Blood circulatory system

Composition of blood
The blood is more than the proteins, though. Blood is actually a term used to describe the liquid that moves through
the vessels and includes plasma (the liquid portion, which contains water, proteins, salts, lipids, and glucose) and the
cells (red and white cells) and cell fragments called platelets. Blood plasma is actually the dominant component of
blood and contains the water, proteins, electrolytes, lipids, and glucose. The cells are responsible for carrying the
gasses (red cells) and the immune response (white). The platelets are responsible for blood clotting. Interstitial fluid
that surrounds cells are separate from the blood, but in hemolymph, they are combined. In humans, cellular
components make up approximately 45 percent of the blood and the liquid plasma 55 percent. Blood is 20 percent of
a person’s extracellular fluid and eight percent of weight.
Role in the body
Blood is important for regulation of the body’s systems and homeostasis. Blood helps maintain homeostasis by
stabilizing pH, temperature, osmotic
pressure, and by eliminating excess
heat. Blood supports growth by
distributing nutrients and
hormones, and by removing waste.
Blood plays a protective role by
transporting clotting factors and
platelets to prevent blood loss and
transporting the disease-fighting
agents or white blood cells to sites of
infection.

RBC
Red blood cells, or erythrocytes (erythro- = “red”; -cyte = “cell”), are specialized
cells that circulate through the body delivering oxygen to cells; they are formed
from stem cells in the bone marrow. In mammals, red blood cells are small
biconcave cells that at maturity do not contain a nucleus or mitochondria and
are only 7–8 µm in size. In birds and non-avian reptiles, a nucleus is still
maintained in red blood cells. The red coloring of blood comes from the iron-
containing protein hemoglobin. The principal job of this protein is to carry
oxygen, but it also transports carbon dioxide as well. Hemoglobin is packed into
red blood cells at a rate of about 250 million molecules of hemoglobin per cell.
Each hemoglobin molecule binds four oxygen molecules so that each red blood
cell carries one billion molecules of oxygen. There are approximately 25 trillion
red blood cells in the five liters of blood in the human body, which could carry
up to 25 sextillion (25 × 1021) molecules of oxygen in the body at any time.

WBC
White blood cells, also called leukocytes (leuko = white), make up approximately one percent by volume of the cells
in blood. The role of white blood cells is very different from that of red blood cells: they are primarily involved in the
immune response to identify and target pathogens, such as invading bacteria, viruses, and other foreign organisms.
White blood cells are formed continually; some only live for hours or days, but some live for years. The morphology of
white blood cells differs significantly from red blood cells. They have nuclei and do not contain hemoglobin. The
different types of white blood cells are identified by their microscopic appearance after
histologic staining, and each
has a different specialized
function. The two main groups
are the granulocytes, which
include the neutrophils,
eosinophils, and basophils, and
the agranulocytes, which
include the monocytes and
lymphocytes.
Granulocytes contain granules in their cytoplasm; the agranulocytes are so named because of the lack of granules in
their cytoplasm. Some leukocytes become macrophages that either stay at the same site or move through the
bloodstream and gather at sites of infection or inflammation where they are attracted by chemical signals from foreign
particles and damaged cells. Lymphocytes are the primary cells of the immune system and include B cells, T cells, and
natural killer cells. B cells destroy bacteria and inactivate their toxins. They also produce antibodies. T cells attack
viruses, fungi, some bacteria, transplanted cells, and cancer cells. T cells attack viruses by releasing toxins that kill the
viruses. Natural killer cells attack a variety of infectious microbes and certain tumor cells.
One reason that HIV poses significant management challenges is because the virus directly targets T cells by gaining
entry through a receptor. Once inside the cell, HIV then multiplies using the T cell’s own genetic machinery. After the
HIV virus replicates, it is transmitted directly from the infected T cell to macrophages. The presence of HIV can remain
unrecognized for an extensive period of time before full disease symptoms develop.
Platelets and Coagulation Factors
Blood must clot to heal wounds and prevent excess blood loss. Small cell fragments called platelets (thrombocytes)
are attracted to the wound site where they adhere by extending many projections and releasing their contents. These
contents activate other platelets and also interact with other coagulation factors, which convert fibrinogen, a water-
soluble protein present in blood serum into fibrin (a non-water soluble protein), causing the blood to clot. Many of
the clotting factors require vitamin K to work, and vitamin K deficiency can lead to problems with blood clotting. Many
platelets converge and stick together at the wound site forming a platelet plug (also called a fibrin clot). The plug or
clot lasts for a number of
days and stops the loss of
blood. Platelets are formed
from the disintegration of
larger cells called
megakaryocytes. For each
megakaryocyte, 2000–3000
platelets are formed with
150,000 to 400,000 platelets
present in each cubic
millimeter of blood. Each
platelet is disc shaped and
2–4 μm in diameter. They
contain many small vesicles
but do not contain a
nucleus.

