P LA N E G E O M E T RY

By

MA B E L S Y K E S
r u ct or
In s t in M t h e m t i s B ow e H i g h
a a c . n S ch ool , C h i ca g o
A u t h or f A S ou r e B oo k f P ro b le m f or G e o m e tr y
”
o c o s

C L AR E N CE E . C O MS T O CK
P rof ess or of M a t h em a t i cs .

B r dley P oly t ec h n i c In s t i t u te
a

RAN D M QN A L LY CO MPA N Y
CH I CAG O NE W Y O R K
 o r
C p y i g ht, 1 9 18 . b y
R A N D MSN A LLY CO MPA N Y
E di t i o n of
‘

192 2
 T HE CO N TE N TS

Th eP f
re a ce

CH A PT E R 1. Intro d uc tory
o ts a n d S t rai g ht Li ne s
P in
C i rc l e s
A ngle s
S u mm a ry a n d S upple m en ta ry E xe rc ise s

C H A P TE R I I . Co ngru e nt Tri an gl es
I n trodu c to ry D efi ni ti o n s
Te sts f o r E qua l A ngl e s a nd E qual S egm e nts
A ppli ca tio n of C o ng ru e nt T ri a n gl e s to C o n st ru c ti on s
N a tu re of Th e o re m s a n d P roof s
Mi sc ella ne ous Th eo re m s a n d E xe rc i s es
CH A PT E R I I I . P ar allels P e rp en di c ular s
, ,

A ngl e s An gl e S u m s
,
-

In t ro d u c t o ry
l ls
Pa ra le
A ngle s Ma de b y Pa ra lle ls a n d T ran sv ers a ls

A ngl e s n T ri a n gl e s
i

A ngle s i n Poly g o n s
Mis cella ne ous The o re m s
S uppl e m e nta ry E xe rc ise s

CH A PTE R I V . Q u a drilat erals

S y m m e t ry
P a ra lle log ra m s
S pec i a l Q u a d r i l a te ra ls
P a ra lle ls a n d Se gm e n ts o n T ra n sve r sa ls
S uppl e m e n ta ry E x e rc i se s

CH A P TE R V In e q u ali ti es
.

A ssu m pti o n s f o r Co m b i n i n g I n e qua l i t i e s

Fu nd am en tal T e sts of I n equ al i ty
T e sts f o r U ne qual S i d e s a n d A ngl e s n O ne Tri a 1 n gl e

T e sts f o r U ne qua l S i de s a nd A ngl s m T w o T ri a ngle s

e

S upple m e n ta ry E xe rc ise s

0 7 17 7 9 -
vi T H E CO N T E N T S

CH A PTE R V I . C i rc le s an d Re l a t e d Lin e s
I ntrod uc to ry
Re l a te d A r c s Cho rds ,
,
a nd Ce n t ra l A ng l e s
Cho rds i n G ene ra l
T a ng e n t s
Two C i rcl es a nd Rel a ted Li ne s
S upplem e n ta ry E xe rc i se s

C H A P T E R V II . Ci rcles an d Relat e d Angl e s

Re l a tio nbetwee n Ce nt ra l A ngle s a n d Th ei r A rc s
R el a tion b e twee n I n s c rib e d A ngl e s a n d Th e i r A rc s
Rela tio n b e twe n A ng l e s Fo rm e d by T a n g e n ts a n d
e C h o ds
r

Thei r A c sr

S u m m a ry a nd S uppl e m e n t a ry E xe rc i s e s

C H A PT E R V I I I . L oc i
G e n e ra l Co n s i d e ra ti o n s
Loc i of Poi nts
D e te rm i na tio n o f P o i n ts by th e I n te r se c ti o n of L o c i
Loci o f Ce nters of C i rc l e s
S uppl em e n ta ry E xerc i s e s

C H A P T E R IX . Rati o an d Pro p ort i on

Me a su rem e n t of Se g m e nts
Ra ti os
Theo ry of P ropo rti on
Ra ti os of S e g m e nts Ma d e by P a ra ll e ls
S i m il a r T ri a n gl e s
I m po rta n t S pec i a l C a s s e

A ppl i c a ti o n s of E q u a l R a ti os
S u m m a ry a n d S uppl e m e nt a ry E xe rc i s e s

CH A P T E R X . Ar e a an d u
Eq i v a l e nc e
I n t rodu c to ry
Mea su re m e n t of olygon s
P
E q uiva l en t P olygo n s
S u m m a ry a n d S uppl e m e n ta ry E xe rc is e s

CH A PT E R X I . i
S i mil ar ty

I n tro d u c to ry
Te sts f o r S i m ila r Polygon s
P rop e rti e s of S i m i la r Polygo n s
S um m a ry a n d S uppl e m e n ta ry E xe rc ise s
 T H E CO N T EN T S v ii

C H A P T E R X II . R eg ular P o lyg o n s
De fi n iti o n
C o nstruc ti o n of R gula r Polygo ns
e

P rop rti s of Regul a r P olygo n s

e e

S i m i l a r R egul a r Polygo ns
S u m m a ry a n d S uppl e m e nta ry E xe rc i s s e

C H A PT E R X I I I . M ea s ur e m ent of th e Ci r c le

Th e C i rc u m fe re nce of t h C i clee r

A rea s of Ci rc le s S e c to s a nd S gm e n ts
,
r ,
e

Ra ti os a n d C i rc l e s
S u m m a ry a n d S uppl e m e nta ry E x e
rc i s s e

C H A P T E R X IV . M axi m a an d Minim a

I nt rodu c tory
T ri a ngl e s
P olygo n s i n G e n e r l a

Regul a r P olygon s

N otes on A r i th meti c a nd A lge b ra

Ta b les
O u tli n e S u m m a r y
Index
 T H E P R EFA CE

Th i s b o o k i s wri tt en w i t h t h e firm c o n v i c t i o n t h a t i t i s
p o ss i b l e t o g i v e t o h i gh-
s c h o o l y o u n g p o p l e a m o re s y s
e

t em a t i c t r a i n i n g i n t h e s c i en c e o f g eo m e t r y t h a n i s f u rn i sh e d
b y a n y t ex t b o o k o n t h e m arke t t o —da y In t h i s c o nn ec t i o n
.

th e t w o m a i n f ea tu re s o f t h e b o o k s h o u l d b e n o t e d :
1 Th e a n a ly ti c a l m eth od of a tta ck i s emp loy ed th ro ugh ou t
. .

A n a l y s e s o f p ro o f s s e rv e s e v er a l p u r p o se s Wh en i t h a s
.

b een f o un d b y ac t u a l c l a s sro o m ex p eri en c e t h a t a n y p a rt i c u

lar p r o o f i s s o d i ffi c u lt t h a t t h e p u p i l c a nn o t r eas o n ab l y
b e ex p ec t e d t o t h i n k i t o u t f o r h i m se lf t h e a n al y s i s gi v e s
,

h i m a t t h e o u t se t t h e g i s t o f t h e ar gu m en t c all s h i s a t t en t i o n
,

t o t h e m e t h o d o f p ro o f em p l o y ed a n d g i v es h i m so m e i d e a
,

o f h o w t h e p ro o f m a y h a v e b een o r i g i n a ll y i n v en t e d In .

su c h c a se s n o t o n l y i s t h e a n a l y s i s g i v en but as m u c h o f
,

t h e p ro o f a s ex p er i e n ce h as f o u n d n ec es s ar y In th i s c o n
.

n ec t i o n t h e t r e a t m e n t o f t h e p ro o f s o f Th eo r em s 3 4 9 14 , , , ,

6 4 7 7 113 a n d 120 m a y b e n o t e d an d c o m p ar e d wi th t h e
, , ,

us u a l t rea t m en t o f t h es e s am e p ro o fs .

Mo re i m p o r t an t h o wever i s t h e fa c t t h a t t h e p up i l c an
, , ,

wi th p ro p er t r ai n i n g i n ven t m a n y o f h i s o wn p ro o f s W hi l e
, .

n o t h i n g c an d o a w a y e n t i r e l y w i t h t h e e l e m e n t o f i n s p i r a t i o n

i n ge t ti n g o ri gi n a l s t h e f a c t r em a i n s th a t t h e m eth o d o f
,

a n a l y s i s i s t h e m e t h o d b y wh i c h e v e r y t ra i n e d m i n d a tt a c ks
'

d i ffic u lti e s Th e t e ac h er sh o u l d see t o i t t h a t t h e p up i l i s

.

c o n t i n u a ll y a sk i n g h i m se lf t h e n ec e s s ar y qu e s t i o n s t h a t h e ,

see s c l e a r l y h o w e a c h s t e p f o ll o w s f r o m t h e p r e c e d i n g a n d ,

t h a t t h e r esu lt s are s e t d o wn i n t h e o rd er l y fo rm h ere em

p yl o e d T .h e s t a t em en t s gi v en i n t h e a n a l y ses m a y s eem
fo rm a l bu t c l earn ess a n d d e fini t ene ss are essen t i a l N o
, .

s t a t em e n t s h o u l d b e p erm i tt e d wh i c h d o es n o t c l e ar l y i n d i

c a t e th a t t h e p u p i l s ee s a ll t h e e s sen t i a l s t ep s o f t h e ar gu

m en t . T h e p r o o f s h o u l d i n e v e r y c a se b e o bt ai n e d b y
w o rki n g b a c kward fr o m t h e a n a l y s i s .
 T H E PRE FA C E

2 . Th e w o rk i s so a rra n ged as to th ro w m ph a s i s
e on th e
i m p o rta nt th eo rems a nd m eth ods .

Wi t h o ut h a s i s e ff ec t i ve an a l y s i s i s i m p o s si b l e It i s
em p .

s a i d t o b e a f u n d a m en t a l Ch arac t e ri s t i c o f t h e m i n d t h a t

a n y l as t i n g i m p r es s i o n o f a v a s t fi e l d r e q u 1r es d i s t i n c t i o ns i n

em p h a s i s Mo r e o v er i t i s j u s t h er e t h a t m u c h o f o u r
.
,

g eo m e t r y t e a c hi n g h a s f ai l e d A tt e n t i o n i s c a ll e d t o t h e
.

fo ll o w i n g p o i n t s i n a rr a n ge m en t an d p r e se n t a t i o n :
a ) d
Th e i v i s i o n i n t o c h a p t e r s i s b a s e d o n t h e i m p t an t
o r

g e n e r a l i d e a s i n g e o m e t r y s u c h a s c o n g ru e n c e l o c i r a t i o
, , , ,

a r ea e qui v a l e n c e
,
a n d s i m i l ar i t y
,
If t h e w o rk i s s o p re
.

s e n te d t h a t e a c h c h a p t e r i s m a d e t o s e r v e t h e s p e c i a l d e fi n i t e ,

p u r p o s e i n t e n d e d m a n,y o f t h e d e t a i l s i n b o t h a n a l y s i s a n d
p r o o f f o r l a t er t h e o r e m s m a y b e l e f t t o t h e u
p p i l O t h e r .

wi se s u c h d e t a i l s s h o u l d b e gi ve n T h e p urp o se o f c h ap t er i i
.
,

f o r e x am p l e i s t o t ra i n p up i l s i n t h e u s e o f c o n gr u en t t ri
,

a ng l e s If t h i s p ur p o s e h a s b een a c c o m p l i sh e d t h e p up i l
.
,

c a n w o rk o u t f o r h i m s e lf t h e d e t a i l s f o r s u c h c o n g r u en t

t ri a n g l e w o rk a s th a t u s e d i n t h e p r o o fs o f Th eo rem s 3 3 3 6 , ,

a nd 3 7 S i m i l a r l y i t i s o n l y o n t h e a ssum p t i o n t h a t c h a p t e r
.
,

v i i and
—
2 12 h a v e s e r v e d t h e i r p u rp o s e th a t t h e
a n a l y s i s a n d p r o o f f o r Th e o r e m s 103 104 a n d 105 m a y
, ,

be sa e f l y l e ft t o t h e p up i l .

b ) T h e p u rpo s e o f e ac h c h a p t er i s c a r e fu ll y w o rk e d o u t
i n t h e o r d e r a n d g r o u p i n g o f t h e th eo rem s a n d e x e r c i s e s .

In t h e m i n d s o f t h e p up i l s t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f a t h e o r e m
dep en d s so el ly fr e q u e n c y wi t h wh i c h i t i s u sed
up o n th e .

T o t h i s e n d t h e d e p en d e n c e o f t h e m i n o r t h e o re m s u p o n
t h e m o r e fu n d a m e n t a l o n e s i s m a d e e vi d e n t a n d a ll e x e r c i s es ,

g i v en i n c o nn ec t i o n w i th t h e va r i o u s t h e o rem s ar e i n t en d e d
t o i ll u s t r a t e t h e u s e o f t h o se s p e c i a l th e o re m s O n p a ge s .

5 0 5 4 f o r e x am p l e Th eo re m s 10 11 a n d 12 d e p e n d d i re c tl y
—
, , , ,

o n Th e o r em 9 W h i l e § 6 7 co n s i s t s e n t i re l y o f e xe r c i s e s i n
,

wh i c h i t i s r e qu i r e d t o p ro v e t w o l i n e s p a r a ll e l Th e p u r .

f h a p t e r i x i s t o t rai n p u p i l s i n t h e u s e o f e qu a l ra t i o s
p o se o c .
 T H E PR E FAC E x i

Th e o u tli n e t h i s c h a p t e r a n d t h e a rr a n ge m e n t a n d gr o up
of

i n g o f t h e e x er ci se s i n i t s h o u l d b e n o t e d .

c ) Th eo r e m s a n d p ro b l e m s wh o se i n t e r e s t i s l a r g e l y t h e o

re t i c al a n d h i s t o r i c a l o r wh i c h h a v e n o i m p o r t a n t p l ace i n

t h e p l an o f t h e w o rk a re i n s er t ed i n t h e s u p p l em e n t ar y e x er
c i ses a t t h e en d o f t h e c h a p t er s Th ese a r e m ark e d w i t h a
.

d a gger an d c an be g i ven wh en it is d esi re d to e x ent d th e

c o u rs e or t o p re p a re f o r t h e e x am i nat i o n s of th e Co ll e g e
E n t r a n c e E x am i n a t i o n B o a rd .

I n a sm u c h as t r a d i t i o n a l o r d e r i s t h e m o s t c o n v e n i en t
th e ,

i t h a s b e e n p r e s e r v e d e x c e p t w h e r e e m p h a s i s r e qu i r e d a
c h an ge
“

. Th i s a c c o u n t s f o r t h e s e p a ra ti o n o f t h e w o rk o n
ra t i o , p p r o o r t i o n a,n d s i m i l a ri t y Th .i s s ubj e c t i n v o l v e s

t w o p o i n ts . Pu p i l s s h o u l d n o t o nl y b e f am i l i a r wi t h t h e
t es ts f o r s im i l ar fig ur e s a n d t h e p r o p er t i es o f s i m i l ar figures ,

bu t s h o u l d b e a b l e t o p r o v e ra t i o s e qu a l T h e w o rk i s .

th ere fo re d i vi d e d i n t o t w o c h ap t ers T h e c h ap t er o n .

s i m i l ari t y i s g i v en a ft er t h e c h ap t er o n area a n d e qu i v a l en c e

t o p erm i t o f gr o u p i n g t o g e t h er a ll t h eo re m s i n v o l vi n g

p r o p er t i es o f s i m i l ar fi g u r e s .

A tt e n t i o n i s a l s o c a ll e d t o c er t ai n m i n o r f e a t u re s
T h e i n t ro du c t i o n i s n a t u r a l a n d i n t er e s t i n g c o n c i se a n d ,

t o t h e p o in t T h e n a t u re o f t h e e x er c i se s i n t h i s fi rs t
.

c h a p t e r s h o u l d b e n o t e d a s w e ll a s t h e p re l i m i n a r y u se o f
,

a
p p e r f o l d i n g i n c o n s t r u c t i o n w o rk .

T h e a l ge b r a i c f o rm o f s t a t em e n t f o r t h e o re m s a n d e x er
c i se s i s e x t e n s i v e l y u se d . S e e esp ec i a ll y c h a p t er s i x x , ,

an d xi .

Th e fo rm a l t h eo ry of li m i t s i s o m i tt e d T h e i de a o f a .

li m i t i s p re sen t e d i n fo rm a ll y b y e x er ci s e s bu t p ro o fs th a t ,

a re e i t h er l a c ki n g i n ri g o r o r a r e t o o d i ffi c u lt f o r t h e u i l
p p
a r e o m i tt e d e n t i r ely T h e t re a t m e n t o f t h e m eas ure m e n t
.

o f t h e c i r c l e w i ll b e f o u n d s a t i s f a c t o r a n d o m r h e n s i v e
y c p e .

Th ere i s a g re a t v ari e t y o f exer c i ses wi t h c o n c re t e s e tti n g .

Th es e i n c l ud e e xer c i ses t a ken fr o m s urv e yi n g p h y si c s , ,

ar c h i t ec t u r e a n d i n du s t ri a l
, d e si g n Fo r i llu s tra t i o n s o f
.
 T H E PRE FA CE

e xe r c i se s i n s u r ve y i n g see p a ges 27 4 6 72 19 1 a n d 219 ;

, , , , ,

f o r exe r c i ses f ro m p h y s i c s s ee p a g e 106 ; f o r e x er c i s e s fro m

,

a r c h i t ec t u re , s ee p a g e s 15 7 15 8 204 206 26 5 a n d 280 ;

, , , , ,

f o r ex e r c i s e s f ro m i n du s tri a l d esi g n s e e p a g es 6 9 7 1 97 23 0
, , , , ,

23 1 an d 23 5
,
Ill u s t ra t i o n s o f si m i l ar p r o b l em s wi ll b e
.

fo un d o n p a ges 14 1 14 2 2 14 266 a n d 279

, , , , .

T h e N o t e s o n A r i t hm e t i c a n d A l g e b r a a n d t h e O ut l i n e
Sum m ar y p re c e d i n g t h e I n d ex w i ll b e f o u n d c o n v en i en t
f o r re f er en c e .A tt e n t i o n i s a l s o c a ll e d t o t h e u n u s u a ll y
c o m p l e t e c h ar a c t e r o f t h e i n d e x .

Th an k s a r e d u e Pr o fe s s o r G A Mi ll er o f t h e U n i v ers i t y
. .

o f Ill i n o i s f o r h i s c ri t i c i s m s o f t h e h i s t o r i c a l n o t e s

C H I CA G O , I LL I N O I S
Ma y ,
1 91 8
 PLAN E GEO M E T RY
C H A PTE R I

I NTRO DU CTO RY
1 . G eom e trytrea t s o f p o i n t s li n es s ur f ac es an d s o l i d s
, , , .

Pla n e g eo m etry d e a l s w i t h l i n e s an d po i n t s o n a p l an e
su r f a c e A p l an e s u r f a c e i s a fla t s ur fa c e l ike a p l ai n
. In , .

“
fac t y ea rs a go t h e n am e w as p l a i n g eo m etry th a t i s th e
, ,
”

geo m e t ry o f t h e p l a i n In t h e e ar l y p a r t o f t h e s even t een th

.

“
cen tu ry t h e s p e lli n g w a s c h a n g e d f ro m p l a i n g e o m e t ry
”
to
“
p l a n e g e o m e t r y T h. e
”
w o r d g e om etry c o m e s fr o m t w o
“ “
Greek w o rd s m e ani n g t h e e ar th a n d t o m easur e F ro m
”
.

ear l i e s t t i m e s t h e r e s u l t s o f g eo m e t ry h a v e b een u s e d f o r

p ra c t i c a l p urp o ses su c h a s bu i l di n g an d sur v ey i n g T h e

, .

w o rk o f t h e e ar l y E g yp t i an s f u rn i sh e s an i ll u stra ti o n .

P O IN T S AN D S TRAI G H T L I N ES

CO N CRETE REPRE S ENTATI O N

2 . We rep r esen t a p o i n t on a
p p er by a do t m a d e wi th a .

sh ar p - p o i n e t d p en c i l a n d d es i g n a t e i t b y a c a p i ta l l e tt er
p l ac e d n ea r t h e d o t (s ee p o i n t A , Fi g .

We rep r sene a s ra i
ght li ne o n p a p er b y a
t t
m a rk m a d e w i t h a sh arp p o i n t ed p en c i l a n d a- F ‘G 1

s t ra i ght ru l er a n d d e si g n a t e i t b
y a sm a ll l etter p la ced o n
t h e m ar k ( see l i n e n Fi g , .

A s tr ai ght l i n e r es em b l es a t i gh tl y s t re t c h e d s tri n g s u c h ,

as a th rea d b y wh i c h a w e i gh t i s s u s en d ed T h w d
'

p e o r .

li n e c om es fro m t h e L a ti n wo r d li n ea m eani n g
'

“
a li n e n

t hread T h e w o r d s tra i gh t c o m e s fro m t h e A n g l o S a xo n

”
. -

v erb m eani n g t o s t re t c h
“
.
 PLANE G E O ME T RY

L O CAT I O N O F S TRAI GH T L I N ES
3 . Ex 1 H o w m an y s t rai ght l i nes c an b e d raw n th rough ( 1)
. . .

o n e g i v en p o i n t ? ( 2) a n y two g i ven p o i n t s ? ( 3 ) a ny th ree g i v en

p o i n ts ? (4 ) a ny four g i v en p o i nt s ? I llust rat e ans w ers b y figures .

If t wo p o i nt s are ght l i ne p a ssi n g th ro ugh

g i v en , th e s t rai

th es e p o i n t s i s s a i d t o b e l o c a t e d d efini t e l y .

Wh en t wo p o i n t s ar e gi ven as p o i n ts A a n d fi
,

B (Fi g . i t i s o f t en b es t t o d esi gn a t e t h e F IG 2

l i n e p a ssi n g thr o ugh t h em a s t h e l i n e A B ra t h er th an b y a ,

sm a ll l e tt er Thi s m e t h o d o f d e si g n at i n g t h e l i n e lo c a t es i t
.

d efini t e l y wi th resp e c t t o t h e t w o gi ven p o i n ts A a n d B .

W e sh a ll ass um e a s ap p ar en t th a t
O nly o n e s r ai t ght l in e c an p a ss th rough t w o gi ve n p oi nt s .

Ex . 2
. D esi gn at e
h of t h e p o i nt s i n t h e figu res th at you
eac

d re w f o r E x 1 by a c a p i t a l l ett er Rea d eac h of t h e l i nes b y

. .

n a m i n g two of i t s p o i nt s
‘

L O CATI O N O F P O I N TS

4 . Ex 1 . . H o w m an y p o i nt s
th ere i n a st ra i ght l ine ?
are

Ex 2 . W h a t i s t h e g reat est n u mb er of p o i nt s i n wh i c h t wo
.

s t ra i ght l i ne s c a n i n t ers ec t ?

Ex 3 . Draw two st ra i ght l i n es w i th n o p o ss i bl e i nt ersec t i ons

. .

Ex 4 . W h at i s t h e g reat es t nu mber of p o i nt s i n wh i c h three

.

st ra i ght l i nes c a n i n t e rsec t ?

Ex 5 . Draw th ree s t ra i ght l i nes wi th ( 1) no p ossi b l e i nter

.

sec t i o n s ; ( 2) o n ly o ne p o ss i b l e i n t ersec t i o n ; ( 3 ) on ly tw o p o ss i bl e

i n t ersec t i o ns ; ( 4 ) th ree i n t ersec t i o n s .

Ex 6 . N a m e t h e g rea t est n u mber o f p o mt s i n whi c h fo ur

.
,

st ra i ght l i nes c a n i nt ersec t Draw a fig ure to i llu stra te y our a n swer

. .

If t wo gi ven s tra i ght l i n es i n t ers ec t th e p oi n t o f i nt er ,

s e c t i o n i s s a i d t o b e l o c a t e d d e fi n i t ely Wh en t w o i n t er .

s e c t i n g s t r ai ght l i n e s ar e g i v en s u c h as li n es a a n d b i t i s
, ,

o ft e n b e s t t o d e si g n a e t h e p o i n t o f i nt ers e ct i o n a s t h e p o i n t
t
 I N T RO D UCT O RY 3

ab t he r th a n b y o n e c a p i t al l e tt e r In Fi g 3 t h e t w o
ra . .

s t rai ght l i n es a a n d b w ere firs t gi v e n ; t he i r i n t erse c ti o n

then lo c a t es p oi n t 0 whi c h m a y b e ,

c a ll e d t h e p o i n t a b Thi s m e t h o d o f .

d esi gn a t i n g t h e p o i n t l o c at es i t d e fi ni t e l y
wi t h r es p ec t t o t h e t wo gi ven li ne s pm 3 .
,

W e sh a ll um e as ap p are n t th a t
ass

Tw o difi e re n t s tr ai gh t l i n e s c an i nt er s e c t in on ly o ne

po i n t .

