Geography-India Physical Environment

INDIA
PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
TEXTBOOK IN GEOGRAPHY FOR CLASS XI
2024-25
2024-25
INDIA
PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
TEXTBOOK IN GEOGRAPHY FOR CLASS XI
2024-25
11094 – INDIA: PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
ISBN 81-7450-538-5
Textbook in Geography for Class XI
First Edition ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

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2024-25
FOREWORD
The National Curriculum Framework (NCF), 2005, recommends that children’s

life at school must be linked to their life outside the school. This principle marks
a departure from the legacy of bookish learning which continues to shape our
system and causes a gap between the school, home and community. The syllabi
and textbooks developed on the basis of NCF signify an attempt to implement
this basic idea. They also attempt to discourage rote learning and the
maintenance of sharp boundaries between different subject areas. We hope these
measures will take us significantly further in the direction of a child-centred
system of education outlined in the National Policy on Education (1986).
The success of this effort depends on the steps that school principals and
teachers will take to encourage children to reflect on their own learning and to
pursue imaginative activities and questions. We must recognise that, given space,
time and freedom, children generate new knowledge by engaging with the
information passed on to them by adults. Treating the prescribed textbook as
the sole basis of examination is one of the key reasons why other resources and
sites of learning are ignored. Inculcating creativity and initiative is possible if we
perceive and treat children as participants in learning, not as receivers of a fixed
body of knowledge.
These aims imply considerable change in school routines and mode of
functioning. Flexibility in the daily time-table is as necessary as rigour in
implementing the annual calendar so that the required number of teaching
days are actually devoted to teaching. The methods used for teaching and
evaluation will also determine how effective this textbook proves for making
children’s life at school a happy experience, rather than a source of stress or
boredom. Syllabus designers have tried to address the problem of curricular
burden by restructuring and reorienting knowledge at different stages with
greater consideration for child psychology and the time available for teaching.
The textbook attempts to enhance this endeavour by giving higher priority and
space to opportunities for contemplation and wondering, discussion in small
groups, and activities requiring hands-on experience.
The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT)
appreciates the hard work done by the textbook development committee
responsible for this book. We wish to thank the Chairperson of the advisory
committee for textbooks in Social Sciences, at the higher secondary
level, Professor Hari Vasudevan and the Chief Advisor for this book,
Professor M.H. Qureshi for guiding the work of this committee. Several teachers
contributed to the development of this textbook; we are grateful to their principals
for making this possible. We are indebted to the institutions and organisations
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vi
which have generously permitted us to draw upon their resources, material and
personnel. We are especially grateful to the members of the National Monitoring
Committee, appointed by the Department of Secondary and Higher Education,
Ministry of Human Resource Development under the Chairpersonship of
Professor Mrinal Miri and Professor G.P. Deshpande, for their valuable time and
contribution. As an organisation committed to systemic reform and continuous
improvement in the quality of its products, NCERT welcomes comments and
suggestions which will enable us to undertake further revision and refinement.
Director
New Delhi National Council of Educational
20 December 2005 Research and Training
2024-25
RATIONALISATION OF CONTENT IN THE TEXTBOOKS
In view of the COVID-19 pandemic, it is imperative to reduce content load on

students. The National Education Policy 2020, also emphasises reducing the
content load and providing opportunities for experiential learning with creative
mindset. In this background, the NCERT has undertaken the exercise to
rationalise the textbooks across all classes. Learning Outcomes already developed
by the NCERT across classes have been taken into consideration in this exercise.
Contents of the textbooks have been rationalised in view of the following:
• Overlapping with similar content included in other subject areas in the same
class
• Similar content included in the lower or higher class in the same subject
• Difficulty level
• Content, which is easily accessible to students without much interventions
from teachers and can be learned by children through self-learning or peer-
learning
• Content, which is irrelevant in the present context
This present edition, is a reformatted version after carrying out the

changes given above.
2024-25
2024-25
TEXTBOOK DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE
CHAIRPERSON, ADVISORY COMMITTEE FOR TEXTBOOKS IN SOCIAL SCIENCES AT THE HIGHER

SECONDARY LEVEL
Hari Vasudevan, Professor, Department of History, University of Calcutta,
Kolkata
CHIEF ADVISOR
M. H. Qureshi, Professor, Centre for the Study of Regional Development,
Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi
MEMBERS
Aparna Pandey, Lecturer, DESSH, NCERT, New Delhi
Ashok Diwakar, Lecturer, Government P.G College, Sector 9, Gurgaon
B. S. Butola, Professor, Centre for the Study of Regional Development, Jawaharlal
Nehru University, New Delhi
Beena Srikumar, PGT, CRPF Public School, New Delhi
Noor Mohammad, Professor, Delhi School of Economics, Delhi University, Delhi
MEMBER-COORDINATOR
Tannu Malik, Lecturer, DESSH, NCERT, New Delhi
2024-25
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The National Council of Educational Research and Training acknowledges the

contribution of Bhagirathy Jhingran, Teacher, Pathways World School, Gurgaon
in the development of this textbook; the National Bureau of Soil Survey and Landuse
Planning (under ICAR), Government of India, for providing input for the chapter
on Soils. Special thanks are due to Savita Sinha, Professor and Head, Department
of Education in Social Sciences and Humanties for her valuable support at every
stage of preparation of this textbook.
The Council is thankful to the Survey of India for Certification of Maps given
in the textbook. It also gratefully acknowledges the support of individuals and
organisations as listed below for providing various photographs used in this
textbook — M.H. Qureshi, Professor, CSRD, JNU for Figure 5.4 and 5.5; B.S. Butola,
Professor, CSRD, JNU for Figure 6.1, 6.5, 6.7 and 6.9; M.V. Srinivasan, Lecturer,
DESSH, NCERT for Figure 6.3; ITDC/Ministry of Tourism, Government of India
for Figure 2.1, 2.3, 2.8, 2.5, 2.6, 2.7, 2.8, 3.1, 3.3, 4.4, 5.7; Ministry of Environment
and Forest, Government of India for Figure 5.1 and 5.6; Social Science Textbook
for Class VII, Part II (NCERT, 2005), for Figure 5.3 and Social Science Textbook
for Class VIII, Part II (NCERT, 2005), for Figure 2.10.
The Council also gratefully acknowledges the contributions of Anil Sharma
and Arvind Sharma, DTP Operators; Sameer Khatana and Amar Kumar Prusty,
Copy Editors; Bharat Sanwaria, Shreshtha and Deepti Sharma, Proof Readers;
Dinesh Kumar, Computer Incharge, who have helped in giving a final shape to
this book. The contribution of the Publication Department, NCERT is also duly
acknowledged.
The following are applicable to all the maps of India used in this book
© Government of India, Copyright 2006
1. The responsibility for the correctness of internal details rests with the publisher.
2. The territorial waters of India extend into the sea to a distance of twelve nautical miles measured
from the appropriate base line.
3. The administrative headquarters of Chandigarh, Haryana and Punjab are at Chandigarh.
4. The interstate boundaries amongst Arunachal Pradesh, Assam and Meghalaya shown on this map
are as interpreted from the “North-Eastern Areas (Reorganisation) Act.1971,” but have yet to be
verified.
5. The external boundaries and coastlines of India agree with the Record/Master Copy certified by
Survey of India.
6. The State boundaries between Uttaranchal and Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Jharkhand, and
Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh have not been verified by the Governments concerned.
7. The spellings of names in this map, have been taken from various sources.
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CONTENTS
FOREWORD v
RATIONALISATION OF CONTENT IN THE TEXTBOOKS vii
UNIT I : INTRODUCTION 1-6
1. India — Location 2
UNIT II : PHYSIOGRAPHY 7-26
2. Structure and Physiography 8
3. Drainage System 17
UNIT III : CLIMATE AND VEGETATION 27-51
4. Climate 28
5. Natural Vegetation 42
UNIT IV : NATURAL HAZARDS AND DISASTERS: CAUSES, 52-69
CONSEQUENCES AND MANAGEMENT
6. Natural Hazards and Disasters 53
GLOSSARY 70-72
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CONSTITUTION OF INDIA
Part III (Articles 12 – 35)
(Subject to certain conditions, some exceptions
and reasonable restrictions)
guarantees these
Fundamental Rights
Right to Equality
• before law and equal protection of laws;
• irrespective of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth;
• of opportunity in public employment;
• by abolition of untouchability and titles.
Right to Freedom
• of expression, assembly, association, movement, residence and profession;
• of certain protections in respect of conviction for offences;
• of protection of life and personal liberty;
• of free and compulsory education for children between the age of six and fourteen years;
• of protection against arrest and detention in certain cases.
Right against Exploitation
• for prohibition of traffic in human beings and forced labour;
• for prohibition of employment of children in hazardous jobs.
Right to Freedom of Religion
• freedom of conscience and free profession, practice and propagation of religion;
• freedom to manage religious affairs;
• freedom as to payment of taxes for promotion of any particular religion;
• freedom as to attendance at religious instruction or religious worship in educational
institutions wholly maintained by the State.
Cultural and Educational Rights
• for protection of interests of minorities to conserve their language, script and culture;
• for minorities to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice.
Right to Constitutional Remedies
• by issuance of directions or orders or writs by the Supreme Court and High
Courts for enforcement of these Fundamental Rights.
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UNIT
I
INTRODUCTION
This unit deals with
• Location — space relations and India’s place in the world
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Do you Remember?
CHAPTER
INDIA – LOCATION
Y
ou have already seen the map of India Practical Work in Geography – Part I (NCERT,
in the previous classes. Now you closely 2006) to find out.
examine the map of India (Figure 1.1). This difference is based on the fact that the
Mark the southernmost and northernmost distance between two longitudes decreases
latitudes and the easternmost and towards the poles whereas the distance
westernmost longitudes. between two latitudes remains the same
The mainland of India, extends from everywhere. Find out the distance between two
Kashmir in the north to Kanniyakumari in the latitudes?
south and Arunachal Pradesh in the east to From the values of latitude, it is understood
Gujarat in the west. India’s territorial limit that the southern part of the country lies
further extends towards the sea upto 12 within the tropics and the northern part lies in
nautical miles (about 21.9 km) from the coast. the sub-tropical zone or the warm temperate
(See the box for conversion). zone. This location is responsible for large
variations in land forms, climate, soil types and
Statute mile = 63,360 inches natural vegetation in the country.
Nautical mile = 72,960 inches Now, let us observe the longitudinal extent
1 Statute mile = about 1.6 km (1.584 km)
1 Nautical mile = about 1.8 km (1.852 km)
and its implications on the Indian people. From
the values of longitude, it is quite discernible
Our southern boundary extends upto that there is a variation of nearly 30 degrees,
6°45' N latitude in the Bay of Bengal. Let us which causes a time difference of nearly two
try to analyse the implications of having such hours between the easternmost and the
a vast longitudinal and latitudinal extent. westernmost parts of our country. You are
If you work out the latitudinal and familiar with the concept of Indian Standard
longitudinal extent of India, they are roughly Time (IST). What is the use of the standard
about 30 degrees, whereas the actual distance meridian? While the sun rises in the
measured from north to south extremity is northeastern states about two hours earlier as
3,214 km, and that from east to west is only compared to Jaisalmer, the watches in
2,933 km. What is the reason for this Dibrugarh, Imphal in the east and Jaisalmer,
difference? Consult Chapter 3 on the topic Bhopal or Chennai in the other parts of India
Latitude, Longitude and Time in the book show the same time. Why does this happen?
There is a general understanding among the countries of the world to select the standard
meridian in multiples of 7°30' of longitude. That is why 82°30' E has been selected as the
‘standard meridian’ of India. Indian Standard Time is ahead of Greenwich Mean Time by
5 hours and 30 minutes.
There are some countries where there are more than one standard meridian due to
their vast east-to-west extent. For example, the USA has seven time zones.
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INDIA – LOCATION 3
Figure 1.1 : India : Administrative Divisions
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4
INDIA : PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
Figure 1.2 : Location of India in the Eastern World
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INDIA – LOCATION 5
Name a few places in India through which the geographical coast of the mainland plus the
standard meridian passes? island groups Andaman and Nicobar located
India with its area of 3.28 million sq. km in the Bay of Bengal and the Lakshadweep in
accounts for 2.4 per cent of the world’s land the Arabian Sea. Thus India, as a country, is
surface area and stands as the seventh a physically diverse land providing occurrence
largest country in the world. Find out the of varied resources.
names of the countries which are larger than
India. Do you Remember?
School Bhuvan NCER T is a portal
SIZE providing map-based learning to bring
awareness among the students about
The size of India has endowed her with great country’s natural resources,
physical diversity. Thus, you may appreciate environment and their role in
the presence of lofty mountains in the north; sustainable development. It is an
large rivers such as Ganga, Brahmaputra, initiative of Bhuvan-NRSC/ISRO,
Mahanadi, Krishna, Godavari and Kaveri; based on NCER T syllabus.
green forested hills in northeast and south You can explore various maps of India
India; and the vast sandy expanse of on http://bhuvan-app1.nrsc.gov.in/
Marusthali. You may further appreciate that mhrd_ncert/
bounded by the Himalayas in the north,
Hindukush and Sulaiman ranges in the north- INDIA AND ITS NEIGHBOURS
west, Purvachal hills in the north-east and by Examine the location map of India (Figure 1.2).
the large expanse of the Indian ocean in the You will notice that India is located in the
south, it forms a great geographic entity known south-central part of the continent of Asia,
as the Indian subcontinent. It includes the bordering the Indian ocean and its two arms
countries — Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, extending in the form of Bay of Bengal and the
Bangladesh and India. The Himalayas, Arabian Sea. This maritime location of
together with other ranges, have acted as a Peninsular India has provided links to its
formidable physical barrier in the past. Except neighbouring regions through the sea and air
for a few mountain passes such as the Khyber, routes.
the Bolan, the Shipkila, the Nathula, the Prepare a list of India’s neighbouring
Bomdila, etc. it was difficult to cross it. It has countries by consulting the map.
contributed towards the evolving of a unique Sri Lanka and Maldives are the two island
regional identity of the Indian subcontinent. countries located in the Indian Ocean, which
By referring to the physical map of India are our neighbours. Sri Lanka is separated from
you can now describe the physical variations India by the Gulf of Mannar and Palk Strait.
which you would come across while travelling
Differentiate between a Gulf and a Strait.
from Kashmir to Kanniyakumari and from
Jaisalmer in Rajasthan to Imphal in Manipur. Do you think that physical barrier is a
Peninsular part of India extends towards hindrance in interaction with our neighbouring
the Indian Ocean. This has provided the countries in modern times? Give some
country with a coastline of 6,100 km in the examples how we have overcome these
mainland and 7,517 km in the entire difficulties in the present day.
Activity: Observe the map of India on an atlas/School Bhuvan NCERT portal

and collect information about states/districts/villages located near the
international border of India.
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6 INDIA : PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
EXERCISES
1. Choose the right answer from the four alternatives given below.
(i) Which one of the following latitudinal extent is relevant for the extent of
India’s area?
(a) 8°41'N - 35°7'N (c) 8°4'N - 35°6'N
(b) 8°4'N - 37°6'N (d) 6°45'N - 37°6'N
(ii) Which one of the following countries shares the longest land frontier with
India?
(a) Bangladesh (c) Pakistan
(b) China (d) Myanmar
(iii) Which one of the following countries is larger in area than India?
(a) China (c) France
(b) Egypt (d) Iran
(iv) Which one of the following longitudes is the standard meridian for India?
(a) 69°30'E (c) 75°30'E
(b) 82°30'E (d) 90°30'E
2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words.
(i) Does India need to have more than one standard time? If yes, why do you
think so?
(ii) What are the implications of India having a long coastline?
(iii) How is the latitudinal spread of India advantageous to her?
(iv) While the sun rises earlier in the east, say Nagaland and also sets earlier,
how do the watches at Kohima and New Delhi show the same time?
Project/Activity
Activity based on Appendix I (Teachers may help in the exercises by explaining
and getting it done by the students).
(i) On a graph paper, plot the number of districts in Madhya Pradesh,
Karnataka, Meghalaya, Goa, Kerala, Haryana. Do the number of districts
have some relationship with the area of the state?
(ii) Which state amongst Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Gujarat, Arunachal
Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Tripura and Rajasthan is the most thickly populated
and which one is the least densely populated?
(iii) Find out the relationship between the area of the state and the number of
districts.
(iv) Identify the states with coastal boundaries.
(v) Arrange the states from west to east which have only land boundary.
Activity based on Appendix II
(i) List the Union Territories which have coastal location.
(ii) How do you explain the variation in the area and population of NCT Delhi
and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands?
(iii) On a graph paper, draw a bar diagram to show the area and population of
all the Union Territories.
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UNIT
II
PHYSIOGRAPHY
• Structure and Relief; physiographic divisions
• Drainage systems: concept of water sheds — the Himalayan
and the Peninsular
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CHAPTER
STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOGRAPHY
D
o you know that our earth also has a geological regions broadly follow the physical
history. The earth and its landforms features:
that we see today have evolved over a (i) The Penisular Block
very long time. Current estimation shows that (ii) The Himalayas and other Peninuslar
the earth is approximately 4600 million years Mountains
old. Over these long years, it has undergone (iii) Indo-Ganga-Brahmaputra Plain.
many changes brought about primarily by the
endogenic and exogenic forces. These forces have THE PENINSULAR BLOCK
played a significant role in giving shape to various
The northern boundary of the Peninsular
surface and subsurface features of the earth. You
Block may be taken as an irregular line
have already studied about the Plate Tectonics
running from Kachchh along the western
and the movement of the Earth’s plates in the
flank of the Aravali Range near Delhi and
book Fundamentals of Physical Geography
then roughly parallel to the Yamuna and
(NCERT, 2006). Do you know that the Indian
the Ganga as far as the Rajmahal Hills
plate was to the south of the equator millions of
and the Ganga delta. Apart from these,
years ago? Do you also know that it was much
the Karbi Anglong and the Meghalaya
larger in size and the Australian plate was a part
Plateau in the northeast and Rajasthan
of it? Over millions of years, this plate broke into in the west are also extensions of this
many parts and the Australian plate moved block. The northeastern parts are
towards the southeastern direction and the separated by the Malda fault in West
Indian plate to the north. Can you map Bengal from the Chotanagpur plateau. In
different phases in the movement of the Rajasthan, the desert and other desert–
Indian plate? This northward movement like features overlay this block.
of the Indian plate is still continuing and it The Peninsula is formed essentially by
has significant consequences on the a great complex of very ancient gneisses
physical environment of the Indian and granites, which constitutes a major
subcontinent. Can you name some important part of it. Since the Cambrian period, the
consequences of the northward movement Peninsula has been standing like a rigid
of the Indian plate? block with the exception of some of its
It is primarily through the interplay of western coast which is submerged
these endogenic and exogenic forces and beneath the sea and some other parts
lateral movements of the plates that the changed due to tectonic activity without
present geological structure and geomorphologic affecting the original basement. As a part of
processes active in the Indian subcontinent came the Indo-Australian Plate, it has been subjected
into existence. Based on the variations in its to various vertical movements and block
geological structure and formations, India can be faulting. The rift valleys of the Narmada, the
divided into three geological divisions. These Tapi and the Mahanadi and the Satpura block
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STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOGRAPHY 9
mountains are some examples of it. The INDO-GANGA-BRAHMAPUTRA PLAIN

