10.4.

Describe between viscosity, and flow at low velocities of a liquid

Viscosity is a key factor in determining the flow behavior of liquids at low velocities. When a
liquid flows slowly, the viscous forces between the liquid molecules dominate, and the flow is
laminar, meaning that the liquid moves in smooth, parallel layers. As the velocity of the liquid
increases, the viscous forces become less important, and the flow becomes turbulent, meaning
that the liquid flows in a chaotic and unpredictable manner.
10.5. Cite onboard system all liquid that flow at low velocities
Several onboard systems involve liquids that flow at low velocities:
• Hydraulic systems: In hydraulic systems, liquids are pressurized to transmit power and
operate machinery. The low velocity flow ensures smooth and controlled movement of
hydraulic actuators.
• Lubrication systems: Lubrication systems rely on low-velocity flow of oils and greases to
provide a thin film between moving parts, reducing friction and wear.
• Fuel systems: Fuel systems generally involve low-velocity flow of fuel to ensure
controlled delivery to the engine or combustion chamber.
• Cooling systems: In cooling systems, liquids flow at low velocities to absorb heat from
components and dissipate it to the environment

10.6. Solve illustrative problem to determine velocities of a liquid in terms of its viscosity
The velocity of a liquid in a pipe can be estimated using the following equation:
v = ΔP/(4μL)

Where:
• v is the velocity of the liquid (m/s)
• ΔP is the pressure difference between the ends of the pipe (Pa)
• μ is the viscosity of the liquid (Pa·s)
• L is the length of the pipe (m)
Example of a problem involving the velocity of a liquid in a pipe:

A pipe with a diameter of 2 cm and a length of 10 meters is carrying water at a pressure

difference of 10 kPa. The viscosity of water is 1 mPa·s. Calculate the velocity of the water in the
pipe.

Solution:
The radius of the pipe is 0.01 meters, so the cross-sectional area of the pipe is:
A = πr² = π * (0.01 meters)² = 0.000314 m²
The velocity of the water in the pipe is:
v = ΔP/(4μL) = 10,000 Pa / (4 * 0.000001 Pa·s * 10 meters) = 2.5 m/s
Therefore, the velocity of the water in the pipe is 2.5 meters per second.

10.7. Explain the onset of turbulence in terms of disturbance of uniform flow due to high velocity
Turbulence is a chaotic and unpredictable flow regime in which the fluid motion is characterized
by eddies, swirls, and vortices. It is typically triggered when the velocity of the fluid exceeds a
certain threshold, known as the critical Reynolds number.
The onset of turbulence is caused by disturbances in the uniform flow of the fluid. These
disturbances can be caused by a variety of factors, such as changes in the geometry of the
pipe, obstructions in the flow path, or fluctuations in the velocity of the fluid.
As the velocity of the fluid increases, the kinetic energy of the fluid particles increases. This
increase in kinetic energy can overcome the viscous forces that tend to keep the flow laminar,
leading to the formation of eddies and vortices.

10.8. Cite onboard system operation that encountered onset of turbulence

Turbulence can occur in various onboard systems, including:
• Piping systems: In piping systems, high fluid velocities can lead to turbulence, which can
cause increased pressure losses, noise, and vibration.
• Pumps and turbines: Turbulence can arise around the blades of pumps and turbines,
affecting their efficiency and performance.
• Valves and fittings: Turbulent flow can occur downstream of valves and fittings, causing
energy dissipation and noise generation.
• Heat exchangers: Turbulence can enhance heat transfer in heat exchangers, but it can
also increase pressure losses and reduce overall efficiency.
Monitoring and controlling fluid velocities to avoid the onset of turbulence is crucial for
maintaining the optimal performance and efficiency of various onboard systems.

11. Reynold’s Number

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11.1. Cite the three regimes of Reynold's number
The three regimes of Reynolds number are laminar, transitional, and turbulent.
• Laminar flow is characterized by smooth, parallel layers of fluid flowing in an orderly manner.
Reynolds number (Re) is less than 2000.
• Transitional flow is a state between laminar and turbulent flow. In this regime, the flow
becomes unstable and may exhibit some characteristics of both laminar and turbulent flow.
Reynolds number is between 2000 and 4000.
• Turbulent flow is characterized by chaotic and unpredictable motion of fluid particles. The flow
is characterized by eddies, swirls, and vortices. Reynolds number is greater than 4000.

