are very

difficult to observe with the same colour in the background. In this situation, rain will develop as

a light shower and gradually increase to showers, light rain or moderate rain.

Family C

The clouds in this category are lower clouds. The height of these clouds extends from

ground to upper level of 2.5 kilometers in tropics and sub-tropics. Lower level clouds consist of

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those clouds in the lower layers of the atmosphere. Because of the relatively low temperatures

at this level of the atmosphere, lower level clouds usually reflect lower amounts of light and

therefore usually exhibit low contrast. The clouds at this level also appear not as well defined.

When observed closely, it is easy to observe the turbulent motions and hence the ever-

changing structure.

Being closer to the ground, lower level clouds appear to move or progress faster than

other clouds. The clouds generally move in the direction of the wind very similar to the direction

of the wind on the ground.

The most efficient method used to recognise lower clouds is when observed in

conjunction with other clouds. The lower clouds will obscure part or all the view of the upper

level clouds if they pass in between the observer's line of sight. In other words, all the observer

can see is the lower clouds as well as parts of the higher level clouds through breaks of the

lower clouds. In this family, like high clouds, there are 3 sub-categorises.

1. Strato cumulus (Sc)

 These clouds are composed of water.

 Looks soft and grey, large globular masses and darker than altocumuls.

 Long parallel rolls pushed together or broken masses.

 The air is smooth above these clouds but strong updrafts occur below.

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2. Stratus (St)

 These clouds are also composed of water.

 Looks like for as these clouds resemble grayish white sheet covering the entire portion

of the sky (cloud near the ground).

 Mainly seen in winter season and occasional drizzle occurs.

3. Nimbostratus (Ns)

 These clouds are composed of water or ice crystals.

 Looks thick dark, grey and uniform layer which reduces the day light effectively.

 Gives steady precipitation.

 Sometimes looks like irregular, broken and shapeless sheet like.

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Stratocumulus

Stratocumulus are low clouds that generally move faster than cumulus and are not as

well defined in appearance (recall the techniques of observing clouds). They tend to spread

more horizontally rather than vertically.

Depending on the weather conditions, stratocumulus can appear like cumulus since

stratocumulus can develop from cumulus. They may also appear as large flat areas of low, grey

cloud. Sometimes stratocumulus appear in the form of rolling patches of cloud aligned parallel

to each other. Stratocumulus can also appear in the form of broken clouds or globules. The sun,

moon and generally the sky can be observed through the breaks in broken stratocumulus

clouds. Of course, this depends on how large the breaks are, how high the clouds rise and the

angle of elevation of the breaks with respect to the observer. This generally applies to all clouds

but is more notable with clouds in broken form.

Stratocumulus mostly develop in wind streams moving in the direction of the wind similar

to the direction of the wind at the surface. The friction created by the earth causes turbulence in

the form of eddies. With sufficient moisture, condensation will occur in the lower layers of the

atmosphere visible as clouds. The amount of stratocumulus covering the sky depends on the

amount of moisture concentrated at that level of the atmosphere. The speed that the cloud

moves varies according to the wind

Stratus

Stratus is defined as low cloud that appears fragmented and thin. It can also occur in the

form of a layer or sheet. The sun, moon and generally the sky can usually be observed through

stratus clouds, especially at a steep angle of elevation. Stratus lacks the vertical growth of

cumulus and stratocumulus, and therefore lacks the contrast. This is more evident when

observed as one layer as compared to patchy stratus. Being closest to the ground, stratus

clouds normally move fairly rapidly in the direction of the wind depending of course on the wind

speed.

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 Like stratocumulus, stratus develops under several conditions or weather situations.

Stratus mostly develop under the influence of wind streams where moisture condenses in the

lower layers of the atmosphere. Wind changes during the summer months often lead to the

development of stratus as the wind evaporates moisture from the ocean and condensing as

turbulence mixes the surface air with the cooler air above. In these conditions, stratus develop

in patches and gradually may become widespread forming into stratocumulus.

Family D

These clouds form due to vertical development i.e., due to convection. The mean low

level is 0.5 and means upper level goes up to 16 kilometers.

In this family two sub-categories are present.

1. Cumulus (Cu)

 These clouds are composed of water with white majestic appearance with flat base.

 Irregular dome shaped and looks like cauliflower with wool pack and dark appearance

below due to shadow.

 These clouds usually develop into cumuolo-nimbus clouds with flat base.

2. Cumulonimbus (Cb)

 The upper levels of these clouds possess ice and water is present at the lower levels.

 These clouds have thunder head with towering envil top and develop vertically.

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  These clouds produce violent winds, thunder storms, hails and lightening, during

summer.