Peninsula mostly consists of relict and residual
mountains like the Aravali hills, the Nallamala The third geological division of India
hills, the Javadi hills, the Veliconda hills, the comprises the plains formed by the river
Palkonda range and the Mahendragiri hills, etc. Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra.
The river valleys here are shallow with low Originally, it was a geo-synclinal
depression which attained its maximum
gradients.
development during the third phase of
You are aware of the method of
the Himalayan mountain formation
calculating the gradient as a part of your
study of the book Practical Work in approximately about 64 million years ago.
Geography– Part I (NCERT, 2006). Can Since then, it has been gradually filled
you calculate the gradient of the by the sediments brought by the
Himalayan and the Peninsular rivers and Himalayan and Peninsular rivers.
draw the comparisons? Average depth of alluvial deposits in
Most of the east flowing rivers form these plains ranges from 1,000-2,000 m.
deltas before entering into the Bay of It is evident from the above discussion
Bengal. The deltas formed by the that there are significant variations
Mahanadi, the Krishna, the Kaveri and the among the different regions of India in
Godavari are important examples. terms of their geological structure, which
has far-reaching impact upon other
THE HIMALAYAS AND OTHER related aspects. Variations in the
physiography and relief are important
PENINSULAR MOUNTAINS
among these. The relief and physiography
The Himalayas along with other Peninsular of India has been greatly influenced by
mountains are young, weak and flexible in their the geological and geomorphological
geological structure unlike the rigid and stable processes active in the Indian
Peninsular Block. Consequently, they are still subcontinent.
subjected to the interplay of exogenic and
endogenic forces, resulting in the development PHYSIOGRAPHY
of faults, folds and thrust plains. These
‘Physiography’ of an area is the outcome
of structure, process and the stage of
development. The land of India is
characterised by great diversity in its
physical features. The north has a vast
expanse of rugged topography consisting
of a series of mountain ranges with varied
peaks, beautiful valleys and deep gorges.
The south consists of stable table land
with highly dissected plateaus, denuded
rocks and developed series of scarps. In
between these two lies the vast north Indian
plain.
Figure 2.1 : A Gorge Based on these macro variations, India
can be divided into the following
mountains are tectonic in origin, dissected by
physiographic divisions:
fast-flowing rivers which are in their youthful
stage. Various landforms like gorges, V-shaped (1) The Northern and North- eastern
valleys, rapids, waterfalls, etc. are indicative of Mountains
this stage. (2) The Northern Plain
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Figure 2.2 : India : Physical
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(3) The Peninsular Plateau the Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra.
(4) The Indian Desert These plains extend approximately 3,200 km
(5) The Coastal Plains from the east to the west. The average width
(6) The Islands. of these plains varies between 150-300 km.
The maximum depth of alluvium deposits
The North and Northeastern Mountains varies between 1,000-2,000 m. From the
north to the south, these can be divided into
The North and Northeastern Mountains consist
three major zones: the Bhabar, the Tarai and
of the Himalayas and the Northeastern hills.
the alluvial plains. The alluvial plains can be
The Himalayas consist of a series of parallel
further divided into the Khadar and the
mountain ranges. Some of the important
Bhangar.
ranges are the Greater Himalayan range,
Bhabar is a narrow belt ranging between
which includes the Great Himalayas and
8-10 km parallel to the Shiwalik foothills at
the Shiwalik. The general orientation of these
ranges is from northwest to the southeast the break-up of the slope. As a result of this,
direction in the northwestern part of India. the streams and rivers coming from the
Himalayas in the Darjiling and Sikkim regions mountains deposit heavy materials of rocks
lie in an eastwest direction, while in Arunachal and boulders, and at times, disappear in this
Pradesh they are from southwest to the zone. South of the Bhabar is the Tarai belt, with
northwest direction. In Nagaland, Manipur and an approximate width of 10-20 km where most
Mizoram, they are in the northsouth direction. of the streams and rivers re-emerge without
The approximate length of the Great Himalayan having any properly demarcated channel,
range, also known as the central axial range, is thereby, creating marshy and swampy
2,500 km from east to west, and their width varies conditions known as the Tarai. This has a
between 160-400 km from north to south. It is luxurious growth of natural vegetation and
also evident from the map that the Himalayas houses a varied wildlife.
stand almost like a strong and long wall between The south of Tarai is a belt consisting of
the Indian subcontinent and the Central and East old and new alluvial deposits known as the
Asian countries. Bhangar and Khadar respectively. These
plains have characteristic features of mature
Himalayas are not only the physical barrier, stage of fluvial erosional and depositional
they are also a climatic, drainage and cultural landforms such as sand bars, meanders, ox-
divide. Can you identify the impact of Himalayas bow lakes and braided channels. The
on the geoenvironment of the countries of South Brahmaputra plains are known for their
Asia? Can you find some other examples of riverine islands and sand bars. Most of
similar geoenvironmental divide in the world? these areas are subjected to periodic floods
Figure 2.3 : The Himalayas
The Northern Plains

The northern plains are formed by the
alluvial deposits brought by the rivers – Figure 2.4 : Northern Plain
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and shifting river courses forming braided plateau, the Palamu plateau, the Ranchi
streams. plateau, the Malwa plateau, the Coimbatore
The mouths of these mighty rivers also form plateau and the Karnataka plateau, etc. This
some of the largest deltas of the world, for is one of the oldest and the most stable
example, the famous Sunderbans delta. landmass of India. The general elevation of the
Otherwise, this is a featureless plain with a plateau is from the west to the east, which is
general elevation of 50-150 m above the mean also proved by the pattern of the flow of rivers.
sea level. The states of Haryana and Delhi form Name some rivers of the Peninsular plateau
a water divide between the Indus and the which have their confluence in the Bay of
Ganga river systems. As opposed to this, the Bengal and the Arabian sea and mention some
Brahmaputra river flows from the northeast to landforms which are typical to the east flowing
the southwest direction before it takes an rivers but are absent in the west flowing rivers.
almost 90° southward turn at Dhubri before Some of the important physiographic features
it enters into Bangladesh. These river valley of this region are tors, block mountains, rift
plains have a fertile alluvial soil cover which valleys, spurs, bare rocky structures, series of
supports a variety of crops like wheat, rice, hummocky hills and wall-like quartzite dykes
sugarcane and jute, and hence, supports a offering natural sites for water storage. The
large population. western and northwestern part of the plateau
has an emphatic presence of black soil.
The Peninsular Plateau This Peninsular plateau has undergone
recurrent phases of upliftment and
Rising from the height of 150 m above the river
submergence accompanied by crustal faulting
plains up to an elevation of 600-900 m is the
and fractures. (The Bhima fault needs special
irregular triangle known as the Peninsular
mention, because of its recurrent seismic
plateau. Delhi ridge in the northwest, (extension
activities). These spatial variations have
of Aravalis), the Rajmahal hills in the east, Gir
brought in elements of diversity in the relief
range in the west and the Cardamom hills in
of the Peninsular plateau. The northwestern
the south constitute the outer extent of the
part of the plateau has a complex relief of
Peninsular plateau. However, an extension of
ravines and gorges. The ravines of Chambal,
this is also seen in the northeast, in the form of
Bhind and Morena are some of the well-known
Shillong and Karbi-Anglong plateau. The
examples.
Peninsular India is made up of a series of
On the basis of the prominent relief
patland plateaus such as the Hazaribagh
features, the Peninsular plateau can be
divided into three broad groups:
(i) The Deccan Plateau
(ii) The Central Highlands
(iii) The Northeastern Plateau.
The Deccan Plateau

This is bordered by the Western Ghats in the
west, Eastern Ghats in the east and the
Satpura, Maikal range and Mahadeo hills in
the north. Western Ghats are locally known
by different names such as Sahyadri in
Maharashtra, Nilgiri hills in Karnataka and
Figure 2.5 : A Part of Peninsular Plateau
Tamil Nadu and Anaimalai hills and
Cardamom hills in Kerala. Western Ghats are
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comparatively higher in elevation and more which lies a large reserve of mineral resources
continuous than the Eastern Ghats. Their in the Chotanagpur plateau.
average elevation is about 1,500 m with the
height increasing from north to south. The Northeastern Plateau
‘Anaimudi’ (2,695 m), the highest peak of
In fact it is an extension of the main Peninsular
Peninsular plateau is located on the
plateau. It is believed that due to the force
Anaimalai hills of the Western Ghats followed
exerted by the northeastward movement of the
by Dodabetta (2,637 m) on the Nilgiri hills.
Indian plate at the time of the Himalayan
Most of the Peninsular rivers have their origin
origin, a huge fault was created between the
in the Wester n Ghats. Easter n Ghats
Rajmahal hills and the Meghalaya plateau.
comprising the discontinuous and low hills
Later, this depression got filled up by the
are highly eroded by the rivers such as the
deposition activity of the numerous rivers.
Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna, the
Today, the Meghalaya and Karbi Anglong
Kaveri, etc. Some of the important ranges
plateau stand detached from the main
include the Javadi hills, the Palconda range,
Peninsular Block. The Meghalaya plateau is
the Nallamala hills, the Mahendragiri hills, etc.
further sub-divided into three: (i) The Garo
The Eastern and the Western Ghats meet each
Hills; (ii) The Khasi Hills; (iii) The Jaintia Hills,
other at the Nilgiri hills.
named after the tribal groups inhabiting this
region. An extension of this is also seen in the
The Central Highlands
Karbi Anglong hills of Assam. Similar to the
They are bounded to the west by the Aravali Chotanagpur plateau, the Meghalaya plateau
range. The Satpura range is formed by a is also rich in mineral resources like coal, iron
series of scarped plateaus on the south, ore, sillimanite, limestone and uranium. This
generally at an elevation varying between area receives maximum rainfall from the south
600-900 m above the mean sea level. This west monsoon. As a result, the Meghalaya
forms the northernmost boundary of the plateau has a highly eroded surface.
Deccan plateau. It is a classic example of the Cherrapunji displays a bare rocky surface
relict mountains which are highly denuded devoid of any permanent vegetation cover.
and form discontinuous ranges. The
extension of the Peninsular plateau can be The Indian Desert
seen as far as Jaisalmer in the West, where it
has been covered by the longitudinal sand To the northwest of the Aravali hills lies the
ridges and crescent-shaped sand dunes Great Indian desert. It is a land of undulating
called barchans. This region has undergone topography dotted with longitudinal dunes
metamorphic processes in its geological and barchans. This region receives low rainfall
history, which can be corroborated by the below 150 mm per year; hence, it has arid
presence of metamorphic rocks such as climate with low vegetation cover. It is because
marble, slate, gneiss, etc. of these characteristic features that this is also
The general elevation of the Central known as Marusthali. It is believed that
Highlands ranges between 700-1,000 m during the Mesozoic era, this region was
above the mean sea level and it slopes under the sea. This can be corroborated
towards the north and northeastern by the evidence available at wood fossils
directions. Most of the tributaries of the river park at Aakal and marine deposits around
Yamuna have their origin in the Vindhyan Brahmsar, near Jaisalmer (The
and Kaimur ranges. Banas is the only approximate age of the wood-fossils is
significant tributary of the river Chambal that estimated to be 180 million years). Though
originates from the Aravalli in the west. An the underlying rock structure of the desert
eastern extension of the Central Highland is is an extension of the Peninsular plateau,
formed by the Rajmahal hills, to the south of yet, due to extreme arid conditions, its surface
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provides natural conditions for the

development of ports and harbours. Kandla,
Mazagaon, JLN port Navha Sheva, Marmagao,
Mangalore, Cochin, etc. are some of the
important natural ports located along the
west coast. Extending from the Gujarat coast
in the north to the Kerala coast in the south,
the western coast may be divided into
following divisions – the Kachchh and
Kathiawar coast in Gujarat, Konkan coast in
Maharashtra, Goan coast and Malabar coast
in Karnataka and Kerala respectively. The
Figure 2.6 : The Indian Desert western coastal plains are narrow in the
middle and get broader towards north and
Can you identify the type of sand south. The rivers flowing through this coastal
dunes shown in this picture? plain do not form any delta. The Malabar
coast has got certain distinguishing features
in the form of ‘Kayals’ (backwaters), which are
features have been carved by physical
used for fishing, inland navigation and also
weathering and wind actions. Some of the well
due to its special attraction for tourists. Every
pronounced desert land features present here
year the famous Nehru Trophy Vallamkali
are mushroom rocks, shifting dunes and oasis
(boat race) is held in Punnamada Kayal in
(mostly in its southern part). On the basis of
Kerala.
the orientation, the desert can be divided into
As compared to the western coastal plain,
two parts: the northern part is sloping towards
the eastern coastal plain is broader and is an
Sindh and the southern towards the Rann of
example of an emergent coast. There are well-
Kachchh. Most of the rivers in this region are
developed deltas here, formed by the rivers
ephemeral. The Luni river flowing in the
flowing eastward in to the Bay of Bengal. These
southern part of the desert is of some
include the deltas of the Mahanadi, the
significance. Low precipitation and high
Godavari, the Krishna and the Kaveri. Because
evaporation makes it a water deficit region.
of its emergent nature, it has less number of
There are some streams which disappear after
ports and harbours. The continental shelf
flowing for some distance and present a typical
extends up to 500 km into the sea, which
case of inland drainage by joining a lake or
makes it difficult for the development of
playa. The lakes and the playas have brackish
good ports and harbours. Name some ports
water which is the main source of obtaining salt.
on the eastern coast.
The Coastal Plains
You have already read that India has a long
coastline . On the basis of the location and
active geomorphological processes, it can be
broadly divided into two: (i) the western
coastal plains; (ii) the eastern coastal plains.
The western coastal plains are an example
of submerged coastal plain. It is believed that
the city of Dwaraka which was once a part of
the Indian mainland situated along the west
coast is submerged under water. Because of
this submergence it is a narrow belt and Figure 2.7 : Coastal Plains
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On 26 December 2004, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands experienced one of the most
devasting natural calamity. Can you name the calamity and identify some other areas
which were adversely affected by the same calamity? What was its major consequence?
The Islands The islands of the Arabian sea include

Lakshadweep and Minicoy. These are
There are two major island groups in India – scattered between 8°°N-12°°N and 71°°E -74°°E
one in the Bay of Bengal and the other in the longitude. These islands are located at a
Arabian Sea. The Bay of Bengal island groups distance of 220 km-440 km of f the Kerala
consist of about 572 islands/islets. These are coast. The entire island group is built of
situated roughly between 6°°N-14°°N and coral deposits. There are approximately 36
92°°E -94°°E. The two principal groups of islets islands of which 11 are inhabited. Minicoy is
include the Ritchie’s archipelago and the the largest island with an area of 453 sq. km.
Labrynth island. The entire group of island is The entire group of islands is broadly divided
divided into two broad categories – the by the Nine degree channel, north of which
Andaman in the north and the Nicobar in is the Amini Island and to the south of the
the south. They are separated by a Canannore Island. The Islands of this
waterbody which is called the Ten degree archipelago have storm beaches consisting of
channel. It is believed that these islands are unconsolidated pebbles, shingles, cobbles and
an elevated portion of submarine mountains. boulders on the eastern seaboard.
However, some smaller islands are volcanic in
origin. Barren island, the only active volcano
in India is also situated in the Nicobar islands.
Some important mountain peaks in

Andaman and Nicobar Islands are Saddle
peak (North Andaman – 738 m), Mount
Diavolo (Middle Andaman – 515 m), Mount
Koyob (South Andaman – 460 m) and Mount
Thuiller (Great Nicobar – 642 m).
The coastal line has some coral deposits,

and beautiful beaches. These islands receive
convectional rainfall and have an equatorial
type of vegetation. Figure 2.8 : An Island
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EXERCISES
(i) Which one of the water bodies separates the Andaman from the Nicobar?
(a) 11°° Channel (c) 10°° Channel
(b) Gulf of Mannar (d) Andaman Sea
(ii) On which of the following hill range is the ‘Dodabeta’ peak situated?
(a) Nilgiri hills (c) Cardamom hills
(b) Anaimalai hills (d) Nallamala hills
(i) If a person is to travel to Lakshadweep, from which coastal plain does he
prefer and why?
(ii) Where in India will you find a cold desert? Name some important
ranges of this region.
(iii) Why is the western coastal plain is devoid of any delta?
3 . Answer the following questions in not more than 125 words.
(i) Make a comparison of the island groups of the Arabian Sea and the
Bay of Bengal.
(ii) What are the important geomorphological features found in the river
valley plains?
(iii) If you move from Badrinath to Sunderbans delta along the course of
the river Ganga, what major geomorphological features will you come
across?
Project/Activity
(i) Make a list of major Himalayan peaks from the west to the east with the
help of an atlas.
(ii) Identify the major landforms of your state and analyse the major economic
activity practised by the people in each landform.
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CHAPTER
DRAINAGE SYSTEM
Y
ou have observed water flowing through 2006) in this class . Can you, then, explain the
the rivers, nalas and even channels reason for water flowing from one direction to
during rainy season which drain the the other? Why do the rivers originating from the
excess water. Had these channels not been Himalayas in the northern India and the Western
there, large-scale flooding would have Ghat in the southern India flow towards the east
occurred. Wherever channels are ill-defined or and discharge their waters in the Bay of Bengal?
choked, flooding is a common phenomenon.
The flow of water through well-defined

channels is known as ‘drainage’ and the
network of such channels is called a
‘drainage system’. The drainage pattern
of an area is the outcome of the geological
time period, nature and structure of
rocks, topography, slope, amount of
water flowing and the periodicity of
the flow.
Do you have a river near your village or city?