11.2. Explain the three regimes of dense in terms of their flow

The three regimes of dense flow are:
• Subcooled liquid flow is the flow of a liquid that is at a temperature below its boiling point. In
this regime, the liquid is typically a good conductor of heat, and the flow is characterized by low
viscosity and high thermal conductivity.
• Saturated boiling flow is the flow of a liquid that is at its boiling point. In this regime, the liquid is
both a liquid and a vapor, and the flow is characterized by high void fraction and high heat
transfer rates.
• Superheated vapor flow is the flow of a vapor that is at a temperature above its boiling point. In
this regime, the vapor is typically a poor conductor of heat, and the flow is characterized by low
viscosity and low thermal conductivity.
Additional explanation of Reynolds number and flow regimes

The Reynolds number is a dimensionless number that is used to characterize the flow regime of
a fluid. It is defined as:
Re = ρvD/μ
Where:
• ρ is the density of the fluid (kg/m³)
• v is the velocity of the fluid (m/s)
• D is the diameter of the pipe (m)
• μ is the viscosity of the fluid (Pa·s)

The Reynolds number is a critical parameter in determining whether the flow of a fluid is
laminar, transitional, or turbulent. Laminar flow occurs at low Reynolds numbers, while turbulent
flow occurs at high Reynolds numbers. Transitional flow occurs in the range of Reynolds
numbers between laminar and turbulent flow.

The flow regimes of a fluid can have a significant impact on the performance of various
systems, such as pipelines, pumps, and heat exchangers. For example, turbulent flow can
cause increased pressure losses, noise, and vibration, while laminar flow can lead to reduced
heat transfer rates.

By understanding the Reynolds number and the different flow regimes, engineers can design
and operate systems to achieve the desired flow characteristics.

12. Flow losses in pipes and fittings

12.1. Explain the flow losses in pipes and fittings and pressure loss caused by a turbulent flow.
Flow losses in pipes and fittings are a major source of energy dissipation in fluid flow systems.
These losses occur due to friction between the fluid and the pipe walls, changes in flow
direction, and obstructions in the flow path.

Friction losses are caused by the interaction between the fluid particles and the pipe walls. The
friction force between the fluid and the pipe walls dissipates energy and reduces the pressure of
the fluid. The amount of friction loss depends on the length of the pipe, the diameter of the pipe,
the roughness of the pipe walls, and the velocity of the fluid.

Turbulent flow is characterized by chaotic and unpredictable motion of fluid particles. This
chaotic motion causes additional energy losses due to eddies, swirls, and vortices. The amount
of pressure loss due to turbulent flow depends on the Reynolds number, which is a
dimensionless number that characterizes the flow regime.

12.2. Cite onboard system some example of flow losses in pipes and fittings
Flow losses in pipes and fittings are encountered in various onboard systems, including:
• Piping systems: Flow losses occur in piping systems due to friction between the fluid and
the pipe walls, bends and elbows, valves, and changes in pipe diameter.
• Pumps and turbines: Flow losses arise in pumps and turbines due to friction between the
fluid and the impeller or turbine blades, as well as changes in flow direction.

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 • Heat exchangers: Flow losses occur in heat exchangers due to friction between the fluid
and the heat exchanger tubes, as well as changes in flow direction and obstructions in
the flow path.

12.3. Solve illustrative problems to determine losses of pipes and fittings in terms of its pressure
The pressure loss due to friction in a pipe can be calculated using the Darcy-Weisbach
equation:
ΔP = f * L * ρ * v² / (2 * D)
Where:
• ΔP is the pressure loss (Pa)
• f is the Darcy-Weisbach friction factor (unitless)
• L is the length of the pipe (m)
• ρ is the density of the fluid (kg/m³)
• v is the velocity of the fluid (m/s)
• D is the diameter of the pipe (m)

The friction factor (f) depends on the Reynolds number and the roughness of the pipe walls.
The pressure loss due to changes in flow direction, such as bends and elbows, can be
estimated using the minor loss coefficient (K). The minor loss coefficient is a dimensionless
number that depends on the geometry of the fitting.
The total pressure loss in a piping system is the sum of the friction losses and the minor losses.