Cumulus

Cumulus are cauliflower-shaped low level clouds with dark bases and bright tops. When

observing cumulus, you are actually observing the condensation process of rising thermals or

air bubbles at a certain level in the atmosphere known as the condensation level.

The air rising above this level condenses and cloud is observed. Since the height of this

level is fairly constant at any particular time, then the bases of cumulus are usually flat.

PRECIPITATION

When cloud particles become too heavy to remain suspended in the air, they fall to the

earth as precipitation. Precipitation occurs in a variety of forms; hail, rain, freezing rain, sleet or

snow.

Rain

Rain develops when growing cloud droplets become too heavy to remain in the cloud

and as a result, fall toward the surface as rain. Rain can also begin as ice crystals that collect

each other to form large snowflakes. As the falling snow passes through the freezing level into

warmer air, the flakes melt and collapse into rain drops. Rain is precipitation of liquid water

particles either in the form of drops having diameter greater than 0.5 mm or in the form of

smaller widely scattered drops. When the precipitation process is very active, the lower air is

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moist and the clouds are very deep, rainfall is in the form of heavy downpour. On occasions,

falling raindrops completely evaporate before reaching the ground.

Drizzle: It is fairly uniform precipitation composed of fine drops of water having diameter less

than 0.5 mm small and uniform size and seems to be floated in the air, it is referred as drizzle. If

the drops in a drizzle completely evaporates before reaching the ground, the condition is

referred to as ‘mist’.

Hail

Hail is a large frozen raindrop produced by intense thunderstorms, where snow and rain

can coexist in the central updraft. As the snowflakes fall, liquid water freezes onto them forming

ice pellets that will continue to grow as more and more droplets are accumulated. Upon

reaching the bottom of the cloud, some of the ice pellets are carried by the updraft back up to

the top of the storm.

As the ice pellets once again fall through the cloud, another layer of ice is added and the

hail stone grows even larger. Typically the stronger the updraft, the more times a hail stone

repeats this cycle and consequently, the larger it grows. Once the hail stone becomes too heavy

to be supported by the updraft, it falls out of the cloud toward the surface. The hail stone

reaches the ground as ice since it is not in the warm air below the thunderstorm long enough to

melt before reaching the ground.

Freezing rain

Supercooled droplets freezing on impact

Ice storms can be the most devastating of winter weather phenomena and are often the

cause of automobile accidents, power outages and personal injury. Ice storms result from the

accumulation of freezing rain, which is rain that becomes supercooled and freezes upon impact

with cold surfaces. Freezing rain is most commonly found in a narrow band on the cold side of a

warm front, where surface temperatures are at or just below freezing.

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The diagram below shows a typical temperature profile for freezing rain with the red line

indicating the atmosphere's temperature at any given altitude. The vertical line in the center of

the diagram is the freezing line. Temperatures to the left of this line are below freezing, while

temperatures to the right are above freezing.

Freezing rain develops as falling snow encounters a layer of warm air deep enough for

the snow to completely melt and become rain. As the rain continues to fall, it passes through a

thin layer of cold air just above the surface and cools to a temperature below freezing. However,

the drops themselves do not freeze, a phenomena called supercooling (or forming "supercooled

drops"). When the supercooled drops strike the frozen ground (power lines, or tree branches),

they instantly freeze, forming a thin film of ice, hence freezing rain.

Snow

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 It is the precipitation of white and opaque grains of ice. Snow is the precipitation of solid

water mainly in the form of branched hexagonal crystals of stars. In winter, when temperatures

are below freezing in the whole atmosphere, the ice crystals falling from the Altostratus do not

melt and reach the ground as snow.

Sleet - frozen raindrops that bounce on impact with the ground

Progressing further ahead of the warm front, surface temperatures continue to decrease

and the freezing rain eventually changes over to sleet. Areas of sleet are located on the colder

side (typically north) of the freezing rain band.

It refers to precipitation in the form of a mixture of rain and snow. It consists of small

pellets of transparent ice, 5 mm or less in diameter. It refers to a frozen rain that forms when

rain falling to the earth passing through a layer of cold air and freezes. This happens when

temperature is very low. It is not commonly seen in India expect high ranges, that too in winter,

in extreme north and northeast India.

Sleet is less prevalent than freezing rain and is defined as frozen raindrops that bounce

on impact with the ground or other objects. The diagram below shows a typical temperature

profile for sleet with the red line indicating the atmosphere's temperature at any given altitude.

The vertical line in the center of the diagram is the freezing line. Temperatures to the left of this

line are below freezing, while temperatures to the right are above freezing.

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Sleet is more difficult to forecast than freezing rain because it develops under more specialized

atmospheric conditions. It is very similar to freezing rain in that it causes surfaces to become

very slick, but is different because its easily visible.