Have you ever been there for boating or bathing? Figure 3.1 : A River in the Mountainous Region
Is it perennial (always with water) or ephemeral
(water during rainy season, and dry, otherwise)? A river drains the water collected from a
Do you know that rivers flow in the same specific area, which is called its ‘catchment area’.
direction? You have studied about slopes in the An area drained by a river and its tributaries
other two textbooks of geography (NCERT, is called a drainage basin. The boundary line
Important Drainage Patterns

(i) The drainage pattern resembling the branches of a tree is known as “dendritic” the examples
of which are the rivers of northern plain.
(ii) When the rivers originate from a hill and flow in all directions, the drainage pattern is known
as ‘radial’. The rivers originating from the Amarkantak range present a good example of it.
(iii) When the primary tributaries of rivers flow parallel to each other and secondary tributaries
join them at right angles, the pattern is known as ‘trellis’.
(iv) When the rivers discharge their waters from all directions in a lake or depression, the
pattern is know as ‘centripetal’.
Find out some of the patterns in the topo sheet given in Chapter 5 of Practical Work in
Geography– Part I (NCERT, 2006).
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AFGHANISTAN
Figure 3.2 : Major Rivers of India
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DRAINAGE SYSTEM 19
separating one drainage basin from the other in the Bay of Bengal. Identify these rivers of the
is known as the watershed. The catchments of South India.
large rivers are called river basins while those The Narmada and Tapi are two large rivers
of small rivulets and rills are often referred to which are exceptions. They along with many
as watersheds. There is, however, a slight small rivers discharge their waters in the
difference between a river basin and a Arabian Sea.
watershed. Watersheds are small in area while Name these rivers of the western coastal
the basins cover larger areas. region from the Konkan to the Malabar coast.
River basins and watersheds are marked On the basis of the mode of origin, nature
by unity. What happens in one part of the and characteristics, the Indian drainage may
basin or watershed directly affects the other also be classified into the Himalayan drainage
parts and the unit as a whole. That is why, they and the Peninsular drainage. Although it has
are accepted as the most appropriate micro, the problem of including the Chambal, the
meso or macro planning regions. Betwa, the Son, etc. which are much older in
Indian drainage system may be divided on age and origin than other rivers that have their
various bases. On the basis of discharge of water origin in the Himalayas, it is the most accepted
(orientations to the sea), it may be grouped into: basis of classification. Hence, this scheme has
(i) the Arabian Sea drainage; and (ii) the Bay of been followed in this book.
Bengal drainage. They are separated from each
other through the Delhi ridge, the Aravalis and DRAINAGE SYSTEMS OF INDIA
the Sahyadris (water divide is shown by a line
Indian drainage system consists of a large
in Figure 3.1). Nearly 77 per cent of the drainage
number of small and big rivers. It is the outcome
area consisting of the Ganga, the Brahmaputra,
of the evolutionary process of the three major
the Mahanadi, the Krishna, etc. is oriented
physiographic units and the nature and
towards the Bay of Bengal while 23 per cent
characteristics of precipitation.
comprising the Indus, the Narmada, the Tapi,
the Mahi and the Periyar systems discharge
THE HIMALAYAN DRAINAGE
their waters in the Arabian Sea.
On the basis of the size of the watershed, The Himalayan drainage system has evolved
the drainage basins of India are grouped into through a long geological history. It mainly
three categories: (i) Major river basins with includes the Ganga, the Indus and the
more than 20,000 sq. km of catchment area. Brahmaputra river basins. Since these are fed
It includes 14 drainage basins such as the both by melting of snow and precipitation,
Ganga, the Brahmaputra, the Krishna, the rivers of this system are perennial. These rivers
Tapi, the Narmada, the Mahi, the Pennar, the pass through the giant gorges carved out by
Sabarmati, the Barak, etc. (Appendix III). (ii) the erosional activity carried on simultaneously
Medium river basins with catchment area with the uplift of the Himalayas. Besides deep
between 2,000-20,000 sq. km incorporating gorges, these rivers also form V-shaped valleys,
44 river basins such as the Kalindi, the Periyar, rapids and waterfalls in their mountainous
the Meghna, etc. (iii) Minor river basins with
catchment area of less than 2,000 sq. km
include fairly good number of rivers flowing in
the area of low rainfall.
If you look at the Figure 3.1 you can see
that many rivers have their sources in the
Himalayas and discharge their waters either in
the Bay of Bengal or in the Arabian Sea. Identify
these rivers of North India. Large rivers flowing
on the Peninsular plateau have their origin in
the Western Ghats and discharge their waters Figure 3.3 : Rapids
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course. While entering the plains, they form as the water divide between the Indus and
depositional features like flat valleys, ox-bow Ganga drainage systems. Likewise, the down-
lakes, flood plains, braided channels, and thrusting of the Malda gap area between the
deltas near the river mouth. In the Himalayan Rajmahal hills and the Meghalaya plateau
reaches, the course of these rivers is highly during the mid-pleistocene period, diverted the
tortous, but over the plains they display a Ganga and the Brahmaputra systems to flow
strong meandering tendency and shift their towards the Bay of Bengal.
courses frequently. River Kosi, also know as
the ‘sorrow of Bihar’, has been notorious for THE RIVER SYSTEMS OF THE
frequently changing its course. The Kosi brings HIMALAYAN DRAINAGE
huge quantity of sediments from its upper
reaches and deposits it in the plains. The The Himalayan drainage consists of several
course gets blocked, and consequently, the river systems but the following are the major
river changes its course. Why does the Kosi river systems:
river bring such huge quantity of sediments
The Indus System
from the upper reaches? Do you think that
the discharge of the water in the rivers in It is one of the largest river basins of the world,
general and the Kosi in particular, remains the covering an area of 11,65,000 sq. km (in India
same, or does it fluctuate? When does the river it is 321, 289 sq. km and a total length of 2,880
course receive the maximum quantity of water? km (in India 1,114 km). The Indus also
What are the positive and negative effects of known as the Sindhu, is the westernmost of
flooding? the Himalayan rivers in India. It originates
from a glacier near Bokhar Chu (31°°15' N
EVOLUTION OF THE HIMALAYAN DRAINAGE latitude and 81°°40' E longitude) in the
Tibetan region at an altitude of 4,164 m in
There are difference of opinion about the
the Kailash Mountain range. In Tibet, it is
evolution of the Himalayan rivers. However,
known as ‘Singi Khamban; or Lion’s mouth.
geologists believe that a mighty river called
After flowing in the northwest direction
Shiwalik or Indo-Brahma traversed the entire between the Ladakh and Zaskar ranges, it
longitudinal extent of the Himalaya from Assam passes through Ladakh and Baltistan. It cuts
to Punjab and onwards to Sind, and finally across the Ladakh range, forming a
discharged into the Gulf of Sind near lower spectacular gorge near Gilgit in Jammu and
Punjab during the Miocene period some 5-24 Kashmir. It enters into Pakistan near Chilas
million years ago The remarkable continuity of in the Dardistan region. Find out the area
the Shiwalik and its lacustrine origin and known as Dardistan.
alluvial deposits consisting of sands, silt, clay, The Indus receives a number of Himalayan
boulders and conglomerates support this tributaries such as the Shyok, the Gilgit, the
viewpoint. Zaskar, the Hunza, the Nubra, the Shigar, the
It is opined that in due course of time Indo– Gasting and the Dras. It finally emerges out of
Brahma river was dismembered into three main the hills near Attock where it receives the Kabul
drainage systems: (i) the Indus and its five river on its right bank. The other important
tributaries in the western part; (ii) the Ganga tributaries joining the right bank of the Indus
and its Himalayan tributaries in the central are the Khurram, the Tochi, the Gomal, the
part; and (iii) the stretch of the Brahmaputra Viboa and the Sangar. They all originate in the
in Assam and its Himalayan tributaries in the Sulaiman ranges. The river flows southward
eastern part. The dismemberment was and receives ‘Panjnad’ a little above Mithankot.
probably due to the Pleistocene upheaval in The Panjnad is the name given to the five rivers
the western Himalayas, including the uplift of of Punjab, namely the Satluj, the Beas, the
the Potwar Plateau (Delhi Ridge), which acted Ravi, the Chenab and the Jhelum. It finally
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DRAINAGE SYSTEM 21
discharges into the Arabian Sea, east of Gangotri glacier near Gaumukh (3,900 m)
Karachi. The Indus flows in India only through in the Uttarkashi district of Uttarakhand.
Jammu and Kashmir. Here, it is known as the Bhagirathi. It cuts
through the Central and the Lesser
The Jhelum, an important tributary of the
Himalayas in narrow gorges. At Devprayag,
Indus, rises from a spring at Verinag situated
the Bhagirathi meets the Alaknanda;
at the foot of the Pir Panjal in the south-eastern
hereafter, it is known as the Ganga. The
part of the valley of Kashmir. It flows through
Alaknanda has its source in the Satopanth
Srinagar and the Wular lake before entering
glacier above Badrinath. The Alaknanda
Pakistan through a deep narrow gorge. It joins
consists of the Dhauli and the Vishnu Ganga
the Chenab near Jhang in Pakistan.
which meet at Joshimath or Vishnu Prayag.
The Chenab is the largest tributary of the
The other tributaries of Alaknanda such as
Indus. It is formed by two streams, the
the Pindar joins it at Karna Prayag
Chandra and the Bhaga, which join at
while Mandakini or Kali Ganga meets it at
Tandi near Keylong in Himachal Pradesh.
Rudra Prayag. The Ganga enters the plains
Hence, it is also known as Chandrabhaga.
at Haridwar. From here, it flows first to
The river flows for 1,180 km before entering
the south, then to the south-east and east
into Pakistan.
before splitting into two distributaries,
The Ravi is another important tributary of
namely the Bhagirathi and the Padma. The
the Indus. It rises west of the Rohtang pass in
river has a length of 2,525 km. It is shared by
the Kullu hills of Himachal Pradesh and flows
Uttarakhand (110 km) and Uttar Pradesh
through the Chamba valley of the state. Before
(1,450 km), Bihar (445 km) and West Bengal
entering Pakistan and joining the Chenab near
(520 km). The Ganga basin covers about 8.6
Sarai Sidhu, it drains the area lying between
lakh sq. km area in India alone. The Ganga
the southeastern part of the Pir Panjal and the
Dhauladhar ranges.
The Beas is another important tributary of
the Indus, originating from the Beas Kund near Do you Know?
the Rohtang Pass at an elevation of 4,000 m ‘Namami Gange Programme’, is an
above the mean sea level. The river flows Integrated Conservation Mission, approved
through the Kullu valley and forms gorges at as “Flagship Programme” by the Union
Kati and Largi in the Dhaoladhar range. It Government in June 2014 with the twin
enters the Punjab plains where it meets the objectives of effective abatement of pollution,
Satluj near Harike. conservation and rejuvenation of the
The Satluj originates in the ‘Raksas tal’ near National River Ganga.
Mansarovar at an altitude of 4,555 m in Tibet Main pillars of the Namami Gange
where it is known as Langchen Khambab. It
Programme are:
flows almost parallel to the Indus for about 400
• Sewerage Treatment Infrastructure
km before entering India, and comes out of a
• River-Front Development
gorge at Rupar. It passes through the Shipki
• River-Surface Cleaning
La on the Himalayan ranges and enters the
• Bio-Diversity
Punjab plains. It is an antecedent river. It is a
• Afforestation
very important tributary as it feeds the canal
• Public Awareness
system of the Bhakra Nangal project. • Industrial Effluent Monitoring
• Ganga Gram
The Ganga System
You may explore about this project at
The Ganga is the most important river of http://nmcg.nic.in/NamamiGanga.aspx#
India both from the point of view of its basin
and cultural significance. It rises in the
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river system is the largest in India having a The Kosi is an antecedent river with its
number of perennial and non-perennial source to the north of Mount Everest in Tibet,
rivers originating in the Himalayas in the where its main stream Arun rises. After
north and the Peninsula in the south, crossing the Central Himalayas in Nepal, it is
respectively. The Son is its major right bank joined by the Son Kosi from the West and the
tributary. The important left bank Tamur Kosi from the east. It forms Sapt Kosi
tributaries are the Ramganga, the Gomati, after uniting with the river Arun.
the Ghaghara, the Gandak, the Kosi and the The Ramganga is comparatively a small
Mahananda. The river finally discharges river rising in the Garhwal hills near Gairsain.
itself into the Bay of Bengal near the It changes its course to the southwest direction
Sagar Island. after crossing the Shiwalik and enters into the
The Yamuna, the western most and the plains of Uttar Pradesh near Najibabad. Finally,
longest tributary of the Ganga, has its source it joins the Ganga near Kannauj.
in the Yamunotri glacier on the western
The Damodar occupies the eastern margins
slopes of Banderpunch range (6,316 m). It
joins the Ganga at Prayag (Allahabad). It is of the Chotanagpur Plateau where it flows
joined by the Chambal, the Sind, the Betwa through a rift valley and finally joins the Hugli.
and the Ken on its right bank which The Barakar is its main tributary. Once known
originates from the Peninsular plateau while as the ‘sorrow of Bengal’, the Damodar has
the Hindan, the Rind, the Sengar, the Varuna, been now tamed by the Damodar Valley
etc. join it on its left bank. Much of its water corporation, a multipurpose project.
feeds the western and eastern Yamuna and The Sarda or Saryu river rises in the Milam
the Agra canals for irrigation purposes. glacier in the Nepal Himalayas where it is
known as the Goriganga. Along the Indo-Nepal
Name the states which are drained by
border, it is called Kali or Chauk, where it joins
the river Yamuna.
the Ghaghara.
The Chambal rises near Mhow in the The Mahananda is another important
Malwa plateau of Madhya Pradesh and flows tributary of the Ganga rising in the Darjiling
northwards through a gorge up wards of Kota hills. It joins the Ganga as its last left bank
in Rajasthan, where the Gandhisagar dam has tributary in West Bengal.
been constructed. From Kota, it traverses down The Son is a large south bank tributary of
to Bundi, Sawai Madhopur and Dholpur, and the Ganga, originating in the Amarkantak
finally joins the Yamuna. The Chambal is plateau. After forming a series of waterfalls at
famous for its badland topography called the the edge of the plateau, it reaches Arrah, west
Chambal ravines. of Patna, to join the Ganga.
The Gandak comprises two streams,
The Brahmaputra System
namely Kaligandak and Trishulganga. It rises
in the Nepal Himalayas between the Dhaulagiri The Brahmaputra, one of the largest rivers
and Mount Everest and drains the central part of the world, has its origin in the
of Nepal. It enters the Ganga plain in Chemayungdung glacier of the Kailash
Champaran district of Bihar and joins the range near the Mansarovar lake. From here,
Ganga at Sonpur near Patna. it traverses eastward longitudinally for a
The Ghaghara originates in the glaciers of distance of nearly 1,200 km in a dry and
Mapchachungo. After collecting the waters of flat region of southern Tibet, where it is
its tributaries – Tila, Seti and Beri, it comes known as the Tsangpo, which means ‘the
out of the mountain, cutting a deep gorge at purifier.’ The Rango Tsangpo is the major
Shishapani. The river Sarda (Kali or Kali right bank tributary of this river in Tibet. It
Ganga) joins it in the plain before it finally meets emerges as a turbulent and dynamic river
the Ganga at Chhapra. after carving out a deep gorge in the Central
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DRAINAGE SYSTEM 23
Himalayas near Namcha Barwa (7,755 m). The Evolution of Peninsular Drainage
The river emerges from the foothills under System
the name of Siang or Dihang. It enters India
Three major geological events in the distant
west of Sadiya town in Arunachal Pradesh.
past have shaped the present drainage
Flowing southwest, it receives its main left
systems of Peninsular India: (i) Subsidence
bank tributaries, viz., Dibang or Sikang and
of the western flank of the Peninsula leading
Lohit; thereafter, it is known as the
to its submergence below the sea during the
Brahmaputra.
early tertiary period. Generally, it has
The Brahmaputra receives numerous
disturbed the symmetrical plan of the river
tributaries in its 750 km long journey through
on either side of the original watershed.
the Assam valley. Its major left bank
(ii) Upheaval of the Himalayas when the
tributaries are the Burhi Dihing and Dhansari
northern flank of the Peninsular block was
(South) whereas the important right bank
subjected to subsidence and the consequent
tributaries are the Subansiri, Kameng, Manas
trough faulting. The Narmada and The Tapi
and Sankosh. The Subansiri which has its
flow in trough faults and fill the original
origin in Tibet, is an antecedent river. The
cracks with their detritus materials. Hence,
Brahmaputra enters into Bangladesh near
there is a lack of alluvial and deltaic deposits
Dhubri and flows southward. In Bangladesh,
in these rivers. (iii) Slight tilting of the
the Tista joins it on its right bank from where
Peninsular block from northwest to the
the river is known as the Jamuna. It finally
southeastern direction gave orientation to the
merges with the river Padma, which falls in the
entire drainage system towards the Bay of
Bay of Bengal. The Brahmaputra is well-known
Bengal during the same period.
for floods, channel shifting and bank erosion.
This is due to the fact that most of its tributaries
River Systems of the Peninsular Drainage
are large, and bring large quantity of sediments
owing to heavy rainfall in its catchment area. There are a large number of river systems in
the Peninsular drainage. A brief account of the
THE PENINSULAR DRAINAGE SYSTEM major Peninsular river systems is given below:
The Mahanadi rises near Sihawa in
The Peninsular drainage system is older than Raipur district of Chhattisgarh and runs
the Himalayan one. This is evident from the through Odisha to discharge its water into
broad, largely-graded shallow valleys, and the the Bay of Bengal. It is 851 km long and its
maturity of the rivers. The Western Ghats catchment area spreads over 1.42 lakh sq.
running close to the western coast act as the km. Some navigation is carried on in the
water divide between the major Peninsular lower course of this river. Fifty three per cent
rivers, discharging their water in the Bay of of the drainage basin of this river lies in
Bengal and as small rivulets joining the Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh, while 47
Arabian Sea. Most of the major Peninsular per cent lies in Odisha.
rivers except Narmada and Tapi flow from west The Godavari is the largest Peninsular river
to east. The Chambal, the Sind, the Betwa, the system. It is also called the Dakshin Ganga. It
Ken, the Son, originating in the northern part rises in the Nasik district of Maharashtra and
of the Peninsula belong to the Ganga river discharges its water into the Bay of Bengal. Its
system. The other major river systems of the tributaries run through the states of
Peninsular drainage are – the Mahanadi the Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh,
Godavari, the Krishna and the Kaveri. Odisha and Andhra Pradesh. It is 1,465 km
Peninsular rivers are characterised by fixed long with a catchment area spreading over
course, absence of meanders and non- 3.13 lakh sq. km 49 per cent of this, lies in
perennial flow of water. The Narmada and the Maharashtra, 20 per cent in Madhya Pradesh
Tapi which flow through the rift valley are, and Chhattisgarh, and the rest in Andhra
however, exceptions. Pradesh. The Penganga, the Indravati, the
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Pranhita, and the Manjra are its principal