Ex 7 . . D e s ig nat e
h of t h e l i ne s i n t h e figu res you d rew f o r
ea c

E x s 5 a n d 6 by a s m a ll l e tt er
. Read ea c h of t h e po i n ts whos e lo c a
.

t i o n i s d et e rm i ne d by th e s e l i ne s ; show how e a c h po i nt i s lo ca t e d .

S TRAI G H T -
LIN E S E G MEN TS
5 T h e p o rt i o n o f a s t rai g h t l i ne t er m i n a te d b y t w o g i v e n
.

t l c ll l m
'

p o i n s o f t h e i n e i s a e d a s tra i ght -
i n e s e g e n t H er e .

a ft er t h e si n gle wo r d se gm e nt wi ll be use d t o i n di ca t e a

s t r a i gh t li n e se g m e n t
-
.

If two se gm en t s are p a r s o f t th e s am e s rai t ght l i n e they ,

a r e s ai d to b e c o lli n ear .

6 . W e t r an s fer se gm en t s fro m o ne li n e t o an o th er by
t h e u se of th e c o m p a s se s ,

th e d i v i d e rs , t
o r a s ri p o f

p p
a er .

To tr an s f er a gi ve n
s e gm e nt O p en t h e d i.

v i d e rs to th e s e gm e n t
re qui r ed by l a yi n g t h e m
on gi ven s egm en t
th e F IG 4 .
.

W i th o u t c h a n gi n g t h e a dj us tm e n t p l a c e o n e le g o n p o i n t
A a n d m ark o ff t h e se gm e n t A B o n t h e l i n e c ( F i g .

Ex . 1 . Fi nd a s egmen t wh ic h is t h e s um of two g i ven seg

ment s .
4 PLA N E G E O ME TRY

Ex 2 . . Fin d gm en t wh i c h i s t h e d iff eren ce b etween two

a se

g iven segment s . Can a ny seg m en t b e s ub t ra c t e d fro m a ny oth er

segm en t ?

Ex 3 . S h ow how to m ult i ply a g i ven seg m ent b y 3 ; b y 5 ; b y n

. .

N O TE T h e p robl em O f d i v i d i ng a s eg m e n t by a ny g i v en n u m b er
.

i s n o t a s si m ple a s t h e th ree f o rego i ng p robl em s I t wi ll b e studi ed .

la ter In § 9 we l ea rn how to di vi de a gi ven s egm ent by 2

. .

7 . Two se c ongru ent i f th ey c an

g m en t s are s ai d to b e
b e p l a c e d up o n e a c h o th e r s o as t o fit e x a c t l y T o m ak e .

t w o s e gm en t s c o i n c i d e t h e i r e x trem i t i e s m u s t b e m a d e t o
,

c o i n ci de .

W e sh a ll a ssum e a s a p p aren t th a t
O nl y o ne s e gm ent c an b e dra wn j oi ni n g tw o gi ven t
p oi n s .
If th e en d p o i nt s O f a se gm en t ar e k n o wn , t h e se gm en t
i s lo c a t e d d e fi ni t e l y .

8 . gm en t h as a d efini t e length Th e l en g t h O f a
A se .

s e gm en t m a y b e O bt ai n e d b y t h e s u c c es si v e a p p l i c a t i o n

O f so m e s t an d ar d u n i t .

T h e len gt h gm en t j o i ni ng t w o gi v en p o i n t s i s O ft en
O f a se
’

c a ll e d th e d i s tan c e b e tw ee n th e tw o g i ve n p oi nt s .

S e gm en t s th a t h a v e t h e sam e l en gth a re c a ll e d e qu al
se gm en t s E qu al s e gm e n t s a r e c o n gru en t a n d c o n gr u en t
.

s e g m en t s ar e e qu al .

9 . To find th e m i d- p o i nt of a g i ve n s e g m e n t b y p a p er
fo l d i n g . Fo l d th e p a p er so th a t p o i n t
A f a ll s on i t B Cre as e t h e p a p er A —"B
p n
o .

s h arp l y . Hold it to t h e l i ght a n d s ee FIG . 5

th a t o n e p ar t O f th e se gm en t fa ll s ex a c t ly
u p o n t h e o th er p ar t . Th e c r ea s e m ark s th e mi d p o int -

O f t h e s e gm e n t .

We sh all a ssum e a s a p p aren t th a t

A gi v e n s e gm e n t h as o nl y o n e mi d p o i nt
-
.

E x erc i se . D iv i d e a g iven segment i nto four e qual p art s .

 INT RO DUCT O RY

RA Y S

10 A p o rt i o n O f a l i ne
. wh ic h s t art s a t a gi ven p o i n t and
ex t e n d s i n d e fin i t e l y i n a
gi ven di rec ti o n i s 0

c alled a ray T h e p o i n t i s c a ll e d t h e o ri gi n
.

O f t h e ra y ( s ee r a y a o ri gi n 0 F i g
F IG 6 .
, ,

Tw o r ay s th a t h a ve a c o mm o n o ri gi n an d e x t en d i n t h e
s am e di re c t i o n are s ai d t o b e c o i nc i d e nt If th ey h av e t h e .

sam e o r i gi n a n d ex t en d i n o p p o si t e d i r e c ti o n s th ey ar e ,

c olli ne ar .

A n um b er O f r ay s fr o m th e sam e o ri g i n f o rm a p n
e c il of

ray s . Mak e a drawin g s h o wi n g a ,

p e n c i l Of ra y s .

11 . If th e o ri
gi n a n d a n y o th er p o i n t of a ra y a r e kn o w n ,

th e ra y is lo c a t e d d efini t ely .

We sh all t tha t
ass um e a s a p p aren

w
O nly one ray c an b e d ra n h avi ng a gi ve n o ri gi n and

pas s i n g th rou gh a se c o nd gi ven po i nt .

CIRCLE S
12 . A l
d c ur v ed li n e every p oi n t O f whi c h i s e qua l ly
c o se

di s t an t fr om a gi ve n p o i n t i n t h e s am e p l an e i s c all e d a c i r c le .

Th e gi ven p o i n t i s c a ll e d t h e c enter O f t h e c i rc l e In Fi g 7 . .
,

O i s t h e c en t er o f t h e c i r cl e .

A gm en t drawn fro m t h e c en t er t o t h e
se

ci r cl e i s ca lle d a ra d i u s A s e gm en t .

dra wn th ro ugh t h e c en t er a nd t erm i n a t i n g

i n th e ci r cl e i s c a ll e d a di am et er In F i g . .

7 0 C OE a nd 0 D a re ra di i an d DE i s
, , ,

a di am e t er O f c i r c l e 0 .
F IG . 7

A se gm en t j o i ni n g t w o p o i n ts on a ci r cl e i s c all e d a ch ord
Of th e ci rc l e . In Fi g 7 , X Y
. an d
v

DE ar e ch o r d s O f ci r c le 0 .

A p ar t Of a ci r cl e is c all e d an ar c . In Fi g 7 t h e p art . Of

t h e ci r cl e b e tween i
p n s
o t A a nd B is an arc O f ci r cl e 0 .

N O TE A rc c om e s f rom th e L ati n a nd m ean s a bow chord ,

"
.
,

from t h e G ree k , a n d m e an s
“
t h e st ri ng o f '

a m usi cal i n st rum en t .

6 P L AN E G E O MET RY

If two c i rcl e s c an b e m ad e t o c oi nci de th e y are sai d to

, be

Ci rc le s wi th e qual r a du ar e c ongruent .

Th e truth O f thi s f a c t m ay b e s h o wn thu s :Dra w t wo

di ff eren t c i r c l es w i th e qu a l ra di i Cut th em o ut Put t h e . .

sa m e p i n thr o ugh t h e c en t er O f e a c h c i r c le .

We s h a ll a ss um e a s a p p ar e n t als o th a t
Con gru e nt c i rcl e s h ave e qu al radii .

N O TE A c i rc l e i s usu a lly d r a wn w i th t h e c o m p a sse s

. In pl a c e .

of c om p a sse s a p e n c i l a nd a t hrea d o r a p i e c e o f c halk a nd a st ri ng

c a n b e m a de t o a n sw r t h e pu r pos e e .

AN G L E S

DEF I N IT I O NS

Afigure f o rm e d b y t w o ra y s whi c h h a ve t h e s am e
‘

13 .

o ri gi n i s c a ll e d a n an g le T h e r ay s are ca ll e d t h e s i d es o r
.

arm s O f t h e a n g l e Th e o ri gi n O f t h e ray s i s t h e v ert ex o f

.
'

t h e a n gle .

An an g e l m ay b e d esi gn at e d i n v ari o u s w ay s .

F IG . 8

In F i g 8 w e h a ve t h e f o ll o wi n g an gles , r eadi n g fro m l ef t

.

t o ri ght :
A A l ab l a 4 2 [ B A G , N o ti ce th a t i n t h e
, , ,

last c a se t h e le t t er at th e v erte x O f th e an gle i s r ea d b etween

th e o th er t wo l etters .

An g l e m ay b e c o n si dered as
an

fo rm e d b y t h e ro t a t i o n O f a ra y ab o ut
i t s o ri gi n Th e s i z e o f t h e an g l e de
.

h m t F IG 9
d u t u f o ta ti o n
.

p e n s p o n e a o n O r .

In Fi g 9 whi c h i s t h e l ar ger a n g l e ?
. Wh y ?
8 P LAN E G E O ME T RY

A s malle r angle ubtrac te d f rom a larger an g l e

m ay b e s

b y p l a ci n g t h e s m a ll er i n si d e t h e l ar ger s o th a t th ey h a v e
a c o m m o n v er t ex a n d a c o mm o n si d e Th e
‘

rem ai n i n g p a rt Of t h e l ar ger a n g le i s t h e
diff eren c e b etween t h e t w o an g l es In Fi g . .

12 A 3 i s t h e di ff eren c e b e tw een 4 1 an d £ 2
, .

—4 2 .
F 15 1 12

Ex . 1 . D ra w
two an gles th at are n o t c on gr uen t a nd c o n st ru c t
a n a ngl e eq u al to th e i r s um .

Ex 2 Dra w two a n gl e s th at a re n o t c on g ru en t a n d c o n st r u c t
. .

t h e a n gl e e qu a l to t h e d i ff eren c e b etw ee n t h e l arger a n d t h e s m a lle r

an gl e .

Ex 3 Co ns t r u c t an a n gl e th at i s tw i ce a s l a rge a s a g i v en
. .

a ngl e .

Ex 4 A t p o i n t 0 o n l i n e A B d ra w a ra y
. .

th a t s h a ll m a ke w i th t h e l i ne A B a n a n gl e
c o n gr u e n t to 4 1 Ca n th i s l i n e h a v e m o re
.

th an o ne p o s i t i o n ? ( Fi g .

17 . To c ons tru c t th e b i s e c tor of a 1 0 B

F IG 13
gi ve n an g l e .

To c o n s truc t th e b i se c t o r Of A BAC .

B y p a per foldi n g F o l d t h e p a p er o n
.

a l i ne ext en di n g t h ro ugh t h e v er t ex A
(Fi g . th at t h e r a y A B wi ll b e
14 ) so

c o i n ci den t w i t h t h e r a y A C Cr ea s e .

t h e p a p er s h a rp ly T h e crease b i s e c t s
.

AA . Wh y ? Fi c . 14

We s h a ll ass um e as a p pa r en t th a t
O nly one ray can b e dr awn b i s e c ti ng a gi v e n ang e l .

Ex . 1 . Di v i de
gi ven an gle int o four c on gru en t p art s
a .

Ex 2 Dra w two an gl es th at a re n o t c on gr u en t
. . C o n st r u c t .

a n a n gl e th a t i s O n e h a lf t h e s um O f t h e two a n gl es j u st d ra w n
-
.

Ex 3 D ra w two a n gl es th a t are n o t c on gr u ent

. . C on st r u c t .

a n gl e th a t i s o n e h alf t h e d i f feren c e O bt ai ne d by s ubt rac t in g

-

t h e sm all er a n gl e f ro m t h e l ar g er .
 INT RO DUCT O RY 9

RI G H T A N G L ES AN D PERP EN D I C UL ARS
18 . Wh e n t t fr o m a p o i n t i n a s t ra i gh t l i n e a n d
a ra y s ar s

fo rm s t w o c o n gru en t a n g l es t h e a n g l e s are c a ll e d ri gh t
,

an gle s , a n d t h e ra y i s s ai d t o b e p e rp e n

di c ular t o t h e li n e In F i g 15 A l i s
. .
,

c o n gr uen t t o A2 , 4 1 a n d 1 2 a r e c a ll e d
ri gh t a n g l es , an d BC is s ai d t o b e p er . 0

F IG 15
d i l t o DA
.

p en cu a r .

In Fi g 15 t h e r a y B A m a y b e s u p p o s e d t o r o t a t e a b o u t
.

o i n t B as o ri g i n O n e c o m p l e t e r o t at i o n w o u l d c a r r y i t
p .

b ac k t o t h e p o si ti o n B A A ri gh t a ngl e i s O bt ai n e d b y o n e
.

qua rt e r O f a c o m p l e te r o ta ti o n .

Th e ray 0A ( Fi g . 16 ) m ay s art t fr o m
t h e p o si t i o n 0 A t t u n t i l i t ex
a nd ro a e

t en d s i n a d i rec ti o n ex a c t l y O p p o si t e t o
i t s o ri gi n a l p o si t i o n I t h as m a d e o n e .

F IG 16
h a lf O f a c o m p l et e ro t a ti o n T h e figu re
‘

A OA s i s c a ll e d a s trai ght an g l e T h e a n g l e fo r m e d b y . o ne

c om p l ete ro t at i o n i s c a ll e d a p eri g on .

An g l e less th an a ri ght a n g l e i s c a ll e d a n a c ute an g l e

an .

A n an g l e grea t er th an a ri gh t a n g l e a n d l es s t h an a s tra i gh t
a n g l e i s c a lle d a n o btu s e an g l e .

19 . To c ons tru c t a p p
e r e n di ular c to a li n e f r om a gi ve n
p o i t i n th e lin e
n .

To c on s truc t a di cular t o A B fro m p o i n t 0

p e rp e n .

B y pa per fo ldi n g F o l d t h e p a p er th ro ugh p o i n t 0 s o

.

t h a t t h e ra y 0A i s c o i n ci den t wi t h t h e ra y 0B C re a se .

t h e p a p e r s h arp l y Th e c r ease i s L A B
. Wh y ? (Fi g _ . .

— _
B

F IG . 17

N O TE . ordi na ry p ra c ti ce a p erp e nd i c ula r to a li ne f rom a poi nt

In
i n t h e li ne i s usu ally d ra wn by m e a n s O f a re ct a ngul ar ca rd o r a d raf ts
m a n s t ri a ngl e Pl a ce o n e edge o f t h e ca rd o n li ne A B wi th t h e c o rne r
'
.

O f t h e c a rd a t poi nt 0 a nd d ra w a l i n e a lo ng t h e oth e r edge O f t h e c a rd .

10 PLA N E G E O ME T RY

W e s h a l l ass um e a s ap p a r e n t tha t
O nly p erp en d i c u l ar c an b e d ra wn to l i ne f ro m
”

o ne a a

p o i n t i n th e li n e .

20 . To c ons tru ct a p erp e n d i c u l ar to a li n e fro m a p o i nt

no t i n th e li n e .

To c o ns tru c t a l i n e I fro m p o i n t 0
p er p e n d i c u l ar to .

B y p a p er fo ldi n g F o l d t h e p a p e r t h r o u gh p o i n t 0 ( F i g
. .

18 ) s o t h a t l i n e I w i ll f a ll u p o n i t s e lf .

Cr e a s e t h e p a p e r s h a rp l y T h e c r e a se i s .

t h e p e r p e n d i c u l ar to l i n e I f r o m p o i n t
0 . Wh y ? F I G 18
Ex 1 S how how to c o n st r u c t a p e r p e n d i c ul a r to a l i n e
. .

from a po i nt n o t i n t h e l i n e by m e a n s O f a rec t an gul ar c a rd o r a

’
d rafts m an s t ri a n gle .

W e s h a l l a s s um e a s a p p a r e n t t h a t
O nl y o n e p erp e n d i c ul ar c an b e d ra wn to a li n e f ro m a

p o i n t n o t i n th e l i n e .

Ex . 2 . How m an y 1 3 d ra w n to
c an be a g i ven li n e ? How
m ay o ne Of th ese be lo c at ed d efi n i tely ?
t u ct th e p e rp e n d i c u l ar b i s e c to r
'

21 . To c on s r of a g i ve n
s e gm e n t .

To con s tr uc t t h e p er p e n d i c u l ar b i sec t o r Of AB .

B y p a pe r fo ldi n g Fo l d t h e p ap er . so th at p o i n t A f a ll s
on p o i n t B C re a s e t h e a
p p .er
—
s h arp l y Th e c r e a s e i s t h e p er
. r g

p e n di c ul a r b i sec t o r Of AB . Wh y ?
F IG . 19

( Fi g .

22 . W e sh all a ss um e as e vi d en t th a t :
I . All t
s r ai ght an gl es ar e c o ngru ent .

11 All ri ght
. an gl es are c on gru ent .

Ex . 1 . S how
how to b i sec t a s tra i ght a n gle .

Ex 2 . C o n s t ru c t by p a p e r fold i n g a n a n gl e th a t
.
is o ne -
f ou rth
Of a s t r a i ght a n gl e .
 I N T RO D U C T O RY 1L

M EA S UREM EN T O F AN G ES L
23 . An l
ang e i s m e as ured b y t h e s u c c e s s i v e ap p l i c a ti o n to
it O f som e o t h e r a n g l e c o n si de red as a u ni t ‘
.

S om et i m e s gl e s a re m e as u re d b y c o m p a ri n g t h e m wi t h
an

a ri ght a n g l e :Thu s a n a n g l e m a y b e O f a ri g h t a n g l e ; ,

O f a ri gh t a n g l e ; 56 O f a ri g h t a n g l e F o r m o s t pu rp o s e s .
,

h o we ver t h e ri gh t a n g l e i s t o o l a rg e a u ni t
,
.

A go o d p rac t i c a l u n i t f o r m e a s u ri n g l — Of
a n g es is 3 50 a

p eri g o n a n d i s c a ll e d a d e gr e e

Ex . 1 . H o w m any d egrees in a t
s ra i ght an gle ? in a ri ght
an gle ?
Ex . 2 . H o w m an y deg rees i n 56 36 K 5
. , , %i O a p e r i go n ?

Ex . 3 . H o w m an y d eg rees i n 56 , V , Of a ri ght
an gle ?
E ach degr ee m a y b e d i vi d e d i n t o 6 0 con g ru e n t p ar t s
c a ll e d m i n u t e s E a c h m i n ut e m a y be d i vi d e d i n t o
6 0 c o n gru en t p a r t s c a ll e d sec o n d s

Th e um b er t h a t t e ll s h o w m a n y t i m e s t h e u ni t a n g l e i s
n

c o nt a i n e d i n a g i v e n a n g l e i s t h e m e as ure o r t h e m e a s ur e

nu m b e r O f t h e g i v e n a n g l e .

A ngles th a t h av e t h e s am e m e a su re n um ber d to
a re s a i

be e qua l S i n c e c o n g ru e n t a ng l e s
. c an be so p l a c e d t h a t
t h e i r s i d e s t a k e t h e s a m e d i re c t i o n , co n g ru e n t l
a n g es r ep r e

se n t t h e s am e am o u n t O f ro t a t i o n a n d h a v e t h e s a m e m ea sure
n um b e r A l s o a n g l e s t h a t h a v e t h e s a m e m e a su r e n u m b e r
.

r e p re s e n t t h e s a m e a m o u n t O f r o t a t i o n a n d c a n b e m a d e t o
.

c o i nc i d e In o th e r w o rd s e q u a l a n g l e s ar e c o n gr u e n t a n d
. .

c o n gru e n t a n g l e s a r e e q u a l .

Ex . th ree a ngl es i s
Th e s um O f Th e s ec o n d i s th ree
t i m es t h e fi rs t a n d t h e t h i rd i s fou r t im es t h e fi rst Fi n d t h e
, .

n u m b e r O f d e g ree s i n ea c h Ca n y ou c o n st ru c t a figu re by p a p er
.

fold i n g to i llu stra te you r a nswer ?

 P LAN E G E O ME T RY

I MP O RTAN T LLY REL ATED AN GLE S

S P ECIA

24 . T wo an g l es are c a ll e d c o m p l ementary i f th ei r sum is

an an gle Of E ac h O f t w o c o m p l em en t ary an g l e s is
ca ll e d th e c omp l em ent O f t h e o th er .

Ex . 1 . F i n d t h e c o m pl em ent s O f t h e foll o w i n g an gles

° ° ’ °
a. 60 d . 6 2 27 g . 33
° ° ’
b . 44 e . h . 42 2
° ’ ° ’ °
c . 39 10 f . 25 20 i . x

N O TE : Ma n y xe rc i se s th a t should solve d
‘

Of th e e f o llo w c a n a nd be
by a n a lgeb ra i c e qua ti o n .

Ex 2 . . I f t h e c o mp lem en t of an a n gl e is Of th e an gl e ,
fin
the n m u b er deg rees i n t h e a ngl e an d i t s c om pl em ent
Of .

Ex 3 . I f a n an gl e i s
. O f i t s c o m pl em en t find t h e n umb er ,

O f d eg rees i n t h e a n gl e a n d i t s c o m p l e m e n t .

Ex 4 . D raw a ny ac ut e a n gl e
. Co nst ru c t t h e a n gl e wh i c h i s .

t h e c o m p lem e n t of t h e fi rst a n gle .

Ex 5 . Dra w two e qu al ac ut e a ngles

. Dra w t h e c om p l ement .

O f e a c h O f th es e a n gl e s Cut out th ese c om p le m ent s a n d p l a c e

.

o ne u p o n t h e oth er A re th e y c o ng ru ent ? .

Ex 6 . H o w a re t h e c o m p l em ent s i n E x 5 O b t ai ne d b y s ub
. .

tract i n g e qu al a ngl es from e qu a l a n gl es ?

Th e fa c t i ll u s tra t e d i n E x s 5 a n d 6 wi ll b e a ssum e d as .

e vi d ent I t m a y b e s t at e d as f o ll o ws :
.

Comp l em e nt s o f e qual an g l e s are e qu al .

25 T w o a n g l e s ar e s a i d t o b e s upp l e m e ntary i f t h ei r s u
.

i s an an gl e O f E a c h O f t w o s u p p l em en t ary a n g l es i
c a ll e d t h e s upp l em e nt o f t h e o th er .

Ex . 1 . F in d t h e s uppl em en t Of e ac h Of th e fo llowin g an gles

’ ° ’
75
° °
a . d . 5 9 22 g . 90 21
° ' ° ' ° '
6 . 18 25 6 . 63 18 11 . 16 18
° ' ° ' °
c . 11 6 5 f . 12 30 i . x

Ex 2 . . H o w m any degrees in an an gle th at i s $6 of i ts s up p le

m en t ?
Ex . 3 . An gl e i s
an Of uppl em ent
it s s . Fi n d t h e n u mbo
of d eg rees in t h e a n gl e a n d i t s s uppl em e n t .
 I N T RO DU CT O RY 13

Ex 4 Dra w gl e D raw t h e gl e wh i c h is t h e up p l e
‘

. . a ny an . an s

men t Of fi rs t angl e
the .

Ex 5 . Dra w two e qu al angl es

. Dra w t h e s up p l em e nt s O f .

eac h of th ese an gl es Cut o ut th es e s u p p lem ent s an d p l ace o n e

.

u po n t h e oth er A re th ey c o ng ru ent ?
.

Ex 6 . H o w a re t h e s u p pl emen t s i n E x 5 O bt ai ned b y s ub
. .

t rac t i n g e qu a l an gl es fro m e qu al a n gl es ?

Th e fa ct i ll u s t ra t ed i n E xs 5 a nd 6 wi l l . be as s um e d as

e vi d en t It m ay b e s t a t ed a s fo ll o w s
.

S upp lem ent s of e qual an gles are e qual .