Snow - an aggregate of ice crystals

Progressing even further away from the warm front, surface temperatures continue to

decrease and the sleet changes over to snow.

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 Snowflakes are simply aggregates of ice crystals that collect to each other as they fall

toward the surface. The diagram below shows a typical temperature profile for snow with the red

line indicating the atmosphere's temperature at any given altitude. The vertical line in the center

of the diagram is the freezing line. Temperatures to the left of this line are below freezing, while

temperatures to the right are above freezing.

Since the snowflakes do not pass through a layer of air warm enough to cause them to

melt, they remain intact and reach the ground as snow.

Hail

Precipitation of small pieces of ice with diameter ranging from 5 to 50 mm or something

more is known as hail. Hailstorms are frequent in tropics. In India, the period from March to May

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offers the ideal condition for hailstorms. It is the most dreaded and destructive form of

precipitation produced in thunderstorms or cumulonimbus clouds.

Isohyets

Isohyets are the lines connecting various locations, having an equal amount of

precipitation.

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 WEATHER ABERRATIONS

DROUGHT

The term drought can be defined by several ways.

1. The condition under which crops fail to mature because of insufficient supply of water

through rains.

2. The situation in which the amount of water required for transpiration and evaporation

by crop plants in a defined area exceeds the amount of available moisture in the soil.

3. A situation of no precipitation in a rainy season for more than 15 days continuously.

Such length of non-rainy days can also be called as dry spells.

Classification of Drought

Droughts are broadly divided into 3 categories based on the nature of impact and

spatial extent.

i. Meteorological Drought

If annual rainfall is significantly short of certain level (75 per cent) of the

climatologically expected normal rainfall over a wide area, then the situation is called

meteorological drought. In every state each region receives certain amount of normal

rainfall. This is the basis for planning the cropping pattern of that region or area.

ii. Hydrological drought

This is a situation in which the hydrological resources like streams, rivers,

reservoirs, lakes, wells etc dry up because of marked depletion of surface water. The

ground water table also depletes. The industry, power generation and other income

generating major sources are affected. If Meteorological drought is significantly

prolonged, the hydrological drought sets in.

iii. Agricultural Drought

This is a situation, which is a result of inadequate rainfall and followed by soil moisture

deficit. As a result, the soil moisture falls short to meet the demands of the crops during

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its growth. Since, the soil moisture available to a crops insufficient, it affects growth and

finally results in the reduction of yield. This is further classified as early season drought,

mid season drought and late season drought.

Flood

Years in which actual rainfall is ‘above’ the normal by twice the mean

deviation or more is defined as years of floods or excessive rainfall. Like droughts, the

definition of floods also varies one situation to another and form one region to other.

Some of the flood years characterized based on the spatial damage due to high and

intense rainfall in India are as follows.

India: 1878,1872,1917,1933,1942,1956,1959,1961,1970,1975,1983,1988.

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 WEATHER FORECASTING

Climatic normals

The climatic normals are the average value of 30 years of a particular weather

element. The period may be week, month and year. The crop distribution, production

and productivity depend on the climatic normals of a place. If the crops are selected for

cultivation based on the optimum climatic requirements it is likely that the crop

production can be maximized.

Weather forecast

The prediction of weather for the next few days to follow. The Figure below

depicts different weather forecasting services normally practiced in a country.

NEED / IMPORTANCE OF FORECAST

• Basically weather has many social and economic impacts in a place.

• Among different factors that influence crop production, weather plays a decisive

role as

• aberrations in it alone explains up to 50 per cent variations in crop production

• The rainfall is the most important among the required forecast, which decides the

crop

• production in a region and ultimately the country’s economy.

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 • The planning for moisture conservation under weak monsoon condition and for

flood relief under strong monsoon condition is important in a region.

• A reliable weather forecasting when disseminated appropriately will pave way for

the effective sustainability.

• One can minimize the damage, which may be caused directly or indirectly by

unfavourable weather.

• The recurring crop losses can be minimized if reliable forecast on incidence of

pest and

• diseases is given timely based on weather variables.

• Help in holding the food grain prices in check through buffer stock operations.

This means that in good monsoon years when prices fall, the government may

step in and buy and in bad years when price tend to rise, it may unload a part of

what it had purchased.

• Judicious use of water can be planned in a region depending up on the forecast.