The Tapi is the other important westward
tributaries. The Godavari is subjected to heavy
flowing river. It originates from Multai in the Betul
floods in its lower reaches to the south of
district of Madhya Pradesh. It is 724 km long
Polavaram, where it forms a picturesque gorge.
and drains an area of 65,145 sq. km. Nearly 79
It is navigable only in the deltaic stretch. The
per cent of its basin lies in Maharashtra, 15 per
river after Rajamundri splits into several
cent in Madhya Pradesh and the remaining
branches forming a large delta.
6 per cent in Gujarat.
The Krishna is the second largest east-
Luni is the largest river system of
flowing Peninsular river which rises near
Rajasthan, west of Aravali. It originates near
Mahabaleshwar in Sahyadri. Its total length
Pushkar in two branches, i.e. the Saraswati
is 1,401 km. The Koyna, the Tungbhadra and
and the Sabarmati, which join with each other
the Bhima are its major tributaries. Of the total
at Govindgarh. From here, the river comes out
catchment area of the Krishna, 27 per cent
of Aravali and is known as Luni. It flows
lies in Maharashtra, 44 per cent in Karnataka
towards the west till Telwara and then takes a
and 29 per cent in Andhra Pradesh
southwest direction to join the Rann of
and Telangana.
Kuchchh. The entire river system is ephemeral.
The Kaveri rises in Brahmagiri hills
(1,341m) of Kogadu district in Karnataka. Its
EXTENT OF USABILITY OF RIVER WATER
length is 800 km and it drains an area of
81,155 sq. km. Since the upper catchment The rivers of India carry huge volumes of water
area receives rainfall during the southwest per year but it is unevenly distributed both in
monsoon season (summer) and the lower part time and space. There are perennial rivers
during the northeast monsoon season carrying water throughout the year while the
(winter), the river carries water throughout the non-perennial rivers have very little water during
year with comparatively less fluctuation than the dry season. During the rainy season, much
the other Peninsular rivers. About 3 per cent of the water is wasted in floods and flows down
of the Kaveri basin falls in Kerala, 41 per cent to the sea. Similarly, when there is a flood in one
in Karnataka and 56 per cent in Tamil Nadu. part of the country, the other area suffers from
Its important tributaries are the Kabini, the drought. Why does this happen? Is it the
Bhavani and the Amravati. problem of availability of water resource or
The Narmada originates on the western that of its management? Can you suggest
flank of the Amarkantak plateau at a height some measures to mitigate the problems
of about 1,057 m. Flowing in a rift valley of floods and droughts simultaneously
between the Satpura in the south and the occuring in different parts of the country?
Vindhyan range in the north, it forms a (See Chapter 6 of the book).
picturesque gorge in marble rocks and
Dhuandhar waterfall near Jabalpur. After Can these problems be solved or
flowing a distance of about 1,312 km, it minimised by trasfering the surplus water
meets the Arabian sea south of Bharuch, from one basin to the water deficit basins? Do
forming a broad 27 km long estuary. Its we have some schemes of inter -basin
catchment area is about 98,796 sq. km. The linkage?
Sardar Sarovar Project has been constructed
on this river. Teachers may explain the following
examples
• Periyar Diversion Scheme
Collect information about Narmada • Indira Gandhi Canal Project
river conservation mission named • Kurnool-Cuddapah Canal
“Namami Devi Narmade” and discuss • Beas-Satluj Link Canal
with your peers. • Ganga-Kaveri Link Canal
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DRAINAGE SYSTEM 25
Have you read in the newspapers about the (v) River water disputes between states
linking of rivers? Do you think that digging a (vi) Shrinking of channels due to the extension
canal is enough to transfer water from the of settlements towards the thalweg.
Ganga basin to the Peninsular river? What is
Why are the rivers polluted? Have you seen
the major problem? Consult Chapter 2 of this
the dirty waters of cities entering into the
book and find out the difficulties posed by the rivers? Where do the industrial affluents and
unevenness of the terrain. How can the water wastes get disposed of ? Most of the cremation
be lifted from the plain area to the plateau grounds are on the banks of rivers and the
area? Is there sufficient surplus water in the dead bodies are sometimes thrown in the
north Indian rivers which can be transferred rivers. On the occasion of some festivals, the
on a regular basis? Organise a debate on the flowers and statues are immersed in the rivers.
whole issue and prepare a write up. How do Large scale bathing and washing of clothes
you rank the following problems in using also pollute river waters. How can the rivers
river water? be made pollution free? Have you read about
(i) No availability in sufficient quantity Ganga Action Plan, or about a campaign for
(ii) River water pollution cleaning the Yamuna at Delhi? Collect
(iii) Load of silt in the river water materials on schemes for making rivers
(iv) Uneven seasonal flow of water pollution free and organise the materials in a
write up.
EXERCISES
(i) Which one of the following rivers was known as the ‘Sorrow of Bengal’?
(a) The Gandak (c) The Kosi
(b) The Son (d) The Damodar
(ii) Which one of the following rivers has the largest river basin in India?
(a) The Indus (c) The Ganga
(b) The Brahmaputra (d) The Krishna
(iii) Which one of the following rivers is not included in ‘Panchnad’?
(a) The Ravi (c) The Indus
(b) The Chenab (d) The Jhelum
(iv) Which one of the following rivers flows in a rift valley?
(a) The Son (c) The Yamuna
(b) The Narmada (d) The Luni
(v) Which one of the following is the place of confluence of the Alaknanda and the
Bhagirathi?
(a) Vishnu Prayag (c) Karan Prayag
(b) Rudra Prayag (d) Deva Prayag
2. State the differences between the following.
(i) River Basin and Watershed
(ii) Dendritic and Trellis drainage pattern
(iii) Radial and Centripetal drainage pattern
(iv) Delta and Estuary
(i) What are the socio-economic advantages of inter-linking of rivers in India?
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(ii) Write three characterstics of the Peninsular river.

4. Answer the following questions in not more than 125 words.
(i) What are the important characteristic features of north Indian rivers? How are
these different from Peninsular rivers?
(ii) Suppose you are travelling from Haridwar to Siliguri along the foothills of the
Himalayas. Name the important rivers you will come across. Describe the
characteristics of any one of them.
Project/Activity
Study the Appendix III and answer the following questions.
(i) Which river has the largest proportion of catchment area in the country?
(ii) Make a comparative bar diagram on a graph paper to show the length of the
courses of the rivers.
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UNIT
III
CLIMATE AND VEGETATION

• Weather and climate – spatial and temporal distribution of temperature,
pressure, winds and rainfall; Indian monsoons: mechanism, onset and
variability – spatial and temporal; climatic types
• Natural vegetation – forest types and distribution; wild life
conservation; biosphere reserves
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CHAPTER
CLIMATE
W
e drink more water during summers. the weather and climate of different regions of
Your uniform during the summer is India. For example, the climate of Kerala and
different from the winters. Why do Tamil Nadu in the south are so different from
you wear lighter clothes during summers and that of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar in the north,
heavy woollen clothes during winters in north and yet all of these have a monsoon type of
India? In southern India, woollen clothes are climate. The climate of India has many regional
not required. In northeastern states, winters variations expressed in the pattern of winds,
are mild except in the hills. There are variations temperature and rainfall, rhythm of seasons
in weather conditions during different seasons. and the degree of wetness or dryness. These
These changes occur due to the changes in the regional diversities may be described as
elements of weather (temperature, pressure, sub-types of monsoon climate. Let us take a
wind direction and velocity, humidity and closer look at these regional variations in
precipitation, etc.). temperature, winds and rainfall.
While in the summer the mercury
Weather is the momentary state of the occasionally touches 55°°C in the western
atmosphere while climate refers to the Rajasthan, it drops down to as low as minus
average of the weather conditions over a 45°°C in winter around Leh. Churu in
longer period of time. Weather changes Rajasthan may record a temperature of
quickly, may be within a day or week but
50°°C or more on a June day while the
climate changes imperceptively and may
mercury hardly touches 19°°C in Tawang
be noted after 50 years or even more.
(Arunachal Pradesh) on the same day.
On a December night, temperature in
You have already studied about the
Drass (Ladakh) may drop down to minus
monsoon in your earlier classes. You are also
45°°C while Thiruvananthapuram or Chennai
aware of the meaning of the word, “monsoon”.
on the same night records 20°°C or 22°°C. These
Monsoon connotes the climate associated with
examples confirm that there are seasonal
seasonal reversal in the direction of winds.
variations in temperature from place to place
India has hot monsoonal climate which is the
and from region to region in India. Not only this,
prevalent climate in south and southeast Asia.
if we take only a single place and record the
temperature for just one day, variations are no
UNITY AND DIVERSITY IN THE MONSOON CLIMATE
less striking. In Kerala and in the Andaman
The monsoon regime emphasises the unity of Islands, the difference between day and night
India with the rest of southeast Asian region. temperatures may be hardly seven or eight
This view of broad unity of the monsoon type degree Celsius. But in the Thar desert, if the
of climate should not, however, lead one to day temperature is around 50°°C, at night, it
ignore its regional variations which differentiate may drop down considerably upto 15°°-20°°C.
2024-25
CLIMATE 29
Now, let us see the regional variations in The Himalayan Mountains : The lofty
precipitation. While snowfall occurs in the Himalayas in the north along with its
Himalayas, it only rains over the rest of the extensions act as an effective climatic divide.
country. Similarly, variations are noticeable not The towering mountain chain provides an
only in the type of precipitation but also in its invincible shield to protect the subcontinent
amount. While Cherrapunji and Mawsynram from the cold northern winds. These cold and
in the Khasi Hills of Meghalaya receive rainfall chilly winds originate near the Arctic circle
over 1,080 cm in a year, Jaisalmer in Rajasthan and blow across central and eastern Asia. The
rarely gets more than 9 cm of rainfall during Himalayas also trap the monsoon winds,
the same period. forcing them to shed their moisture within the
Tura situated in the Garo Hills of subcontinent.
Meghalaya may receive an amount of rainfall
in a single day which is equal to 10 years of Distribution of Land and Water : India is
rainfall at Jaisalmer. While the annual flanked by the Indian Ocean on three sides in
precipitation is less than 10 cm in the north- the south and girdled by a high and
west Himalayas and the western deserts, it continuous mountain-wall in the north. As
exceeds 400 cm in Meghalaya. compared to the landmass, water heats up or
The Ganga delta and the coastal plains cools down slowly. This differential heating of
of Odisha are hit by strong rain-bearing land and sea creates different air pressure
storms almost every third or fifth day in July zones in different seasons in and around
and August while the Coromandal coast, a the Indian subcontinent. Difference in air
thousand km to the south, goes generally pressure causes reversal in the direction of
dry during these months. Most parts of the monsoon winds.
country get rainfall during June-
September, but on the coastal areas of Tamil Distance from the Sea : With a long coastline,
Nadu, it rains in the beginning of the winter large coastal areas have an equable climate.
season. Areas in the interior of India are far away from
In spite of these differences and variations, the moderating influence of the sea. Such
the climate of India is monsoonal in areas have extremes of climate. That is why,
rhythm and character. the people of Mumbai and the Konkan coast
have hardly any idea of extremes of
FACTORS DETERMINING THE CLIMATE OF INDIA temperature and the seasonal rhythm of
weather. On the other hand, the seasonal
India’s climate is controlled by a number of
contrasts in weather at places in the
factors.
interior of the country such as Delhi,
Latitude : You already know the latitudinal
Kanpur and Amritsar affect the entire
and longitudinal extent of the land of India.
sphere of life.
You also know that the Tropic of Cancer
passes through the central part of India in Altitude : Temperature decreases with
east-west direction. Thus, northern part of height. Due to thin air, places in the
the India lies in sub-tropical and temperate mountains are cooler than places on the
zone and the part lying south of the Tropic plains. For example, Agra and Darjiling are
of Cancer falls in the tropical zone. The located on the same latitude, but
tropical zone being nearer to the equator, temperature of January in Agra is 16°°C
experiences high temperatures throughout whereas it is only 4°°C in Darjiling.
the year with small daily and annual range.
Area north of the Tropic of Cancer being Relief : The physiography or relief of India also
away from the equator, experiences extreme affects the temperature, air pressure, direction
climate with high daily and annual range and speed of wind and the amount and
of temperature. distribution of rainfall. The windward sides
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Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)

Inter Tropical
The Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)Convergence Zone (ITCZ)
is a low pressure zone located at the equator
The Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) is a low
where trade winds converge, and so, it is a zone where air tends pressure zone located atInthe
to ascend. equator
July, the
where trade winds converge, and so, it is a zone where air tends to ascend.
ITCZ is located around 20°°N-25°°N latitudes (over the Gangetic plain), sometimes called In July, the
ITCZ is located around 20°N-25°N latitudes (over the Gangetic plain),
the monsoon trough. This monsoon trough encourages the development of thermal low sometimes called
the north
over monsoon trough. This
and northwest monsoon
India. Due totrough encourages
the shift thetrade
of ITCZ, the development
winds of of
thethermal
southernlow
over north and northwest India. Due to the shift of ITCZ, the trade winds
hemisphere cross the equator between 40°° and 60°°E longitudes and start blowing from of the southern
hemisphere cross the equator between 40° and 60°E longitudes and start blowing from
southwest to northeast due to the Coriolis force. It becomes southwest monsoon. In winter,
southwest to northeast due to the Coriolis force. It becomes southwest monsoon. In winter,
the ITCZ moves southward, and so the reversal of winds from northeast to south and
the ITCZ moves southward, and so the reversal of winds from northeast to south and
southwest, takes place. They are called northeast monsoons.
southwest, takes place. They are called northeast monsoons.
of Western Ghats and Assam receive high gets intensely heated. This causes the
rainfall during June-September whereas the formation of an intense low pressure in the
southern plateau remains dry due to its northwestern part of the subcontinent. Since
leeward situation along the Western Ghats. the pressure in the Indian Ocean in the south
of the landmass is high as water gets heated
THE NATURE OF INDIAN MONSOON slowly, the low pressure cell attracts the
southeast trades across the Equator. These
Monsoon is a familiar though a little known
conditions help in the northward shift in the
climatic phenomenon. Despite the observations
position of the ITCZ. The southwest monsoon
spread over centuries, the monsoon continues
may thus, be seen as a continuation of the
to puzzle the scientists. Many attempts have
southeast trades deflected towards the Indian
been made to discover the exact nature and
subcontinent after crossing the Equator. These
causation of monsoon, but so far, no single
winds cross the Equator between 40°°E and
theory has been able to explain the monsoon
60°°E longitudes.
fully. A real breakthrough has come recently
when it was studied at the global rather than
at regional level.
Systematic studies of the causes of rainfall
in the South Asian region help to understand
the causes and salient features of the monsoon,
particularly some of its important aspects,
such as:
(i) The onset of the monsoon.
(ii) Break in the monsoon.
Onset of the Monsoon

Towards the end of the nineteenth
century, it
was believed that the differential heating of
land and sea during the summer months is
the mechanism which sets the stage for
the monsoon winds to drift towards the
subcontinent. During April and May when the
sun shines vertically over the Tropic of Cancer,
the large landmass in the north of Indian ocean Figure 4.1 : Onset of Monsoon
2024-25
CLIMATE 31
The shift in the position of the ITCZ is also THE RHYTHM OF SEASONS
related to the phenomenon of the withdrawal
The climatic conditions of India can best be
of the westerly jet stream from its position over
described in terms of an annual cycle of
the north Indian plain, south of the Himalayas.
seasons. The meteorologists recognise the
The easterly jet stream sets in along 15°°N
following four seasons :
latitude only after the western jet stream has
withdrawn itself from the region. This easterly (i) the cold weather season
jet stream is held responsible for the burst of (ii) the hot weather season
the monsoon in India. (iii) the southwest monsoon season
(iv) the retreating monsoon season.
Entry of Monsoon into India : The southwest
monsoon sets in over the Kerala coast by 1st The Cold Weather Season
June and moves swiftly to reach Mumbai
and Kolkata between 10th and 13th June. Temperature : Usually, the cold weather
By mid-July, southwest monsoon engulfs season sets in by mid-November in northern
the entire subcontinent (Figure 4.2) India. December and January are the coldest
months in the northern plain. The mean
Break in the Monsoon daily temperature remains below 21°°C over
most parts of northern India. The night
During the south-west monsoon period after temperature may be quite low, sometimes
having rains for a few days, if rain fails to occur going below freezing point in Punjab and
for one or more weeks, it is known as break in Rajasthan.
the monsoon. These dry spells are quite There are three main reasons for the excessive
common during the rainy season. These cold in north India during this season :
breaks in the different regions are due to (i) States like Punjab, Haryana and
different reasons: Rajasthan being far away from the
(i) In northern India rains are likely to fail if moderating influence of sea
the rain-bearing storms are not very experience continental climate.
frequent along the monsoon trough or (ii) The snowfall in the nearby Himalayan
the ITCZ over this region. ranges creates cold wave situation;
(ii) Over the west coast the dry spells are and
associated with days when winds blow (iii) Around February, the cold winds coming
parallel to the coast. from the Caspian Sea and Turkmenistan
EI-Nino and the Indian Monsoon

EI-Nino is a complex weather system that appears once every three to seven years, bringing
drought, floods and other weather extremes to different parts of the world.
The system involves oceanic and atmospheric phenomena with the appearance of warm
currents off the coast of Peru in the Eastern Pacific and affects weather in many places including
India. EI-Nino is merely an extension of the warm equatorial current which gets replaced temporarily
by cold Peruvian current or Humbolt current (locate these currents in your atlas). This current
increases the temperature of water on the Peruvian coast by 10°°C. This results in:
(i) the distortion of equatorial atmospheric circulation;
(ii) irregularities in the evaporation of sea water;
(iii) reduction in the amount of planktons which further reduces the number of fish in the sea.
The word EI-Nino means ‘Child Christ’ because this current appears around Christmas
in December. December is a summer month in Peru (Southern Hemisphere).
EI-Nino is used in India for forecasting long range monsoon rainfall. In 1990-91, there
was a wild EI-Nino event and the onset of southwest monsoon was delayed over most parts of
the country ranging from five to twelve days.
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Figure 4.2 : India : Normal Dates of Onset of the Southwest Monsoon
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CLIMATE 33
bring cold wave along with frost and fog Due to low pressure gradient, the light
over the northwestern parts of India. winds with a low velocity of about 3-5 km per
hour begin to blow outwards. By and large,
Understanding the Monsoon the topography of the region influences the
Attempts have been made to wind direction. They are westerly or
understand the nature and northwesterly down the Ganga Valley. They
mechanism of the monsoon on the become northerly in the Ganga-Brahmaputra
basis of data collected on land, oceans delta. Free from the influence of topography,
and in the upper atmosphere. The they are clearly northeasterly over the Bay of
intensity of southwest monsoon winds
Bengal.
of southern oscillation can be
measured, among others, by During the winters, the weather in India
measuring the difference in pressure is pleasant. The pleasant weather conditions,
between Tahiti (roughly 20 ° °S and however, at intervals, get disturbed by shallow
140°°W) in French Polynesia in East cyclonic depressions originating over the east
Pacific and port Darwin (12°°30'S and Mediterranean Sea and travelling eastwards
131° °E) in northern Australia. Indian across West Asia, Iran, Afghanistan and
Meteorological Department (IMD) can Pakistan before they reach the northwestern
forecast the possible behaviour of parts of India. On their way, the moisture
monsoons on the basis of 16 content gets augmented from the Caspian Sea
indicators. in the north and the Persian Gulf in the south.
What is the role of Westerly Jet Streams in
The Peninsular region of India, however, steering these depressions in India?
does not have any well-defined cold weather Rainfall : Winter monsoons do not cause
season. There is hardly any seasonal rainfall as they move from land to the sea. It is
change in the distribution pattern of the because firstly, they have little humidity; and
temperature in coastal areas because of secondly, due to anti cyclonic circulation on
moderating influence of the sea and the land, the possibility of rainfall from them
proximity to equator. For example, the reduces. So, most parts of India do not have
mean maximum temperature for January rainfall in the winter season. However, there are
at Thiruvanantapuram is as high as 21°°C, some exceptions to it:
and for June, it is 29.5°°C. Temperatures (i) In northwestern India, some weak
at the hills of Wester n Ghats remain temperate cyclones from the
comparatively low. Mediterranean sea cause rainfall in
Pressure and Winds : By the end of December Punjab, Haryana, Delhi and western
(22nd December), the sun shines vertically Uttar Pradesh. Although the amount
over the Tropic of Capricorn in the southern is meagre, it is highly beneficial for
hemisphere. The weather in this season is rabi crops. The precipitation is in the
characterised by feeble high pressure form of snowfall in the lower
conditions over the northern plain. In Himalayas. It is this snow that
south India, the air pressure is slightly sustains the flow of water in the
lower. The isobars of 1019 mb and 1013 Himalayan rivers during the summer
mb pass through northwest India and months. The precipitation goes on
far south, respectively. decreasing from west to east in the
As a result, winds start blowing from plains and from north to south in
northwestern high pressure zone to the low the mountains. The average winter
air pressure zone over the Indian Ocean in rainfall in Delhi is around 53 mm. In
the south. Punjab and Bihar, rainfall remains
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between 25 mm and 18 mm south rather it increases from the coast to