26 . Cert ai n i m p o rt an t
f a c t s c o n cern i n g sum s O f an g l es
ar e i ll u s t r a t e d i n t h e n ex t t hr ee e xerc i s es I t is e v i d e n t .

th at t h e s um O f all t h e p ar t s O f a n a n g l e i s e qu al t o t h e
wh o l e an g l e S h o w wh i c h i s t h e wh o l e an g l e an d wh a t ar e
.

i t s p ar ts i n e ac h O f t h e se t h r ee e x e r c i ses .

Ex . 1 . If i n Fi g 20 t h e ray OB
. t t f ro m
s ar s

o
p in t 0 in t h e l i ne CA , how m a n y d eg rees a re
th ere in t h e sum of A1 and 2? Fm , 20

Ex 2 . . In Fi g 2 1, i f A 03 i s a s t ra i ght
. l ine
wh a t is t h e s um O f [ 1 + [ 2 + [ 3 + 4 4 ?

FIG . 21

Ex 3 In F ig 22 wh at i s
. . . th e s um of
4 1+ 4 2 + 1 3 + 4 4 + 4 5 ?

F IG . 22

Th e fa c t s i ll u s tra ted i n E xs .
—
1 3 wi ll b e as s um ed a s e vi

d en t . Th ey m ay b e s t at ed as f o ll o ws
I If a ray s tart s f rom a p oi nt i n a s trai gh t li ne , t h e s um
. .

of th e tw o adj a c ent a n g l e s f orm e d o n o n e s i d e of th e

li ne i s or a s tr a i ght an gle .

S u c h a n g l es are c a ll e d s u pple m entary adj ac ent angle s .

14 P LA N E G E O ME T RY

II Th e . dj ac ent ang l es o n o ne s i d c
s um of th e a o t a

s tr ai ght l in e f orm e d b y any n u m b e r of ray s h avi n g a c om

m o n o ri g i n o n th e li n e i s o r a s tr ai gh t ang l e .

II I . Th e s um of th e adj a c ent an g l e s f o rm e d b y a n um b e r
of ray s f rom th e s am e o ri gi n i s or a p eri g o n .

Ex 4 . . If 1 1+ 1 2 + an d 4 2 is tw i ce £ 1, and A3
is th ree t i m es 4 2 find t h e n u m b er of de g ree s i n ea c h a n gl e
, .

Ex 5 I f fou r e qu a l a n gl es fo rm a p eri go n how m an y d e grees

. .
,

i n ea c h ?
Ex 6 I f s i x e qu a l a n gl e s fo rm a p er i go n how m an y d eg rees
. .
,

i n ea c h ?
’

Ex 7 If . . a n d A 4 i s tw i c e £3 ,

£ 3 tw i ce Z 2 a n d £ 2 tw i ce 4 1 how m an y d eg rees i n eac h ?

, ,

27 . S t a t em en t I
i n t h e p rec ed i n g s e c t i o n i n di c a t e s a v er y
l
c o se r e a l ti on b etween su p p l e m e n t a r y a dj a c en t an g l es an d a
s t r a i ght a n g l e T h e n ex t . tw o e x erc i se s i ll u s t r a te an o t h er
p h a s e O f t h i s r ela t i o n .

Ex . 1 . Co p y
two r i ght a n gl es fr o m c a rd s o r
’
d raft sm a n s t ri an gl es ( Fi g Pl a c e th e m s o .

’
th at p o i n t 0 fall s o n po i n t O s i de O A a lon g s i d e ,
’ ’ ’
O A
‘
an d O B O p p os i t e O B
,
W h at k i n d O f a n .

’
a n gl e i s A B O B ?

F IG 23
D ra w
gles A l two e qu a l
.

Ex . 2 . a ny an ,

a n d 2 ( Fi g t h e s uppl e
. Co n st r u c t 4 3 ,

m en t O f 4 2 H o w a re 5 1 a n d 3 re l a t e d ?
. 2 0

Wh y ? Cut out t h e th ree a n gl es Pl a ce 4 1 .

i n t h e p os i t i o n o c c up i e d by 4 2 W h at k i n d .

’ F “; 24
O f a n a n gl e i s A B O C ?

f a c t i ll u stra te d i n E x s l a n d 2 wi ll
Th e . be a ss um e d as

e vi d en t I t m a y b e s ta t e d as fo ll o ws :
.

If tw o s upp l e m e ntary an gl es are a dj ac e nt , th e ir e x t e ri o r

si de s are c o ll i near .
16 PLA NE G E O ME T RY

As 6 . . O nly o n e s rai t ght l i n e c an p a ss thro ugh t wo

gi v en p o in t s
As 7 . . O nly o n e p erp en d i c u l ar c an be dra wn to a

li ne from a g i v en p o i n t i n t h e l i n e
As 8 . . On l y o ne er
p p e n di c u l ar c an be dra wn t o a

l i n e fr o m a gi ven p o i n t no t i n t h e li n e

C . Conc erni ng c i rcl e s

As 9 . . Ci r cl es wi th e qu a l ra dii ar e c o n gr u en t
A s 10
. . Co n gr u en t c i r cl es h a v e e qu a l r a d i i

D . Conc erni ng eq u al angle s

A s 11
. . All t ght an g l es a r e e qua l
s r ai

A s 12
. . A ll r i ght a n g l e s a r e e qu a l
A s 13
. . Co m p l em en t s O f e qu a l a n g l es ar e e qu a l
A s 14
. . S u p p l em en t s O f e qu a l an g l e s ar e e qu a l
A s 15
. . Vert i c al an g l e s are e qu al
E . Conc erni ng angle - s um s
A s 16
. . If
t t fro m a p o i n t i n a s tr ai ght
a ra y s ar s
'

l i ne t h e sum O f t h e t w o a dj a c en t an g l es fo rm e d o n o n e s i d e
,

O f t h e li n e i s o r a s t ra i gh t a n g l e

A s 17 Th e s um o f t h e a dj a c en t a n g l es o n o n e s i d e
. .

O f a s t ra i ght l i n e f o rm e d b y an y n u m ber O f ra y s h a vi n g a

c o mm o n o ri g i n o n t h e l i n e i s o r a s tr ai ght an g l e

A s 18 T h e s um O f t h e a dj a c en t an g l es f o rm e d b y
. .

a n um b er o f ra y s fr o m t h e s am e o ri gi n i s or a

p e ri g o n

F . Conc erni ng t
s r ai gh t angle S
°

AS . 19 . If t wo s up p l em en t ary an gl es a re a dj a c en t ,

th ei r e x eri o r s i
t d es a re c o lli ne ar

G EN ERAL A S S UMPT I O N S

80 . fo ll o wi n g a s s ump ti on s are a l s o t ru e
Th e
A s 20 If e qu al s e gm en t s (o r an g l es) are a dde d t o
. .

e qu a l se gm en t s (o r a n g l es ) t h e resu l t s a r e e qu a l s e gm en t s
,

( o r a ngles) .
 I N T RO DUCT O RY 17

A s 21 If equ a l segm en ts (o r a ng l es) ar e s ubtra c t ed

. .

f rOm e qu a l s e gm en t s (o r an g l e s) t h e result s are e qu al s eg ,

m en ts (o r an g l es ) .

A s 22 If e qu a l se gm e nts (o r angles ) are m ulti p li ed

. .

b y t h e s am e n um b er t h e resu l t s are e qu a l se gm en t s (o r
,

a n g l es ) .

A S 23 If e qu al segm en ts (o r a n g l es) a re di vi d ed b y
. .

t h e s am e n u m b er t h e re su l t s a re e qu a l s e gm e n t s (o r a n g l e s)
, .

A s 24 S e gm en ts (o r an g l es ) th a t a re e qu a l t o t h e
. .

s am e s egm en t (o r a n g l e ) a r e e qu a l .

A s 25 E qu a l s e gm en t s (o r a n g l es ) m ay b e s ub s t i
. .

tu t ed f o r e qu a l s e gm en t s (o r a n g l es ) .

N O TE H erea f ter
when these a ssum pti on s a re used they s h o uld b e
‘

quote d i n t h e form i n whi ch they a pply ; f o r exa m ple :E qu a l seg ments

m a y b e substi tuted f o r e qu a l seg m e nts o r e qu a l a ngl e s m a y b e sub ,

sti tuted f o r e qual a ngles a s t h e ca se m a y requi re

,
.

MI SCELL ANE O US EXERCI S E S

31 . A f t er l vi n g eac h O f t h e fo ll o wi n g e xer c i ses s t a t e

so

cl earl y an d i n fu ll th e d efi ni t i o n s o r assum p t i o ns whi c h i t

i s i n t end e d t o i ll u s t r a t e .

’
1 On e of two s u pp l ement ar y angl es i s 40 15 l arger th an
°
.

t h e oth er Fi n d t h e an gl es
. .

2 Fi n d an an gl e who se c o m p l ement i s yg as l arg e as t h e

.

angl e i tself .

3 S how th at if t w o l ines i nt ersec t s o th at o ne an gl e i s a ri ght

.

an gl e all t h e a ngl es are ri ght a ngl es .

4 Fi nd an an gl e who se c o m pl em en t i s yg of i t s s up p lement
. .

Can you c onst ru c t th i s a n gle by p a p er fold in g ?

’
5 Wh at an gl es do t h e h an d s of a c lo c k m a k e a t 5 O c lo c k ?
.

’
at 10 O c lo c k ?

6 . I f i n Fi g
,
. 26 , A 2 : S how th a t
a . 2 3= 2 6
a z 2= 2 7 e £ 4= £ 5
f . é 4= £ 8 F ra gs
 P L AN E G E O ME T RY

7 . Which Of the follow i n g d i rec t i o n s lo c a te t he re qu i re d l i ne

o r ra y s defi n i te ly ? Why ?
a . Co n s t ru c t p e n d i c ul a r to l i ne A B
a p er .

b . Co nst r u c t a p erp en d i c ul ar to l i n e A B fro m po i n t 0 outs i d e

of A B
“

Connec t p o i nt s C a n d D .

Bi se c t A A .

Dra w a l i n e th rough po i n t A .

Fro m p o i n t 0 out s i d e O f l i n e A B d ra w a ra y c utt i n g l i ne

AB .

g . Dra w a ray wh i ch s h a ll m ak e a g i ven an gl e w i th a g i v en

l i ne .

h . Dra w a p erp en d i c ul ar b i sec to r to a g i v en segm ent .

i . Dr aw a se gm en t b i sec t i n g a g i ven seg m ent .

8 Two ray s st a rt from p o i nt 0 o n t h e s am e s i d e O f l i n e A B

. .

O f t h e th ree a n gl es fo rm e d t h e s e c o n d i s 3 t i m e s t h e fi rs t an d t h e
th ird i s 5 t i m es t h e fi rst Fi n d t h e angles . .

Fi n d gl e who se om pl em ent ller th an

°
9 . an an c i s 25 sm a the
an gle i t self .

"
10 Can . you fin d an an gl e whos e c om plem ent is Of it s s up

pl em ent ?
11 D ra w. fou r s tra i ght l i ne s s o th a t th ere w i ll b e : a N O .

p o ss i b l e i n t e r s ec t i o n s ; b O.n ly o n e po s s i b l e i n t ersec

t i on ; c O nly th ree p os si bl e i nte rsect i o ns ; d Fou r

. .

po ssi bl e i nt e rsec ti o ns ; e Fi ve p o ssi bl e i ntersect i ons ;

.

f .S i x po ss i b l e i n t e rs e c t i o n s .

12 you d ra w fou r st ra i gh t l i nes s o th a t th ere c an b e

. Ca n
o nly two p oss i bl e i n t ersec t i o ns ?
13 H o w m a n y d e grees i n t h e s u p p l em e nt of A x if i t s c o m pl e
.

m ent i s

14 . In Fi g 27 S how . th a t 4 1+ 4 4 + 4 5 + A O
2 rt A . W h at oth er c om b i n at i o ns O f a ngl es i n
Fi g 27
. w ill b e e qu al to two ri ght an gl e s ?
FIG . 27
 I N T RO D UC T O RY

15 . Dra w
two c o m ple ment a ry a dj ac e nt a ngl es a nd t h e b i se c
t o r O f ea c h H o w m a n y de grees i n t h e an gle m a d e by t h e
”

bi sec to rs ? Why ?
16 Dra w two s up p l em e nt ary a dj a c e n t an gl es an d t h e b i sec
.

t o r of ea c h H o w m a n y d e g rees i n t h e a ngl e m ad e b y t h e
.

b isec tors ? Wh y ?

17 . Draw A A B C ( Fi g . 28) e
e th a t 2 1: 2 2 .

S how th at A 3 A 4 .

18 .
‘

H o w m a ny d egrees in th e c o m pl em e nt of A b if
the s uppl e m e n t of A b is
F IG . 28

32 . AB B RE V IATI O N S AN D S Y MB O LS US E D

figure g rea ter th a n

e x e rc i se i s gr e at er th an
e x e rc i se s l es s th a n
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 d efi n i t i on i s l ess th an
a n gl e a n gl es
as sum pt i o n ,

ri ght a n gl e
as sum pt i o n s
r i ght a n gl es
the o rem
th eo rem s p erp en d i c ul ar to
i s p erp en di c ul a r
c o rollar y

alt e rn at e i nt er i o r
to
c o m pl e m ent a ry
p ara llel to
i s p arall e l to
s uppl em en t a ry
t ri a n gle , t r i a n gl%
adj a c ent
ri ght t ri angl e
se c t i on
r ec t a n gl e re c
th erefore t a n gles
,

d e gree s qu are s qu a res

m i n ut e
,

p a ra ll e log r am
se c o n d p ar a ll e logra m s
c e n t i m e te r tra p ezo i d t ra p
,

m i ll im et er e zo i ds
e q u al to l
c i rc e , c ir c e s l
qu al to
18 e
are AB
c o n gr u en t to
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

li s c o n g r u en t to

s im i l ar to
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 c ho r d A B

a re a

p eri m et e r
l i s s im i l ar to
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
 CH A P T E R II

CON GRU E NT T RI AN GL E S

I N TRO DU CT O RY DEFIN ITI O N S

33 . figur es th at
A ny t wo c an b e m ade t o c o i n ci d e ar e

c a ll e d c ongruent figure s .

In c o n gruen t figures c orre sp ondi n g s i d e s l

or a ng e s ar e

si des o r a n g le s th a t c o i n ci d e o r th a t c a n be md a e to
c o i n c i de .

We sh all add th e fo llo wi n g t o t h e li s t Of as s um p ti o n s

AS Any fi gure c an b e m ove d ab o ut i n s p ac e wi th
. 26 .

o ut ch angi ng e i th er i ts s i z e or i t s s h ap e .

AS . 27 . Fi gure s c ongruent t o th e s am e figure ar e con

gruen t to ea ch o th er .

34 A figur e fo rm ed
. gm en t s j o i ne d en d t o end
Of three se

c o n sec uti ve l y i s c a lle d a tri an gle S u c h a figur e h as thre e .

s i d e s th r e e a n g l e s a n d th re e v ert i c e s
. , U nl e ss i t i s o th er .

w i se s t a t e d a tri an g l e S h o u l d b e d ra wn w i t h i t s s i des O f
,

di f feren t len gth s ( Fi g .

F IG . 29

A tri a n g le t h a t h as at leas t t wo S i de s e qua l i s ca ll e d an

i s o s c ele s tri angle g l e i n cl ud ed b y t h e
. Th e an e qu a l S i d es

i s c a l le d t h e vert ex angle , a n d i t s v e rt ex t h e ve rt e x o f t h e ,

tri an gle Th e thi r d si d e i s c a ll e d t h e b as e O f t h e t ri ang l e

. .

A t ri an gle wi th a ll i ts si des e qu a l i s c a ll ed an e quilateral

tri a ngle .
 CO NC RU EN T T RIA N G LES 21

TE S T S F O R E QUAL AN G L E S AN D
E QUAL S EGMEN T S

TES TS I A ND 11 F O R CO N GRUEN T TRIAN GLE S

35 . Ex 1 . . Draw a t ri angl e wi th two si des equ a l to t h e se g

m ents a a nd b ( Fi g .

Draw th i s t ri angl e wi th a s oft

p e n c i l o n p pa er th a t is n o t
too h eavy Com p a re yo ur .

’
figu re w i th you r n eighb or s
by p l aci ng o ne p ap er u p on t h e oth er a nd hold i n g th em to t he l ight .

Ex . 2 . Dra w a t ri
an gle w i th two s i des equ a l
to t h e seg ments a an d b
a nd t h e i n c lude d a n gl e
e qu a l to A C ( Fi g .

Co mp ar e you r figu re wi th
’
you r nei ghbo r s a s ex
p la i ne d i n E x 1 . .

Ex 3 . Dra w a t ri an gl e
.

wi th two an gl es equ a l to A A
a nd B a nd t h e i n c lud e d s i d e

e qu a l to s eg m ent c ( F i g .

Co m p are you r t ri a n gl e wi th
’
your n ei ghbor s b y pl ac i n g
o ne p a p e r upo n t h e oth e r a n d

hold i n g th em to t h e l i ght .

F IG . 32

Ex 4 . . t ri angle and l ett er i t A B C Draw another

Draw an y .

t ri an gle a nd l etter i t X YZ but m a k e two S id e s a nd t h e i nc lude d ,

a n gl e O f A X YZ e qu a l to two s i d es a nd t h e i n c lud e d a n gl e of

A A B C Co m p are t h e two t ri an gl es
.
.

N O TE . In E x xe rci se s requi ri ng
. 4 a nd in a ll e

t h e c o n stru c tio n O f figu re s t h e pup i l should n o t

only m ak e t h e d ra wi ng but should te ll how h e di d A

it. S e nten ce s should b e S ho rt a nd e xa c t Fo r .

e xa m pl e ( Fi
g .

( 1) Mak e AX= AA .
( 2) Mak e X Y = A B E t c . . F IG . 33

3
22 PLA N E GE O ME T RY

THE O RE M d e s an d th e i ncl ud e d an g l e of one

If tw o si

tri angle ar e e qu al to two s i d e s an d th e i ncl ud e d an g l e of

an o th er tri an gle , th e tri an g l e s are c o n gru e nt i n all c orre

s p o ndi n g p art s a n d ar e c all e d c o n gru e nt tri ang l e s .

FIG . 34

Gi ve n A AB C and A DE F ,
A A = A D, A B = DE , and

A C = DF .

To p ro ve A A B C and A D EF c o n gr u e n t in a ll c o rr e sp o n d
i n g p ar t s .

P ro of :
S T A T E ME NT S REA S O NS
Pl a c e A A B C A DE F Th i s c an b done
‘

on so e

th a t AB wi ll f a ll on DE A , b ec au se A B DE .

on D B ,
on E , and C an d

F on th e de O f DE s a m e si .

S e gm en t A C w i ll f al l a l o n g AA = AD .

th e l i ne Of DF .

Po i nt C wi ll f a ll o n p o i n t F . A C= DF
B C wi ll c o i n c i d e x a c tl y If t
'

e th e e x r em i ti e s Of

wi t h E F . two se gm en ts coin

ci de , th e se gm en ts w i ll
c oi n ci de e x ac tl y .

5 . A ABC N
A DE F . Tw o t ri a n g l e s t h a t
c o i n c i d e e x a c tl y a re

c o n gru e n t .

N O TE : A n a n g le Of a tr i a n gl is s i d
e a to b e i n c lud d b e t w
e ee n i ts
two j
a d a c en t id s S e .

! Th e f o rm a l p ro o f of Th . 1 m ay b e p o st p o ne d unt il s uc h t me i as the

t ea c h e r d e s i re s .
 4 P LANE GE O ME T RY

I
E x erc i se . t ri an gle a nd l ett er i t A B C Draw
Draw a ny .

a noth er t ri an gle an d l ett er i t X YZ b ut m a k e two a ngl es an d t h e

i n c lud ed s i de O f A X YZ e qu a l to two an gl es and t h e i nc lud ed

s i d e of A A B C In how m an y w a y s can you c o nst ru c t a t ri a ngle
.

c o n g r u en t to a g i v e n t ri a n gl e ?

3 7 Ex 1. Const ru c t a n i s osc el es t ri an gl e w i th
. .

bas e 3 cm and eac h O f t h e e qu al s i des 5 c m ( Fi g

. . .

N O TE N o t i ce t h e wordi ng f o r t h e di re c ti on s f o r thi s
.

d ra wi ng . FIG 3 6 .

I D raw segm ent A B = 3 cm

. .

11 W i th A a s a c e nt e r a nd 5 cm a s a radi us m ak e a n a re a bov e A B
. . ,

Et c .

Ex 2 . . Co nst ruct an e qui l at era l t ri angle wi th eac h si de 4 cm .

TH E O RE M 3 . Th e angle s Opp o s i e t th e e qual s i d e s of an

i s o s c ele s tri angle ar e e q u al .

FIG . 37

Gi ven t h e i so sc eles A A B C A C = B C ,
.

To p rove A A = A B .

A n a lysi s a nd c on s tructi on

I . TO p ro ve A A A B , p r o v e A A a nd B c o rr es p o n d
i ng an gles o f c o n gru en t tri an g l es .

II . To bt ai n t h e t ri an g l es b i se c t A C
O , , co n ti n ue th e
b i se c t or CO t o m ee t t h e b ase a t 0 .

III . t o p ro v e A A = A B , p ro ve A A OC N
A B OC .

IV T O p ro v e A A OC
.
N
A B OC, p ro v e t w o Si des and th e .

i n clud ed an g l e
 CO N G RU E N T T R I A N G L ES 25

T
S A TE ME NT S RE A S O N S

I . a . AC= BG .
1 ° 0 °
Le t t h e n uni l

b . A1 A2 .
b . gi v e t h e r e a
s o n s f o r ea c h
c . CO = CO .
0 .

s t a t em en t
d A A CO N
A d .
.

II C o r re s p o n di n g
A A = AB
.

an gles O f con gr uen t

tri an g l es .

CO R . An qui l ateral tri ang l e

e h as all o f i ts an gle s e qual ;
th at i s , i t i s e qui an gular .

38 . T h e m eth o d
u sed i n Th 3 i s v ery i m p ort an t O ne . .

w ay t o p ro v e t w o s e gm en t s o r t w o a n g l es e qu al i s t o fin d
t w o t ri an g l e s th a t c o n t ai n th ese se gm e nt s o r th es e a n g l es
a n d t o p r o v e th ese tri a n g l e s c o n gr u en t In g en era l w e s ay .

th a t

Corre s po nd i n g si des of c ongruent tri angle s are eq ual .

Corre sp ondi ng an gles of c ongruent tri an gle s are eq ual .

In t h e fo ll o wi n g exerc i s es u se th e an a l ysi s an d p r oo f Of

Th . 3 as a m o d el .

’
To ma ke an a n a ly s i s , it is c
n e ess ary to as k o ne s se lf a

s eri e s o f ques t i o ns S t ar t wi th wh a t i s t o b e p ro v e d an d
.
,

b y m e an s O f t h e se qu es t i o n s u nra v el t h e p r o o f s t ep b y s t ep .

In Th 3 f o r ex am p l e y o u S h o ul d b e gi n b y as ki n g y o urse lf
.
, , ,

Wh a t are t h e tests f o r e qu a l a n g l es ? Th e a n sw er t o t hi s
ques ti o n gi ves t h e fi r s t s t ep i n th e a n aly si s a nd suggest s t h e
co n s tru c t i o n g i v en i n s t ep I I Y o u s h o u l d th en ask y o ur .

s e lf W h a t ar e t h e t e s t s f o r c o n gr u en t t ri an g l es ?
, T h e a n s we r
t o thi s qu es ti o n g i ves s t ep IV O f t h e a n a l y s i s T hi s p ro c ess .
'

S h o u l d b e c o n ti n u e d f o r e a ch th eo rem o r e x erci se u n t i l t h e

e n t i r e p r o o f i s cl e ar T h e p ro o f i s t h e an al y s i s d o n e b ac k
.

w ard wi th all auth o ri ti es s t at ed i n f ull

, .
 6 P LA N E G E O ME T RY

Ex . 1 . C o n s t r u c t F i g 38 Mak e A D . . a nd BC p erpe nd i cul ar

to AB . Fi n d 0 , t h e m i d po i n t of A B -
. Ma k e
AD = BC . Jo in DO an d CO . Pr ov e DO = CO
H o w m i ght A A OD b e m ad e to c o i nc i d e w i th
A B OC
FIG . 38

Ex 2 . . Co n s t ru c t F i g 3 9 Ma k e B C p erp en
. .

d i c u la r to AO .Ma k e A I = A 2 Pr ov e A B = A C .

an d B X = XC . H o w m i ght A A XB b e m a d e to
c o i n c i de w i th A A XC ?