Type of weather forecast

Types of forecast Validity period Main users Predictions

1. Short range Up to 72 hours Farmers marine Rainfall distribution,
a) Now casting 0-2 hours Agencies, general heavy rainfall, heat and
b) Very short range 0-12 hours public cold wave
conditions, thunder
storms etc.
2. Medium range Beyond 3 days Farmers Occurrence of rainfall,
and upto 10 days temperature.
3. Long range Beyond 10 days Planners This forecasting is
upto a month and provided for Indian
a season. monsoon rainfall. The
out looks are usually
expressed in the form of
expected deviation from
normal condition.

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Synoptic charts

An enormous volume of meteorological data is being collected from all over the

world continuously round the clock through various telecommunication channels. To

assess, assimilate and analyse the vast data, they have to be suitably presented. For

this purpose, the observations are plotted on maps instandard weather codes. These

maps are called ‘Synoptic maps or charts’. Synoptic charts display the weather

conditions at a specified time over a large geographical area. The surface synoptic

charts plotted for different synoptic hours (00, 03, 06, 09, 12, 15, 18, 21 UTC) depict the

distribution of pressure, temperature, dew point, clouds, winds, present and past

weather. In place of GMT, UTC (Universal Time Co-ordinate) is used. The upper air

charts are also prepared at the standard pressure levels of the atmosphere (different

heights) of the atmosphere wherein the pressure, wind and temperature are plotted. The

surface charts together with the upper air charts provide a composite three-dimensional

weather picture pertaining to a given time. Thus it gives a birds eye view of the state of

atmosphere at a time over a large area and is a important tool used by operational

meteorologists and scientists. The surface synoptic charts are the most used charts. It

contains the maximum number of observations with the largest number of parameters

plotted and often forms the base on which the pressure level charts are built up. The

pattern of the pressure distribution is brought out by drawing isobars, troughs, ridges,

lows, highs, depressions, cyclones, cols, fronts and discontinuities. These systems are

clearly marked and labeled using appropriate symbols and colours. In synoptic charts

different weather phenomena and atmospheric characters are marked with different

symbols as mentioned below.

S.No Symbols Weather element/character/phenomenon

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 Narrow black lines lsobars

Numbers at ends of isobars Pressure values in hPa

Shading Precipitation

Arrows Wind direction

Feathers in the arrows Wind velocity

Small circles with shading Amount of clouds

In addition to the above, different symbols are used for recording weather phenomena.

Weather calendar

In order to provide the farmers with an efficient weather service, it is essential

that the weather forecaster should be familiar with the crops that are grown in a

particular agroclimatic zone. The type of forewarnings to be given depend on the stages

of the crop. In case of farmers, they should become familiar with weather bulletins and

learn how to interpret. To meet the above requirement, the detailed information collected

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from the agricultural departments has been condensed by the IMD and presented in a

pictorial form known as crop weather calendar. This calendar has three parts as follows.

a) Bottom part

b) Middle part

c) Top part

a) Bottom part provides the activities related to crop or information related to

phenological stages of the crop and the months.

b) Middle part gives information regarding normal weather condition required for active

crop growth. It is divided into different sections according to rainfall, rainy days, minimum

temperature, maximum temperature, pan evaporation and sunshine hours.

c) Top part gives information related to the weather abnormalities or to take

precautionary measures. Top part is divided into different sections according to dry spell

length, high wind, heavy rainfall and cloudy weather.

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WEATHER MODIFICATION – ARTIFICIAL RAIN MAKING AND CLOUD SEEDING

Weather modification refers to willful manipulation of the climate or local weather.

Research done in this field goes back to as far as the early 1940s when the US military

experimented with cloud seeding to stimulate rain. Today, private corporations have

joined the weather modification research effort to protect people, cities and assets from

the damage extreme weather brings.

Principles of rainmaking

Clouds are classified into warm and cold clouds based on cloud top temperature.

If the cloud temperature is positive these clouds are called warm clouds and if it is

negative they are called as cold clouds. The nucleus needed for precipitation differs with

type of clouds. Hygroscopic materials are necessary as nucleus for warm clouds

History of Cloud Seeding

Cloud seeding experiments started with the work of a scientist from General

Electric named Vincent Schaefer who discovered that ice crystals can induce

precipitation. Since ice crystals are difficult to transport and spread over an area, silver

iodide, a compound with similar properties, was used as a substitute. The experiments

continued until the 1970's when the program was shelved because of lack of usable

results.

Cloud seeding

Cloud seeding is one of the tools to mitigate the effects of drought. It is defined

as a process in which the precipitation is encouraged by injecting artificial condensation

nuclei through aircrafts or suitable mechanism to induce rain from rain bearing cloud.

The raindrops are several times heavier than cloud droplets. These mechanisms are

different for cold and warm clouds.