respectively. the interior. The mean daily minimum
(ii) Central parts of India and northern temperature during the summer months also
parts of southern Peninsula also get remains quite high and rarely goes
winter rainfall occasionally. below 26°°C.
(iii) Arunachal Pradesh and Assam in the Pressure and Winds : The summer months
northeastern parts of India also have are a period of excessive heat and falling air
rains between 25 mm and 50 mm
pressure in the northern half of the country.
during these winter months.
Because of the heating of the subcontinent,
(iv) D u r i n g O c t o b e r a n d N o v e m b e r,
the ITCZ moves northwards occupying a
northeast monsoon while crossing over
position centred at 25°°N in July. Roughly,
the Bay of Bengal, picks up moisture
this elongated low pressure monsoon trough
and causes torrential rainfall over the
extends over the Thar desert in the north-west
Tamil Nadu coast, southern Andhra
to Patna and Chotanagpur plateau in the
Pradesh, southeast Karnataka and
east-southeast. The location of the ITCZ
southeast Kerala.
attracts a surface circulation of the winds
The Hot Weather Season which are southwesterly on the west coast as
well as along the coast of West Bengal and
Temperature: With the apparent northward
Bangladesh. They are easterly or south-
movement of the sun towards the Tropic of
easterly over north Bengal and Bihar. It has
Cancer in March, temperatures start rising
been discussed earlier that these currents of
in north India. April, May and June are the
southwesterly monsoon are in reality
months of summer in north India. In most
parts of India, temperatures recorded are ‘displaced’ equatorial easterlies. The influx of
between 30°-32°°C. In March, the highest these winds by mid-June brings about a
day temperature of about 38°°C occurs in change in the weather towards the
the Deccan Plateau while in April, rainy season.
temperature ranging between 38°°C and In the heart of the ITCZ in the northwest,
43°°C are found in Gujarat and Madhya the dry and hot winds known as ‘Loo’, blow
Pradesh. In May, the heat belt moves in the afternoon, and very often, they
further north, and in the north-western part continue to well into midnight. Dust storms
of India, temperatures around 48°°C are in the evening are very common during May
not uncommon. in Punjab, Haryana, Eastern Rajasthan and
The hot weather season in south India is Uttar Pradesh. These temporary storms
mild and not so intense as found in north bring a welcome respite from the oppressing
India. The Peninsular situation of south
heat since they bring with them light rains
India with moderating effect of the oceans
and a pleasant cool breeze. Occasionally, the
keeps the temperatures lower than that
moisture-laden winds are attracted towards
prevailing in north India. So, temperatures
remain between 26°°C and 32°°C. Due to the periphery of the trough. A sudden
altitude, the temperatures in the hills of contact between dry and moist air masses
Western Ghats remain below 25°°C. In the gives rise to local storms of great intensity.
coastal regions, the north-south extent of These local storms are associated with
isotherms parallel to the coast confirms that violent winds, torrential rains and even
temperature does not decrease from north to hailstorms.
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CLIMATE 35
Some Famous Local Storms of Hot termed as the “break” or “burst” of the
Weather Season monsoons. The monsoon may burst in the
(i) Mango Shower : Towards the end first week of June in the coastal areas of Kerala,
of summer, there are pre-monsoon Karnataka, Goa and Maharashtra while in the
showers which are a common interior parts of the country, it may be delayed
phenomena in Kerala and coastal to the first week of July. The day temperature
areas of Karnataka. Locally, they
registers a decline of 5°°C to 8°°C between mid-
are known as mango showers since
they help in the early ripening of June and mid-July.
mangoes. As these winds approach the land, their
(ii) Blossom Shower : With this shower, southwesterly direction is modified by the relief
coffee flowers blossom in Kerala and
and thermal low pressure over the northwest
nearby areas.
(iii) Nor Westers : These are dreaded India. The monsoon approaches the landmass
evening thunderstorms in Bengal in two branches:
and Assam. Their notorious nature (i) The Arabian Sea branch
can be understood from the local (ii) The Bay of Bengal branch.
nomenclature of ‘Kalbaisakhi’, a
calamity of the month of Baisakh. Monsoon Winds of the Arabian Sea
These showers are useful for tea,
jute and rice cultivation. In Assam, The monsoon winds originating over the
these storms are known as Arabian Sea further split into three branches:
“Bardoisila”. (i) Its one branch is obstructed by the
(iv) Loo : Hot, dry and oppressing winds Western Ghats. These winds climb the
blowing in the Northern plains from slopes of the Wester n Ghats from
Punjab to Bihar with higher 900-1200 m. Soon, they become cool,
intensity between Delhi and Patna. and as a result, the windward side of the
Sahyadris and Western Coastal Plain
THE SOUTHWEST MONSOON SEASON receive very heavy rainfall ranging
As a result of rapid increase of temperature in between 250 cm and 400 cm. After
May over the northwestern plains, the low crossing the Western Ghats, these winds
pressure conditions over there get further descend and get heated up. This
intensified. By early June, they are powerful reduces humidity in the winds. As a
enough to attract the trade winds of result, these winds cause little rainfall
Southern Hemisphere coming from the east of the Western Ghats. This region of
Indian Ocean. These southeast trade low rainfall is known as the rain-shadow
winds cross the equator and enter the Bay area. Find out the rainfall at Kozhikode,
of Bengal and the Arabian Sea, only to be Mangalore, Pune and Bengaluru and
caught up in the air circulation over India. note the difference.
Passing over the equatorial warm (ii) Another branch of the Arabian sea
currents, they bring with them moisture monsoon strikes the coast north of
in abundance. After crossing the equator, Mumbai. Moving along the Narmada and
they follow a southwesterly direction. That Tapi river valleys, these winds cause
is why they are known as southwest rainfall in extensive areas of central India.
monsoons. The Chotanagpur plateau gets 15 cm
The rain in the southwest monsoon season rainfall from this part of the branch.
begins rather abruptly. One result of the first Thereafter, they enter the Ganga plains
rain is that it brings down the temperature and mingle with the Bay of Bengal branch.
substantially. This sudden onset of the (iii) A third branch of this monsoon wind
moisture-laden winds associated with strikes the Saurashtra Peninsula and the
violent thunder and lightening, is often Kachchh. It then passes over west
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Figure 4.3 : India : Seasonal Rainfall (June-September)
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CLIMATE 37
Rajasthan and along the Aravalis, Rajasthan by the first week of September. It
causing only a scanty rainfall. In Punjab withdraws from Rajasthan, Gujarat, Western
and Haryana, it too joins the Bay of Ganga plain and the Central Highlands by the
Bengal branch. These two branches, end of the month. By the beginning of October,
reinforced by each other, cause rains in the low pressure covers northern parts of the
the western Himalayas, Bay of Bengal and by early November, it moves
over Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. By the
Monsoon Winds of the Bay of Bengal middle of December, the centre of low
pressure is completely removed from the
The Bay of Bengal branch strikes the coast Peninsula.
of Myanmar and part of southeast The retreating southwest monsoon season
Bangladesh. But the Arakan Hills along the is marked by clear skies and rise in
coast of Myanmar deflect a big portion of temperature. The land is still moist. Owing to
this branch towards the Indian the conditions of high temperature and
subcontinent. The monsoon, therefore, humidity, the weather becomes rather
enters West Bengal and Bangladesh from oppressive. This is commonly known as the
south and southeast instead of from the ‘October heat’. In the second half of October,
south-westerly direction. From here, this the mercury begins to fall rapidly, particularly
branch splits into two under the influence in northern India. The weather in the
of the Himalayas and the thermal low is retreating monsoon is dry in north India but
northwest India. Its one branch moves it is associated with rain in the eastern part of
westward along the Ganga plains reaching the Peninsula. Here, October and November
as far as the Punjab plains. The other branch are the rainiest months of the year.
moves up the Brahmaputra valley in the The widespread rain in this season is
north and the northeast, causing associated with the passage of cyclonic
depressions which originate over the
widespread rains. Its sub-branch strikes
Andaman Sea and manage to cross the
the Garo and Khasi hills of Meghalaya.
eastern coast of the southern Peninsula.
Mawsynram, located on the crest of Khasi
These tropical cyclones are very destructive.
hills, receives the highest average annual The thickly populated deltas of the Godavari,
rainfall in the world. Krishna and Kaveri are their preferred targets.
Here it is important to know why the Tamil Every year cyclones bring disaster here. A few
Nadu coast remains dry during this season. cyclonic storms also strike the coast of West
There are two factors responsible for it: Bengal, Bangladesh and Myanmar. A bulk of
(i) The Tamil Nadu coast is situated the rainfall of the Coromondal coast is derived
parallel to the Bay of Bengal branch of from these depressions and cyclones. Such
cyclonic storms are less frequent in the
southwest monsoon.
Arabian Sea.
(ii) It lies in the rainshadow area of the
Arabian Sea branch of the south-west
TRADITIONAL INDIAN SEASONS
monsoon.
In the Indian tradition, a year is divided into
Season of Retreating Monsoon six two-monthly seasons. This cycle of
seasons, which the common people in north
The months of October and November are
known for retreating monsoons. By the end and central India follow is based on their
of September, the southwest monsoon practical experience and age-old perception
becomes weak as the low pressure trough of of weather phenomena. However, this system
the Ganga plain starts moving southward in does not match with the seasons of south
response to the southward march of the sun. India where there is little variation in
The monsoon retreats from the western the seasons.
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Seasons Months Months (ii) Except Himalayas all the parts of the
(According to the (According to the country have temperature above the
Indian Calendar) Gregorian Calendar) threashold level to grow the crops or
Vasanta Chaitra-Vaisakha March-April plants throughout the year..
Grishma Jyaistha-Asadha May-June (iii) Regional variations in monsoon climate
Varsha Sravana-Bhadra July-August help in growing various types of crops.
Sharada Asvina-Kartika September-October
(iv) Variability of rainfall brings droughts or
Hemanta Margashirsa-Pausa November-December
Shishira Magha-Phalguna January-February
floods every year in some parts of the country.
(v) Agricultural prosperity of India depends
very much on timely and adequately
Distribution of Rainfall distributed rainfall. If it fails, agriculture
The average annual rainfall in India is about is adversely affected particularly in those
125 cm, but it has great spatial variations . regions where means of irrigation are not
developed.
Areas of High Rainfall : The highest rainfall (vi) Sudden monsoon burst creates problem
occurs along the west coast, on the Western of soil erosion over large areas in India.
Ghats, as well as in the sub-Himalayan areas (vii) Winter rainfall by temperate cyclones
is the northeast and the hills of Meghalaya. Here in north India is highly beneficial for
the rainfall exceeds 200 cm. In some parts of rabi crops.
Khasi and Jaintia hills, the rainfall exceeds (viii) Regional climatic variation in India
1,000 cm. In the Brahmaputra valley and the is reflected in the vast variety of food,
adjoining hills, the rainfall is less then 200 cm.
clothes and house types.
Areas of Medium Rainfall : Rainfall between
100-200 cm is received in the southern parts GLOBAL WARMING
of Gujarat, east Tamil Nadu, northeastern
You know that change is the law of nature.
Peninsula covering Odisha, Jharkhand, Bihar,
Climate has also witnessed change in the past
eastern Madhya Pradesh, northern Ganga plain
at the global as well as at local levels. It is
along the sub-Himalayas and the Cachar Valley
changing even now but the change is
and Manipur.
imperceptible. A number of geological
Areas of Low Rainfall : Western Uttar Pradesh, evidences suggest that once upon a time,
Delhi, Haryana, Punjab, Jammu and Kashmir, large part of the earth was under ice cover. Now
eastern Rajasthan, Gujarat and Deccan Plateau you might have read or heard the debate on
receive rainfall between 50-100 cm. global warming. Besides the natural causes,
Areas of Inadequate Rainfall: Parts of the human activities such as large scale
Peninsula, especially in Andhra Pradesh, industrialisation and presence of polluting
Karnataka and Maharashtra, Ladakh and most gas in the atmosphere are also important
of western Rajasthan receive rainfall below 50 cm. factors responsible for global warming. You
Snowfall is restricted to the Himalayan might have heard about the “green house effect”
region. while discussing global warming.
Identify the pattern of rainfall after The temperature of the world is
consulting the rainfall map. significantly increasing. Carbon dioxide
produced by human activities is a major
Monsoons and the Economic Life in India source of concern. This gas, released to the
(i) Monsoon is that axis around which atmosphere in large quantities by burning
revolves the entire agricultural cycle of of fossil fuel, is increasing gradually. Other
India. It is because about 64 per cent gases like methane, chlorofluorocarbons,
people of India depend on agriculture for and nitrous oxide which are present in much
their livelihood and agriculture itself is smaller concentrations in the atmosphere,
based on southwest monsoon. together with carbon dioxide are known as
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CLIMATE 39
Figure 4.4 : India : Annual Rainfall
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green house gases. These gases are better changes: one of these is a rise in sea level, as a
absorbers of long wave radiations than carbon result of melting of glaciers and sea-ice due to
dioxide, and so, are more effective at warming. According to the current prediction,
enhancing the green house effect. These on an average, the sea level will rise 48 cm by
gases have been contributing to global the end of twenty first century. This would
warming. It is said that due to global warming increase the incidence of annual flooding.
the polar ice caps and mountain glaciers Climatic change would promote insect-borne
would melt and the amount of water in the diseases like malaria, and lead to shift in
oceans would increase. climatic boundaries, making some regions
The mean annual surface temperature of wetter and others drier. Agricultural pattern
the earth in the past 150 years has increased. would shift and human population as well as
It is projected that by the year 2,100, global the ecosystem would experience change. What
temperature will increase by about 2°°C. This would happen to the Indian sea coasts if the
rise in temperature will cause many other sea level rises 50 cm above the present one?
EXERCISES
(i) What causes rainfall on the coastal areas of Tamil Nadu in the beginning
of winters?
(a) South-West monsoon (c) North-Eastern monsoon
(b) Temperate cyclones (d) Local air circulation
(ii) What is the proportion of area of India which receives annual rainfall less
than 75 cm?
(a) Half (c) Two-third
(b) One-third (d) Three-fourth
(iii) Which one of the following is not a fact regarding South India?
(a) Diurnal range of temperature is less here.
(b) Annual range of temperature is less here.
(c) Temperatures here are high throughout the year.
(d) Extreme climatic conditions are found here.
(iv) Which one of the following phenomenon happens when the sun shines
vertically over the Tropic of Capricorn in the southern hemisphere?
(a) High pressure develops over North-western India due to low
temperatures.
(b) Low pressure develops over North-western India due to high
temperatures.
(c) No changes in temperature and pressure occur in north-western
India.
(d) ‘Loo’ blows in the North-western India.
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CLIMATE 41

(i) What is the Inter-Tropical Convergene Zone?
(ii) What is meant by ‘bursting of monsoon’? Name the place of India which gets
the highest rainfall.
(iii) Which type(s) of cyclones cause rainfall in north-western India during winter?
Where do they originate?
(i) Notwithstanding the broad climatic unity, the climate of India has many
regional variations. Elaborate this statement giving suitable examples.
(ii) How many distinct seasons are found in India as per the Indian
Meteorological Department? Discuss the weather conditions associated
with any one season in detail.
Project/Activity
On the outline map of India, show the following:
(i) Areas of winter rain
(ii) Wind direction during the summer season
(iii) Areas having less than 15°°C temperature in January
(iv) Isohyte of 100 cm.
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CHAPTER
NATURAL VEGETATION
H
ave you ever been to a forest for a picnic? Tropical Evergreen and
You might have surely gone to a park if Semi Evergreen Forests
you live in a city or to a mango, guava
These forests are found in the western slope
or coconut orchard, if you live in a village. How
do you differentiate between the natural of the Western Ghats, hills of the northeastern
vegetation and the planted vegetation? The same region and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
variety may be found growing wild in the forest They are found in warm and humid areas with
under natural conditions and the same tree an annual precipitation of over 200 cm and
may be the planted one in your garden under mean annual temperature above 22 o C.
human supervision. Tropical evergreen forests are well stratified,
Natural vegetation refers to a plant with layers closer to the ground and are
community that has been left undisturbed over covered with shrubs and creepers, with short
a long time, so as to allow its individual species structured trees followed by tall variety of trees.
to adjust themselves to climate and soil In these forests, trees reach great heights up
conditions as fully as possible. to 60 m or above. There is no definite time for
India is a land of great variety of natural trees to shed their leaves, flowering and
vegetation. Himalayan heights are marked with fruition. As such these forests appear green
temperate vegetation; the Western Ghats and all the year round. Species found in these
the Andaman Nicobar Islands have tropical forests include rosewood, mahogony, aini,
rain forests, the deltaic regions have tropical ebony, etc.
forests and mangroves; the desert and semi The semi evergreen forests are found in the
desert areas of Rajasthan are known for cactii, less rainy parts of these regions. Such forests
a wide variety of bushes and thorny vegetation. have a mixture of evergreen and moist
Depending upon the variations in the climate deciduous trees. The undergrowing climbers
and the soil, the vegetation of India changes provide an evergreen character to these forests.
from one region to another. Main species are white cedar, hollock and kail.
On the basis of certain common features
such as predominant vegetation type and
climatic regions, Indian forests can be divided
into the following groups:
TYPES OF FORESTS
(i) Tropical Evergreen and Semi
Evergreen forests
(ii) Tropical Deciduous forests
(iii) Tropical Thorn forests
(iv) Montane forests
(v) Littoral and Swamp forests. Figure 5.1 : Evergreen Forest
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NATURAL VEGETATION 43
Figure 5.2 : Natural Vegetation
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The British were aware of the economic the plains of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. In the
value of the forests in India, hence, large scale higher rainfall regions of the Peninsular plateau
exploitation of these forests was started. The and the northern Indian plain, these forests
structure of forests was also changed. The oak have a parkland landscape with open stretches
forests in Garhwal and Kumaon were replaced in which teak and other trees interspersed with
by pine (chirs) which was needed to lay railway patches of grass are common. As the dry
lines. Forests were also cleared for introducing season begins, the trees shed their leaves
plantations of tea, rubber and coffee. The completely and the forest appears like a vast
British also used timber for construction grassland with naked trees all around. Tendu,
activities as it acts as an insulator of heat. The palas, amaltas, bel, khair, axlewood, etc. are
protectional use of forests was, thus, replaced the common trees of these forests. In the
by commercial use. western and southern part of Rajasthan,
vegetation cover is very scanty due to low
Tropical Deciduous Forests rainfall and overgrazing.
These are the most widespread forests in India.
They are also called the monsoon forests. They Tropical Thorn Forests
spread over regions which receive rainfall Tropical thorn forests occur in the areas which
between 70-200 cm. On the basis of the receive rainfall less than 50 cm. These consist
availability of water, these forests are further of a variety of grasses and shrubs. It includes
divided into moist and dry deciduous. semi-arid areas of south west Punjab,
Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh
and Uttar Pradesh. In these forests, plants
remain leafless for most part of the year and
give an expression of scrub vegetation.
Important species found are babool, ber, and
wild date palm, khair, neem, khejri, palas, etc.
Tussocky grass grows upto a height of 2 m as
the under growth.
Figure 5.3 : Deciduous Forests
The Moist deciduous forests are more