Fig (a) Platelets are formed from large cells called megakaryocytes. The megakaryocyte breaks up into thousands of
fragments that become platelets. Fig (b) Platelets are required for clotting of the blood. The platelets collect at a
wound site in conjunction with other clotting factors, such as fibrinogen, to form a fibrin clot that prevents blood
loss and allows the wound to heal.

Plasma and serum

The liquid component of blood is called plasma, and it is separated by spinning or centrifuging the blood at high
rotations (3000 rpm or higher). The blood cells and platelets are separated by centrifugal forces to the bottom of a
specimen tube. The upper liquid layer, the plasma, consists of 90 percent water along with various substances required
for maintaining the body’s pH, osmotic load, and for protecting the body. The plasma also contains the coagulation
factors and antibodies.
The plasma component of blood without the coagulation factors is called the serum. Serum has a composition of key
ions acting as electrolytes, essential for normal functioning of muscles and nerves. Other components in the serum
include proteins that assist with maintaining pH and osmotic balance while giving viscosity to the blood. The serum
also contains antibodies, specialized proteins that are important for defense against viruses and bacteria. Lipids,
including cholesterol, are also transported in the serum, along with various other substances including nutrients,
hormones, metabolic waste, plus external substances, such as drugs, viruses, and bacteria.
Human serum albumin is the most abundant protein in human blood plasma and is synthesized in the liver. Albumin,
which constitutes about half of the blood serum protein, transports hormones and fatty acids, buffers pH, and
maintains osmotic pressures. Immunoglobulin is a protein antibody produced in the mucosal lining and plays an
important role in antibody mediated immunity.

Structure of the Heart

The heart muscle is asymmetrical as
a result of the distance blood must
travel in the pulmonary and systemic
circuits. Since the right side of the
heart sends blood to the pulmonary
circuit it is smaller than the left side
which must send blood out to the
whole body in the systemic circuit. In
humans, the heart is about the size of
a clenched fist; it is divided into four
chambers: two atria and two
ventricles. There is one atrium and
one ventricle on the right side and
one atrium and one ventricle on the
left side. The atria are the chambers
that receive blood, and the
ventricles are the chambers that pump blood. The right
atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the superior
vena cava, which drains blood from the jugular vein that
comes from the brain and from the veins that come from
the arms, as well as from the inferior vena cava which
drains blood from the veins that come from the lower
organs and the legs. In addition, the right atrium receives
blood from the coronary sinus which drains deoxygenated
blood from the heart itself. This deoxygenated blood then
passes to the right ventricle through the atrioventricular
valve or the tricuspid valve, a flap of connective tissue that
opens in only one direction to prevent the backflow of
blood. The valve separating the chambers on the left side of the heart is called the bicuspid or mitral valve. After it is
filled, the right ventricle pumps the blood through the pulmonary arteries, bypassing the semilunar valve (or pulmonic
valve) to the lungs for re-oxygenation. After blood passes through the pulmonary arteries, the right semilunar valves
close preventing the blood from flowing backwards into the right ventricle. The left atrium then receives the oxygen-
rich blood from the lungs via the pulmonary veins. This blood passes through the bicuspid valve or mitral valve (the
atrioventricular valve on the left side of the heart) to the left ventricle where the blood is pumped out through the
aorta, the major artery of the body, taking oxygenated blood to the organs and muscles of the body. Once blood is
pumped out of the left ventricle and into the aorta, the aortic semilunar valve (or aortic valve) closes preventing blood
from flowing backward into the left ventricle. This pattern of pumping is referred to as double circulation and is found
in all mammals.