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How it Works

Cloud seeding involves the use of water-absorbent materials to encourage the

formation of clouds and rain so that there could be increased crop production in areas

where there's little water. This practice has already been implemented in some areas like

Texas and Utah, though not without its share of controversies. The effectiveness of

cloud seeding cannot be proven and some worry that it may actually cause harm.

Cloud seeding useful in the following applications

Increasing Precipitation

The most common application of cloud seeding is to increase precipitation,

possible with both warm and cold clouds. There are two primary methods employed to

stimulate precipitation. One, hygroscopic seeding, affects warm cloud processes. The

other, glaciogenic seeding initiates cold cloud processes.

Though occasionally both techniques may be helpful, in most cases one can be

utilized more effectively than the other. In addition, either technology can be applied from

the surface (ground-based) or from an aircraft. Weather Modification, Inc. can help you

decide which method will be most effective.

Augmenting Snowfall

Glaciogenic seeding can also be used to increase precipitation from stratiform

and orographic clouds. In such cases, seeding may be accomplished through either

ground-based or airborne modes. By increasing snowpack and resultant spring runoff,

subsequent water supplies for hydropower are increased. In addition to alleviating the

need for alternative costly power supplies, cloud seeding increases the water availability

for municipal, recreational, and environmental interests.

Enhancing Rainfall

Efforts to increase rainfall during the warm seasons are typically aimed at

convective clouds. While it is theoretically possible to seed such clouds using ground-

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based equipment, targeting from aircraft is much more efficient and accurate. It is

usually possible to affect the cloud through releases of a seeding agent in sub-cloud

updrafts, or by dropping the seeding agents directly into the upper regions of the clouds.

Warm season glaciogenic seeding is typically applied to treat supercooled cumulus

congestus clouds, either by releasing the ice-forming (nucleating) seeding agent in the

updraft beneath the actively-growing cumulus, or by dropping the nucleating agent

directly into the supercooled cloud top. The seeding agents can produce ice at

significantly warmer temperatures than the natural process. This is how glaciogenic

seeding gives the treated cloud a head start in producing precipitation.

When clouds do not grow tall and cold enough to produce precipitation through

the Bergeron process, it may be possible to stimulate precipitation growth by seeding

these warm clouds with hygroscopic seeding agents. This approach can be quite

successful through stimulation of the warm cloud precipitation processes. Hygroscopic

seeding is normally done from aircraft flying in the sub-cloud updrafts, in order to affect

the initial cloud droplet development which occurs in this zone.

Mitigating Hail Damage

Cloud seeding can be used as a tool to help mitigate hail damage and protect

crop yields, homes and other property, thus reducing the economic harm from disastrous

storm damage. Since hail is itself ice that is produced only by vigorous convective

clouds, it is certain that such clouds are cold enough to be amenable to glaciogenic

seeding techniques. Hail develops when excess supercooled liquid water develops

within strong updrafts. However, if the excess might be induced to freeze into large

numbers of small particles rather than much smaller numbers of large particles, the ice

that does precipitate may melt during its transit through the warm sub-cloud layer, or if it

doesn't it will reach the surface as much smaller, less-damaging, ice.

Dispersing Fog

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 Another useful application for cloud seeding is the treatment of ground-based

clouds, also known as fog. Supercooled fogs, comprised of water droplets at

temperatures cold enough to permit ice development, can easily be cleared by

glaciogenic seeding. This can be done either from the ground or from airborne

application. Your choice between the two will depend on characteristics such as local

infrastructure, topography, and wind.

Seeding of cold clouds

This can be achieved by two ways (1. Dry ice seeding and 2. Silver Iodide

seeding).

1. Dry ice seeding

• Dry ice (solid carbon-dioxide) has certain specific features. It remains as it is at

–80oC and evaporates, but does not melt. Dry ice is heavy and falls rapidly from

top of cloud and has no persistent effects due to cloud seeding.

• Aircrafts are commonly used for cloud seeding with dry ice.

• Aircraft flies across the top of a cloud and 0.5 – 1.0 cm dry ice pellets are

released in a steady stream.

• While falling through the cloud a sheet of ice crystals is formed.

• From these ice crystals rain occurs.

• This method is not economical as 250 kg of dry ice is required for seeding one

cloud. To carry the heavy dry ice over the top of clouds special aircrafts are

required, which is an expensive process.

2. Silver Iodide seeding

Minute crystals of silver iodide produced in the form of smoke acts as efficient

ice-farming nuclei at temperatures below –5ｰC. When these nuclei are produced from

the ground generators, these particles are fine enough to diffuse with air currents. Silver

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iodide is the most effective nucleating substance because; its atomic arrangement is

similar to that of ice. The time for silver iodide smoke released from ground generator to

reach the super cooled clouds was offer some hours, during which it would draft a long

way and decay under the sun light. The appropriate procedure for seeding cold clouds

would be to release silver iodide smoke into super cooled cloud from an aircraft. In

seeding cold clouds silver iodide technique is more useful than dry ice techniques,

because, very much less of silver iodide is required per cloud. There is no necessity to

fly to the top of the cloud, if area to be covered is large.