pronounced in the regions which record rainfall
between 100-200 cm. These forests are found
in the northeastern states along the foothills of
Himalayas, eastern slopes of the Western Ghats
and Odisha. Teak, sal, shisham, hurra, Figure 5.4 : Tropical Thorn Forests
mahua, amla, semul, kusum, and sandalwood Montane Forests
etc. are the main species of these forests.
Dry deciduous forest covers vast areas of In mountainous areas, the decrease in
the country, where rainfall ranges between temperature with increasing altitude leads to
70 -100 cm. On the wetter margins, it has a a corresponding change in natural vegetation.
transition to the moist deciduous, while on the Mountain forests can be classified into two
drier margins to thorn forests. These forests types, the northern mountain forests and the
are found in rainier areas of the Peninsula and southern mountain forests.
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The Himalayan ranges show a succession The southern mountain forests include the
of vegetation from the tropical to the tundra, forests found in three distinct areas of
which change in with the altitude. Deciduous Peninsular India viz; the Western Ghats, the
forests are found in the foothills of the Vindhyas and the Nilgiris. As they are closer
Himalayas. It is succeeded by the wet to the tropics, and only 1,500 m above the
temperate type of forests between an altitude sea level, vegetation is temperate in the higher
of 1,000-2,000 m. In the higher hill ranges of regions, and subtropical on the lower regions
northeastern India, hilly areas of West Bengal of the Western Ghats, especially in Kerala,
and Uttaranchal, evergreen broad leaf trees Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. The temperate
such as oak and chestnut are predominant. forests are called Sholas in the Nilgiris,
Between 1,500-1,750 m, pine forests are also Anaimalai and Palani hills. Some of the other
well-developed in this zone, with Chir Pine as trees of this forest of economic significance
a very useful commercial tree. Deodar, a highly include, magnolia, laurel, cinchona and
valued endemic species grows mainly in the wattle. Such forests are also found in the
western part of the Himalayan range. Deodar Satpura and the Maikal ranges.
is a durable wood mainly used in construction
activity. Similarly, the chinar and the walnut, Littoral and Swamp Forests
which sustain the famous Kashmir India has a rich variety of wetland habitats.
handicrafts, belong to this zone. Blue pine and About 70 per cent of this comprises areas
spruce appear at altitudes of 2,225-3,048 m. under paddy cultivation. The total area of wet
At many places in this zone, temperate land is 3.9 million hectares. Two sites —
grasslands are also found. But in the higher Chilika Lake (Odisha) and Keoladeo National
reaches there is a transition to Alpine forests Park (Bharatpur) are protected as water-fowl
and pastures. Silver firs, junipers, pines, birch habitats under the Convention of Wetlands of
and rhododendrons, etc. occur between International Importance (Ramsar Convention).
3,000-4,000 m. However, these pastures are
used extensively for transhumance by tribes An international convention is an
like the Gujjars, the Bakarwals, the Bhotiyas agreement among member states of
and the Gaddis. The southern slopes of the the United Nations.
Himalayas carry a thicker vegetation cover
because of relatively higher precipitation than The country’s wetlands have been grouped
the drier north-facing slopes. At higher into eight categories, viz. (i) the reservoirs of the
altitudes, mosses and lichens form part of the Deccan Plateau in the south together with the
tundra vegetation. lagoons and other wetlands of the southern
west coast; (ii) the vast saline expanses of
Rajasthan, Gujarat and the Gulf of Kachchh;
(iii) freshwater lakes and reservoirs from Gujarat
eastwards through Rajasthan (Keoladeo
National Park) and Madhya Pradesh; (iv) the
delta wetlands and lagoons of India’s east coast
(Chilika Lake); (v) the freshwater marshes of the
Gangetic Plain; (vi) the floodplains of the
Brahmaputra; the marshes and swamps in the
hills of northeast India and the Himalayan
foothills; (vii) the lakes and rivers of the montane
region of Kashmir and Ladakh; and (viii) the
mangrove forest and other wetlands of the island
arcs of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Mangroves grow along the coasts in the salt
Figure 5.5 : Montane Forests marshes, tidal creeks, mud flats and estuaries.
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They consist of a number of salt-tolerant species conserving the natural heritage of the country,
of plants. Crisscrossed by creeks of stagnant its biological diversity and genetic pool; (iv)
water and tidal flows, these forests give shelter checks soil erosion, extension of the desert lands
to a wide variety of birds. and reduction of floods and droughts; (v)
increasing the forest cover through social
forestry and afforestation on degraded land; (vi)
increasing the productivity of forests to make
timber, fuel, fodder and food available to rural
population dependant on forests, and
encourage the substitution of wood; (vii)
creating of a massive peoples movement
involving women to encourage planting of trees,
stop felling of trees and thus, reduce pressure
on the existing forest.
Forests and Life

Figure 5.6 : Mangrove Forests To a vast number of tribal people, the
forest is a home, a livelihood, their
In India, the mangrove forests spread over
very existence. It provides them food,
6,740 sq. km which is 7 per cent of the world’s
fruits of all kinds, edible leaves, honey,
mangrove forests. They are highly developed in nourishing roots and wild game. It
the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and the provides them with material to build
Sunderbans of West Bengal. Other areas of their houses and items for practising
significance are the Mahanadi, the Godavari and their arts. The importance of forests
the Krishna deltas. These forests too, are being in tribal economy is well-known as
encroached upon, and hence, need conservation. they are the source of sustenance and
livelihood for tribal communities. It is
FOREST CONSERVATION commonly believed that the tribal
communities live in harmony with
Forests have an intricate nature and protect forests.
interrelationship with life and
environment. These provide numerous Forest and tribals are very closely
related. The age-old knowledge of
direct and indirect advantages to our
tribals regarding forestry can be used
economy and society. Hence, conservation
in the development of forests. Rather
of forest is of vital importance to the than treating tribals as minor forest
survival and prosperity of humankind. produce collectors they should be
Accordingly, the Government of India made growers of minor forest produce
proposed to have a nation-wide forest and encouraged to participate in
conservation policy, and adopted a forest conservation.
policy in 1952, which was further modified
in 1988. According to the new forest
Based on the forest conservation policy the
policy, the Government will emphasise
following steps were initiated:
sustainable forest management in order
to conserve and expand forest reserve on
Social Forestry
the one hand, and to meet the needs of
local people on the other. Social forestry means the management and
The forest policy aimed at : (i) bringing 33 protection of forests and afforestation on barren
per cent of the geographical areas under forest lands with the purpose of helping in the
cover; (ii) maintaining environmental environmental, social and rural development.
stability and to restore forests where The National Commission on Agriculture
ecological balance was disturbed; (iii) (1976) has classified social forestry into three
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categories. These are Urban forestry, Rural for this remarkable diversity of life forms is
forestry and Farm forestry. the great diversity of the ecosystem which
Urban forestry pertains to the raising this country has preserved and supported
and management of trees on public and through the ages. Over the years, their
privately owned lands in and around urban habitat has been disturbed by human
centres such as green belts, parks, roadside activities and as a result, their numbers
avenues, industrial and commercial green have dwindled significantly. There are
belts, etc. certain species that are at the brink of
Rural forestry lays emphasis on promotion extinction.
of agro-forestry and community-forestry. Some of the important reasons of the
Agro-forestry is the raising of trees and declining of wildlife are as follows:
agriculture crops on the same land inclusive (i) Industrial and technological advancement
of the waste patches. It combines forestry with brought about a rapid increase in the
agriculture, thus, altering the simultaneous exploitation of forest resources.
production of food, fodder, fuel, timber and (ii) More and more lands were cleared for
fruit. Community forestry involves the raising agriculture, human settlement, roads,
of trees on public or community land such as mining, reservoirs, etc.
the village pasture and temple land, roadside, (iii) Pressure on forests mounted due to
canal bank, strips along railway lines, and lopping for fodder and fuelwood and
schools etc. Community forestry programme removal of small timber by the local people.
aims at providing benefits to the community (iv) Grazing by domestic cattle caused an
as a whole. Community forestry provides a adverse effect on wildlife and its habitat.
means under which the people of landless (v) Hunting was taken up as a sport by the
classes can associate themselves in tree- elite and hundreds of wild animals were
raising and thus, get those benefits which killed in a single hunt. Now commercial
otherwise are restricted for landowners. poaching is rampant.
(vi) Incidence of forest fire.
Farm Forestry It is being felt that conservation of wildlife is
Farm forestry is a term applied to the process of great significance to the national as well as
under which farmers grow trees for the world heritage along with the promotion of
commercial and non-commercial purposes on ecotourism. What steps have been initiated by
their farm lands. the government in this direction?
Forest departments of various states WILDLIFE CONSERVATION IN INDIA
distribute seedlings of trees free of cost to small
and medium farmers. Several lands such as The protection of wildlife has a long tradition in
the margins of agricultural fields, grasslands India. Many stories of Panchtantra and Jungle
and pastures, land around homes and cow Books, etc. have stood the test of time relating
sheds may be used for raising trees under non- to the love for wildlife. These have a profound
commercial farm forestry. impact on young minds.
In 1972, a comprehensive Wildlife Act was
WILDLIFE enacted, which provides the main legal
framework for conservation and protection of
You would have visited a zoo and may have wildlife in India. The two main objectives of the
seen animals and birds in captivity. Wildlife Act are; to provide protection to the endangered
of India is a great natural heritage. It is species listed in the schedule of the Act and to
estimated that about 4-5 per cent of all provide legal support to the conservation areas
known plant and animal species on the of the country classified as National parks,
earth are found in India. The main reason sanctuaries and closed areas. This Act has been
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comprehensively amended in 1991, making

punishments more stringent and has also
made provisions for the protection of specified
plant species and conservation of endangered
species of wild animals.
There are 103 National parks and
563 wildlife sanctuaries in the country.
Wildlife conservation has a very large
ambit with unbounded potential for the well-
being of humankind. However, this can be
achieved only when every individual
understands its significance and contributes
his bit. Figure 5.7 : Elephants in their Natural Habitat
For the purpose of effective conservation of
flora and fauna, special steps have been collaboration with UNESCO’s ‘Man and
initiated by the Government of India in Biosphere Programme’.
Table 5.1 : List of Biosphere Reserves

Sl. Name of the Biosphere Date of Location in the States/UT
No. Reserve and Total Designation
Geographical Area (km2)
1. Nilgiri (5520) 01.08.1986 Part of Wynad, Nagarhole, Bandipur and Madumalai, Nilambur,
Silent Valley and Siruvani Hills (Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka).
2. Nanda Devi (5860.69) 18.01.1988 Part of Chamoli, Pithoragarh and Almora Districts in Uttarakhand.
3. Nokrek (820) 01.09.1988 Part of East, West and South Garo Hill Districts in Meghalaya.
4. Manas (2837) 14.03.1989 Part of Kokrajhar, Bongaigaon, Barpeta, Nalbari, Kamrup and
Darang Districts in Assam
5. Sunderban (9630) 29.03.1989 Part of delta of Ganges and Brahamaputra river system in West
Bengal.
6. Gulf of Mannar (10500) 18.02.1989 Indian part of Gulf of Mannar extending from Rameswaram island
in the North to Kaniyakumari in the South of Tamil Nadu.
7. Great Nicobar (885) 06.01.1989 Southern most island of Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
8. Similipal (4374) 21.06.1994 Part of Mayurbhanj District in Odisha.
9. Dibru-Saikhowa (765) 28.07.1997 Part of Dibrugarh and Tinsukia Districts in Assam
10 Dehang Debang (5111.5) 02.09.1998 Part of Upper Siang, West Siang and Dibang Valley Districts in
Arunachal Pradesh.
11. Pachmarhi (4981.72) 03.03.1999 Part of Betul, Hoshangabad and Chhindwara Districts in Madhya
Pradesh.
12. Khangchendzonga (2619.92) 07.02.2000 Part of North and West Districts in Sikkim
13. Agasthyamalai (3500.36) 12.11.2001 Part of Thirunelveli and Kanyakumari Districts in Tamil Nadu
and Thiruvananthapuram, Kollam and Pathanmthitta districts
in Kerala.
14. Achanakmar-Amarkantak 30.03.2005 Part of Anuppur and Dindori Districts of Madhya Pradesh
(3835.51) and Bilaspur district of Chhattisgarh
15. Kachchh (12,454) 29.01.2008 Part of Kachchh, Rajkot, Surendranagar and Patan Districts in
Gujarat.
16. Cold Desert (7770) 28.08.2009 Pin Valley National Park and surroundings; Chandratal and
Sarchu and Kibber Wildlife sanctuary in Himachal Pradesh.
17. Seshachalam (4755.997) 20.09.2010 Seshachalam hill ranges in Eastern Ghatsencompassing part of
Chittoor and Kadapa Districts in Andhra Pradesh.
18. Panna (2998.98) 25.08.2011 Part of Pann and Chhattarpur Districts in Madhya Pradesh.
* Sites with bold letters have been included in the World Network of BRs of UNESCO.
Source : Annual Report 2018-19, Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India.
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Figure 5.8 : India : Biosphere Reserves
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Special schemes like Project Tiger (1973)

and Project Elephant (1992) have been
launched to conserve these species and their
habitat in a sustainable manner.
Project T iger has been implemented
since 1973. The main objective of the scheme
is to ensure maintenance of viable
population of tigers in India for scientific,
aesthetic, cultural and ecological values,
and to preserve areas of biological
importance as natural heritage for the
benefit, education and enjoyment of the
people. Initially, the Project T iger was
launched in nine tiger reserves, covering an Figure 5.9 : Objectives of a Biosphere Reserve
area of 16,339 sq. km, which has now
increased to 50 tiger reserves, encompassing and conservation of Himalayan Musk deer have
71,027.10 sq. km of core tiger habitats also been launched by the Government of India.
distributed in 18 states. The tiger
population in the country has registered an BIOSPHERE RESERVES
increase from 1,411 in 2006 to 2,967 in
2020 which is 70 per cent of the global tiger A Biosphere Reserve is a unique and
population. representative ecosystem of terrestrial and
Project Elephant was launched in 1992 to coastal areas which are internationally
assist states having free ranging population recognised within the framework of UNESCO’s
of wild elephants. It was aimed at ensuring Man and Biosphere (MAB) Programme. The
long-term survival of identified viable Biosphere Reserve aims at achieving the three
population of elephants in their natural objectives as depicted in Figure 5.9.
habitat. The project is being implemented in There are 18 Biosphere Reserves in India
16 states. (Table 5.1, Figure 5.8). Eleven Biosphere
Apart from this, some other projects such Reserves have been recognised by the UNESCO
as Crocodile Breeding Project, Project Hangul on World Network of Biosphere Reserves.
EXERCISES
(i) Sandalwood is an example of:
(a) Evergreen forest (c) Deltaic forest
(b) Deciduous forest (d) Thorny forest
(ii) Which one of the following was the purpose of Project Tiger?
(a) to kill tigers (c) to protect tigers from illegal hunting
(b) to put tigers in the Zoo (d) to make films on tigers
(iii) In which one of the following states is the Nandadevi Biosphere reserve
situated?
(a) Bihar (c) Uttarakhand
(b) Uttar Pradesh (d) Odisha
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(iv) How many of the Biosphere reserves from India are recognised by the
UNESCO?
(a) One (c) Eleven
(b) Two (d) Four
(v) Which one of the following proportion of area of the country was
targeted to be under forest in Forest Policy of India?
(a) 33 (c) 5 5
(b) 44 (d) 2 2
(i) What is natural vegetation? Under what climatic conditions are tropical
evergreen forests develop?
(ii) What do you understand by social forestry?
(iii) Define Biosphere reserves?
(iv) What is the difference between forest area and forest cover?
(i) What steps have been taken up to conserve forests?
(ii) How can people’s participation be effective in conserving forests and wildlife?
Project/Activity
1. On the outline map of India, mark and label the following.
(i) Areas having Mangrove forests.
(ii) Biosphere reserves of Nanda Devi, Sunderbans, Gulf of Mannar and
Nilgiri.
(iii) Mark the location of Forest Survey of India Head Quarter.
2. List the trees, bush and shrub species found around your school. Write
their local names and their uses.
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UNIT
IV
NATURAL HAZARDS AND DISASTERS:

CAUSES, CONSEQUENCES AND MANAGEMENT
• Floods and droughts
• Earthquakes and tsunami
• Cyclones
• Landslides
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CHAPTER
NATURAL HAZARDS AND DISASTERS
Y
ou might have read about tsunami or the change of seasons, ripening of fruits, while
seen the images of horror on there are others like earthquakes, floods and
television set immediately after it wars that are considered bad and undesirable.
happened. You may also be aware of the severe
earthquake in Kashmir on both sides of the Observe the environment you live in and
Line of Control (LOC). The damage caused to prepare a list of changes, which take
place over a long period of time and
human life and properties during these
those, which take place within a short
episodes has moved us all. What are these as period of time. Do you know why some
phenomena and how they are caused? How changes are considered good and others
can we save ourselves? These are some bad? Prepare a list of changes, which
questions which come to our minds. This you notice in your daily life and give
chapter will attempt to analyse some of these reasons why some of these are
questions. considered good and others bad.
Change is the law of nature. It is a continuous
process that goes on uninterruptedly involving In this chapter, we will read about some of
phenomena, big and small, material and non- these changes, which are considered bad and
material that make our physical and socio- have haunted humankind for a long time.
cultural environment. It is a process present Disasters in general and natural disasters
everywhere with variations in terms of in particular, are some such changes that are
magnitude, intensity and scale. Change can be always disliked and feared by humankind.
a gradual or slow process like the evolution of
landforms and organisms and it can be as What is a Disaster?
sudden and swift as volcanic eruptions, “Disaster is an undesirable occurrence
tsunamis, earthquakes and lightening, etc. resulting from forces that are largely
Similarly, it may remain confined to a smaller outside human control, strikes quickly
area occurring within a few seconds like with little or no warning, which causes
or threatens serious disruption of life
hailstorms, tornadoes and dust storms, and it
and property including death and injury
can also have global dimensions such as global to a large number of people, and requires
warming and depletion of the ozone layer. therefore, mobilisation of efforts in excess
Besides these, changes have different of that which are normally provided by
meanings for different people. It depends upon statutory emergency services”.
the perspective one takes while trying to
understand them. From the perspective of For a long time, geographical literature
nature, changes are value-neutral (these are viewed disasters as a consequence of natural
neither good nor bad). But from the human forces; and human beings were treated as
perspective, these are value-loaded. There are innocent and helpless victims in front of the
some changes that are desirable and good like mighty forces of nature. But natural forces are
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not the only causes of disasters. Disasters are features in the Himalayas or extreme climatic
also caused by some human activities. There conditions in deserts or glaciated areas.
are some activities carried by human beings As compared to natural hazards, natural
that are directly responsible for disasters. disasters are relatively sudden and cause
Bhopal Gas tragedy, Chernobyl nuclear disaster, large scale, widespread death, loss of
wars, release of CFCs (Chlorofluorocarbons) and property and disturbance to social systems
increase of green house gases, environmental and life over which people have a little or no
pollutions like noise, air, water and soil are some control. Thus, any event can be classed as
of the disasters which are caused directly by disaster when the magnitude of destruction
human actions. There are some other activities and damage caused by it is very high.
of human beings that accelerate or intensify Generally, disasters are generalised
disasters indirectly. Landslides and floods due experiences of people the world over, and no
to deforestation, unscientific land use and two disasters are similar and comparable to
construction activities in fragile areas are some each other. Every disaster is unique in terms
of the disasters that are the results of indirect of the local socio-environmental factors that
human actions. Can you identify some other control it, the social response it generates, and
human activities going on in and around your the way each social group negotiates with it.
neighbourhood and schools that can lead to However, the opinion mentioned above is
disasters in the near future? Can you suggest indicative of three important things. Firstly, the
some measures to prevent it? It is a common magnitude, intensity, frequency and damages
experience that human-made disasters have caused by natural disasters have increased
increased both in their numbers and over the years. Secondly, there is a growing
magnitudes over the years and concerted concern among people the world over to deal
efforts are on at various levels to prevent and with the menace created by these so that the
minimise their occurrences. Though the loss of human life and property can be
success has been only nominal so far, it is minimised. And finally, significant changes
possible to prevent some of these disasters have taken place in the pattern of natural
created by human actions. As opposed to this, disasters over the years.
very little is possible to prevent natural There has also been a change in the
disasters; therefore, the best way out is to perception of natural disasters and hazards.
emphasise on natural disaster mitigation and Previously, hazards and disasters were seen
management. Establishment of National as two closely associated and interrelated
Institute of Disaster Management, India, Earth phenomena, i.e. areas prone to natural
Summit at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 1993 and hazards, were more vulnerable to disasters.
the World Conference on Disaster Management Hence, people avoided tampering with the
in May 1994 at Yokohama, Japan, etc. are delicate balance that existed in a given
some of the concrete steps towards this ecosystem. People avoided intensification of
direction initiated at different levels. their activities in such areas and that is how
Most often it is observed that scholars use disasters were less damaging. Technological
disasters and natural hazards as interchangeable. power has given large capacity to human
Both are related phenomena, yet quite distinct intervention in nature. Consequently, now,
from each other. Hence, it is necessary to human beings tend to intensify their activities
distinguish between the two. into disaster prone areas increasing their
Natural Hazards are elements of vulnerability to disasters. Colonisation
circumstances in the Natural environment that of flood plains of most of the rivers and
have the potential to cause harm to people or development of large cities and port-towns like
property or both. These may be swift or – Mumbai and Chennai along the coast, and
permanent aspects of the respective touching the shore due to high land values,
environmental settings like currents in the make them vulnerable to the occurrence of
oceans, steep slope and unstable structural cyclones, hurricanes and tsunamis.
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NATURAL HAZARDS AND DISASTERS 55
These observations can also be corroborated environmental diversities and cultural