12.4. Explain the eddies formation due to sudden enlargement or contraction, rapid increase in
pipe diameter, sharp bends, and valves.
Eddies are swirling vortices that form in a fluid flow due to sudden changes in flow direction or
velocity. They are characterized by a rotational motion and a stagnant core. Eddies can cause
energy losses due to friction and turbulence.

Eddies commonly occur in situations such as:

• Sudden enlargement: When a fluid flows from a smaller pipe to a larger pipe, the sudden
increase in cross-sectional area can cause eddies to form.
• Sudden contraction: When a fluid flows from a larger pipe to a smaller pipe, the sudden
decrease in cross-sectional area can also lead to eddy formation.
• Rapid increase in pipe diameter: A rapid increase in pipe diameter can cause the flow to
separate from the pipe walls, leading to eddy formation.
• Sharp bends: Sharp bends in a pipe can cause the flow to change direction abruptly,
resulting in eddy formation.
• Valves: Valves, especially those with sudden changes in flow direction or obstructions,
can create eddies downstream of the valve.

12.5. Cite onboard system some example of eddy formation along pipes and other pipe systems
Eddy formation is a common phenomenon in various onboard systems, including:
• Piping systems: Eddies can occur in piping systems due to changes in pipe diameter,
bends and elbows, valves, and obstructions in the flow path.
• Pumps and turbines: Eddies can form around the impeller or turbine blades, especially
at high flow rates or in complex geometries.
• Heat exchangers: Eddies can arise in heat exchangers due to changes in flow direction,
obstructions in the flow path, and interactions between the fluid and the heat exchanger
tubes.
• Control valves: Control valves, which regulate the flow of fluid, can create eddies
downstream of the valve due to sudden changes in flow direction.

Understanding eddy formation and its impact on flow is crucial for designing and operating
efficient fluid flow systems.

13. Hydraulic System Components

Hydraulic systems rely on various components to transmit and control fluid power. These
components include:
• Reservoir: The reservoir stores the hydraulic fluid and provides a place for air bubbles to
escape.
• Pump: The pump pressurizes the hydraulic fluid, converting mechanical energy into
hydraulic energy.

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 • Actuator: The actuator converts hydraulic energy back into mechanical energy,
producing linear or rotary motion.
• Valves: Valves control the flow of hydraulic fluid, directing it to the appropriate actuators.
• Filters: Filters remove contaminants from the hydraulic fluid, preventing damage to
system components.
• Tubing and Hoses: Tubing and hoses transport the hydraulic fluid between the various
components of the system.

Hydraulic Circuits
Hydraulic circuits are the arrangements of hydraulic components that define the flow path of the
hydraulic fluid. They are designed to achieve specific functions, such as lifting, lowering, or
rotating machinery.
• Open-Center Circuits: In open-center circuits, the pump continuously delivers fluid to the
reservoir, creating a constant flow. Valves direct the fluid to the desired actuators.
• Closed-Center Circuits: In closed-center circuits, the pump maintains a constant
pressure in the system, and valves control the flow to the actuators.
• Series Circuits: In series circuits, the fluid flows through one actuator after another,
providing sequential operation.
• Parallel Circuits: In parallel circuits, the fluid flows through multiple actuators
simultaneously, enabling simultaneous operation.

Hydraulic System Fittings

Hydraulic system fittings are used to connect and seal the various components of the system.
They must withstand high pressures and prevent leaks.
• Threaded Fittings: Threaded fittings use threads to provide a tight connection.
• Flare Fittings: Flare fittings use a tapered end to create a tight seal.
• O-Ring Fittings: O-ring fittings use an O-ring to seal the connection.
• Quick Disconnect Fittings: Quick disconnect fittings allow for easy connection and
disconnection of hoses.