Seeding of warm clouds

1) Water drop Technique

Coalescence process is mainly responsible for growth of rain drops in warm

cloud. The basic assumption is that the presence of comparatively large water droplets

is necessary to initiate the coalescence process. So, water droplets or large hygroscopic

nuclei are introduced in to the cloud. Water drops of 25 mm are sprayed from aircraft at

the rate of 30 gallons per seeding on warm clouds.

2) Common salt technique

Common salt is a suitable seeding material for seeding warm clouds. It is used

either in the form of 10 per cent solution or solid. A mixture of salt and soap avoid

practical problems. The spraying is done by power sprayers and air compressors or

even from ground generators. The balloon burst technique is also beneficial. In this case

gunpowder and sodium chloride are arranged to explode near cloud base dispersing salt

particles.

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 REMOTE SENSING

Remote sensing is defined as the art and science of gathering information about objects

or areas from a distance without having physical contact with objects area being

investigated.

Uses: Remote sensing techniques are used in agricultural and allied fields.

1. Collection of basic data for monitoring of crop growth

2. Estimating the cropped area

3. Forecasting the crop production

4. Mapping of wastelands

5. Drought monitoring and its assessment

6. Flood mapping and damage assessment

7. Land use/cover mapping and area under forest coverage

8. Soil mapping

9. Assessing soil moisture condition, irrigation, drainage

10. Assessing outbreak of pest and disease

11. Ground water exploration

Remote Sensing platforms:

Three platforms are generally used for remote sensing techniques. They are

ground based, air based and satellite based. Infrared thermometer, Spectral radiometer,

Pilot-Balloons and Radars are some of the ground based remote sensing tools while

aircrafts air based remote sensing tools. Since the ground based and air based

platforms are very costly and have limited use, space based satellite technology has

become handy for wider application of remote sensing techniques. The digital image

processing, using powerful computers, is the key tool for analyzing and interpretation of

remotely sensed data. The advantages of satellite remote sensing are:

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Synoptic view – Wide area can be covered by a single image/photo (One scene of Indian

Remote Sensing Satellite IRS series cover about 148 x 178 sq.km area).

Receptivity – Can get the data of any area repeatedly (IRS series cover the same area

every 16- 22 days).

Coverage – Inaccessible areas like mountains, swampy areas and thick forests are

easily covered. Space based remote sensing is the process of obtaining information

about the earth from the instruments mounted on the Earth Observation Satellites. The

satellites are subdivided into two classes and the types of satellite are as follows:

Polar orbiting satellites

These satellites operate at an altitude between 550 and 1,600 km along an

inclined circular plane over the poles. These satellites are used for remote sensing

purposes. LANDSAT (USA), SPOT (FRANCE), and IRS (INDIA) are some of the

Remote Sensing Satellites.

Geostationary satellite

These have orbits around the equator at an altitude of 36,000 km and move with

the same speed as the earth so as to view the same area on the earth continuously.

They are used for telecommunication and weather forecasting purposes. INSAT series

are launched from India for the above purposes. All these satellites have sensors on

board operating in the visible and near infrared regions of the electromagnetic spectrum.

INSAT-3A was launched on 10th April, 2003.

Role of Remote Sensing in agriculture

Agricultural resources are important renewable dynamic natural resources. In

India, agriculture sector alone sustains the livelihood of around 70 percent of the

population and contributes nearly 35 percent of the net national product. Increasing

agricultural productivity has been the main concern since scope for increasing area

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under agriculture is rather limited. This demands judicious and optimal management of

both land and water resources. Hence, comprehensive and reliable information on land

use/cover, forest area, soils, geological information, extent of wastelands, agricultural

crops, water resources both surface and underground and hazards/natural calamities

like drought and floods is required. Season-wise information on crops, their acreage,

vigour and production enables the country to adopt suitable measures to meet

shortages, if any, and implement proper support and procurement policies. Remote

Sensing systems, having capability of providing regular, synoptic, multi-temporal and

multi-spectral coverage of the country, are playing an important role in providing such

information. A large number of experiments have been carried out in developing

techniques for extracting agriculture related information from ground borne, air borne

and space borne data.