by the data given in Table 7.1 showing the pluralities that scholars often described it
magnitude of deaths caused by twelve serious using two meaningful adjectives like the
natural disasters in the past sixty years in ‘Indian-subcontinent’ and the ‘land of unity in
different countries of the world. diversity’. Its vastness in terms of natural
It is evident from the table that natural attributes combined with its prolonged colonial
disasters have caused widespread loss of life past, continuing various forms of social
and property. Concerted efforts are on at discriminations and also equally large
various levels to take appropriate measures population have enhanced its vulnerability to
natural disasters. These observations can also
to deal with the situation. It is also being felt
be illustrated by focussing on some of the
that the damages caused by natural disasters
major natural disasters in India.
have global repercussions that are beyond
the means and capabilities of individual Earthquakes
nation-states to cope up with. Hence, this
issue was raised at the U.N. General Earthquakes are by far the most unpredictable
Assembly in 1989 and it was finally and highly destructive of all the natural
formalised at the World Conference on disasters. You have already learnt the causes
Disaster Management in May 1994 at of earthquakes in your book Fundamentals of
Yokohama, Japan. This was subsequently Physical Geography (NCER T, 2006).
Earthquakes that are of tectonic origin have
called the Yokohama Strategy and Plan of
proved to be the most devastating and their
Action for a Safer World.
area of influence is also quite large. These
earthquakes result from a series of earth
CLASSIFICATION OF NATURAL DISASTERS movements brought about by a sudden release
Human beings the world over have of energy during the tectonic activities in the
experienced disasters and have faced and lived earth’s crust. As compared to these, the
with them. Now people are becoming aware earthquakes associated with volcanic
and various steps have been initiated at eruption, rock fall, landslides, subsidence,
different levels for mitigating the effects of particularly in the mining areas, impounding
of dams and reservoirs, etc. have limited area of
disasters. Identification and classification of
influence and the scale of damage.
disasters is being considered as an effective and
It was mentioned in Chapter 2 of the book
scientific step to deal promptly and efficiently that the Indian plate is moving at a speed of one
with the disasters. Broadly, natural centimetre per year towards the north and
disasters can be classified under four northeastern direction and this movement of
categories (See Table 6.2). plates is being constantly obstructed by the
India is one of those countries which has Eurasian plate from the north. As a result of this,
experienced most of the natural disasters
mentioned in Table 6.2. Every year it loses
thousands of lives and property worth
millions of rupees due to these natural
calamities. In the following section, some of
the highly devastating natural disasters have been
discussed, particularly in the context of India.
NATURAL DISASTERS AND HAZARDS IN INDIA

It was discussed in one of the previous chapters
that India is vast and diverse in terms of its
physical and socio-cultural attributes. It is
Figure 6.1 : A Damaged Building
largely due to its vast geographical area, Due to an Earthquake
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Yokohama Strategy and International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR)
Yokohama Strategy and Plan of Action for a Safer World
All the member states of the United Nations and other states met at the World Conference
on Natural Disaster Reduction in the city of Yokohama from May 23rd-27th 1994. It
acknowledged that the impact of natural disasters in terms of human and economic losses
has risen in recent years, and society, in general, has become vulnerable to natural disasters.
It also accepted that these disasters affected the poor and disadvantageous groups the
worst, particularly in the developing countries, which are ill-equipped to cope with them.
Hence, the conference adopted the Yokohama strategy as a guide to rest of the decade and
beyond, to mitigate the losses due to these disasters.
The resolution of the World Conference on Natural Disasters Reduction is as mentioned below:
(i) It will note that each country has the sovereign responsibility to protect its citizens from
natural disasters;
(ii) It will give priority attention to the developing countries, particularly the least developed,
land-locked countries and small-island developing states;
(iii) It will develop and strengthen national capacities and capabilities and, where appropriate,
national legislation for natural and other disaster prevention, mitigation and preparedness,
including the mobilisation of non-governmental organisations and participation of local
communities;
(iv) It will promote and strengthen sub-regional, regional and international cooperation in activities
to prevent, reduce and mitigate natural and other disasters, with particular emphasis on:
(a) human and institutional capacity-building and strengthening;
(b) technology sharing: the collection, the dissemination and utilisation of information; and
(c) mobilisation of resources.
It also declared the decade 1990-2000 as the International Decade for Natural Disaster
Reduction (IDNDR).
both the plates are said to be locked with each National Geophysical Laboratory, Geological
other resulting in accumulation of energy at Survey of India, Department of Meteorology,
different points of time. Excessive accumulation Government of India, along with the recently
of energy results in building up of stress, which formed National Institute of Disaster
ultimately leads to the breaking up of the lock Management, have made an intensive analysis
and the sudden release of energy causes of more than 1,200 earthquakes that have
earthquakes along the Himalayan arch. Some occurred in India in different years in the past,
of the most vulnerable union territories/states and based on these, they divided India into the
are Jammu and Kashmir, Ladakh, Himachal following five earthquake zones:
Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, and the
Darjeeling subdivision of West Bengal, and all (i)Very high damage risk zone
the seven states of the northeast. (ii)High damage risk zone
Apart from these regions, the central-western (iii)Moderate damage risk zone
parts of India, particularly Gujarat (in 1819, (iv) Low damage risk zone
1956 and 2001) and Maharashtra (in 1967 and (v) Very low damage risk zone.
1993) have also experienced some severe Out of these, the first two zones had
earthquakes. Earth scientists have found it experienced some of the most devastating
difficult to explain the occurrence of earthquakes earthquakes in India. As shown in the Figure 6.2,
in one of the oldest, most stable and mature areas vulnerable to these earthquakes
landmass of Peninsular block for a long time. are the North-east states, areas to the
Recently, some earth scientists have come up north of Darbhanga and Araria along the
with a theory of emergence of a fault line and Indo-Nepal border in Bihar, Uttarakhand,
energy build-up along the fault line represented Western Himachal Pradesh (around
by the river Bhima (Krishna) near Latur and Dharamshala) and Kashmir Valley in the
Osmanabad (Maharashtra) and the possible Himalayan region and the Kuchchh (Gujarat).
breaking down of the Indian plate (Figure 6.2). These are included in the Very High Damage
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Risk Zone. Similarly, the remaining parts of fissures on the upper layers of the earth’s crust
Jammu and Kashmir, Ladakh, Himachal through which water and other volatile
Pradesh, Northern parts of Punjab, Eastern materials gush out, inundating the
parts of Haryana, Delhi, Western Uttar neighbouring areas. Earthquakes are also
Pradesh, and Northern Bihar fall under the responsible for landslides and often these
High Damage Risk Zone. Remaining parts
cause obstructions in the flow of rivers and
of the country fall under moderate to very
Low Damage Risk Zone. Most of the areas channels resulting in the formation of
that can be considered safe are from the reservoirs. Sometimes, rivers also change their
stable landmass covered under the course causing floods and other calamities in
Deccan plateau. the affected areas.
Socio-Environmental Consequences of Earthquake Hazard Mitigation

Earthquakes
Unlike other disasters, the damages caused
The idea of an earthquake is often associated with by earthquakes are more devastating. Since
fear and horror due to the scale, magnitude and it also destroys most of the transport and
suddenness at which it spreads disasters on the communication links, providing timely relief
surface of the earth without discrimination. It
to the victims becomes difficult. It is not
becomes a calamity when it strikes the areas of
high density of population. It not only damages possible to prevent the occurrence of an
and destroys the settlements, infrastructure, earthquake; hence, the next best option is to
transport and communication network, emphasis on disaster preparedness and
industries and other developmental activities but mitigation rather than curative measures
also robs the population of their material and such as:
socio-cultural gains that they have preserved
over generations. It renders them homeless, (i) Establishing earthquake monitoring
which puts an extra-pressure and stress, centres (seismological centres) for
particularly on the weak economy of the regular monitoring and fast
developing countries. dissemination of information among the
people in the vulnerable areas. Use of
Effects of Earthquakes Geographical Positioning System (GPS)
Earthquakes have all encompassing disastrous can be of great help in monitoring the
effects on the area of their occurrence. Some of movement of tectonic plates.
the important ones are listed in Table 6.1. (ii) Preparing a vulnerability map of the
Table 6.1 : Effects of Earthquakes country and dissemination of
vulnerability risk information among the
On Ground On Manmade On Water
Structures people and educating them about the
ways and means minimising the adverse
Fissures Cracking Waves
Settlements Slidings Hydro-Dynamic impacts of disasters.
Pressure (iii) Modifying the house types and
Landslides Overturning Tsunami building-designs in the vulnerable areas
Liquefaction Buckling and discouraging construction of high-
Earth Pressure Collapse
Possible rise buildings, large industrial
Chain-effects Possible Possible establishments and big urban centres
Chain-effects Chain-effects in such areas.
(iv) Finally, making it mandatory to adopt
Apart from these, earthquakes also have earthquake-resistant designs and use
some serious and far-reaching environmental light materials in major construction
consequences. Surface seismic waves produce activities in the vulnerable areas.
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Figure 6.2 : India: Earthquake Hazard Zones
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Tsunami visuals on Banda Ache (Indonesia) presented

in the book Practical Work in Geography - Part I
Earthquakes and volcanic eruptions that
(NCERT, 2006).
cause the sea-floor to move abruptly resulting
Unlike other natural hazards, the
in sudden displacement of ocean water in the
mitigation of hazards created by tsunami is
form of high vertical waves are called tsunamis
difficult, mainly because of the fact that losses
(harbour waves) or seismic sea waves.
are on a much larger scale.
Normally, the seismic waves cause only one
It is beyond the capacity of individual state
instantaneous vertical wave; but, after the initial
or government to mitigate the damage. Hence,
disturbance, a series of afterwaves are created
combined efforts at the international levels are
in the water that oscillate between high crest
the possible ways of dealing with these
and low trough in order to restore the water
disasters as has been in the case of the tsunami
level.
that occurred on 26th December 2004 in which
The speed of wave in the ocean depends
more than 300,000 people lost their lives. India
upon the depth of water. It is more in the
shallow water than in the ocean deep. As a
result of this, the impact of tsunami is less over
the ocean and more near the coast where they
cause large-scale devastations. Therefore, a
ship at sea is not much affected by tsunami
and it is difficult to detect a tsunami in the
deeper parts of sea. It is so because over deep
water the tsunami has very long wave-length
and limited wave-height. Thus, a tsunami wave
raises the ship only a metre or two and each
rise and fall takes several minutes. As opposed
to this, when a tsunami enters shallow water,
its wave-length gets reduced and the period Figure 6.3 : Tsunami Affected Area
remains unchanged, which increases the wave-
has volunteered to join the International
height. Sometimes, this height can be up to
Tsunami Warning System after the December
15m or more, which causes large-scale
2004 tsunami disaster.
destructions along the shores. Thus, these are
also called Shallow Water Waves. Tsunamis
Tropical Cyclone
are frequently observed along the Pacific ring
of fire, particularly along the coast of Alaska, Tropical cyclones are intense low-pressure
Japan, Philippines, and other islands of South- areas confined to the area lying between 30°°
east Asia, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Sri N and 30°° S latitudes, in the atmosphere
Lanka, and India etc. around which high velocity winds blow.
After reaching the coast, the tsunami waves Horizontally, it extends up to 500-1,000 km
release enormous energy stored in them and and vertically from surface to 12-14 km. A
water flows turbulently onto the land tropical cyclone or hurricane is like a heat
destroying port-cities and towns, structures, engine that is energised by the release of latent
buildings and other settlements. Since the heat on account of the condensation of
coastal areas are densely populated the world moisture that the wind gathers after moving
over, and these are also centres of intense over the oceans and seas.
human activity, the loss of life and property is There are differences of opinion among
likely to be much higher by a tsunami as scientists about the exact mechanism of a
compared to other natural hazards in the tropical cyclone. However, some initial
coastal areas. The extent of devastation caused conditions for the emergence of a tropical
by tsunami can be assessed through the cyclone are:
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(i) Large and continuous supply of warm A surge is generated due to interaction
and moist air that can release enormous of air, sea and land. The cyclone provides
latent heat. the driving force in the form of very high
(ii) Strong Coriolis force that can prevent horizontal pressure-gradient and very
strong surface winds. The sea water flows
filling of low pressure at the centre across the coast along with strong winds
(absence of Coriolis force near the and heavy downpour.
equator prohibits the formation of
t r o p i c a l c y c l o n e b e t w e e n 0 °- 5 °° This results in inundation of human
latitude). settlements, agricultural fields, damaging
(iii) Unstable condition through the crops and destruction of structures created
troposphere that creates local disturbances by human beings.
around which a cyclone develops.
(iv) Finally, absence of strong vertical wind Floods
wedge, which disturbs the vertical You read in newspapers and watch images of
transport of latent heat. floods on televisions occurring in some regions
during rainy seasons. Inundation of land and
Spatio-temporal Distribution of Tropical human settlements by the rise of water in the
Cyclone in India channels and its spill-over presents the
Owing to its Peninsular shape surrounded condition of flooding. Unlike other natural
by the Bay of Bengal in the east and the disasters, the causes of floods are well-
established. Floods are relatively slow in
Arabian Sea in the west, the tropical
occurrences and often, occur in well-identified
cyclones in India also originate in these
regions and within expected time in a year.
two important locations. Though most of Floods occur commonly when water in the
the cyclones originate between 10°-15°° form of surface run-off exceeds the carrying
north latitudes during the monsoon capacity of the river channels and streams and
season, yet in case of the Bay of Bengal, flows into the neighbouring low-lying flood
cyclones mostly develop during the months plains. At times, this even goes beyond the
of October and November. Here, they capacity of lakes and other inland water bodies
originate between 16°-2°° N latitudes and in which they flow. Floods can also be caused
to the west of 92° E. By July the place of due to a storm surge (in the coastal areas), high
origin of these storms shifts to around 18° N intensity rainfall for a considerably longer time
l a t i t u d e a n d w e s t o f 9 0 °E n e a r t h e period, melting of ice and snow, reduction in
Sunderban Delta. the infiltration rate and presence of eroded
material in the water due to higher rate of soil
erosion. Though floods occur frequently over
Consequences of Tropical Cyclones wide geographical area having disasterous
It was mentioned that the energy to the ramifications in many parts of the world, floods
tropical cyclone comes from the latent heat in the South, Southeast and East Asian
released by the warm moist air. Hence, with countries, particularly in China, India and
the increase in distance from the sea, the force Bangladesh, are frequent and equally
of the cyclone decreases. In India, the force disastrous.
Once again, unlike other natural disasters,
of the cyclone decreases with increase in
human beings play an important role in the
distance from the Bay of Bengal and the
genesis as well as spread of floods.
Arabian Sea. So, the coastal areas are often
Indiscriminate deforestation, unscientific
struck by severe cyclonic storms with an
agricultural practices, disturbances along the
average velocity of 180 km/h. Often, this
natural drainage channels and colonisation
results in abnormal rise in the sea level
of flood-plains and river-beds are some of the
known as Storm Surge. human activities that play an important role
2024-25
Figure 6.4 : Wind and Cyclone Hazard Zones
2024-25
in increasing the intensity, magnitude and also damage physical infrastructure such as
gravity of floods. roads, rails, bridges and human settlements.
Various states of India face heavy loss of lives Millions of people are rendered homeless and
and property due to recurrent floods. Rashtriya are also washed down along with their cattle
Barh Ayog (National Flood Commission) in the floods. Spread of diseases like cholera,
identified 40 million hectares of land as flood- gastro-enteritis, hepatitis and other water-
prone in India. The Figure 6.6 shows the flood- borne diseases spread in the flood-affected
affected areas in India. Assam, West Bengal and areas. However, floods also make a few
Bihar are among the high flood-prone states of positive contributions. Every year, floods
India. Apart from these, most of the rivers in the deposit fertile silt over agricultural fields
northern states like Punjab and Uttar Pradesh, which is good for the crops. Majuli (Assam),
are also vulnerable to occasional floods. It has the largest riverine island in the world, is the
been noticed that states like Rajasthan, Gujarat, best example of good paddy crops after the
Haryana and Punjab are also getting inundated annual floods in Brahmaputra. But these are
in recent decades due to flash floods. This is insignificant benefits in comparison to the
partly because of the pattern of the monsoon grave losses.
and partly because of blocking of most of the The Government of India as well as the state
streams and river channels by human governments are well aware of the menace
activities. Sometimes, Tamil Nadu experiences created by floods every year. How do these
flooding during November-January due to governments generally respond to the floods?
the retreating monsoon. Construction of flood protection embankments
in the flood-prone areas, construction of dams,
Consequence and Control of Floods afforestation and discouraging major
Frequent inundation of agricultural land and construction activities in the upper reaches of
human settlement, particularly in Assam, most of the flood-creating rivers, etc. are some
West Bengal, Bihar and Eastern Uttar Pradesh steps that need to be taken up on urgent basis.
(flooding rivers), coastal areas of Odisha, Removal of human encroachment from the
Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Gujarat river channels and depopulating the flood
(cyclone) and Punjab, Rajasthan, Northern plains can be the other steps. This is
Gujarat and Haryana (flash floods) have particularly true in western and northern parts
serious consequences on the national of the country which experience flash-floods.
economy and society. Floods do not only Cyclone centres may provide relief in coastal
destroy valuable crops every year but these areas which are hit by a storm surge.
Figure 6.5 : Brahmaputra During Flood
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Dib
ang
R.
R.
hit
Lo
Figure 6.6 : Flood Hazard Zones
2024-25
Droughts the country and 12 per cent of its total