The Cardiac Cycle

The main purpose of the heart is to pump blood through the body; it does so in a repeating sequence called the cardiac
cycle. The cardiac cycle is the coordination of the filling and emptying of the heart of blood by electrical signals that
cause the heart muscles to contract and relax. The human heart beats over 100,000 times per day. In each cardiac
cycle, the heart contracts (systole), pushing out the blood and pumping it through the body; this is followed by a
relaxation phase (diastole), where the heart fills with blood, as illustrated in Figure. The atria contract at the same
time, forcing blood through the atrioventricular valves into the ventricles. Closing of the atrioventricular valves
produces a monosyllabic “lup” sound. Following a brief delay, the ventricles contract at the same time forcing blood
through the semilunar valves into the aorta and the artery transporting blood to the lungs (via the pulmonary artery).
Closing of the semilunar valves produces a monosyllabic “dup” sound.
Arteries, Veins, and Capillaries

The blood from the heart is carried through the body by a

complex network of blood vessels. Arteries take blood away
from the heart. The main artery is the aorta that branches into
major arteries that take blood to different limbs and organs.
These major arteries include the carotid artery that takes blood
to the brain, the brachial arteries that take blood to the arms,
and the thoracic artery that takes blood to the thorax and then
into the hepatic, renal, and gastric arteries for the liver, kidney,
and stomach, respectively. The iliac artery takes blood to the lower limbs.
The major arteries diverge into minor arteries, and then smaller vessels
called arterioles, to reach more deeply into the muscles and organs of the
body.
Arterioles diverge into capillary beds. Capillary beds contain a large
number (10 to 100) of capillaries that branch among the cells and tissues
of the body. Capillaries are narrow-diameter tubes that can fit red blood
cells through in a single file and are the sites for the exchange of nutrients,
waste, and oxygen with tissues at the cellular level. Fluid also crosses into
the interstitial space from the capillaries. The capillaries converge again
into venules that connect to minor veins that finally connect to major veins that take blood high in carbon dioxide back
to the heart. Veins are blood vessels that bring blood back to the heart. The major veins drain blood from the same
organs and limbs that the major arteries supply. Fluid is also brought back to the heart via the lymphatic system.
Blood Pressure
The pressure of the blood flow in the body is produced by the hydrostatic pressure of the fluid (blood) against the
walls of the blood vessels. Fluids will move from areas of high to low hydrostatic pressures. In the arteries, the
hydrostatic pressure near the heart is very high and blood flows to the arterioles where the rate of flow is slowed by
the narrow openings of the arterioles. During systole, when new blood
is entering the arteries, the artery walls stretch to accommodate the
increase of pressure of the extra blood; during diastole, the walls
return to normal because of their elastic properties. The blood
pressure of the systole phase and the diastole phase, graphed in figure,
gives the two pressure readings for blood pressure. For example,
120/80 indicates a reading of 120 mm Hg during the systole and 80 mm
Hg during diastole. Throughout the cardiac cycle, the blood continues
to empty into the arterioles at a relatively even rate.

Blood pressure is related to the velocity of blood in the arteries and

arterioles. In capillaries and veins, blood pressure decreases but blood
velocity increases.