FIG . 39

Ex . C o n s t r u c t Fi g 4 0
3 . Dra w X Y , t h e p er. .

p e n d i c u la r b i se c to r O f s e gm e n t A B Jo i n P , a ny .

poi n t i n X Y , to A an d to B Prove P A = P B . .

F IG . 40

Ex 4 . . Co nst ru c t F i g . 41 . A B is an y s eg

m ent . Ma k e A l : A2 and A3 : A4 . Wh ich

Si d es c an be p roved e qu a l ? Prove th e m e qu a l .

H o w m i ght A A B X b e m ad e to c o i n c i d e w i th
A AB Y? F IG . 41

Ex . 5 .C o ns
t ru c t F i g 4 2 . . Dr a w A B C, a ny

an gle . D ra w B O b i sec t i n g A B . Ma k e A B = EC .

C o n nec t X a n y po i n t ,
in OB , w i th A a nd C .

Pr ov e A X = CX .
FIG . 42

Ex . 6 . C o n s t ru c t F i g 4 3 A B C is
. . an i s o s c el e s
t ri an gle . O i s t h e m i d p o i nt O f A B
-
. AX = B Y
Prov e OX = O Y

Ex . 7 . C o n st r u c t F 44 . D raw a ny s eg
FIG . 43

m en t A B Fi n d 0 , i t s m i d p o i n t
. D ra w ra y s -
.

h a nd [ a so th at A l : A 2 Th rough O d ra w .

a ny l i ne th a t w i ll i nt ers e c t h and 18 Ca ll t h e .

po i nt s of i n te rsec t i o n D a n d C resp ec t i vely .

Pr ov e th a t A D = B C a n d th a t D O = CO How .

m i ght A B OC b e m a d e to c o i n c i d e w i th A A OD F IG . 44
 CO NG RUEN T T R I A NG L E S 27

Ex . 8 . S how
th a t c on g ru ent t r i a ngles m ay b e use d to fin d
t h e d i s t a n ce a c r o ss a po n d as follow s ( Fi g .

F i rs t s e t u p a s t a k e a t an y c o n ve n i ent p o i nt as _ ,

0 fro m wh i c h po i n ts A an d B a re both v i s i bl e
,
S et .

up a st a ke a t D in a st ra ight l i ne w i th O a nd A s o
th a t GO = GA In t h e sa m e w ay pl a c e s t a k e C
.

th at CO O B Mea s u re CD
= .
F IG 4 5 .

Ex . 9 . E xpl a i n
from Fi g 4 6 how t o find .

t h e d i sta nc e ac ros s a s t ream N ot i c e th a t t h e .

re qu i re d d i st a n ce A B i s p e r p en d i c ul a r to a l i ne

a lo ng t h e b a n k O f t h e s t re a m .

F IG . 46

Ex . 10 . S how th at th e d i s t an c e o
a c r ss a t
s ream m ay b e
m e a su re d follows ( Fi g as A p ol e i s set .

up at A w i th a st i c k f a ste ned at t h e top S O th a t

A D CA m a y b e a lt e re d by m ov i n g t h e s t ic k CD .

A p e rs o n s t a n d s w i th t h e ey e at C a n d
m ov es t h e st i c k CD u n t i l h e j u s t see s p o i nt B F IG 4 7 .

T h e p ole i s th e n tu rne d a rou n d S t and in g w i th e y e at C a n d .

’ ’
look i ng a lo n g CD h e lo c at es po i nt B H e th en m e as u res A B
'
. .

Could you do th i s u s i n g t h e v i so r O f you r c ap rath er th an a

pole a nd a s t i c k ? IS i t n e c essa ry to turn th rough Th i s
devi ce i s sa i d to b e an Old o ne .
!

N O TE Theo re m s 1 a nd 2 we re p robably k nown to Tha le s Tha l e s

. .

i s rega rd ed as t h e f ou nd e r o f n e O f t h e e a li e st G re e k s c hools O f m a th e
o r

m a ti c s a bout 6 00 B C
,
It is s a i d th a t Th 2 w a s use d i n those d a ys to
. . .

dete m i ne t h e dista n c e O f a ship a t s ea I t i s no t k nown how th i s

r .

w a s d o n e ; but a towe r o r a c li fi m ight h a ve b e e n us ed a s t h e b a s e o f

'

a t ri a n gl e o f whi c h t h e ship f o rm e d t h e v e rte x T h e ba s e a ngl e s O f .

thi s t i a ngl e c ould b e foun d by O bse rv ati on S how f ro m E 10 how

r . x .

t h e soluti o n to t h e p robl em c ould b e co m pl ete d .

Ex . 11 . In Fi g 4 8, A B and CD a re two
.

i nt ers ec t i n g l i nes A O OB a nd CO OD
. .

Pr ove th at A C= BD . Jo i n CB a nd AD a nd
F ‘G 48
p rove CB = A D .
'

! S ee W . E . S t a rk , Me a s u r i n g In s t r u m e n t s Of L o ng A go . S c hoo l
S c i e n ce a nd M a th e m a t i c s , 19 10 .
28 P LAN E G E O ME T RY

Ex . Co nst ru c t Fi g 4 9
12 . Draw A B a ny . . g ment
se . Co n
t uct
s r h and k p erp en d i c ul a r to A B a t A a nd B
res p ec t ively
F i n d 0 , t h e m id p o in t O f A B
. Ma k e -
.

A 1 = A 2 a nd ext en d t h e s i d es un t i l th ey i n t er
se c t h Ca ll t h e p o i nt s of i n t ersec t i o n D
an d k .

a n d C r esp ec t i ve ly Prove th at A D = B C an d .

DO = O C .

E x 13 . . Co nst ru c t Fi g 50 A B C i s a n i so s ce les . .

tri an gle . i
O s t h e m id po i n t O f A B A I :-
A2 Pr ov e . .

AX= B Y and OX = O Y . .

FIG . 50

TE S T III F O R CO N G RUE N T TRIAN GLE S

39 . Ex 1 . . Co nst ru c t two
t ri angles A B C and X YZ so th at A B
X Y ,
B C = Y Z a n d C A = ZX Dr a w th es e t ri angl es wi th a s oft
,

p en c i l o n two p i eces O f f ai rly th i n p ap er Co m p are th em b y .

pl a c i ng o n e p ap er o n t h e o th er and hold i ng t h e p ap ers to t h e

l i ght B efo re th ese t ri angles c an b e p roved c ongru en t wh a t m u st
.

you k no w ?
Ex . 2 . Co nst ru c t a t ri an gl e h av m g i t s si des e qu al to three
g iven se gm ents .

T H E O RE M 4 . If th re e d e s of o ne tri angle ar e e q u al to
si

th r e e s i d e s of a no th e r tri an g l e , th e tri angle s ar e c ongru ent .

F IG . 51

Gi ven A AB C a nd A DE E , A B = DE ,
A C = DF , a nd

CB = F E .

To prove A A B C N
A DE F .
 CO NG RUEN T T R I A N G LE S 29

A na ly s i s a nd c o n s truc ti on

1 T o p ro v e A A B C
.
N
A DE F , p r o ve A C AF .

II . A C = A F , p l ac e A A B C S O th a t A B , t h e
l o ng es t s i d e o f A A B C, c o in c i d es wi t h DE , t h e
l o n g es t d e O f A DE F an d p o i n t C i s o p p o si t e
si ,

o i n t F J o i n C F a nd p r o v e t h a t A C a n d A F
p .
.

a re m a d e b y a dd i n g t h e b as e a n g l es O f t w o i s o S

c e l e s t ri an g l e s .

S T A T E ME NT S RE A S O NS
I . a . E F = EC . G i ve n .

b . A E FC i s i s o s c e l es . A t ri a n g l e t h a t
h a s t w o si des
e qu al i s i so s c e l es .

c . A2 = A4 .
T h e b a se a n g l e s
O f an i so s c e l e s A
are e qu a l .

11 . a . B F = DC .
a .Wh y
“
Q A D F C i s i so sce l es .
b Wh y
.

c . A1 A3 .
c . Wh y
II I . AG = A F .
E qu al a n g l es a dd e d
t o e qu a l a n g l e s
gi ve e qu a l an g l es .

IV A DE F
.
N
A DE C .
Wh y ?
V . A DE F N
A AB C .
Tri an g l es c o n gru en t
t o t h e s am e t ri an g l e
are c o n g ru e n t to
e a c h o th er .

Ex 3 . . Pr ove Th . 4 by p rov in g th at AA A D; w ith 0

AC a nd AF obtu se angles .

Ex 4 Co nst ru c t Fi g 5 2 A B C i s a n i so s c e l es t ri
‘

. . . .

an gle . 0 i s t h e mi d p o i nt O f A B Prove A l : A 2
-
. . F IG . 52
30 P LA N E G EO ME T RY

APP L I CATI O N O F CO N G RU EN T TRI AN G L ES

T O CO N S TRU CTI O N S
CO N S TRUCTI O N O F A N GL E S

40 . PR O B L E M 1 . At a gi v e n p o i n t i n a g i ve n li n e to c on

t u ct
s r an a n gle eq u al to a g i v e n angle .

FIG 53 .

Gi ven l i n e l , p o i n t X i n l i n e I a n d A B A C , .

To con s truc t a t p o i n t X i n l i n e l a n a n g l e e qu a l to A BAC .

A n a ly si s a nd di rec ti on s :
I . In or der t o c o ns t ru c t a n a n g l e WXO e qu al t o A A ,

c o n stru c t t w o c o n gru en t t ri a n g l e s t h a t S h a ll c o nt ai n
AA and X .

11 . Wi th A as a c en ter a n d a ny ra di u s cut t h e si d es O f AA
at D an d E .

I II W i th X
. as a cen er a n d t th e s am e ra di u s dra w a n ar e

c ut ti n g l i n e I a t W .

IV . Wi th W as a c e n t er an d DE as a r a di u s c ut th e l as t
are a t O .

V . Join X a nd 0 .

P ro of
S TA T E ME N T S R E A S ON S
I . a . A E = XO .

b . A D = XW . Le t t h e p u p i l g i v e a ll

c . DE = WO . r e a so n s i n f u ll .

d . A BAE N
A WX O .

II . AA AX .

E x erc i se . H ow i s i t poss i ble to c o nstru c t t h e A X i n m o re

th a n o ne posi t i on on the l i ne I and st i ll h a ve i t fulfill t h e requ i re
men t s ?
32 P LANE G EO ME T RY

Ex 3 . . v ert i cal angl es and b i sect eac h S how b y

D raw t wo .

As 19 th at t h e two b i sec t o rs are c oll i near

. .

Ex 4 . Co nst ru c t o ne h alf t h e s u p pl em ent of any g i v en angl e

.
-
.

Ex 5 . Con st r uc t a t r i a ngl e c o n g ru ent to a g i ven t r i an gl e

. In .

h o w m an y wa y s can th i s b e don e ?
Ex 6 . Dra w any t ri a n g le a nd b i sec t ea c h angl e
. B i se c t eac h .

a ngle of an e qu i l at era l t r i angl e .

42 N O T E
. Tri s ecti on of Angles B y t h e m ethod gi ven i n § 4 1 we
. .

c a n b i s e c t a ny a n gl e th a t w e c hoos e T h e t ri s e c ti o n of a n a ngl e i s a
.

m u c h m o re d i ffi c ult p robl e m W e sh all find a l i ttl e l a ter how to

.

tri se c t a ri ght a ngl e In el em e nta ry g eom etry w e c o nfi ne ou rselve s

.

to t h e ci rcl e and strai ght li ne a n d use no i n strum ents e x c ept t h e c o m

p a sse s a nd th e stra i ghtedge A st ra i ght edge i s a rul er th a t i s no t
.

graduated to a ny s ca l e I t h as b een sho wn tha t a ngl e s g enerally

.

ca nn ot b e t ri s e cte d by t h e u se o f th e s e i n st r u m e nts o nly Th e G ree ks .

l ea rn ed h o w to tri s ec t a ny a ngle a nd si nc e th ei r ti m e m a ny wa ys o f
,

tri sec ti ng a ngle s h av e b een fou nd The s e m ethods howeve r ha ve .

, ,

a lwa ys re qui re d oth er cu rv e s th a n t h e c i rcle a n d oth e r i n st ru m e n ts

tha n t h e c om pa sse s a nd st ra i ghtedge .

D raf t sme n s m ethods f o r t ri sec ti ng a ngl e s a re a pp roxi m ati o n s

’
.

F IG . 56

A umb er of di ff erent i nstrum ents f o r tri se cti ng a ngl e s h ave b ee n

n

m ade F i g 5 6 shows o ne su ch i n st rum en t

. . W ha t s egm ents a re .

m a d e e qu al ? S how t h a t Fi g 5 4 i s us e d tw i c e i n F i g 5 6
. Wh y i s t h e . .

a ngl e t ri s e c ted ? H o w c ould a n i nst ru m en t f o r b i s e c ti ng a ngl e s b e

m ad e ? S u c h a n i n st ru m en t i s som eti m e s use d by ca rp enters f o r
c utti ng a nd fitti ng m old i ngs .
 CO NG RUEN T T R I ANG L E S 33

CO N S TRUCTI O N O F P ERPEN D I CUL ARS

43 . P R O B LE M 3 . To c on s tru c t a p erpendi c ular to a li ne

f rom a g i v en p o i n t i n th e li ne .

F IG . 57

Gi ven l in e I and p o i n t 0 i n li ne I .

To c on s truct a p p
er en di c ular to l in e l f ro m p o i n t 0 .

A na lysi s a nd di rec ti ons

I . In or der to c ons tru c t OX _ L l at 0 , c o n s t ru c t

A1 A2 .

II In der to c o n s tr u c t A1 A 2, c o n stru c t
'

. or two con

gru e n t tri an gles .

II I Wi th
. 0 t
as c en er an d a n y c o n v eni en t ra d i u s d ra w
a n are cutti n g li ne I at Y and Z .

IV . Wi th Y as c en ter an d a lo n ger ra d i u s d ra w a n ar c .

V . Wi th Z as Cen ter a nd t h e s am e ra di u s c ut t h e last ,

ar e a t X .

VI J o i n X
. and 0 .

Let t h e pupi l gi ve t h e p ro o f ( see § 18 f o r t h e p roof to I ) .

Ex 1 .Co nst ru ct at p o i nt 0 i n a g iven l in e I an a ngl e of

.

of of of
Ex 2 . Di vi d e a gi v en an gle in to fo ur equ a l p ar ts
. .

Ex 3 .C o nst ru ct Fi g 39 w i th rul er a nd c o m p asses

. . .

Ex 4 . Co n st ru c t t h e c o m p l em ent of a ny ac ut e a ngl e
. Can .

t h e co m p l emen t h a v e m o re th an o ne po si t i o n ?

Ex 5 . Con st ru c t two c o m pl em ent ary a dj ac ent a n gles

. Co n .

st ruc t t h e b i se ct o r o f eac h H o w m an y d e g re es i n t h e an gl e ma de
.

by t h e b i sec to rs ?
34 PLA N E G E O ME T RY

44 . PR O B LE M 4 . To c ons truc t a p erp endi c u lar to a li ne

f ro m a p o i nt not i n th e

FIG . 58

Gi ven l i n e I an d p o i n t 0 no t i n l i ne I .

To c o n s truc t a p p n
e r e d i c u l ar to I fro m O .

Di rec ti o n s
I Wi t h O a s c en t er a nd a ny radi u s dr a w a n are c ut
.

t i n g I a t Y and Z .

II Wi t h Y a s c en t er a nd a ra di u s gre a t er th a n h a lf
.

Y Z d ra w a n a r c o p p o s i t e 0 .

I II Wi t h Z a s c en ter a nd t h e s am e r a di u s cu t t h i s a rc
.

at X .

IV . Join O an d X .

A n a ly s i s :
I . T o p ro v e OX _L l p r o v e A 1 : A 2
, .

II . A 1= A 2 ,
j oin OY an d OZ and p ro ve
m
A Y OA A Z OA .

III . T o p r o v e A Y OA N
A Z OA p r o v e A 3 =,
A 4 .

IV . A3 A 4,

Le t t h e pupi l c om pl ete t h e a n alys i s a nd gi ve t h e p roof .

N O TE T h e p roo f f o r P rob 4 wi ll b e m u c h s i m ple r a f ter i n te rs e c ti n g

. .

c i r c l e s a re studi ed T h e rea so n s f o r t h e d i re c tio ns a re th e n a pp a re n t

. .

Ex 1 . D ra w a n y t ri a n gl e a nd c o n st ru c t t h e p e rp end i c u la r
.

f ro m e a c h ve rtex to t h e oppos i te s i d e .

9
Ex 2 . Ma k e t h e d ra w i ng c all e d f o r i n E x 1 f o r a n equ il a t eral
. .

t ri a n gl e and al so f o r a t ri a ngl e c ont a i n i ng a n obtus e a n gl e .

 CONG RU E N T T R I ANG L E S 35

45 . PR O B L E M 5 . To c ons tru c t th e p erp e n d i c u l ar b i s e c to r

of a gi v en s eg m e nt .

F IG . 59

Gi ven t h e s e gm e n t AB .

To co n s tr uc t t h e p erp e n d i c ul a r b i s e c to r of AB .

Di rec ti on s
I Wi t h A a s a c e n te r a n d a n y ra d i u s gr e a t er th a n A B
.

c o n s t ru c t a r c s a b o v e a nd b e lo w A B .

I I Wi th B a s a c en ter a nd t h e s am e r a d i us i n t e r s e c t t h ese
.

ar c s a t C a nd D .

II I J o i n G a n d D
. .

Le t t h e pu pi l g i ve t h e a nalysis a nd t h e p ro o f .

N O TE L i ke t h e p roof f o r P rob 4 t h e p roof f o r P rob 5 i s si m ple r

. .
,
.

af t er o n e stud i e s i nte rs e c ti n g c i rc l e s .

Ex 1 .In t h e s olut i on f o r P rob 5 wh i c h radi i m u s t b e m ad e

. .
,

e qu a l ? Wh i c h ra d i i n ee d n o t b e m ad e equ al ? Dra w t h e figu re

a n d g i ve t h e d i rec ti o n s a n a lys i s a nd p roof f o r th i s p rob lem
, , ,

va ry i n g t h e rad i i a s m u c h a s poss i bl e .

Ex 2 . D i v i d e a g i ve n s e gm e nt i n to fou r e qu al p arts
. .

N AT URE O F TH E O RE MS AN D P RO O F S

46 . Th e t t
s a em e n s t of ge o m e t ri c a l fa c t s i n t hi s a n d t h e
p rec e d i n g hap te r h a ve
c r ec e i v e d t h re e d i f fere n t n ames :
as s u m p t i o n s t h eo rem s a n d
, , c oro ll a ri e s .

A th eorem is a s a e m en
t t t of a f ac t th a t i s t o b e p r o ve d
'

t ru e .

An as s um pti o n i s a s t a t em en t o f a f a c t t h a t i s t a ke n
as t ru e wi t h o u t p ro o f It s r ut h i s t a ke n f o r g ra n t ed
.
t
.
36 PLA N E G EO ME T RY

Many of th e um p ti o n s i n c h ap t er i w er e O bt ai n e d b y
ass

o b serva ti o n . Many were S h o wn t o b e tru e i nfo rm al l y .

Th e p ro o f of h o ws th at i f c ert ai n f a c t s are
a th eo rem s

kn o wn t o b e true a c ert ai n o t h er f ac t mus t b e tru e T h e .

fa c ts th at a re kn own o r gi ven c o n sti tute t h e h yp o th esi s .

T h e f a c t t o b e p ro v e d i s c a ll e d t h e c onclu si on .

In Th eo rem 3 t h e h y p o th esi s i s :T h e tri an g l e h as t w o

e qu al s i d es Th e c o n cl u si o n i s :
. Th e a n gles O p p o si t e th ese
s i d es are e qu al .

Th eo rem 4 t h e h y p o th esi s i s :
In Three si des o f o ne tri an g l e
are e qu al t o th r ee s i d e s o f a n o th er t ri an gle T h e c o n c l u si o n .

is :T h e tri an g l e s are c o n gru en t .

Th e h y p o th esi s a n d c o n c l u si o n o f a th eo rem m a y b e
fo un d b y s tud yi n g t h e gr am m ati c al c o nstru c ti o n o f t h e
s t a t em en t o f t h e th e o r em If t h e s ent en c ec o n t ai n s a c l au se
.

“
b egi nni n g wi th i f th i s c laus e i s t h e h yp o th es i s If th ere
,
”
.

i s no s u c h c l a u se t h e c o m p l e t e s ubj e c t i s t h e h y p o th esi s a n d
,

t h e c o m p l e t e p re di c a t e t h e c o n cl u si o n .

In c h c a se t h e p ro o f c o n si st s i n s h o wi n g t h at t h e c o n
ea

c lusi o n mus t f o ll o w f ro m t h e h yp o th esi s Th e a n a l y si s .

s h o w s h o w th e p ro o f h a s b e en o r m ay b e th o ught o u t .

T h e p ro o f i s t h e a n a l y s i s w o rk e d b a c kw a rd a n d i s s e t
d o wn i n wh a t i s c a ll e d t h e s y n t h e t i c fo rm T h e s yn th et i c .

m e th o d i s t h e o p p o s i t e o f t h e a n a l y ti c al m eth o d .

Th e m eth o d u se d f o r t h e p ro o fs o f T h s 1 an d 2
s p ec i a l .

i s c all e d p ro o f b y s up erp o s i ti on Th i s w o r d i s d eri v ed

.

fr o m t w o L a ti n w o rd s Wh at i s i t S li t eral t ransl at i o n ?
.
'

A th eo re m th a t f o ll o w s e a si ly f r o m ano th er th eo rem i s
ca ll ed a c orollar y o f t h a t th eo r em .

Pr o o fs qui re d f or all th eo rem s an d exer c i ses th a t

a r e re

fo ll o w u nl es s s o m e s p e ci fi c s t at em en t i s m ade t o t h e c o n
t ra r y .In all p ro o fs a w arran t m u s t b e gi ven f o r e ac h s t ep .

S om e of h av e b een c a l le d p ro b lem s
th e ex er ci ses . A ny
geometri c al prob lem c alls f o r t h e c o n st ru c ti o n o f so m e
 CO NG RU E N T T R IAN G L ES 37

geo m e t ri c a l figure t o fu l fi ll c ert ai n s t a t e d re qui rem en ts .

U n l ess i t i s o th erwi se s t a ted t h e se c o n s t ru c ti on s m u s t b e

,

p er f o r m e d w i t h c o m p as ses a n d s t r a i g h t e dg e o n l y In a ll .

p r o b l em s i t i s n ec es s ar y t o p r o v e th a t t h e c o m p l e t e d figu re

fu lfi ll s t h e s t a t e d re qui r em en t s .

MI S CELL AN EO U S THE O RE MS AN D EXE RCI S E S

47 . OU TL I NE RE V IE W

A . W e h a ve th e fo ll o wi n g m eth o d s f o r p r o vi n g t w o se gm en t s
or t w o a n g l es e qu a l

I . In t h e c a se o f s e g m en t s look f or
a . S um s ,d i ff ere n ces e qu a l m ulti p l e s o r e qu a l
, ,

p a r t s o f e q u a l s e g m e n ts .

b . S i d es o f i so s c e l e s o r o f e qui l a t er a l t ri an g l es .

c . C o rres p o n di n g s i d e s o f c o n gru e n t t ri a n g l e s .

II . In t h e g l es lo o k f o r
c as e o f a n

a S um s d i ff e re n c e s e qu a l m u l t i p l e s o r e q u a l
.
, , ,

a rt s o f e qu a l an g l e s
p .

o Ri gh t a n g le s .

p S u p p l em en t s o f e qu a l a n g l es .

Co m p l e m e n t s o f e qu a l a n g l e s
e
o .

s
s Ver ti c al a n g l e s .

f
s
C o rre s p o n d i n g a n g l e s o f c o n g r u e n t t r i a n l
g es .

m B a se a n g l e s o f a n i so s c e l es t ri a n g l e .

B . E i t h er se gm en t s o r an g l es m a y b e p ro ve d e qu al b y p r o v
i n g th em c o rr es p o n d i n g p a r t s o f c o n gr u en t t ri

a n g l es .