Indian Remote Sensing programme:

India, with the experience gained from its experimental remote sensing satellite

missions BHASKARA-I and II, has now established satellite based operational remote

sensing system in the country with the launch of Indian Remote Sensing Satellite IRS-IA

in 1988, followed by IRS-IB (1992), IRS-IC (1995) and IRS-ID (1997). The Department of

Space (DOS) / Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) as the nodal agency for

establishing an operation remote sensing system in the country initiated efforts in the

early 1970s for assessing the potentials of remotely sensed data through several means.

In order to meet the user requirement of remote sensing data analysis and interpretation,

ISRO/DOS has set up a system to launch remote sensing satellites once in three or four

years to maintain the continuity in data collection. The remote sensing and some of its

related institutes are depicted.

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Crop weather modeling

Crop model

It is a representation of a crop through mathematical equations explaining the

crops interaction with both above ground and below ground environment. The increase

in dry matter of the crop is referred to as growth. The rate of growth of a healthy crop

depends on the rate at which radiation is intercepted by foliage and / or on the rate at

which water and nutrients are captured by root systems and therefore on the distribution

of water and nutrients in the soil profile. The crop development is described in terms of

various phenophases through which the crop completes its lifecycle. That is the progress

of the crop from seeding or primordial initiation to maturity. Finally the yield of crop stand

is expresses as a product of three components, viz., the period over which dry matter is

accumulated (the length of the growing period), the mean rate at which dry matter is

accumulated and the fraction of dry matter treated as yield when the crop is harvested. It

is understood that the crop growth, development and yield depend upon the mean daily

temperature (DTT), the length of the day and the amount of solar radiation (PAR)

received by the crop.

DTT = Max daily temperature + Min daily temperature - base temperature

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Where, DTT = Daily thermal time accumulation.

The time needed for the crop to reach a development stage depends upon temperature

measured above a base value (DTT) and for photo periodically sensitive phases such as

flowering, the day length above a fixed base. In the absence of stress, the harvest index

does not vary much from year to year for a specified cultivar / variety. Therefore, crop

weather modeling is based on the principles that govern the development of crop and its

growing period based on temperature and / or day length. They are used to quantify the

rate of crop growth in terms of radiation interception, water use and nutrient supply

which moderate harvest index when the crops experience stress condition. The basic

information required to be generated for crop weather modeling includes.

a) Crop phonology in relation to the temperature and day length

b) Water use by the crop during different phenophases of crop growth

c) The relationship between radiation interception, crop water use and total dry matter

production

d) Partitioning of dry matter into various plant components as influenced by water and

nutrient availability, and

e) The effect of weather parameters on biotic interference to crop growth.

Types of models

a) Statistical models

These models express the relationship between the yield or yield components

and the weather parameters. The relationships are measured in a system using

statistical techniques. Simple regression techniques explaining weather crop

relationships are also considered as models.

b) Mechanistic model

These models explain not only the relationships between the weather parameters

and the yield, but explain the relationship of influencing dependent variables.

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c) Deterministic models

These models estimate the exact value of the yield or dependent variable. These

models also have defined co-efficient.

d) Stochastic models

A probability element is attached to each output. For each set of inputs different

outputs are given along with probabilities. These models define the yield or state of

dependent variable at a given rate.

e) Dynamic models

Time is included as a variable. Both dependent and independent variables are

having values which remain constant over a given period of time. Over a period of time

these variables are changing due to change in rate of increment.

f) Static models

Time is not included as a variable. The dependent and independent variables

having values remain constant over a given period of time.

g) Simulation models

Computer models in general, are a mathematical representation of a real world

system. One of the main goals of crop simulation models is to estimate agricultural

production as a function of weather and soil conditions as well as crop management.

These models use one or more sets of differential equations over time, normally from

planting until harvest maturity or final harvest.

h) Descriptive models

A descriptive model defines the behaviour of a system in a simple manner. The

model reflects little or none of the mechanisms that are the causes of phenomena but

consists of one or more mathematical equations. An example of such an equation is the

one derived from successively measured weights quickly the weight of the crop where

no observation was made.

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i) Explanatory models

This model consists of quantitative description of the mechanisms and process

that cause the behaviour of the system. To create this model, a system is analyzed and

its process and mechanisms are quantified separately. The model is built by integrating

these descriptions for the entire system. It contains descriptions of distinct processes

such as leaf area expansion, tiller production etc. Crop growth is a consequence of

these processes.

Climate change and variability

Climate change

Any permanent change in weather phenomena from the normals of a long period

average is referred as climate change. Eg. The global temperature has increased by 2.0

to 3.0 C and increase in CO2 from 180ppm to 350ppm.

Climate variability

The temporal changes in weather phenomena which is part of general circulation

of atmosphere and occurs on a yearly basis on a global scale. Climate change and

climate variability are the concern of human kind in recent decades all over the world.