Hydraulic System Maintenance

Proper maintenance is crucial for ensuring the longevity and performance of hydraulic systems.
Maintenance tasks include:
• Fluid Level Check: Regularly check the fluid level in the reservoir and maintain it within
the recommended range.
• Fluid Change: Change the hydraulic fluid periodically to remove contaminants and
maintain its properties.
• Filter Replacement: Replace hydraulic filters regularly to prevent contamination of the
fluid.
• Leak Inspection: Inspect hoses, fittings, and seals for leaks and replace them if
necessary.
• Component Inspection: Inspect hydraulic components for signs of wear or damage and
replace them if necessary.
• Pressure Check: Monitor the system pressure to ensure it is within the recommended
range.
• Air Bleed: Bleed air from the system to prevent cavitation and ensure smooth operation.

By following these maintenance guidelines, hydraulic systems can operate efficiently and
reliably for years to come.

14. Fluids, Pneumatic Circuits, Pneumatic System Fitting & Maintenance Components
and Trouble shooting
Pneumatic systems use compressed air to transmit and control power. They are commonly
used in industrial applications due to their simplicity, reliability, and safety.

Fluids
The fluid used in pneumatic systems is compressed air. Compressed air is generated by an air
compressor, which draws in air from the atmosphere, compresses it, and stores it in a reservoir.
The compressed air is then filtered to remove contaminants and sent to the pneumatic system.
Pneumatic Circuits

Pneumatic circuits are the arrangements of pneumatic components that define the flow path of
the compressed air. They are designed to achieve specific functions, such as opening and
closing valves, extending and retracting cylinders, and rotating motors.

• Open-Loop Circuits: In open-loop circuits, the compressed air flows directly from the
reservoir to the actuator and then exhausts to the atmosphere. Valves control the flow of
air to the actuator.

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 • Closed-Loop Circuits: In closed-loop circuits, the compressed air is recirculated within
the system, reducing air consumption and improving efficiency. Valves control the flow of
air within the system.
• Sequential Circuits: In sequential circuits, the actuators operate in a predetermined
sequence, such as one after another.
• Simultaneous Circuits: In simultaneous circuits, multiple actuators can operate
simultaneously.

Pneumatic System Fittings

Pneumatic system fittings are used to connect and seal the various components of the system.
They must withstand high pressures and prevent leaks.
• Push-Lock Fittings: Push-lock fittings use a locking mechanism to provide a secure
connection.
• Quick-Connect Fittings: Quick-connect fittings allow for easy connection and
disconnection of hoses.
• Compression Fittings: Compression fittings use a ferrule to compress the tubing or hose,
creating a tight seal.
• Threaded Fittings: Threaded fittings use threads to provide a tight connection.

Pneumatic System Maintenance Components

Pneumatic system maintenance components help ensure the system's proper operation and
prevent damage to components.
• Air Filters: Air filters remove contaminants from the compressed air, preventing damage
to system components.
• Lubricators: Lubricators introduce oil into the compressed air to reduce friction and wear
on moving parts.
• Moisture Traps: Moisture traps remove moisture from the compressed air, preventing
corrosion and ensuring smooth operation.
• Regulators: Regulators control the pressure of the compressed air, ensuring it is within
the recommended range for the actuators.
• Pressure Gauges: Pressure gauges monitor the system pressure to ensure it is within
the recommended range.

Troubleshooting Pneumatic Systems

Troubleshooting pneumatic systems involves identifying and resolving problems that affect their
operation. Common troubleshooting techniques include:
• Visual Inspection: Inspecting components for visible damage, leaks, or loose
connections.
• Pressure Checks: Monitoring system pressure to ensure it is within the recommended
range.
• Air Flow Checks: Verifying that air is flowing properly through the system.
• Electrical Checks: Checking electrical connections and components if the system is
electrically controlled.
• Component Testing: Testing individual components to identify faulty ones.
• Consulting Diagrams: Referencing pneumatic diagrams to understand the system's
operation and identify potential problems.

By following proper maintenance procedures and using effective troubleshooting techniques,

pneumatic systems can operate reliably and efficiently for years to come.

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