To p ro v e th etri a n g l es c o n gr uen t c o m p ar e
I T w o si d es a n d t h e i n c l ud e d a n g l e o f o n e wi t h
. t wo
si d es a n d t h e i n c lu d e d an g l e o f t h e o t h er .

II . Tw o an gles an d t h e i n c l ud e d si de o f one wi t h t wo
an gl es an d t h e i n c lu d e d si de of th e o t h er .

I I I Three
. si d es of one w i t h t hr ee si d es o f t h e o t h er .
38 P L AN E G E O ME T RY

48 T H E O R E M 5 If a p erp end i c u l ar b e e re c te d to a
. .

s trai gh t li ne , O b l i qu e s e gm e nt s d rawn f ro m th e s am e p o i nt

i n th e p e rp e n di c u l ar c utti n g th e s trai ght l i n e a t e qu al d i s

tanc e s f r om th e f o ot of th e p erp e ndi c ular are e qual .

FIG . 60

H y p o th es i s : L i n e X Y l t o l i n e I a n d t h e O b li qu e _ _ ,
s eg men t s
CA a n d CB a re d ra w n fro m C s o t h a t A O = OB .

Co nc lus i on :CA CB .

A n a ly s i s
I . T o p ro v e CA = CB , p r o v e A A OC N
A B OC .

II .
A A OC 2 A B O C , c o m p a re

Th e p roof is l ef t to t h e pupi l .

E x erc i se . How c ould you m a ke t h e c o n gru ent t ri angl es in

Fig . 60 c o i nc i d e ?
49 . fo ll o w i n g e xer c i ses s e gm en t s a n d a n g l e s a re
In t h e
t o b e p r o v e d e qu a l Th e a n a l y s i s gi ve n f o r T h 3 m a y n o w
. .

b e s h o r t e n e d a s s h o wn u n d e r Th 5 . .

N O TE T h e figu r s f o r a ll e x rc i s s a n d th eo r m s should b
. e con e e e e

st u c t d a c c rdi ng t t h hyp t h is with rul e r n d c om pa ss s

r e o o e o es a e .

Ex 1 . C o n st r u c t a n i s o s c elc s t r i a n gl e A B C
. Le t CO t h e .
,

b i s e c to r of A C m ee t t h e b a s e A B a t O P rove th a t t h e se g
,
.

m e n t s j o i n i n g O w i th t h e m id po i n t s Of A C a n d B C a re e qu a l -
.

Ex 2 .T w o i sos c el es t ri a ngl es s t and o n O ppo s it e s i d es of t h e

.

s a m e b a s e Pr ov e th a t t h e s e gm en t j o i n in g t h e v er t i c es b i sec t s
.

b oth v ert e x a n gl es .

Ex 3 I n vest i g at e t h e c a s e Ex 2 i n wh i c h t h e two i s os cel es

‘

. .
,
.
,

t r i a ngl e s st a n d o n t h e s am e s id e o f t h e s am e b a s e .
40 P LAN E G E O ME T RY

EXER CI S E S I N V O LV I N G CO N G RUE N T TRIAN G LE S

52 . In t h e th a t fo ll o w s p e ci a l c a re i s need e d
e x er c i s e s ,

i n m aki n g t h e an a l y si s S tud y c ar e fu ll y t h e an a l y s es gi v en
.

f o r Th s 6 a n d 7 a n d f o r E x 1 b e l o w
. A s c o m p ar e d wi th
. .

t h e a n a l y s es f o r T h s 3 a n d 5 o n e o r m ore e xt ra s t ep s a r e
.
,

r e qu i r ed Th e p up i l s h o u l d c ar e f u ll y a sk h i m self t h e
.

p ro p er qu es t i o n s a t e a c h s t ep a n d s h o u l d b e p er f e c t l y s ure
th a t h e un d er s t an d s h o w eac h s t ep f o ll o ws fro m t h e p re
c e di n g o n e .

1 Th e
. gm en ts j o in i n g t h e mi d poi nts of
se -
th e Si des of an

i sos cel es t ri an gle form an i sos cel es t ri an gl e .

I To p rove A X YZ i sos c ele s p rove X Z = X Y

.
,
.

II . X Z = X Y p rove ,

Le t t h e pup i l c om pletet h e a na lysi s a nd gi ve th e p oof

r .

F ro 62
2 HOW
. would
h ave read if A A B C ( Fi g 6 2)
Ex 1
. .
.

h ad been a n e qu i l at era l t ri an gl e ? Gi v e p roof .

.3 I f t h e se gm ent wh i c h j o i n s t h e v ert ex of a t ri angl e wi th

t h e m i d p o i nt of t h e b ase i s p erp end i c ul a r to t h e b ase t h e t ri angl e
-
,

i s i s oscel es .

.4 In Fi g 6 3 CX i s a p erp endi cul ar b i sec tor of A B

.
,
I f p o in t .

C m ov es u p w ar d a lo n g t h e r ay CX how w i ll t h e ,

s i d es of A A CB c h a n g e ? W h at are t h e u p p er a n d
lower l i m i ts to th ese s i des ? N o p roof i s need e d .

.5 I f t h e segm ent wh i c h b i se c ts t h e vert ex a n gl e

of a t ri angl e i s p erp end i cul ar to t h e b ase t h e t ri ,

an gl e i s i s os cel es F ro 6 3
; .

6 In Fi g
. 64 CX b i sec ts . A A GE,
.

I f t h e segm ent A B m oves to t h e r i ght

a nd to t h e l eft a lon g t h e r a y CX b ut i s

a lw a y s p erp en d i c ul ar t o CX h o w wil l t h e ,

s i d es of A GB A c h an ge ? Wh at i s t h e
lower l i mi t to t h e l en gth of th ese si des ?
W h at i s t h e upp er l i m i t ? N O p roof i s F re 6 4 .

n eed e d .
 CON GRUE N T T R IA NGLE S 41

7 Gi ve n t h e
. qu il a teral A A B C w i th equ al e se gm en ts AX
B Y, an d CZ m eas ur e d o ff o n t h e s i d e s as sh o wn in
Fi g . 65 p rove th at A X YZ i s e qui l a teral
, .

8 Gi ven t h e i s os ce les A A B C w i th O t h e mi d p o i nt
.
-

o f th e b ase A B T h e e qu al s i d es CA and CB are

.

F IG 6 5
t de d beyon d
ex e n th e b ase so th at AE = BF . Prove
'

th at GE = OF .

9 Fram es
. of v ar i ous sh a p es c an b e m ade by f as ten in g together
p i e c es of wood o r i ro n a s s how n i n F i g 6 6 C
,
ould you c h a n ge . .

t h e sh a p e of a n y of th es e figu re s by p re s s i n g upo n oppo s i t e s i d es

o r vert i c es ? Wh i c h o n es c ould b e s o c h an ged ?

FIG . 66

10 H o w . oof t ru sses a re r , e e l va t ed t ra i n st r u c tu res b ri dges

, ,

an d t h e l i k e m a d e r i g i d ?

11 A . gm en t dra wn from t h e cent er of a c ir c le to t h e m i d

se

p o i n t o f a c ho r d i s p e r p e n d i c ul ar to t h e c hor d Is th ere any .

sp ec i a l p o s i t i o n of t h e c hor d f o r wh i c h t h e e xer c i se a n d i t s p r oof

h a ve n o m e a n i n g ?
12 S how how t h e i n st r um en t s hown i n Fi g 6 7
. .

m ay b e u se d as a l e v el i n g d e v i c e Th e p i eces a re .

so f a s t e ne d togeth er th a t A B = A C A D is a .

p lu m b l i n e H o w m u s
. t t h e f r a m e wo r k b e pl ac e d i f

B C i s l e v el ? Th is i n st r um en t i s s ai d to b e ve ry
F ro 6 7
anci ent
!
.

S ugges ti on N oti c e tha t a l ev el li ne i s o n e th a t i s p e rp e ndi c ul a r

.

to a plum b l i ne .

13 Dra w a ny t ri an gl e A B C
. F i n d X th e m i d po i n t of A B
.
,
-
.

Jo in CX a nd ext en d s o th at X Y = CX Prove A C = B Y . .

‘ Se D E Sm i th Th T
e . . h i n g f G m t y p 178
, e ea c o eo e r , . .
 42 PLAN E GE O ME T RY

14 . hows a c ommo n form of t ru ss

Fi g . 68 S . Th e k i ng -
d
ro

CO j o i ns C wi th t h e m 1d p o i t of A B i n t h e -

i sos celes A A B C T h e b r a c es O a n d O F jo i n 0
.

w i th E and F t h e m i d po i nt s of A C and CB ,
-

res p ect i v ely Pr ove th a t GE = OF and th at CO

.

F 10 68
IS p e r p e n d i c ul ar to A B .

Th e gm ent j o i n i n g a n y vert ex O f a t ri an g l e wi t h t h e
se

m i d p o i n t o f t h e o p p o s i t e s i d e i s c a ll e d a m e d i an o f
-
-

t h e t ri a n g l e In E x 14 t h e k i n g ro d i s t h e m e di an o f
. .
-

t h e i s o sc e l e s t ri a n g l e th a t f o rm s t h e t ru s s .

15 In Fi g 6 9, A D
. . an d BC are 1 AB at A
a nd B resp e c t i v ely . If AD B C, p rov e th at
A C= BD .

F IG . 69

16 . G i ven A B C, tri an gle wi th t h e an i s os c ele s

e qu al s i d es e xt en d e d th r ough t h e v ert ex to X a n d

Y . A X a n d B Y a re L A B a t p o i n t s A a n d B Pr ov e . .

th at A X = B Y ( Fi g .

F IG . 70

17 . G i ven t h e i s o scel es A A B C w i th the e qu a l S i des CA a nd CB

e xt end ed b eyon d the b ase so th at AX B Y, p rove th at A Y = B X .

18 In F i g 7 1, A B C i s an i s o sc el es
. . t ri an gle
w i th A C = CB I f 0 i s t h e m i d po i nt
.
-
of A B ,

a n d A C and B C a re e xt ende d so th at CE = GB ,
p rove th at OE = OD . P ro . 71

19 .
p oIf
i n t 0 i n
a nyt h e b i se ct o r of t h e v er te x a n gle of an
i sosc el es t ri an gle b e jo i ned to t h e ext remi t i es of t h e b as e A B
'

A A GE i s i so scel es .

20 Th e
. gm ent s d raw n f rom t h e extrem i t i es of
se th e b as e of
a n i s o s c el es t ri an gl e to t h e m i d p o i n t s of t h e oppo s i t e -

s i d es are e qu a l .

In F i g 72, A B C i s a n i s o s c el e s
21 . . t ri a ngle CX .

a nd C Y a re d r a w n s o th a t A l : A2 . Prov e th at
A XCY i s i so s c el es .
pm , 72
 CO N G R UE N T T RI AN G L ES 43

22 . In Fi g 73 , i f A B C i s g i v e n a n i s o sc e l es
. t ri a ngle a nd CX
a nd C Y a re d ra w n s o th a t A 1 = A 2 p rov e , th a t
A CX Y i s i s o sc e l es .

23 . Th e th ree m ed i a ns Of an e qu i l a tera l t r ia ngl e

are e qu al
F I G 73
.

24 T h e se g m e nt s th at b i sec t t h e b a se a n gle s of an i so sc el e s
.

t ri angl e a nd are t ermin a ted by t h e equ a l s i d es a re equ al .

25 . Dra w vera l figu res f o r E x 24 Le t t h e d iff e rent t ri a ngles

se . .

h ave t h e s a me b a se but l egs of d i ff e ren t l ength s A re there a ny .

l i m i t s to t h e angl e th a t t h e b ise c to r of o ne of t h e b ase a ngles

m akes W i th t h e b a se ? N o p roof i s n eed ed .

26 . Th e se g m ent s th a t b i se c t t h e a ngle s of a n e qu i l a te ra l
t ri angle a nd a re t e rm i n a t e d b y t h e o p po s i te s i d es a re e qu a l .

27 . I f f ro m d s of t h e b ase of a n i so s cel es t r i a ngle seg

the en

m ent s a re d ra wn m a k i n g e qu a l a n gl es w i th t h e b a s e a n d ter m i
na t e d b y t h e O ppo s i t e s i d e s th e s e s eg m e nt s a re e qu a l
, .

REV IE W D IA G RA M S

53 . R e vi e w t h e p ro o f s o f T h s 3 . an d 4 b y m ea n s of th e
fo ll o wi n g s c h em e a nd di a gra m :
THEO REM 4
I f th ree S id e s o f o ne tri a ngl e a e e qu a l to th re e si d s r e o f a no t he r ,

t h e t ri a ngl e s a re c o ng ru e n t .

Def . i s o s c e les A s 20.

t r i a n g le

F ro . 74

Th e t he o re m t o b e p ro ve d i s w ri tt en d o wn i n fu ll w i t h a
h o ri z o n t a l l i n e b e l o w i t ( Fi g B e l o w t h e v ari o u s v er
.

t i c a l li ne s S h o wn a re wri tt en t h e re feren c e s t o t h e a u t h o ri ti es
o n whi c h t h e p r o o f d e p en d s S o m e o f t h es e r e fe ren c es
.

w i ll b e th eo r em s Th e se t h eo rem s ( 2 a n d 3 a b o v e) s h o u l d
.

t h en b e p r o v e d a n d t h e re fe re n c es t o t h e au th o ri t i es u s e d
w ri tt en i n a s f o r Th 4 Th i s p ro c e s s s h o u l d b e c o n
. .

t i n u ed u n t i l o n l y d e fi ni t i o n s a n d assu m p t i o n s r e m a i n .
44 PLA NE G E O ME T RY

EXERCI S E S TH AT MAY I N V O LVE MO RE TH AN O N E PA IR

O F CO N G RUEN T TR IAN G L E S

54 . N O TE . W hen
xerc i s es a re s el ec ted f o r revi ew f rom thi s o r f rom
e

t h e n e xt s e c t i o n i t i s O f te n well to requ i re t h e p roo f s f o r all t h e orem s

use d i n p rovi ng t h e e xe rci s e s a ss i g ned .

1 A ny p o i n t i n t h e m ed i an to t h e b a se of
. an i s o sc el es t ri angl e
is eq u a lly di st an t fr o m t h e e xt rem i t i es of t h e b ase .

2 A re
. th ere an y l p osi t i ons of t h e arb i t rary p o i nt
s p ec i a

m en t i o ned i n E x . 1 f or wh i c h t h e p roof g i ven does n ot hold ?

In F i g 75 , CA = CB an d CD = CE
3 . . If A D .

a nd BE i nt ers ec t at O , p rov e th a t CO b i sec t s A C .

F IG . 75
4 In Fi g 76 , CO i s t h e m ed i a n to t h e b ase A B
. .

of t h e i s os c el es A A B C I f CX = CY , p rov e th a t CO .

b i sec t s A XO Y

5 . I n v es t i g ate the c as e , Ex . 4, in wh i c h X
F IG 76
a nd Y a re o n BC an d AC e xt en ded .

6 . In Fi g 77 , A C = A D , B C = B D ,
. AX = A Y .

Prove th at B X = B Y

7 . I n vest i g at e th e c as e , Ex . 6, in wh i c h X
a nd Y a re on AC an d AD e xt en d ed .
F ro -
77

8 . In Fi g l i ne h Rays are dr aw n fro m

. 78 , CO 1 .
p o in t
C s o th at A 1 = A 2 i nt ers ec t i n g l i ne It at p o i nt s ,

A an d B A a nd B are j o i n ed w i th any p o i nt i n O C
.

e xt end ed Prove th at A A B D i s i so sc el es
. .

9 I nves t i g ate the c ase , Ex 8, in wh i ch D is in

F IG
. .

. 78
CO e xt ended .

10 In Fi g 79, CA = CB a nd A D = B D
. . If X .

is a ny po i n t i n D C ext en d ed , p rove th at A X = E X .

11 . I n v est i g at e the c a se , Ex . 10 ,
in wh i c h X
is b etw een C an d D . P ro . 79
 CO N G RUEN T TR IAN G LES 45

12 . In Fig 80, CD i s a n y seg ment

. A 1 = A 2 an d A S = A 4 . .

Prove th at CD i s a perp end i c ul ar bi sector of A B .

13 . I f i n F ig
,
onst ru c t ed i so sc el es
. 80, A A B C i s c

an d D, a ny po i n t i n t h e b i sec to r of A C i s jo i ne d to ,

A and B DA a nd D B m a k e e qu a l a n gles w i th A B
, .

Fm 8 0
14 . Co nst ru c t t h e
figu res f o r Exs . 12 an d 13 wi th '

C and D o n t h e s am e s i d e of A B .

15 In Fi g 8 1, A A B C i s i s o sc el es
. . CO i s t h e .

med i a n to t h e b ase A B I f A 1 = A 2, p rov e th at .

CX = C V a nd th a t O X = O Y .
F ro . 81

16 . In Fi g . 8 2, A C= BD a nd AD =BC .

Prov e th at A A GE IS is osc el e s .

FIG . 82

17 In . Fig .
'

83 , A A B C i s equ i l at eral CE ,

BD = A F . Prove th at A XZ Y i s e qu i l a t eral .

18 In Fi g 83 , if A A B C i s e qu i l at era l and
.
,
.

A 1= A 2 A 3 , p rov e th at A X Y Z i s equ i
l at eral . F IG . 83

19 . Prov e
th a t t h e b ase a ngl es of an i sosceles
tri angl e are equ al b y m eans of t h e c o nst ru c t i o n
show n i n Fi g 84 A A B C i s t h e i s os cel es A
. . .

CX = CY

A na lys i s F ro 84
I
.

To p rove A 1 = A 2, p ov th t
r e a A YA C = A CB X a nd t h a t; t

A YA B = A A B X .

N O TE . Th i s m e thod
of p rovi ng t h e theorem i s g i ve n i n E u cl i d s '

E lements In t h e thi rtee nth c e n tu ry t h e stude n ts of O xf o rd E ngl a nd

"
.
. , ,

n i c k n am e d thi s theo re m e le f ug a tha t i s t h e flight O f t h e “

"
,

wretc hed — be ca us e m ost o f them f ou nd i t so di ff i c ult tha t f ew c a red

t o study t h e su b j e c t f u rth e r Two o r th ree hu nd red yea rs l a ter
.
 6 P L A N E G E O ME T RY

the stu de nts c a ll ed i t pon s a si n o rum o r t h e b ri dge of sse s

, a .

Ve ry l i ttle i s k nown c o nc e rni ng Eu clid h i m se l f H w a s a G r ek w h . e e o

l i ved a nd taug ht i n A le a nd ri a a bou t 3 00 B C S om e of t h e e rli r

x . . a e

s t ud ents o f g eom e t ry kept t h e results of t h e i r stud i e s se c re t E u c li d s .

’

E lements w a s a g re a t a dv a n c e upo n t h e wo rk o f h i s p red e c e sso rs bo th ,

i n a rra ng e m e n t a n d i n ri go r I t i s s a i d th a t Ptol e m y o n c e a sk ed h i m
.

i f th e re w a s i n g e o m e t ry a n y sho rte r w a y th a n th a t o f t h e Elements

“ ”

"
,

a n d h e a n swe red t h a t th ere w a s n o roya l road to geom et ry A n th e r

“
. o

sto ry told of h i m i s tha t som e o n e who h a d begu n to re a d g eom et ry

wi th Eu c l i d a sk ed whe n h e h a d le a rn d t h e fi rst theorem B u t wha t
e
"
, ,

sha ll I ge t by l ea rn i ng the s e thi ngs ? E u c lid ca ll ed h i s sla ve a nd s a id ,

G i v e h i m th ree p e n c e si n c e h e m us t m a ke g a i n out o f wh a t h e
“

lea rn s .

20 S how
. th a t t h e d i st ance b etween two i n ac c essi bl e po i nt s ,

as A a nd B o n oppo si t e s i d e s of a s t rea m m a y b e fou n d a s follow s

,

( see Fi g . 85 )

S et a t ke
s a atght i n g i t i n l i ne w i th A B
C, si .

B C m ay b e a ny c o n v eni e nt d i s t an c e T a ke D a ny.

po i n t fr om wh i c h A B a n d C a re v i si ble S i ght
, ,
.

E i n l i n e w i th D a n d C m a k i n g E D = D C , S i ght F .

l
i n ne i w i th D a n d B m a k i ng F D = DB
,
S i ght .

C so th a t it w i ll be
‘

i n l i ne w i th F a n d E a n d a l s o F O 85 1 .

i n l i n e w it h D a n d A Wh at l i n e should b e m ea s ure d to fin d
.

t h e d i stan c e A B ?

2 1 S uppo se
. th at P rep rese nts a fen ce po st o n o ne
( Fi g 86 )
.

s i d e of a s t re a m a n d l i ne l a f e nce o n t h e oth er s i d e of t h e s t ream .

A fe n c e i s to b e bu i lt i n l i n e w i th P a n d
p erp end i c ul a r to fen ce 1 S how th a t t h e .

follow in g m ethod m a y b e u sed

Le t P b e t h e p o i n t a n d l t h e l i n e .

A t a ny po i n t A i n t h e l i n e 1 c o n st r u c t a
p erp end i c ul ar to l i ne l a n d s et st a k es
F I G 86
m a k i ng A B = A C O n l i ne I s i ght D
.

i n l i ne w i th P and B a n d E i n l i n e w i th C a n d P
,
Th en s i ght .

F i n l i ne wi th D a n d C a n d at t h e s a m e t i m e i n l i ne w i th E
and B P F i s L l a n d S i s t h e p oi n t wh ere t h e J
. _ c ut s t h e .

l i ne 1 .
 CH AP TE R I II
PA RA LL E L S , PE RPE N DI CU ARS , L A NGL E S , A G
N E -
S U MS
L
I N TRO DU CT O RY
P REL I M I N ARY TH EO REM :TE S T FO R UN E Q UAL A N G L E S

56 . If de o f a t ri an g l e i s e x t en de d a n an gle i s form ed
o ne S i ,

wh i c h i s c a ll ed a n e xt e ri or an g l e o f t h e t ri
an gl e .Thu s i n Fi g 88 A B i s e x t en d ed
.
,
A1 .

i s a n ext e ri o r an g l e o f A A B C Th e i n t eri o r
.

a n g l e n um b er e d 2 i s a dj a c en t t o A 1 ; A 3 a n d

A 4 a r e t h e no n a dj a c e nt i nte ri o r a n g l e s
-
F I G 88
.
.

E xerc i se . H o w m an y ext eri or angl es h as a t ri angl e ?

57 .W e m ay a dd t h e f o l lo wi n g t o t h e l i s t o f gen e ral
a s s u m pti on s :
"

A s 28 . . If o ne ang l e o r s e gm ent i s gr eate r th an a s e c o nd

an d th e s e c o n d i s e qu al t o o r gr e ate r th an a th i rd th e n th e
-

fir s t i s gr eater th an th e th ir d .

A s 29 Th e
. . wh ole i s gr e ater th an any of i t s p ar t s .

58 . T H E O R E M 8 An exte ri or an g l e o f a tri an g l e i s great er

.

th an e i th e r o f th e n o n a dj a c e nt i nte ri o r ang l es
-
.

F IG . 89

H y p o th es i s : In A A B C t h e Si de AB is t
e x en d ed f o rm i n g
,

th e e x eri o r
t A .

Con c lus i o n : A I AC or ABAC .

48
 PA RA L L E L S A N D AN G L E S 49

A n a ly s i s a n d c o ns tr u cti o n :
A . I . T o p ro v e A 1 A C p ro ve p a r t
, of A I= A C .

II . b i sec t CB a t D j oi n p a r t Of A I = A C, ,

A D a n d e xt e n d m aki n g DE = A D , J o i n EB , .

a n d p ro v e A 2 = A C .

III T o p ro v e A 2 = A C p ro ve A DB E
. A A DC ,
N
.

B . I . Al A B A C e xt en d CB a n d p ro ve ,

A5 A l an d A 5 A BAC .

Le t t h e p roof pup i l gi ve th e .

E x 1 H o w m an y i llu st ra t i o n s c a n you
. . find i n
Fi g 90 of a n e xt e ri o r a n gl e of a t ri a n gl e ?
. S how A

how Th 8 a p p l i es i n eac h c a se
. .
F IG . 90

Prov e th at
'

E x 2 In Fi g 90 O i s p o i n t i ns ide A A B C
‘

. . .
,
a ny .