The recurrent drought and desertification seriously threaten the livelihood of over 1-2

billion people who depend on the land for most of their needs. The weather related

disasters viz. drought and floods, ice storms, dust storms, land slides, thunder clouds

associated with lightening and forest fires are uncommon over one or other region of the

world. The year 1998 was one of the recent weather related disaster years, which

caused hurricane house in Central America and floods in China, India and Bangladesh.

Canada and New England in the U.S. suffered heavily due to ice storm in January while

Turkey, Argentina and Paraguay with floods in June 1998. Vast fires in Siberia burned

over three million acres of forests. Human and crop losses are the worst phenomena in

such weather disasters, affecting global economy to a considerable extent. The 1997-

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’98 El-Nino events, the strongest of the last century is estimated to have affected 110

million people and cost the global economy nearly US $ 100 billion. Statistics compiled

from insurance companies for the period 1950-1999. Show that major natural

catastrophes which are mainly weather and climate related caused estimated economic

losses of US $ 960 billion. Most of the losses were recorded in recent decades. Increase

in aerosols due to emission of green house gases including black carbon and

chlorofluorocarbons (CFCS), ozone depletion, UV-B filtered radiation, cold and heat

waves, global cooling and warming and “human hand” in the form of deforestation

and loss of wetlands in the process of imbalanced development for betterment of human

kind may be caused factors for climate variability and climate change.

Causes of climatic variability

A. External causes

i) Solar output: An increase in solar output by 0.3%when compared to 1650 -1700AD

data.

ii) Orbital variation:

1. Earth orbit varies form almost a complete circle to marked ellipse (Eccentricity).

2. Wobble of earth’s axis (Precession of equinox) 3. Tilt of the earth’s axis of

rotation relative to the plane of the orbit varies between 21.8o and 24.4 o.

B. Internal causes

i) Changes in the atmospheric composition. Change in the green house gases especially

CO2

ii) Land surface changes particularly the afforestation and deforestation

iii) The internal dynamics of southern oscillation – changes in the sea surface

temperature in western tropical Pacific (El-Nino/La-Nina) coupled with Southern

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Oscillation Index, the Tahiti minus Darwin normalized pressure index leading to the

ENSO phenomena

iv) Anthropogenic causes of climate variation in green house gases and aerosols.

Effects of climate change

1. The increase concentration of CO2 and other green house gases are expected to

increase the temperature of the earth.

2. Crop production is weather dependant and any change will have major effects on crop

production and productivity.

3. Elevated CO2 and temperature affects the biological process like respiration,

photosynthesis, plant growth, reproduction, water use etc. Depending on the latitude the

CO2 may either offer beneficial effect or may behave otherwise also.

El-Nino and La-Nina

El-Nino is a Spanish word meaning “the boy child” (‘Child Christ’) because

El-Nino occurs around Christmas time each year when the waters off the Peruvian coast

warm slightly. In every three to six years, the waters become unusually warm. 'El Ni฀' is

now used more widely to refer to this abnormal warming of the ocean and the resulting

effects on weather. 'El Nino' is often coupled with 'Southern Oscillation' as the acronym

ENSO. 'La Nino' is used popularly to signify the opposite of El Nino occurring when the

waters of the eastern Pacific are abnormally cold. La Nino episodes are associated with

more rainfall over eastern Australia, and continuing drought in Peru. Peruvian

meteorologists have objected to term La Nino-the Girl Child-because Christ is not known

to have had a sister, and the term anti-ENSO is sometimes preferred. The El-Nino event

is due to decrease in atmospheric pressure over the South East Pacific Ocean. At the

same time, the atmospheric pressure over Indonesia and North Australia increases.

Once the El-Nino event is over, the atmospheric pressure over the above regions swings

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back. This sea-saw pattern of atmospheric pressure is called Southern Oscillation. Since

El-Nino and Southern Oscillation are linked they often termed as ENSO. It is most

important one, which represents a tendency for high atmospheric pressure over the

Pacific Ocean, represents to be associated with low pressure over the Indian Ocean and

vice-versa. A measure of the monsoon low pressure is the Southern Oscillation Index

(SOI) represented by the difference in sea level pressure over Tahiti, an Island in South

central pacific and Darwin in North Australia, which represents the northern part of the

Indian Ocean. The positive SOI denotes high pressure over the central pacific and low

over Indonesia, North Australia and Northern Indian Ocean. Above average rainfall is

expected over India, India and Indonesia and North Australia if the SOI is positive.

Drought or deficit rainfall is expected in the above countries if the SOI is negative,

indicating high atmospheric pressure over Indonesia and low in the central pacific.

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