The term ‘drought’ is applied to an extended population suffer due to drought every year.
period when there is a shortage of water About 30 per cent of the country’s total area is
availability due to inadequate precipitation, identified as drought prone affecting around
excessive rate of evaporation and 50 million people. It is a common experience
over-utilisation of water from the reservoirs and that while some parts of the country reel under
other storages, including the ground water. floods, there are regions that face severe
drought during the same period. Moreover, it
Drought is a complex phenomenon as it is also a common sight to witness that one
involves elements of meteorology like region suffers due to floods in one season and
precipitation, evaporation, evapo- experiences drought in the other. This is mainly
transpiration, ground water, soil because of the large-scale variations and
moisture, storage and surface run-off, unpredictability in the behaviour of the
agricultural practices, particularly the monsoon in India. Thus, droughts are
types of crops grown, socio-economic widespread and common phenomena in most
practices and ecological conditions.
parts of the country, but these are most
recurrent and severe in some and not so in
Types of Droughts others. On the basis of severity of droughts,
India can be divided into the following regions:
Meteorological Drought : It is a situation when
there is a prolonged period of inadequate Extreme Drought Affected Areas : It is evident
rainfall marked with mal-distribution of the from the Figure 6.7 that most parts of
same over time and space. Rajasthan, particularly areas to the west of the
Agricultural Drought : It is also known as soil Aravali hills, i.e. Marusthali and Kachchh
moisture drought, characterised by low soil regions of Gujarat fall in this category. Included
moisture that is necessary to support the crops, here are also the districts like Jaisalmer and
thereby resulting in crop failures. Moreover, if Barmer from the Indian desert that receive less
an area has more than 30 per cent of its gross that 90 mm average annual rainfall.
cropped area under irrigation, the area is Severe Drought Prone Area : Parts of eastern
excluded from the drought-prone category. Rajasthan, most parts of Madhya Pradesh,
Hydrological Drought : It results when the eastern parts of Maharashtra, interior parts of
availability of water in different storages and Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka Plateau,
reservoirs like aquifers, lakes, reservoirs, etc. northern parts of interior Tamil Nadu and
falls below what the precipitation can replenish. southern parts of Jharkhand and interior
Odisha are included in this category.
Ecological Drought : When the productivity of
a natural ecosystem fails due to shortage Moderate Drought Affected Area : Northern
of water and as a consequence of ecological parts of Rajasthan, Haryana, southern districts
distress, damages are induced in the of Uttar Pradesh, the remaining parts of
ecosystem. Gujarat, Maharashtra except Konkan,
Various parts of India experience these Jharkhand and Coimbatore plateau of Tamil
droughts recurrently which result in some Nadu and interior Karnataka are included in
serious socio-economic and ecological problems. this category. The remaining parts of India can
be considered either free or less prone to the
Drought Prone Areas in India drought.
Indian agriculture has been heavily dependent Consequences of Drought
on the monsoon rainfall. Droughts and floods
are the two accompanying features of Indian Droughts have cascading effects on various
climate. According to some estimates, nearly other aspects of environment and society. Crop
19 per cent of the total geographical area of failure leading to scarcity of food grains (akal),
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Figure 6.7 : Drought Prone Areas
2024-25
drought-mitigation. Rainwater harvesting can

also be an effective method in minimising the
effects of drought.
Observe the methods adopted for roof-

top rainwater harvesting in your
locality and suggest measures to make
it more effective.
Landslides
Have you ever read about the blocking of roads
to Srinagar or disruption of rail services by
stones falling on the Konkan Railway track? It
Figure 6.8 : Drought happens due to landslide, which is the rapid
fodder (trinkal), inadequate rainfall, resulting sliding of large mass of bedrocks. Disasters
in shortage of water (jalkal), and often shortage due to landslides, are in general, far less
in all the three (trikal) is most devastating. dramatic than due to earthquakes, volcanic
Large-scale death of cattle and other animals, eruptions, tsunamis and cyclones but their
migration of humans and livestock are the impact on the natural environment and
most common sight to be seen in the drought- national economy is in no way less severe.
affected areas. Scarcity of water compels people Unlike other disasters that are sudden,
to consume contaminated water resulting in unpredictable and are largely controlled by
spread of many waterborne diseases like macro or regional factors, landslides are largely
gastro-enteritis, cholera, hepatitis, etc. controlled by highly localised factors. Hence,
Droughts have both immediate as well as gathering information and monitoring the
long-term disastrous consequences on the possibilities of landslide is not only
social and physical environments. difficult but also immensely cost-
Consequently, planning for drought has to intensive.
take both aspects into consideration. It is always difficult to define in a precise
Provision for the distribution of safe drinking statement and generalise the occurrence and
water, medicines for the victims and behaviour of a landslide. However, on the
availability of fodder and water for the cattle basis of past experiences, frequency and
and shifting of the people and their livestock certain causal relationships with the
to safer places, etc. are some steps that controlling factors like geology, geomorphic
need to be taken immediately. agents, slope, land-use, vegetation cover and
Identification of ground water potential in the human activities, India has been divided into
form of aquifers, transfer of river water from a number of zones.
the surplus to the deficit areas, and Landslide Vulnerability Zones
particularly planning for inter -linking of
rivers and construction of reservoirs and Very High Vulnerability Zone : Highly unstable,
dams, etc. should be given a serious thought. relatively young mountainous areas in the
Remote sensing and satellite imageries can be Himalayas and Andaman and Nicobar, high
useful in identifying the possible river-basins rainfall regions with steep slopes in the Western
that can be inter-linked and in identifying the Ghats and Nilgiris, the north-eastern regions,
ground water potential. along with areas that experience frequent
Dissemination of knowledge about ground-shaking due to earthquakes, etc. and
drought-resistant crops and proper training areas of intense human activities, particularly
to practise the same can be some of the those related to construction of roads, dams,
long-term measures that will be helpful in etc. are included in this zone.
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High Vulnerability Zone : Areas that have almost roadblock, destruction of railway lines and
similar conditions to those included in the very channel-blocking due to rock-falls have far-
high vulnerability zone are also included in this reaching consequences. Diversion of river
category. The only difference between these two courses due to landslides can also lead to
is the combination, intensity and frequency of flood and loss of life and property. It also
the controlling factors. All the Himalayan states makes spatial interaction difficult, risky as
and the states from the north-eastern regions well as a costly affair, which, in turn,
except the plains of Assam are included in the adversely affects the developmental
high vulnerability zones. activities in these areas.
Moderate to Low Vulnerability Zone : Areas Mitigation

that receive less precipitation such as Trans-
It is always advisable to adopt area-specific
Himalayan areas of Ladakh and Spiti
measures to deal with landslides. Restriction
(Himachal Pradesh), undulated yet stable
on the construction and other developmental
relief and low precipitation areas in the
activities such as roads and dams, limiting
Aravali, rain shadow areas in the Western and
agriculture to valleys and areas with
moderate slopes, and control on the
development of large settlements in the high
vulnerability zones, should be enforced. This
should be supplemented by some positive
actions like promoting large-scale
afforestation programmes and construction of
bunds to reduce the flow of water. Terrace
farming should be encouraged in the
northeastern hill states where Jhumming
(Slash and Burn/Shifting Cultivation) is still
prevalent.
DISASTER MANAGEMENT
Figure 6.9 : Landslide
Disasters due to cyclones, unlike the ones
Eastern Ghats and Deccan plateau also caused by earthquakes, tsunamis and
experience occasional landslides. Landslides volcanic eruptions are more predictable in
due to mining and subsidence are most terms of the time and place of their
common in states like Jharkhand, Odisha, occurrences. Moreover, with the help of
Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, development of techniques to monitor the
Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, behaviour of cyclones, their intensity,
Tamil Nadu, Goa and Kerala. direction and magnitude, it has become
Other Areas : The remaining parts of India, possible to manage the cyclonic hazard to
particularly states like Rajasthan, Haryana, some extent. Construction of cyclone-shelters,
Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal (except embankments, dykes, reservoirs and
district Darjiling), Assam (except district Karbi afforestation to reduce the speed of the winds
Anglong) and Coastal regions of the southern are some of the steps that can help in
States are safe as far as landslides are minimising the damages. However, increase
concerned. in the loss of life and property in countries
like India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, etc. in
Consequences of Landslides successive storms is largely due to high
Landslides have relatively small and vulnerability of their population residing in
localised area of direct influence, but the coastal areas.
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(i) Pre-disaster management involves

Disaster Management Bill, 2005 generating data and information about the
The Disaster Management Bill, 2005, disasters, preparing vulnerability zoning
defines disaster as a catastrophe, maps and spreading awareness among the
mishap, calamity or grave occurrence people about these. Apart from these,
affecting any area, arising from disaster planning, preparedness and
natural or man-made causes, or by preventive measures are other steps that
accident or negligence which results need to be taken in the vulnerable areas.
in substantial loss of life or human (ii) During disasters, rescue and relief
suffering or damage to, and operations such as evacuation, construction
destruction of, environment, and is of of shelters and relief camps, supplying of
such nature or magnitude as to be water, food, clothing and medical aids etc.
beyond the coping capacity of the should be done on an emergency basis.
community of the affected area. (iii) Post-disaster operations should involve
rehabilitation and recovery of victims. It
should also concentrate on capacity-
building in order to cope up with
CONCLUSION future disasters, if any.
On the basis of the above discussion, it can be These measures have special significance to
concluded that disasters can be natural or the a country like India, which has about two-
results of human activities, and all hazards third of its geographical area and equal
need not turn into disasters since it is difficult proportion of its population, vulnerable to
to eliminate disasters, particularly natural disasters. Introduction of the Disaster
disasters. Then the next best option is Management Bill, 2005 and establishment of
mitigation and preparedness. There are three National Institute of Disaster Management are
stages involved in disaster mitigation and some examples of the positive steps taken by
management: the Government of India.
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EXERCISES
(i) Which one of the following states of India experiences floods frequently?
(a) Bihar (c) Assam
(b) West Bengal (d) Uttar Pradesh
(ii) In which one of the following districts of Uttaranchal did Malpa Landslide
disaster take place?
(a) Bageshwar (c) Almora
(b) Champawat (d) Pithoragarh
(iii) Which one of the following states receives floods in the winter months?
(a) Assam (c) Kerala
(b) West Bengal (d) Tamil Nadu
(iv) In which of the following rivers is the Majuli River Island situated?
(a) Ganga (c) Godavari
(b) Brahmaputra (d) Indus
(v) Under which type of natural hazards do blizzards come?
(a) Atmospheric (c) Terrestrial
(b) Aquatic (d) Biological
2. Answer the following questions in less than 30 words.
(i) When can a hazard become a disaster?
(ii) Why are there more earthquakes in the Himalayas and in the north-eastern
region of India?
(iii) What are the basic requirements for the formation of a cyclone?
(vi) How are the floods in Eastern India different from the ones in Western India?
(v) Why are there more droughts in Central and Western India?
(i) Identify the Landslide-prone regions of India and suggest some measures to
mitigate the disasters caused by these.
(ii) What is vulnerability? Divide India into natural disaster vulnerability zones
based on droughts and suggest some mitigation measures.
(iii) When can developmental activities become the cause of disasters?
Project/Activity
Prepare a project report on any one of the topics given below.
(i) Malpa Landslide (v) Tehri Dam/Sardar Sarovar
(ii) Tsunami (vi) Bhuj/Latur Earthquakes
(iii) Odisha and Gujarat Cyclones (vii) Life in a delta/riverine island
(iv) Inter-linking of rivers (viii) Prepare a model of rooftop rainwater
harvesting
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G LOSSARY
Alluvial Plain : A level tract of land made up of alluvium or fine rock material brought
down by a river.
Archipelago : A group of islands that lie in fairly close proximity.
Arid : Denoting any climate or region in which the rainfall is insufficient or barely
sufficient to support vegetation.
Backwater : A stretch of water that has become bypassed by the main flow of a
stream, although still joined to it. It has a very low rate of flow.
Bedrock : The solid rock lying beneath soil and weathered material.
Biosphere Reserve : These are multi-purpose protected areas, where every plant
and animal size is to be protected in its natural habitat. Its major objectives are :
(i) to conserve and maintain diversity and integrity of the natural heritage in its full
form, i.e. physical environment, the flora and the fauna; (ii) to promote research on
ecological conservation and other aspects of environment at preservation; (iii) to provide
facilities for education, awareness and explaining.
Bunding : The practice of constructing embankments of earth or stone for conserving
water and soil to increase crop production.
Calcareous : Composed of or containing a high proportion of calcium carbonate.
Catchment Area : The area drained by a major river and its tributaries.
Climate : The average weather conditions of a sizeable area of the earth’s surface
over a period of time (usually spread over a span of at least 30 years).
Coast : The boundary between land and sea. It includes the strip of land that borders
the sea shore.
Coastal Plain : It is a flat low lying land between the coast and higher ground inland.
Conservation : The protection of natural environment and natural resources for the
future. It includes the management of minerals, landscape, soil and forests to prevent
their destruction and over exploitation.
Coral : It is a small calcium secreting marine polyp that occurs in colonies, mainly in
warm shallow sea water. It forms the coral reefs.
Depression : In meteorology; it denotes an area of relatively low atmospheric pressure,
which is found mainly in temperate regions. It is also used as synonym for temperate
cyclones.
Estuary : The tidal mouth of a river where fresh and saline water get mixed.
Fauna : The animal life of a given area or time.
Fold : A bend in rock strata resulting from compression of an area of the earth’s
crust.
Glacier : A mass of snow and ice that moves slowly away from its place of accumulation
carving gradually a broad and steepsided valley on its way.
Gneiss : A coarse grained metamorphic rock with a banded structure. It is formed by
the large scale application of heat and pressure associated with mountain building
and volcanic activity.
Gorge : A deep valley with steep and rocky side walls.
2024-25
Gully Erosion : It is the erosion of the soil and rock by the concentration of runoff into
gullies.
Humus : The dead organic content of the soil.
Island : A mass of land that is surrounded by water and is smaller than a continent.
Jet Stream : A very strong and steady westerly wind blowing just below the tropopause.
Lake : A body of water that lives in a hollow in the earth’s surface and is entirely
surrounded by land.
Landslide : A form of mass movement in which rock and debris moves rapidly
downslope under the influence of gravity as a result of failure along a shear plane.
Meander : A pronounced curve or loop in the course of a river channel.
Monsoon : A complete reversal of winds over a large area leading to a change of
seasons.
National Park : A National park is an area which is strictly reserved for the protection
of the wildlife and where activities such as forestry, grazing or cultivation are not
allowed.
Pass : A route through a mountain range which follows the line of a col or a gap.
Peninsula : A piece of land jutting out into the sea.
Plain : An extensive area of flat or gently undulating land.
Plateau : An extensive elevated area of relatively flat land.
Playa : The low flat central area of a basin of inland drainage. Playas occur in areas
of low rainfall.
Protected Forest : An area notified under the provisions of Indian Forest Act or the
State Forest Acts having limited degree of protection. In Protected Forests, all activities
are permitted unless prohibited.
Rapids : A stretch of swift flowing water where a river bed suddenly becomes steeper
due to the presence of hard rocks.
Reserved Forest : An area notified under the provisions of Indian Forest Act or the
State Forest Acts having full degree of protection. In Reserved Forests, all activities
are prohibited unless permitted.
Sanctuary : A sanctuary is an area, which is reserved for the conservation of animals
only and operations such as harvesting of timber, collection of minor forest products
are allowed so long as they do not affect the animals adversely.
Soil Profile : It is the vertical section of soil from the ground surface to the parent
rock.
Subcontinent : A big geographical unit which stands out distinctly from the rest of
the continent.
Terai : A belt of marshy ground and vegetation on the lower parts of the alluvial fans.
Tectonic : Forces originating within the earth and responsible for bringing widespread
changes in the landform features.
Unclassed Forest : An area recorded as forest but not included in reserved or protected
forest category. Ownership status of such forests varies from state to state.
2024-25
NOTES
2024-25

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INDIA

First Edition ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

January 2018, January 2019,

Chief Production : Arun Chitkara

The National Curriculum Framework (NCF), 2005, recommends that children’s

In view of the COVID-19 pandemic, it is imperative to reduce content load on

This present edition, is a reformatted version after carrying out the

CHAIRPERSON, ADVISORY COMMITTEE FOR TEXTBOOKS IN SOCIAL SCIENCES AT THE HIGHER

The National Council of Educational Research and Training acknowledges the

RATIONALISATION OF CONTENT IN THE TEXTBOOKS vii

UNIT I : INTRODUCTION 1-6

UNIT II : PHYSIOGRAPHY 7-26

2. Structure and Physiography 8

UNIT III : CLIMATE AND VEGETATION 27-51

UNIT IV : NATURAL HAZARDS AND DISASTERS: CAUSES, 52-69

CONSEQUENCES AND MANAGEMENT

6. Natural Hazards and Disasters 53

Figure 1.1 : India : Administrative Divisions

Activity: Observe the map of India on an atlas/School Bhuvan NCERT portal

STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOGRAPHY

mountains are some examples of it. The INDO-GANGA-BRAHMAPUTRA PLAIN

Figure 2.2 : India : Physical

Figure 2.3 : The Himalayas

The Northern Plains

The Deccan Plateau

provides natural conditions for the

The Islands The islands of the Arabian sea include

Some important mountain peaks in

The coastal line has some coral deposits,

The flow of water through well-defined

Do you have a river near your village or city?

Important Drainage Patterns

Figure 3.2 : Major Rivers of India

Pranhita, and the Manjra are its principal

(ii) Write three characterstics of the Peninsular river.

CLIMATE AND VEGETATION

Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)

Onset of the Monsoon

EI-Nino and the Indian Monsoon

Figure 4.2 : India : Normal Dates of Onset of the Southwest Monsoon

between 25 mm and 18 mm south rather it increases from the coast to

Figure 4.3 : India : Seasonal Rainfall (June-September)

Figure 4.4 : India : Annual Rainfall

2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words.

Figure 5.2 : Natural Vegetation

Figure 5.3 : Deciduous Forests

The Moist deciduous forests are more

Forests and Life

comprehensively amended in 1991, making

Table 5.1 : List of Biosphere Reserves

Figure 5.8 : India : Biosphere Reserves

Special schemes like Project Tiger (1973)

NATURAL HAZARDS AND DISASTERS:

NATURAL HAZARDS AND DISASTERS

These observations can also be corroborated environmental diversities and cultural

NATURAL DISASTERS AND HAZARDS IN INDIA

Socio-Environmental Consequences of Earthquake Hazard Mitigation

Figure 6.2 : India: Earthquake Hazard Zones

Tsunami visuals on Banda Ache (Indonesia) presented

Figure 6.4 : Wind and Cyclone Hazard Zones