A A OB AC .

TRAN S VERS AL S AN D A N G E S L
59 . W h en t wo s rai
t ght l i n e s are c ro ss e d b y a t hi rd s t r ai ght
l i n e v ari o u s
,
an gl es are f o rm e d wh i c h h a v e s p e c i a l n am e s .

Thu s i n ,
Fi g 9 1 .

A c, A d, A w, a nd Ax a re i nteri or
an g l es .

A a , A b, Ay, an d Az ar e e x e ri or t
ang l es .

A c an d A x a ls o A d an d A w , ,

a r e altern at e i nt e ri or a n g l es .

Aa a nd A z, a sol Ab a nd A y, a re al erna e e xt eri or

t t
an g l es .

Aa an d Aw , Ab a nd Ax , Ac an d Ay, l
a so Ad an d A2 ,

ar e c orre s pond in g an gles .

E x erc i se . In Fi g . 92, n ame 8 a i

p rs of
alte rn ate i nt eri o r an gl es ,
16 p a i r s of c o rre
s p o n d i ng an gles , and 8 p a irs of a lternat e ex
t eri o r gles H o w m any p a i rs
an . of s uppl e
ment ar y a dj ace n t an gl es are th ere ? P ro . 92
50 P L A N E G E O ME T RY

P ARALL E L S

60 . L i n es i n t h e p l a ne t
s am e
h a t d o n o t i n t e r s ec t h o w e v e r

f a r w e m a y f o ll o w t h e m a re c a ll e d p ara ll e l l i ne s Tw o .

a r b i t r a r y s tra i g h t l i n e s i n t h e s a m e p l a n e w i ll o r d i n ari l y

i n t e rs e c t a n d d eterm i n e a p o i n t T w o p a ra ll e l l i n es d o
.

n o t d e t e rm i n e a p o i n t T h i s d efi n i t i o n i s t h e f u n d a m en t a l
.

t es t f o r p a ra ll e l s F i v e o t h e r t e s t s f o r p ar a ll e l s a r e c o n
.

t a i n ed i n t h e g r o u p t h a t f o l l o w s Th 9 i s th e fu nd am en t a l
. .

th eo rem of th e g ro u p .

E x e r c i se . Fi nd i n t h e oo m i n wh i c h you a re s i tt i n g i llu st ra
r .

t i o ns of p ara ll el l i nes a nd of l i nes wh i c h do no t i nt ersect a nd y et

are n o t p ara ll el .

F UN D AMEN TAL TH E O RE M :TE S T FO R P A RA LL E L S

E x erc i se Co nst ru c t two s tra i ght l i nes c ut by a th i rd
'

61 . .

t
s ra i ght l i ne so th a t the a lt ern a t e i nt er i o r a n gl es a re e qu a l .

T H E O R E M 9 If tw o s trai ght l i ne s i n th e s a me p l an e are

.

c ut b y a th i rd s tra i ght li ne s o th at th e a l tern ate i nteri o r

a n g l e s ar e e qu al , th e tw o s trai ght l i ne s a re p ara ll e l .

FI G . 93

H y poth es i s : L i n e s a and b a re c u t b y li ne c and A1 A2

.

Co n c lus i on : L i n e a ll i n e b .

A n a ly s i s
I To . ve li n e a llli n e b S h o w th a t l i n e a a n d l i n e b
p r o ,

c an n o t m ee t ei t h er o n t h e r i gh t o r o n t h e l e ft .

I I T o p ro v e th a t l i n e a c a n no t m ee t l i n e b s h o w t h a t i f
.
,

l i n e a m e t l i n e b a n e xt er i o r a n g l e o f a t ri a n g l e
,

w o u l d b e e qu a l t o a n o p p o s i t e i n t e ri o r a n g l e .
 PA RA L L E L S A N D A N G L ES 51

S T A T E ME N T S RE A S O NS
I . a . Li ne a m i gh t m ee t I . a . Su p p o s i ti o n .

l i ne b on th e ri ght .

b . Al w o u l d b e gre a t er b . Wh y ?

th an A2 .

c . AI A2 . G i ve n .

d . l i ne a d o es no t Sup p o si t i o n a
m ee t l i n e b o n th e l ea d s to a c o n t ra
ri ght . di c ti o n .

II . a . Li ne a m i gh t m ee t a . Su p p o s i ti o n .

l i n e b o n t h e le ft .

Le t t h e pupil c o m pl e te t h e p oo f r .

62 . Th e d i na ry
or d i rec t
t h e t i c p ro o f i s e x p l a i n e d i n
syn

§ 4 6 an d f o r th e o rem s a n d e x erc i s e s i n
h as b e e n
u se d

c h ap ter i i T h e p ro o f use d f o r Th 9 i s a n i nd i rec t p ro o f

. . .

In t e c h n i c a l t erm s i t i s c a ll e d p ro o f b y reduc ti o a d a b s urd u m .

Th i s i s a L a t i n p h ra se Wh a t i s i t s l i t er a l t r a ns l a t i o n ?
.

Fo r s u ch p r o o fs w e m u s t :
1
. D e t erm i n e a ll t h e p o ss i b l e c a se s o b t ai ned by c o n ra t
di c ti n g th e gi v en c o nc lu si o n .

2 . Th en t h er t h e c o n c l us i o n o r o n e o f t h e c o n
, si n c e ei

t ra di c t o ry s t a t e m en t s m u s t b e t ru e w e m u s t e l i m i n a t e a ll ,

b u t o n e o f t h e s e b y p r o v i n g th em a b su rd .

Pro o fs of th i s c h ara c t er are v ery c o mm o n , no t on ly in

m a t h em a t i c s , but i n a ll a rgu m e n t Th ei r v a l i d i t y d ep en d s
.

am o n g o t h er t h i n gs u p o n t h e p rese n t a t i o n o f a ll p o ssi b i li t i es .

T h e p r oo f s f o r m any o f t h e th e o rem s a n d e x er c i ses th a t

fo ll o w ar e c l ea rer i f ex p resse d i n a l geb r a i c no a t ti o n . In
s om e c a ses th e so lu t i o n of an eq u at i o n i s n ec ess a ry In .

Oth e r c as es l g eb r a i c
t h e use of a m an i p u l a t i o n s a n d i d en
t i t i es a r e r e q u i r ed w i t h o u t t h e s o lut i o n o f a n e q u a t i o n .

Be d efi n i t e a nd a c c u ra t e .
52 PLA N E GE O ME T RY

D EP EN D E N T TE S T S F O R P ARA LL EL S
T H E O R E M 10 If tw o s trai ght l i n es i n th e s am e p l ane
63 . .

are c ut b a th i r d s trai ght l i n e s o th at o n e p ai r o f c orre s p o nd

y
.

i ng an gle s ar e e qu a l , th e t w o s tr ai ght l i n e s ar e p arall e l .

F IG . 94

L i n es a an d b ar e cut by li n e n so t h at
A1 A2 .

Con clus i on : L i n e a li n e b .

A n a ly s i s
I . T o p ro v e a b , p ro ve A 2 A 3 .

II . A 2 A 3, c o m p are A 2 an d A 3 wi t h A 1 .

Le t t h e pup i l gi v e t h e p r oo f .

Ex . 1. Prov e
Th 10 b y .
pr ov i n g th at A4= A5 . Use s up

p lem e n t s of equ a l a ngles .

T H E O R E M 11 If tw o s trai ght l i n e s i n th e s am e p l an e ar e
.

c ut b y a thi r d s trai ght lin e s o th at th e i nteri or an g l e s o n th e

s am e s i d e o f th e tr an s ver s al ar e s upp l e m e nt s th e tw o .

s tr a i ght li n e s are p ara ll e l .

H y p o th es i s : L i n es a an d b a re cu t by line n so th a t
A 2 + A 4 = 2 rt . A .

Co nc lus i o n : L i n e a I
] l i n e b .

A n a ly s i s ( see F i g 94 ) .

I . T o p ro ve a l p
b ro v,
e A 2 A 3 .

II . A 2 A 3 , S h o w th at A 2 an d A 3 a re e ac h
s u p p l em en t s o f A 4 .

Le t t h e pupi l g i v e t h e p r oo f .
 PA RA L L E L S A N D A N G LE S 53

TH E O RE M 12 . Tw o t ght li n e s i n th e s am e p l an e
s rai p er
p e ndi cular t o th e s am e s trai gh t li n e ar e p arall e l .

S ugges ti on ove t h e a l te rna te i n te ri or a ngle s equa l

. Pr .

Ex . 2 .W ould Th s 9 10 11 an d 12 b e t ru e i f .
, , , the ph rase
i n th e s a me pla n e w ere o m i tt ed ?

CO N S TRUCTI O N O F P ARA LLEL S

64 . P R O B LE M 6 . To draw a s trai ght li n e thr o ugh a gi v e n

p o i n t p ara l e l l to a g iv e n s trai ght li n e .

Sh o w th a t t h e p ro b l em m ay b e l ve d
so by
u si n g Th 9 .
,

Th . 10 , or Th . 12 . Ma k e th e c o n s t ru c t i o n b y e ac h m e th o d
an d p ro v e i t . H o w m an y li n e s m a y b e d ra wn fu lfi lli n g t h e
re qui r em en t s
E xerc i se . Show how to solve Prob 6 b y p ap er fold i ng .
, or wi th
’
a r ul er and a c ar d o r two dr af ts m an s t r i a n gl es
, .

F UN D AME N TAL A S S UM P TI O N RE G ARD I N G P ARALL EL S

65 . AS 30 . . O nly o ne li n e c an be d rawn th ro ugh a gi v e n

p o i n t p ar a ll el to a g i ve n li n e .

D EP EN D EN T TES T F O R P ARA LLE L S

66 T H E O R E M 13 T w o li n e s
. .
p ar alle l to a th i r d li n e ar e

p ar a ll e l t o ea c h o th e r .

S ugges ti on . Pr ove by t h e i ndi rec t m ethod .

EXE RCI S E S I N V O L VI N G TE S TS FO R P ARA LLEL S

67 . T o p rov e tw o li n e s p aralle l , w e m u s t p r o v e o ne of

th e f o ll o wi n g :
1 Th e
. a l t ern a t e i n t eri o r qu a l ;
an g l es a re e

Th e c o rr e s p o n di n g a n g l es ar e e qu a l ;
3 . Th e i n t eri o r a n g l e s o n t h e s am e s i d e of the t rans
v er s a l l
a r e s u p p em e n s ; t
4 . Th ey are p erp en d i c u l ar to th e sam e li n e ;
5 . Th ey a re p ara ll e l t o t h e sa m e li ne .
54 P L AN E G E O ME T RY

Ex . 1. I f two pl a ne a re c ut by a
s t ra i g h t '

li ne s i n t h e s am e

th i r d st ra i ght l i ne s o th at t h e altern at e e xteri o r a n gles a r e e qu al ,

t h e two s t ra i ght l i n e s a re p ara llel .

Ex 2 I f i n F i g 95 l i n es h a n d k are c ut
. .
,
.
,

by l i n e n s o th at A a + A b = 2 rt A p rove l i ne k I ] .
,

l i ne h .

Ex 3 I f an y two s egm en t s b i sec t eac h oth er

. .
,
F G 95 I
t h e s eg m en ts j o i n i n g t h e e xt rem i t i es a re p arall el
'

Ex . 4 . In Fi g . 96 , A B CD i s a fou r s i de d
-

figure w i th x= y an d z= w . Pr ov e x ly and

w I ]z .

F IG . 96

AN G L E S MAD E B Y PARALL E L S AN D TRAN S VERS AL S

FUN D AME N A T L TH E O RE M :TES T FO R E Q UA L AN G L E S

68T H E O R E M 14 If tw o p ara ll e l l i n e s
. . ar e c ut by a th i rd
s trai ght li ne , th e alte rn at e i nte ri or a n g l e s ar e e qual .

H y p o th es i s : L i n e h lll i n e k and th e t r a n s vers a l l i n e n

c ut s l i n e s h and k .

Con c lusi on :A1 A2 .

A n a lys i s a n d con s tr uc ti on

I . T o p r o v e A 1 = A 2 c o n s t ru c t A B , so th a t A BAC
A 2 a n d p ro v e A B A C = A 1 .

II To ve ABAC A 1, p ro ve B A c o m el d e s wi th
‘

.
p r o

li n e h .

III . T o p r o v e l i n e BA d es wi t h l i n e h
c o i n ci , s ho w t hat
B A II l i n e k a n d , line h ll l i n e k .
56 P L AN E G E O ME T R Y

APP L I CATI O N O F P ARALL EL S TO TES T FO R P ERP EN D I CUL ARS

70 . T H E O R E M 17 . wh i ch i s p e rp e n di c ular
A li n e to on e
of tw o p ar alle l s i s p p
e r e n d i c u l ar t o t h e o th e r .

FIG . 99

H y p o th es i s : L i n e h l i n e k an d l i n e n _L li n e h .

Conc lus i on : L i n e n _ L li n e k .

A n a ly si s
I . T o p ro ve li n e n __ 1 li ne k , p ro ve A 1 = a rt A .

II . A 1 = a rt A .
, c o m p ar e A1 an d A2 .

Th e p roo f i s lef t to th e pupi l .

Prove Th by c o nst ru c t i n g a l i ne p erp end i c ul ar to

"
Ex 1 . . . 13
o ne of th e g i ve n l i n es a n d p r ov i n g i t p erp en d i c ul ar t o t h e oth ers .

Us e T h s 17 .
:
a nd 12 .

Ex 2 . . Prov e Th . 13 b y d ra w i ng a t ransversa l a nd u s ing Th . 9 .

71 . If Th s 9 . an d 14 a re c o m p a re d i t wi ll b e
, s een th a t
t h ey are l t d
re a e to eac h o t h er i n a p ec u l i ar w ay . In
Th . 14 t w o ght l i n es are g i ven p ar a ll e l t o p r o ve th at
s ra i
t
t h e a lt ern a t e i n t e ri o r a n g l e s a re e qu a l In Th 9 t h e alt er . .

n a t e i n t e ri o r a n g l e s a re gi v en e qu a l t o p ro v e th a t t h e t w o

li nes are p ar a ll el Th 14 i s Th 9 turn e d aro un d If t w o

. . . .

t h eo rem s are s o rela t e d th at t h e h y p o t h esi s an d c o n cl u si o n

o f o n e a r e res p ec ti v e l y t h e c o n c l u si o n a n d t h e h y p o th es i s o f

t h e o th er e ac h th eo re m i s c a ll e d t h e c o nver s e o f t h e o th er
, .

If a th e o re m i s p ro ve d t ru e i t s c o n vers e m ay o r m a y n o t ,

b e tru e T h e t ru t h o f t h e c o n ver s e m u s t n o t b e a s s um e d ;
.

i t m ust b e p ro ve d .

Ex 1 . . S t at e an d i n vest i g a t e t h e
t ruth of t h e c onv erse of th e
theorem : I f two t ri angl es are c o ngru ent t h e a ngles of o ne ,
are

e qu al res p ec t i ve ly to t h e a n gl e s of t h e oth er .

Ex 2 S t ate t h e c onv erse of Th 15 and o f Th 16

. . . . .
 PA RA L L E L S A N D A N G L ES

E XE R CI S E S I N V O LV IN G AN G E S L M ADE B Y P A RA LLE L S
72 . 1 . If,
i n F i g 1 00,
h.
llk a n d A b = 27 °
fin d t h e n u m b e r of
degrees in e a c h a n gl e fo rm e d .

2 . I f two p arall el l i nes a re c ut by a th ir d

ght li n e t h e alt ern at e exteri or angl es ar e
st ra i ,

e qu a l .

3 I f i n Fi g 100 l i ne h H l in e k p r ove
.
,
.
, ,
F IG 100
th at A a + A x = 2 rt A Wh at othe r a n gle s
.

. .

in t h e figur e c a n b e p roved s uppl em e nt ary i n t h e s am e w ay ?

[
4 . I f i n Fi g
,
. 101, A b = 44
°
,
fin d t h e n umber of degrees in eac h
an gl e of t h e figure .

5 I f i n F i g 101 A y = 33
°
.
,
.
,
Ax ,
fin d
t h e n um b er of d egr ee s In e ac h an gl e of the
figure .

6 I f i n Fi g 101
.
,
. of A y fin d ,
F m 101
A h is ,
.

t h e n um b er of d egree s i n e a c h a n gl e of t h e figu re .

7 In Fi g 102 A B A C i s a n y a n gl e 0 i s a ny p o in t o n
. .
,
.

ray A B I f t h e p o i nt X st arts at po i n t A
.

an d m ov es a lo n g t h e ra y A C i n d efi n i t ely ,

wh at are t h e l i m i t i n g v a lu es of t h e A XOA an d
of t h e A B OX ? I n vest i g at e t h e c ase i n wh i c h
t h e po in t X m ov es fr o m A alo n g A D .

F I G 102 .

M I S CE LL A N E O U S EXE R CI S E S

73 . vera l th eo rem s whi c h w e h a ve p ro ve d c ert ai n

In se ,

li n es w ere c o n s t ru c t e d a n d u se d whi c h wer e n o t gi ven i n t h e

hy p o t h esi s S u c h l i n e s a re c a ll e d c o ns tru c ti on li n e s Th ei r
. .

u se i s n o t o n l y p erm i s si b l e but o ft en n e c es s ary O c c asi o n all y .

th e y m a y b e m o r e o r l e ss a r b i t r a ry Wh en s u c h l i n es are .

l o c a t e d defini t e l y c ar e S h o uld b e t aken th a t n o fa c t s are

as s um e d whi c h r e qu i r e p ro o f In g en e r a l t w o p o i n t s o r o n e
.
,

p o i n t a n d a d i r e c t i o n l o c a t e a li ne F o r m e t h o d s o f l o c a ti n g
.

p o i n ts l i n es, ra y s o r,s e g m e n t s
, s e e A ss 1 8
— . .

1 . W h at th eo rem s h a ve w e h ad th a t were p rove d by t h e a i d

o t u c t i o n l i ne s ? T e ll how
o f c ns r the l in e w as lo ca ted in each c ase .
58 PLAN E G E O ME T RY

A li ne , ra y , o r se gm en t th a t i s lo c at e d d efi ni t e l y i s o ft en
ca ll e d a fixe d l i n e , ra y o r s e g m e n t
, .

Th e t u c t i o n l i nes i n t h e fo ll o wi n g e x er c i ses
u se o f c o ns r

s h o u l d b e c a r e f u ll y n o t e d :

2 L i nes wh i c h are p erp en d i c ul ar to p arall el l i nes are p a rall el

.

( Fi g .

13 I f . gl es h a ve th e i r si des p arall el r i ght

t wo an

s i d e to r i ght S i d e a nd l eft S i d e to l eft s i d e the ,

an gl es a re e qu a l ( Fi g .
pm 103

N O TE Th e ri gh t s i d e o f a n a ngl e i s t h e s i de o n t h e ri ght
. - as o ne

sta n ds i n t h e a ngle a n d fa ce s out .

T4 I f two. gles h av e th ei r si d es
an

p a ra ll e l r i ght s i d e to l e f t S i d e a n d l e f t
s i d e to ri ght s i de t h e a ngl es a re s upp l e ,

m ent ary . F ro 104 .

5 T h e b i s ec to rs of a p a i r o f alt ern at e i nt eri o r a ngl es o f

.

p ara ll el l i n es a re p arall el .

6 I f th rough t h e v ert i ces of an i s o sceles t ri angle l i nes are

.

d raw n p arall el to t h e oppo s i te S i d es a t ri an gl e i s form ed wh i c h ,

h as two a n gl e s e qu a l .

7 H o w would E x 6 rea d i f t h e g i ve n t ri an gl e h ad all of

. .

i t s a n gl es e qu al ? I f i t h ad n o ne of i t s a ngles e qu a l ?
G i v e p r oof .

8 . I f i n Fi g
, l i ne h Hl ine k and O i s an
. 105 , ar bi
t rary po i nt b etween t h e p arallel s p rove A b = A a , Ac .
F IG 105

9 . If
fou r s i d ed figu re h as b oth
a -
p ai rs of Op p os ite si des
p ara ll e l t h e O p p o s i
, t e a n gl es a re e qu a l .

10 I f . a fou r si d ed figure h as b oth p a i rs of Opp osi te

-
Si d es
p a rall el a nd o n e a n gl e a r i ght a n gl e a ll of i t s an gl es a re
, ri ght

an gl es .

11 A .p arall el to t h e base of an i sosceles tri angle th rough

ra y

the vert ex b i sec ts t h e ext eri or a ngl e at t h e vertex .

12 . W h a t would
t ru e i n E x 11 i f t h e be . ra y p a ra ll el to the
base of t h e i s os c eles t ri an gl e c ut s t h e s i d es of th e t ri a ngle or th e
S i d es e xt en d e d ? G i ve p r oof .
 PARA L L E L S A N D AN GLE S 59

13 . If
gm e nt b etween two p arallel l i nes i s
a se

oth er seg ment between t h e p a rallels a nd th rough

b ise c ti on i s al so b isec te d by th is po i nt
.

14 . In Fi g . 106 , AW I B Z, BX = A Y, and

BZ = A W . Pr ove th a t XZ YW .

In Fi g 106 i f A W IBZ , XZ
15 . .
, IYW ,
and

BX = A Y , p rov e th a t B Z = AW .

AN G L ES IN TRIAN G LE S
FUN DAM EN A T L TH E O REM
74 . TH E O RE M 18 . The s um of th e i nteri o r an gle s of a

tri an g l e i s tw o ri ght an g l es .

FIG . 107

H y p o th es i s : A A B C i s an y t ri an g l e .

Co nc lus i on : A 1+ A 2 A 3 = 2 rt A .

A na lys i s a nd co n s tr uc ti on :
I . To p o
r ve A I+ A 2+ A 3 = 2 rt . A , c o m p are A1
+ A Z + A 3 wi t h
g l e s wh o s e sum i s 2 r t A an . .

I I Co nstru c t X Y t h ro ugh C p ar a ll el t o A B a n d c o m
.

p a r e A 1 2 a n d 3 wi t h A 4 5 a n d 3 re,s p ec t i v
,
e l y , , .

Le t t h e pupi l g i ve t he p roof .

N O TE Th 18 is o ne of t h e m os t f a m ous the o re m s of ge o m t ry
. e .

I t i s supposed tha t t h e a nc i e nt G ree ks k ne w th a t i t w s t ru e f o r equi a

la te ral a nd f o r i sos c e l e s t ri a ngle s be fo re th ey k ne w th a t i t w a s true

f o r a ll t ri a ngl e s T h e p roo f g i ve n a bove i s supposed to b e th a t o f
.

Py th a go ra s ( a bout 500 B C ) a nd m a y b e o ne o f t h e ea rl i e st p roof s f o r

. .

thi s theorem .

Ex 1 . . Ca n you verify Th . 18 by t eari ng o ff t h e c orners m ad e

by A 1, 2, and 3 i n Fi g . 107 a nd re arra ng i n g th e m ?
60 PLA N E G E O ME T RY

Exi 2 th ere a ny oth er wa ys of putt i ng

. A re in c o nstr u ct i o n
l in es f o r Th 18 s o th at A 1 + A 2 + A 3 .

m ay b e c o m p a re d w i th a ngl es who se s um I
l
i s two r i ght a n gl es ? G i ve p roof ( See .

Fi g .
Pm . 108

Ex 3 Fi n d t h e u mber of de grees in th e th i rd gl e of
'

. . n an a

t ri angle if th e oth er two a n gl es are :

° ° ° '
a . 56 d 5 9 25.
, 58 42
° ' °
72
° '
b . 58 10 e . 68 42
° ° ’ ° ° '
c . 38 72 18 f . 58 79 5 3

CO R O LL AR IES :VAL UE S A N D CO MPARI S O N S O F IN TERI OR

AN G L E S O F TRIAN G LES
75 . CO R . I . Ea ch an gle of an e qui l ate ral tri ang l e i s
Co nst ru ct gl es of °
7
°
Ex 1 an 67
‘

. .

CO R 11 . . If tw o an gles of one tri an g l e ar e e q u al re s p e c

ti ve ly to tw o an gle s of a s e c o n d tr i an g l e , th e th i r d an gle s

are e qu al .

FIG . 109

H y p o th es i s : A A B C and A XYZ h v
a e AA = AX a nd

AB = A Y .

Con c lus i on : A C = A Z .

A n a ly s i s : T o p r o ve A C A Z,

Pro ve
AA + AB = A X+ A Y

Ex . 2 . Se gm e nts
d ra w n fro m a n arb i t rary p o i n t in th e b as e
of an i s osceles t ri angle p e rp en d i c ul ar to t h e o pp os i te Si de s ma k e
equal angl es wi th t h e b ase .
 PARA L L E L S A N D A N G L E S 61

CO R . I II . Th e a c ute an gle s o f a ri gh t tri ang l e are c o m

l
p e m nt e s of e a c h o th er .

Ex 3 . . vertex a n gl e of ah i s oscel es t ri angl e i s

Th e The
p p
e r e n d i c ul a rs a re d ra w n f r o m t h e e n d s of t h e b a s e to t h e op p o s i t e

s i d es . Fin d t h e n u m be r of d e gr ees i n t h e an gl es th at th es e p e r
p en di cu lars m a k e w i th t h e b ase .

TH E EXTERIO R AN G LE O F A TRIAN G LE
76 . TH E O RE M Th e e x e ri o r
t an gle of a tri angle i s
u
e q al to th e s um of th e tw o n o n- a dj a c e nt i nte ri o r an g l e s
.

FIG . 1 10

H y p o th es i s : In A A B C t h e s i d e AB i s e xt en de d fo rm i n g
,

th e e x eri o r t A XB C .

Conc lus i on : A XB C = A 1 A2 .

A n a ly s i s a nd c ons truc ti on

I . T o p ro v e A X B C = A 1 A 2 d i v i de A X B C i n t o t w o ,

p a r t s a n d c o m p a r e th e s e p a r t s wi t h A 1 a n d A 2
res p ec t i vel y .

dra w B Y thr o ugh B II A C a n d c o m p ar e A4 wi th A2

a n d A 5 wi th A 1 .

Le t t h e pupi l gi ve t h e p roof .

Ex 1 . An ext eri or a ngl e of a t ri a ngl e i s

. o ne of t h e

o p p os it e i nt er i o r a n gl es i s Fin d t h e n um b er of d egree s i n
eac h of t h e an gl es of t h e t ri a n gl e .

Ex 2 . I f t h e e xt eri o r an gle a t t h e verte x of an i s oscel es

.

tri angl e i s fin d t h e n u m b e r of d e grees in e a c h O f t h e an gles

O f t h e t ri an gl e .

Ex 3 . F i n d t h e s um O f t h e e xt eri o r a n gl e s fo rm e d wh en t h e
.

h ypoten u se of a ri ght t ri a ngl e i s e xtended i n each di rec t ion ,

 2 P L AN E G E O ME T RY

EXERCI S E S I N V O LV I N G TH E AN G E S O F A L TRIAN G L E
77 . 1 . If
gl e of
o ne a n at ri angle is doubl e t h e s ec on d an d , th e
th i rd is double t h e fi rst ,
find eac h a ngl e of t h e t r i a ngl e .

2 H o w m an y
. d e g rees i n eac h a n gle of a n i s osc el es t ri angle
if t h e v e rt ex a n gl e i s ( 1) th ree t i m es t h e s um of t h e b a se a ngl es ?
( 2) t h e su m of t h e b a s e a n gl e s ? ( 3 ) t h e s um of t h e b as e
a n gl es ? ( 4 ) e qu a l to t h e s um of t h e b a se a n gl es ?
“

3 . A t ri angle c a n h a ve o nly o n e r i ght a ngle o r o ne obtu se

an gl e . May a t ri angl e h a ve a r ight a ngl e a nd a n obtu se a ngl e ?
4 .
-
vertex a ngl e of a n i s o scel es t r i a ngl e i s
If t h e fin d t h e
n u m b er of d e g rees i n t h e a n gl e s a t t h e i nt e r s e c t i o n of t h e b i s e c to rs

of t h e b a s e a ngl es F i n d al s u t h e n u m b e r of d eg re es i n t h e a n gl es
.

a t t h e i n t ers ec t i o n of t h e b i s e c to rs of t h e e xt e r i o r a n gl e s a t t h e

base o f t h e t ri an gl e .

5 In Fi g 111 A A B C i s i s o s c ele s
. . A O a nd
,
.

O B b i sec t A A a n d B r e sp ec t i v ely I f t h e l eg s .

CA a n d CB a re m ad e to i n c re a se a n d to d e c r ea se
i n l en gth wh a t i s t h e u p p er l i m i t to A A O B ?
,
A

Wh a t i s t h e lower l im i t ? F IG 111

6 I f t h e v ert e x a n gl e of a n i s o s c el es t r i an gl e i s
. fin d t h e
n u m b e r of d e g re e s th a t t h e b i sec to r of o ne b as e a n gl e m a k es w i th

t h e oppo s i t e S i d e .

7 I f t h e v ert e x a ngl e of a n i s o s c el es t r i a n gl e i s
. fin d t h e
n u m b er of d e g rees i n t h e a n gl e s a t t h e i n ters ec t i o n of t h e p e r p e n

di c ula rs dra w n to t h e e qu a l S i d es f r om t h e e xt rem i t i e s of t h e b as e .

8 . In Fi g 112, A A B C i s i s o sc el es . . AX a nd BY a re p er
p e n d i c u la r to B C a n d A C r e s p ec t i vely . If th e l e gs
AC a nd BC a re m a de to i n c re a se to d e c rea se
and in
length wh a t i s t h e u p p er
,
is l i m i t to A A OB ? Wh a t
i t s low er l i m i t ?
9 I f i n A A B C A A i s 4 t i m e s A C a nd A B i s 3 F IG “ 2 ‘

.
, ,

t i m es A C fin d t h e n um b er of d e g rees i n e ac h of t h e a n gl es of
,

t h e t ri a n gl e .

10 F i n d t h e n u m b er of d e g ree s i n e a c h of t h e a n gl es of an
.

i s o sc el e s t r i a n gl e i f e ac h b a se a n gl e i s ( 1) t h e v ert e x a n gle ;

( 2) 3 t i m es t h e v ertex a ngle .
64 P LA N E GE O METRY

A p o l y g o n wi t h a ll of its si de s a n d a ll o f i ts l
a n g es e qu al
is a re gular p o l y g o n .

T H E S U M O F TH E AN G E S O F AN Y P O Y G O N L L
79 . Ex 1 . . Fi n d t h e s um of
four a ngles of a qu adr i l atera l
th e .

Ex 2 . . Fi n d t h e s um of t h e fiv e an gles of a p ent agon ( Fi g .

A na ly si s
To fin d t h e va lue o f £ A + £ B + A C l £ D + A E -
,

di vi de t h e polygon i nto tri a ngle s whose ve rti c e s a re t h e

verti ce s o f t h e polygon a nd fin d t h e s um of a ll t h e
a ngl e s o f a ll t h e t ri a n gl e s d ra w th e di agonals f rom .

o n e v e rt e x a n d m ulti ply t h e s um o f t h e a n gl e s i n o n e

tri a ngle by t h e num b er o f t ri a ngl es .

F IG 1 14
.

Ex 3 . . Fi n d t h e sum of t h e an gles of a h ex a gon ; of an o ct a gon ;

of a d ecagon .

T H E O RE M 20 . Th e s um o f th e i nte ri or an g le s of a p o ly
gon of n si de s i s 2 ( n 2) ri ght an gle s
-
.

Le t th e pupi l gi ve th e a na lys i s .

P ro of
S T A TE ME NT S
1 Th e . d i a g o n a l s d i vi d e th e p o l y go n i nt o
an g l es .

2 . Th e s um of th e an g l es of ea c h t ri an g l e i s
3 Th e su m o f th e g l es o f t h e tri an g l es
‘

. an 13

Ex 4 . . By s ub st i tut i ng umber f o r n in t h e form ul a

t h e p r p er o n

gi ven in Th 20 fin d t h e s um of t h e an gl es of a h ex agon ; of an
.

o cta gon ; of a 15 s i de ; of a 16 s i de ; of a 20 s i de ; of a 24 si de ; of a
- - - -

3 2 s i de
-
.

FIG . 115

Ex 5 . . Pr ove Th . 20 by m ean s of th e c on str u c t i on s s hown in

Fi g 115 . .
 PA RA L L E L S A N D A N G L E S 65

Ex 6 . . H o w m an y
de grees i n eac h an gl e of a regul ar o c t a gon ?
of a re gul ar p ent a gon ? of a regul ar d ec agon ? of a regul ar l 2 s id e ? -

of a regula r 16 s i de ? of a regul ar 20 s i de ? of a regular 24 s i de ? of

- - -

a re gul ar n s i d e ? -

Ex 7 . . Is i t p oss i bl e to h a ve a re gul ar p olygon h of who se

eac

angl es i s I f s uch p olygo n s a re

poss i bl e how ,
m an y si des would th ere b e in ea c h c ase ?

Ex 8 . . Fi n d t h e s um of t h e in teri or a n gles of a p enta gon th a t

h as o ne r e- e n ra n t t an gle ; of a n o c t a gon with two re entra nt an gl es -
.

E x 9 H o w m any
. . g l
re u a r t ri an gl es c an b e pl aced adj acen t w i th
th e ir v ert i ces at t h e sam e po i nt ? W i ll t h e sp a ce about t h e
p o in t b e fill e d e x ac tly ? Wh y ?

E x 10 Ca n
. gul ar h ex a gons b e pl a ced w i th th eir v erti c es at
. re

t h e s am e p o i n t a n d t h e s p ac e b e fill e d e x a c tly ? Wh y ? Ca n
re gul ar qu a dr i l a t er al s b e so p l a c e d ? re gul ar p ent a gon s ? re gul ar

o ctagons ? Wh y ?

TH E S UM O F T H E EXTERI O R A N G L E S O F ANY P O LYG O N

80 E x 1
. . . Fi n d t h e s um of th e e xteri or an gl es of a p en a t gon .

A na ly si s

To find t h e s um of t h e e xteri o r a ngles of A B CD E ,

subtra c t t h e s um of t h e i nteri or a ngl s f rom t h e s um e

of t h e i nte ri or a nd exte rio r a ngl es ( F i g .

Le t t h e pup i l gi v e t h e p r oo f . FI G . 116

Ex 2 . . Fi n d t h e sum o f th e e xteri or an gl es of an o c tago n ; of

a dec agon ; of a 12 si d e
-
.

T H E O R E M 21 Th e . s um of th e e x e ri or an
t gle s of a p o ly
go n o f n s i d e s i s f o u r ri ght an gl es .

Le t t h e pupi l gi ve th e a na lysi s a nd the p roof .

Ex 3. . Is i t p o ss i bl e to h a ve a re gul ar p olygon e ac h of whose

exteri or a ngl es i s I f so how m a ny s i des would
,

th es e p olygo ns h ave ?
66 P L A NE G E O ME T RY

MI S CELLANE O U S TH E O RE MS
TE S T I FO R CO N G RUEN T RI GH T TRIA N G LE S
81 . tri a n g l e th a t c o nt a i n s a ri gh t a n g l e i s c a ll e d a ri gh t
A
tri an g l e T h e s i de o p p o si t e t h e ri ght an g l e o f a ri gh t t r i an g l e
.

i s c a ll e d t h e h yp o te nu s e T h e p e rp e n di c u l ar s i d e s a r e c a ll e d
.

t h e le g s o f t h e ri ght t ri a n g l e .

Ex . 1 :o C t u c t a ri ght t ri a ngle w i th t h e hypoten u se equ al

ns r

to a g i v en s eg m e n t a nd o ne a c ut e a n gl e e qu a l to a g i v en a ngl e .

T H E O R E M 22 T w o ri ght tri an g l e s are c o n gru e nt if th e

.

hyp o te n u s e an d an a c ute an g l e of o ne are e qu al t o th e

hyp o te n u s e an d a n a c ute an g l e o f t h e o th er .

FIG . 1 17

Hyp o th es i s : In A A B C an d A X YZ , AC= XZ , [A
A X, and [ B an d A Y a re r t . 25 .

Con c lus i on : A A B C N
A X YZ .

A n a ly s i s : T o p ro ve A A B C N
A X YZ , p ro v e [ C AZ .

Le t t h e pupi l give the p roof . U s e Co r . I I § 75

, ,

Ex . 2 . Perp en d i c ul a rs dropp e d fro m t h e mi d -

po i n t s of t he
e qu al si des of an i s o s cel es t ri angl e to t h e b as e a re e qu al .

Ex 3 Perp en d i c ul ars fr om t h e m i d p o i nt of t h e
‘

-
. .

b ase of an i s o scel es t r i a n gl e to t h e l e g s a re e qu a l .

Ex . 4 . I f i n Fi g
,
p erp end i c ul a r
. 118 , C0 i s t h e
b i sector of A B wh at a re t h e l i m i t i n g v a lu es of t h e
,

l en gth of t h e p erp en d i c ul ar fro m 0 to t h e segm en t

B X as X m ov es a lo n g t h e ray 0 C ? F IG . 118
 PA RA L L E L S A N D A N G L ES 67

TE S T II F O R C O N G RUEN T RI A N G L E S T RIG H T

82 E x 1
. Co nst ru ct a r i ght t r i a ngl e w i th t h e hypote n u se
. .
and

o n e s i d e e qu a l r es p ec t i ve ly to g i v e n s e g m en t s .

T H E O R E M 23 TW O ri ght tri an gl e s are c on gru e nt i f th e

.

hyp o t e n u s e an d a s i d e o f o n e ar e e qu al to th e h yp o t e nu s e
an d a s i d e o f th e o th e r .

FIG . 1 19

H y p o th es i s : In t h e A A B C a nd X YZ A C , XZ , BC
YZ , an d A B and A Y a re r t . A

Co nclus i on : A A B C N
A X YZ .

A n a ly si s a n d c o n s tru ct i o n :
I . T o p ro v e A A B C N
A X Y Z p r o v e L A = A X , .

II . To p ro ve AA A X p l ac e A A RC s o th a t
, BC
fa ll s on YZ B , on Y, C on Z ,
and A o p p o si e t X ,

and r
p o v e X YA Z a n i s o sc e es l t ri a n g l e .

III T o p ro ve X YAZ
. a t ri an gle , p r o v e X Y A a t
s rai g ht
l i n e (A s .

Le t t h e pupi l gi ve th e p roof . Fo r I u se Th . 22
.

CO R . If a p p
e r e n d i c u l ar i s e re c te d to a t
s rai ght li n e ,
e qu al gm ent s drawn f ro m th e s am e p o i n t i n th e p e r
se

p e n d i c ul ar c ut o fi e qual d i s tan c e s f r o m th e f o o t o f th e

e
p p r e n d i c ular .

Ex 2 . l ine fro m t h e c en ter of a c irc le p e rp endi cul ar to a

. A
cho r d of t h e c i rc l e b i s ec t s t h e c ho r d .

Ex 3 Con st ru c t an i so s cel es t ri angl e gi ve n o ne leg a n d t h e

. .
,

p erp e nd i cul a r fro m t h e vert e x to t h e b as e .

Ex 4 Perp e n d i c ul ars d ra w n f ro m an a rb i t ra ry po i n t i n t h e
. .
‘

b ise c t o r o f a n an gl e to t h e s id e s of t h e a ngl e a re e qu al .
68 P L A N E G E O ME T RY

TE S T S FO R I S O S CELE S TRIAN G L E S
83 .T H E O R E M 24 If . tw o a ng l es of . a tri an g l e ar e e q ual ,

th e tri an g l e i s i s o s c e l e s .

Th e a na lysi s a nd t h e p roof a re l e ft to t h e pupi l .

We n ow h a ve t wo t est s f o r i so sc e l es t ri an g l e s .

T o p ro v e a tri an g l e i s o s c e l e s , p r o ve t h at
I . Two si d es a re e qu a l , o r
II . Tw o an g l es a re e qu a l .

Of th e se two t es t s t h e fi rs t i s d eri v e d fro m t h e d efini ti o n

o f an i s o sc e l e s t ri a n g l e a n d i s t h ere f o r e t h e fun dam en t a l o n e .

Ex 1 . . Th e b i se c tors of th e b ase an gles of an i s o s c el e s t ri an gl e

form a sec ond i so scel es t ri angl e .

Ex 2 . . b i se c tors of t h e e xteri or a n gles at

Th e the b a se of an

o
i s sc e es l t ri an gle form a s e c on d i s osceles t r i an gl e .

Ex . 3 . Co n st ru ct an i so s cel est ri an gl e whose b as e sh all be

equ al to a gi ven s egm en t a n d who se Ve rt ex a n gl e sh a ll
b e e qu a l to a gi ve n angl e .

Ex 4 .In Fi g 120, A B C i s a n i s o scel es t ri an gl e

. .

w i th CA = CB I f CD = CE an d A D an d B E i n te r s ec t
. A

at O, p rove th at A A GE i s i s os c el es .
Fm , 120

In F i g 121, A A B C i s i so s c el es
Ex 5 . . AX = B Y
. .

a n d CZ = CW E xt en d X Z a n d Y W to m eet at
.

O . Prove th at A XO Y i s i s os cele s .

Ex 6 . . I f i n Fig
,
. 12 1, on st ru c t e d F ro 121
A XO Y i s c .

i s o sc el es , X A YB and XZ = Y W p rov e th a t A A B C i s i so s c el es
, .

P R O P ER Y O F T I S O S CELE S TR IAN GL E S
84T H E O R E M 25 A s e gm e nt fr om th e vert e x of a n i s o s
. .

c e l e s tri an g l e p erp en di c u l ar t o th e b a s e b i s ec ts th e b a s e
an d th e v e rtex a n g l e .

Th e lysi s a nd t h e p roof a re l e f t to t h e p up i l
a na .

F o r oth e rp rope rti e s o f i sos c e l e s t r i a ngl e s s e e Th , . 6 a nd Th . 7 .

 PA RA LLELS A N D A N G L E S 69

S UP P L E MEN TARY EXE RCI S E S

EXE R CI S E S LI N V O LVI N G
O F P O L YG O N S A N G ES

8 5 1 In F i g 122 A B CDE i s a c on v e x p olygo n of fiv e s id es a ll

. . .
, ,

of whos e a ngl e s a re obtus e Th e s i des of t h e .

polygo n a re ext e nded u nt i l th ey i nt er s ec t form ,

i n g t h e s t a r polygo n s how n Fi n d t h e s um of .

t h e a n gl e s i n t h e po in t s of t h e s t a r W h at .

would b e t h e s um of t h e a ngl es i n t h e p o int s

of t h e st ar i f t h e polygon h a d s ix s i des ? I f i t F I G 122 .

h a d e i ght si d es ?
2 S uppo se t h e c o n ve x polygo n s u se d i n E x 1 w e re re gul a r
. .
,

how m an y de gree s would th e re b e i n t h e a ngl e a t a n y p o in t of

t h e s t ar p olygo n s fo rm e d ?

3 . Fi g 123 hows a re gul a r t ri a n gl e w i th e a c h

. s

s i d e di v i d e d i n to th ree e qu a l p a rt s I f t h e po i n ts .

a re jo i n e d a s i n d i c a t e d p rov e th a t D E F GH K i s a
,
FI G . 123
re gul a r h e x a go n .

4 . Fi g . 124 s hows
k i te form e d of two regul a r
a

tri an gl es w ith t h e s am e b a se A C I f t h e s i des .

are b i s ec t e d a n d t h e po i n t s j o i n ed a s s how n p r ov e ,

th at A E F CGH i s a regul a r h ex a go n .

5 . Fi g 125 . s hows
gul a r h ex a go n A B CDE F
a re .

I f alterna te s i d es a re e xt en ded i n both d i rec t i o ns as

i n di c at e d p rove th a t a re gul ar t r i a n gl e X YZ i s
,

form ed .

F I G 125 .

NO TE T i led a n d m osa i c floo rs a re often m a de o f e qui l atera l

.

tri a ngl e s so colored tha t va ri ous p a ttern s a re fo m e d Fi g 126 r . .

F I G 126 .

re p re s n ts th r ee o f th e s e d e s i g n s c o n ta i n i ng t h e figu re s us e d i n t h e
e

p e c edi ng e xe rc ise s T h e u se o f equila te ra l tri a ngle s squa re s a n d

r .
, ,

he xagon s f o r tiles p rob a bly da t e s b a c k to t h e a n ci e nt E gypti a n s .

 PLA N E G E O ME T RY

M I S CELL A N E O U S E XE R CI S E S

86 . p re pa re d to p rove
N O TE . Be th e theore m s on whi c h e ac h of
th e followi ng e xe rc i s e s de p ends .

A p erp en d i c u l a r fr o m a ny v e rt e x o f a t ri an g l e t o t h e
o p p o s i t e s i d e i s c a ll e d a n a l ti tu d e o f t h e t ri a n g l e .

1 . Mak e re v i e w d i a g r am s f o r T h s 11, 15 , 19,

. an d 25 .

2 . If A B C is an i s o s cel e s
t r i an gl e an d i f t h e p e rp en d i c ul ars
A Y a n d B X dr a w n f r o m t h e e xt rem i t i es of t h e b as e A B to t h e e u a l
q
s i d es B C a n d A C i n t e r s e c t a t 0 A A O B i s i s o s c el es , .

In F i g ’ 127 A B i s a n y s eg m en t , 4 1 = £ 2,
3 . .
,

an d A D : B C F ro m D a n d C p erp e n d i c ul a rs a re
.
c

dra wn to A B W h a t . se g m en ts a nd an gl es a re Fm , 12 7
e qu a l ? Why ?
4 . I n v es t i g a t e the c ase, Ex . 3 , in wh i c h [ 1 a nd A2 a re

obtus e an gl es . G i ve p roof .

5 . If th e
wh i c h i s dra wn through t h e vert ex of a t ri angle
ra y

p ara ll e l to t h e b a s e b i se c t s t h e e xt e r i o r a n gl e a t t h e v e rt e x t h e
‘

t ri a ngl e i s i s osc el es .

6 . g m ent dr a wn from an a rb i t rary po i n t i n t h e b i sec to r

A se

of a n a n gl e to o ne s id e of t h e a n gl e a n d p a ra lle l to t h e oth er s i de
fo rm s w i th t h e b i s e c to r a n d t h e s ide to wh i c h i t i s d ra wn a n
i s os c el es t r i an gl e .

7 In F i g 128 , B D X Y
. AB . . b i sec ts A XA C and AD b i sect s
[ CA Y Pr ov e th a t B C = CD
. .

8 Con st ru c t
. an i s o scel es t ri angl e w i th t h e
verte x an gle of a r i ght a n gl e a n d t h e a lt i

tude cm .
F IG 123

9 . In Fi g . 129 , A B C is an i s o s c e l es t ri an gl e
wi th D a ny po in t i n A C e xt en de d . Fr o m D a p er
p e n di c ular i s d r a w n to A B c utt i n g CB at E . P r ov e
th a t CD E i s a n i so sc el es t ri an gl e .

10 . I n v e st i g a t e th e c a se , Ex . 9, in wh i c h th e
F IC 12 9
po i n t F is on AB e xt en ded
72 P L AN E GE O ME T RY

16 u rvey in g i t i s oft en n ec ess ary to ru n a l in e as CD

. In s , ,

( g
F i . s o th a t i t w i ll b e i n t h e s am e
W
0
st ra i ght l i n e W i th L A but o n t h e oth er S i d e

of s o m e ob st a c l e to v i s i on s u c h a s a hous e ,

o r wood S how th a t t h e follow i n g m ethod

.
F IG 13 5

w i ll g i ve t h e des i re d res ult : La y o ff t h e [ a s o a s to c l ear t h e

ob sta c le T a k e A B a c on veni ent d i st a nce Lay o ff A b = 2 é a
.
, . .

Ma ke B C = B A Lay o ff £ o = 4 o . .

17 . Perp en d i c ul a rs fro m t h e en ds of th e b a se of an is os celes

tri angl e to the O ppo s i t e s i d es a re e qu a l .

18 . In p er p en d i c ul ars fro m poi n ts A a nd B to

a ny A ABO
the m ed i an to t h e s i d e A B a re e q ua l Fo r wh a t s p e c i a l c a se of .

t he ar b i t ra ry A A B C i s t h e p r oof of th i s e x e r c i se m ea n i n gl e s s ?

19 I f two p ara llel l i nes c ut by th i r d s t ra i ght l i ne t h e

‘

. a re a ,

b i sec to rs of th e in t eri o r a n gles o n th e s a m e s i d e of t h e t ra n s v er s a l

ar e p erp en d i c ul ar to ea c h oth er .

20 . I f two p a ra ll el l i nes a re c ut by a th i r d s t ra i ght l i n e t h e ,

b i sec to rs o f t h e fou r i nt eri o r a ngl es fo rm a qu a dri l at era l wi th

four ri ght a n gl es .

21 . If
d i c ul ar b e dra wn fro m t h e v ert e x of t h e r i ght
a p erp en
a n gl e of a r i ght t ri a n gl e to t h e hypot e n u s e t h e two t r i a n gl e s fo rm e d ,

a re m utu a lly e qu i a n gul a r .

22 . C o n st r u c t an i s o sc e l e s t ri an gle w i th a lt i tud e cm . and

th e b ase an gl e s ea c h of a r i ght an gl e .

23 Co rresp o n d in g
. a lt i tudes of c ongru en t t ri a n gl es ar e e qu a l
( Fi g .

24 T w o tri an gl es a re c o n gr u ent if two

.

s i d e s a n d t h e al t i tud e to t h e th i r d s i d e
'

of o ne a re e qu a l resp ec t i vely to two s i d es

a n d t h e a lt i tud e to t h e thi r d s i d e of t h e
FI G 13 6
oth er ( F i g
.

25 . Pr ov e E x 24 . wh en AB an d AE ( Fi g . 136 ) a re obtus e .

26 . C o n st r u c t A A B C so th a t A C = 10 cm .
,
BC= 7 cm .
,
an d
th e al ti tude on AB = 5 cm .
 PA RA L L E L S A N D A N G L E S 3

27 T w o t ri an gl es a re c o ng ru ent i f two s i d es a n d t h e a lt i tude

.

o n o n e of th e s e s i d e s i n o ne t ri a n gl e a re e qu a l r es p e c t i ve ly to two

s i des a nd t h e c orre spond i ng a lt itud e of t h e other .

28 . C o n st ru c t A A B C so th at AB =7 cm .
,
A C=5 cm .
,
and

th e p erp endi c ul a r fro m C to A B = 3 cm .

29 . Th e l i ne b i sec t i n g t h e ext erio r a ngl e at th e vertex of an

i s o s c e l es t ri an gl e i s p a ra ll e l to t h e b as e .

3 0 Th e . an gl e m ade by t h e b i sec tors of t h e b as e a ngl e s of

an i s o s ce l e s tr ia n gle i s e qu al to t h e ext eri or an gle at t h e b a s e of
th e t ri a n gl e .

31 . If A BD is an i s o sc el es
t r i an gl e w i th DA a nd D B e qu al
s id es a nd i f A D i s ext en ded th r ough D to p o i nt C unt i l D C = DA
, ,

p rove th a t B C i s p e rp end i c ul ar to A B .

32 . If an e xteri o r
gl e of a t ri angl e i s b i sec t ed an d a l so o ne
an

of t h e i nteri o r no n a dj a cent a ngl es t h e a n gl e m a de b y t h e two

-
,

b i sec tors i s t h e oth er i nt eri o r n o n adj a c en t a n gl e -

.

33 . Co n s tru c t
th rough a g i ven po i nt a ra y th at s h al l m a k e a
g iven an gl e w i th a g i ven l i n e Is th ere . m o re th an o ne s olut i on
f o r th i s p robl em ?

34 . I f two m ed i an s of xtend e d beyo n d th eir a t ri a ngl e a re e

b ases a n d seg m e nt s a re t a k en o n t h e e xt en d ed l i nes equ a l to t h e

c o rres po n d i n g m ed i a n s t h e po i n t s thu s fou n d a n d t h e oth er v ert ex
,

of t h e t ri an gl e a re o n a s t r a i ght l i n e th at i s p arall el to t h e opposi t e

s i d e of t h e t r i a n gl e .

In Fi g 13 7 , A B C i s a n i s o s cel es t ri an gl e
35 . . w i th
[ A tw i ce A C Fin d t h e n u m ber O f d eg rees i n
. e ac h

gle shown in t h e figure if A X b i se c ts AA

‘

an .

N O TE Fi g 13 7 ca nn ot be c on stru c ted at p es n t
r e
. .

FI G 13 7
wi thou t p rotra c to r
.

a .

36 . In Fi g . 13 8 , A BC i s a n i s o s cel es tri an gle

with A B A X LCB fro m A
_ Find t h e . n u m b er

of deg rees i n 4 1 a nd 4 2 .

Co nst ru c t A A B C w i th A A = 30
°
37 .
,

an d the p erp e nd i c ul a r from C to AB cm . P ro . 13 8

 74 PLANE G EO ME T RY

138 h of t h e figu res s hown i n Fi g

In l i n es ’
"

. eac . 13 9, a a nd a
’
ar e p erp en d i c ul ar to ea c h oth er a l s o l i n e s b , a nd b . Pr ove th at
’
A ab = é
'
a b

S u gges ti o n . A pply Co r . I I I § 75
, .

FIG . 13 9

l39 I n ves t i g a t e
. truth of t h e s t atem ent th a t i f two a ngl es
the
h a ve t h e s i d es of o ne p erp en d i c ul ar res p ec t i ve ly to t h e s i d e s of

t h e oth er t h e a n gl es a re e qu al .

4 0 In . Fi g . 14 0, A B CD is a four si d e d
-
D 1,

figu re w i th i t s s i d es e qu al a nd i t s an gl es r i ght

an gl es . E X and H Y
a r e p ara ll e l to A C ; X F a n d M W a re p ar a ll e l to

D B N W K Z C Y a n d LZ a re s im i l a r ly d r a w n
.
, , ,
.

Pr ove th a t A N OE E OF a n d E X F a re i s o s c el es, ,
F I G 14 0
.

H o w m a n y i so s ce l es t ri an gl es does t h e figu r e
.

c o n t a in ? W h at t ri an gl es i n t h e figu re are c o n gr u ent ? I f H a nd E

a re j o i n ed p r ov e E H M ,
A C .

4 1 Fi n d t h e
. l t i on b etween t h e b a se an gles of two
re a i s o sc eles
tri a ngl es if the v ertex angl es a re s uppl em ent ary .

42 . gm en t
If a se m eet s t h e d es of a n i sosc el es t r i angle
si at

e qu a l d i st a nc es f r o m th e v erte x i t i s p ara ll e l to t h e b ase

, .

43 . If th e des of two
si an gl es a re p ara lle l ri ght s i d e to r i ght
si de a nd l eft s i de to l eft s ide t h e b i sec to rs o f t h e a n gl e s a re
,

p ara lle l .
I

44 . Fi n d t h e u m ber of d e g rees i n t h e
n an gles a t t h e i nt ersec
ti o n of th e b i s ec to rs of t h e a c ute an gl es of a r i ght t r i a n gl e .

45 . P r ov e
th a t a c o nv ex p olygon c annot h a v e m o re th a n th ree
obtu se e xt eri o r a n gl es o r m o re th an th ree a c ut e i nter i o r a ngl es .
 CH A PTE R IV

QUADRILATE RA L S
S YMMETRY

87 . W e h a ve h ap t er i i t h a t u n d er c er t ai n c i r
s een in c

cum s t a n c es t w o figu r es c a n b e p l a c e d o n e u p o n t h e o t h e r s o

as t o c o i n c i d e e x a c tl y Mo reo ver i f w e wi s h t o p ro ve t w o
.
,
'

s egm en t s o r t w o a n g l es e qu a l w e o ft en l o o k f o r t w o t ri a n g le s
,

t h a t c o n t a i n th ese segm en t s o r a n g l es a n d t r y t o p r o ve th ese

t ri an g l es c o n gru en t In m a n y c as e s w e c a n m a k e o n e o f
.

t h es e tri an g l es c o i n c i d e wi th t h e o th er b y f o l di n g t h e figu re
a l o n g so m e l i n e i n t h e figur e o r b y r o ta t i n g p a rt o f t h e figu re
,

a b o ut so m e o n e p o i n t .

No . 1 No . 2 No .
4

Fi g 14 1 s h o w s
. fo ur figu res o f t hi s ki n d whi c h w e h a ve h a d .

If N o s 1 a n d 2 a re fo l de d a l o n g t h e li n e A B t h e t w o p art s
.
,

wi ll c o i n c i d e If N o s 3 a n d 4 a re ro t a t e d a b o ut p o i n t 0
. .

th r ough e a c h figur e wi ll c o i n c i d e w i t h i t s o ri gi n a l

i m p re s si o n Fi gu re s o r p a r ts o f figu re s t h a t c a n b e m a d e t o
.

c o i n c i d e i n e i t h er o f t h e se w a s a r e s a i d t o b e s ymm e tri c
y .

Po i n ts l in e s s e gm en t s o r a n g l es th a t c o i n c i d e u n d er th ese
, , ,

ci r cu m s t an ces a r e s a i d t o b e s ym m e t ri c t o e a c h o t h er .

E xerc i se Ca n you fin d a n y oth er fig ures i n c h a pt er i i o r

.

c h a pt e r i i i wh i c h a re sy m m e t ri c ? Ca n you fin d a ny figu res i n

th ese c h a pt ers wh i c h a re n o t s y m m et r i c ?
 6 P LAN E G E O ME T RY

D EF IN IT I O N S O F AXIA L S YMMETRY

88 . A figur e i s s ai t c wi th
d to b e s ymm e r i re sp e ct to
l in e a s an axi s i f o n e p ar t c o i n ci d es wi th t h e
rem a i n d er wh en i t i s f o l d e d o n th a t li n e a s a n
a x i s ( Fi g .

T w o figu r es a r e s ai d t o b e symm e tri c w i th

re s p e c t t o a l i n e as an ax i s i f o n e fig u r e Fm . 14 2
‘

c o i n c i d e s w i th t h e o th e r wh e n t h e p la n e i n

whi c h i t li es i s f o l d e d o n th a t l i n e a s a n a x i s
( Fi g .

S u c h a figure o r s u c h fi gu res ar e s a i d t o
h av e axi al symm e try .
pm , 14 3

TH E O RE M S AN D EXE RCI S E S I N V O LV I N G A XI A L
S YMM E RY T
89 .TH E O R E M 26 . Th e b i s e c tor of th e ve rte x an g l e of an

i s o s c e l e s tri an g l e i s an axi s o f s ymm e try o f th e tr i an g l e .

A n a ly s i s :
T o p ro ve th a t CD i s a n a xi s o f s y m m e tr y o f
A A B C ( Fi g p ro v e th a t A A CD wi ll c o i n
.

c i d e wi th A B CD i f A A B C i s f o l de d o n CD as Fm , 14 4

an a xi s .

Ex . 1 . po int s of a seg men t are s y m m et r i c w i th

Th e en d

r e sp e c t to t h e p e rp e n d i c ul a r b i se c to r of th a t s eg m en t a s a n a x i s .

Ex 2 . Wh at a x es of sy m met r y h a ve two p a ra lle l l i n es ?

.

Ex 3 . S how how to pl a c e two c o n g r u en t t ri a n gl es s o th a t

.

th ey a re s y mm etri c w i th re sp e c t to a s i d e of o ne a s a n a x i s .

90 T H E O R E M 27 . T w o p o ly g on s are s ymm etri c w i th

.

r es p e c t t o an a xi s if th e v e rti c e s o f o n e ar e s y m m e tri c t o

th e c orr e s p o n di n g verti c e s of th e o th er .

Ex 1 . H o w would Th 27 rea d i f t h e two polygon s w ere

. .

p art s of olygo
th e
p nsa m e
?
"

Ex 2 S how how to c o n st r u c t a p e nt a go n s y m met ri c to

‘

. .
a

gi v en
p en t a go n w i th a
gi v en l i ne a s ax i s .
 QUA D RI L A T E RA L S 7

D E F IN IT I O N S O F CEN TRA L S Y MMETRY

91 . figu re i s s ai d t o b e symm e tri c wi th

A r e sp e ct to a

p o i n t a s a c e n t e r i f o n e p a rt o f t h e figu r e c o i n

ci d e s w i t h t h e r em ai n d er w h e n i t i s ro t a t e d

t h ro ugh a n a n g l e o f 180 a b o u t t h e p o i n t a s a °

c en t er ( Fi g Pro 14 5
‘

. .

Tw o figu re s a r e sai d t o b e s ymm etri c wi th

re s p e c t t o a p o i n t a s a c e n ter i f o n e fi gu re

c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e o t h er wh e n i t i s r o t a t e d

t hro ugh a n a n g l e o f 180 a b o ut t h e p o i n t a s °

a c en t er (Fi g .
Fm 14 6

S uc h a figur e u c h figu res a r e s ai d t o h a v e c entral

or s

sym m e try Th ese d efi n i t i o n s g i v e u s t h e f o ll o wi n g tes t f or

.

c entral sy mm e try :A figu re i s s ym m et ri c wi t h r es p ec t t o

a p o i n t a s a c e n t e r i f f o r e v e ry p o i n t i n i t t h er e i s a c o r

resp o n d i n g p o i n t so si t u a t e d th a t t h e t w o p o i n t s a r e
s ym m e t ri c w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e c en t er C an y o u s t a t e a
~
.

s i m i l ar t e s t f o r a x i a l s ym m e t r y
?

TH EO RE MS AN D EXE R CI S E S I N V O LV I N G CEN RA T L
S Y M METRY

92 . Ex 1 . . Th e c e n ert
of s y m m et ry of two po int s i s t h e mi d
p o i n t of t h e se g m en t j o i n i n g t h e two po i nt s
‘

Ex . Two v ert i c al
2 . an gl es a re s y mm etri c w i th res p ec t to
th eir v e r t e x a s a c e n t er .

Ex 3 . . Fin d t
a ce n e r of s ymm etry of two p a ra llel l i nes . How
man y s uch t
ce n ers a re p o s s i bl e?

T H E O R E M 28 Tw o p o l y g on s ar e s ymm e tr i c w i th r e s p e c t
.

to a c e nte r if th e ve rt i c e s o f o n e ar e s ymm e tri c to th e c o r

re s p o n d i n g v e rt i c e s of th e o th e r .

Ex 4 . . How would Th . 28 r ea d if t h e two polygons were

h al ves of th e s a m e polygo n ?

Ex 5 . . W h i c h l ette rs of th e a lph a b et h a ve t l s ymm et ry ?

c e n ra

Wh i c h o nes a re s y m m et r i c w i t h r es
p ec t to an axi s ?
 PLAN E G E O ME T RY
.

RE L AT I O N B ETW E E N AXIAL AN D CEN TRAL S YM METRY

93 T H E O R E M 29 Any figur e th at h a s tw o axe s o f s ym

. .

m etry a t ri ght an g l e s t o e a c h o th e r h a s th e i nte r s e c ti o n o f

th e ax e s a s a c ente r of s ymm e try .

FI G . 14 7

H y p oth es i s : P i s a p n
o i t on an y figur e whi c h i s s ym m e ri t c
’
wi t h resp ec t to xx
'
an d yy
'
a s a x es . Ax i s xx
'
L
_ a xi s yy
Co n c lu s i on : 0 , t h e i n t er s ec t i o n
'
of
'
xx and yy , i s th e
c en t e r o f s y mm e r y o f
t th e figure .

A n a ly s i s :
I . T o p ro v e t h e figu r e s ym m e t ri c w i th r e sp ec t t o p o i n t
0 , p ro v e th a t f o r e v er y p o i n t i n t h e fig u r e th er e
t
e xi s s a p o i n t s y m m e ri c t to it wi th r es p ec t to 0 as

a c en e r t .

’
le t P b e i t
figur e a n d P b e sym
in th e
"
an y p o n

m et ri c t o P wi t h r e sp e c t t o y y a n d P
'
be
’
s y m m e t ri c t o P w i t h resp ec t t o xx a n d p r o ve 0
'

t h e m i d p o i nt o f P P
-
" .

’
III . ve O t h e m i d p o i n t o f P
T o p ro join P O P O P 0
-
, , ,

P O a n d P OP a s t r ai ght l i n e
” ”
an d p ro ve P 0 .

’
P O p ro v e th e m b o th e qu a l t o P O
”
IV T o p r o v e P 0
.
,
.

V . T o p ro ve th a t P OP
”
is a s r ai t gh t li n e , p r o ve th at
[ 1 + [ 2+ [ 3 + rt . A .

VI T o p r o v e
. th a t [ 1+ 4 2+ 4 3 + rt . 4 , p ro v e
A 3 = A 4, and rt . 1 .

Le t t h e pupil gi ve th e p roof i n f ull .

80 P LA N E G E O ME T RY
P RO PER T IE S O F P ARALL E L O G RA M S

95 . Th e f und am enta l c h arac teri s ti c o f p ar a ll e l o gr am s i s

t t d in
s a e t h e d e fi n i t i o n n a m e l y :T h e o p p o si t e s i d e s a r e
,

p a r a ll e l . Th e n e xt thr e e t h eo rem s d e p en d d i r e c tl y u p o n
thi s f a ct .

T H E O R E M 3 0 Each d i a g o nal. of a p ara ll e l o gram d i vi d e s

i t i nto tw o c o n gr u e n t tri an g l e s .

TH E O RE M 31. Th e o pp o s i e s i t de s of a p a ra ll e l o gram are

e qu al .

TH E O RE M 32 . Th e O pp o s i e a n t gles of a ar
p a ll e l o gram are

e q u al .

Ex 1 . Two c onsec ut i ve an gles of a p a ra ll e logr am a re s u p p le

m ent a ry .

Ex 2 . . Th e s um of th e an gl es of a p ara ll elogra m is four ri ght

an gl es .

96 . di a g o n a l s o f a p ara ll e l o gr am d i ff er fro m t h e
Th e
d i a g o n a l s o f o t h er fo ur si d e d figur e s i n i m p o rt an t r es p ec t s
-
.

N ote th e ex er c i s e on p . 81 .

W e sh a l l a s sum e th a t th e d i a g o na l s of c onvex qu adri

l atera l s i nters e c t .

T H E O RE M Th e d i a g on a l s of a p ara l el l gra m b i s e c t
o

eac h o th e r .

A n a lys i s :
I . T o p ro ve t h a t t h e d i a go n a l s bi sec t eac h o t h er , p r o ve
th a t =
A O OC a n d th a t B O = OD .

A O = OC
’ p ro ve A D OC N
A A OB .

B O = OD
 QUA D R I L A T E RA LS 81

E xerc i s e . Fi g how s a p a ra ll elog ra m

. 15 1 s , a c o n ve x qu adri
l atera l a nd a c o nc a ve qu a d ri l ate ra l In
,
.

wh i c h c a s es do t h e d i a go na l s i n t erse c t ? In
wh i c h c a s e do they b i se c t ea c h oth er ?
FIG . 15 1

97 TH E O R E M
. 34 . T h e i n te r s e c ti o n of th e d i a gon a l s of a
p ar a ll e l o gr a m i s th e c e n te r o f s ym m e ry o ft th e p arall e l o gram .

CO N G RU EN CE O F P AR A LL E L O G RAMS
98 T H E O R E M 3 5 T w o p ara ll e l o gram s
. . ar e c on gru ent if
tw o s i d e s an d th e i n cl ud e d an g l e o f o n e ar e equ a l to tw o
s i d e s an d th e i n cl ud e d an g l e of th e o th e r .

FIG . 15 2

H y p o th esi s : In E A B CD
’
and w=w ,

'
and AA AA .

Con c lu si on : C 7 A B CD N
[27
A n a ly s i s :To r
p o ve D A B CD N
p r o ve
t h a t t h ey wi ll fi t wh en s up e rp o se d .

P roof
T T E ME N TS
S A

1 Pl a c e
. :
2 7A B CD u p o n £ 7 s o t ha t t h e si des
’ ’
o f A A w i ll f a ll o n t h e s i d es o f A A or l y i n g a l o n g x
’
an d w a l o n g w .

’
11 P o i n t B wi ll f a ll u p o n p o i n t B
. .

’
II I Po in t D wi ll fa ll u p o n p o i n t D
. .

’ ’
IV 1 A D a n d A D a r e s u p p l em en t s o f A A a n d A
. .
,

’
re s p e c t i v e l y AD= AD . .

2 2 wi ll f a ll a l o n g t h e l i n e o f
.

V .

Le t th e pupil g i ve a ll r e as on s a nd c om plete the p roof .

82 P L A N E G E O ME T RY

TE S T S FO R P ARA LLE L O G RAM S

99 . d efi n i ti o n o f a p ara ll e l o gr am i s t h e fu n d am en t a l
Th e
t es t f o r p ar a ll e l o gr am s O t h er t e s t s a r e d ep en den t p ri m ari l y
.

u p o n t h e f u n d am e n t a l o n e .

100 . E xerc i se . C o n st r u c t
qu adr i l at era l A B CD s o th at t h e
a

op p osi t e S i des A D a n d B C a re p ara llel a n d e qu a l .

T H E O R E M 3 6 If a qu a dri l at era l h as o n e s i d e e qu al and

.

p ara ll e l t o i t s O p p o s i t e , i t i s a p ar a ll e l o g ram .

FIG . 153

H y po th es i s : In t h e qu a dri l t a er a l A B CD , x = z an d x llz .

Con c lus i o n : A B CD i s a C7
A n a ly s i s a nd co n s tru c ti on

I . T o p ro v e A B CD a C 7 p ro v e w
, y .

II . to “
y , d ra w AC an d p ro ve A 1= A 2 .

I II . A1 A 2 p r o ve
,

Le t t h e pupil c om pl ete t h e a na lys i s a nd g i ve t h e p roof .

101 E x e r c i s e
. Co n st r u c t a qu a d r i l a t e ra l A B CD s o th a t t h e
.

op pos it e s i des A D a n d B C a l s o t h e s i des A B a nd D C a re e q u a l

, , ,
.

T H E O R E M 3 7 If a qu ad ri l atera l h a s ea ch s i de e qu a l t o
.

i t s o pp o s i t e i t i s a p arall e l o g ram
, .

FIG . 15 4

H y p bth es i s : In t h e qu adri l a t era l A B CD , x =z and w =y .

Co n c lu s i o n : A B CD is a C] .

Th e a n a lv s i s a n d th e p o o f a re l e f t
r to th e pu p il .
 QUA DRI LA T E RA L S 83

102 T H E O R E M 3 8 If th e d i ag on al s
. . of a quad ri l ateral
b i s e c t e a ch o th er , th e quadri l atera l i s a p ara ll e l o gr am .

E XE RCI S E S I NV O LV IN G TES T S F O R PARA LL EL O G RAM S

103 . T o p ro ve th at any gi ve n qua dri l ate ra l is a p ar a lle l o
gra m , p ro ve t h a t i t h a s
( 1) E a c h d e p a ra ll e l t o i t s o p p o si t e o r
si ,

( )
2 E a c h S i d e e q u a l t o i t s o pp o s i t e o r ,

( 3 ) O n e s i d e e qu a l a n d p ar a ll e l t o i t s o pp o si t e , or

( 4 ) Th e d i a g o n a l s b i s e c t i n g e a c h o t h er .

1 Co n s t r u c t
. p arall elog ram g i ven two s i d es
a ,
a nd t h e in c luded
an gle . In how m a n y w a ys i s th is pos s ibl e ?
2 . I f two s id es of
qu a d r i l at era l a re p ara ll el a nd two oppos it e
a

a ngl e s ar e e qu a l t h e figu re i s a p a rall e log ra m

,
.

3 I f A B CD i s a p a ra ll elog ra m a n d E a n d F a re res p e
. c t i ve ly

t h e m i d p o i n t s of t h e O ppo s i t e s i d es A B a n d
-

CD p rove th at A E CF i s a p a rall elog ra m

,
.

4 G i v en E A B CD w i th p o i n t s E a n d F
.
,

o n t h e d i a go n a l A C so th a t A E = CF p r ov e p m 15 5 ,

th at B FDE i s a p a ra ll elog ra m ( Fi g .

5 I n v es t i g a t e E x 4 i f po i nts E a n d F
. .

are o n t h e d i a go na l e xt e nd e d .

6 . G i ve n D A B CD , A E = CC, A H = CF ,
pr ove th a t E F CH i s a lle log ra m ( Fig
p ara .
F IG . 15 6

7 . Con st r u c t a p arall elog ra m g i ven t h e s i d es

, and o ne d i agonal .

TH E O RE M S A ND E XE R CI S E S INV O LV I N G TE S TS FO R
E Q UA L AN D P ARALL E L S E G MEN T S

104 . Th s . 36 an d t o ge t h er wi t h t h e d efi ni t i o n o f a p ar
37 ,

a llelo gram , gi v e an a ddi t i o n a l t es t f or e qu a l an d f o r p ar a ll e l

s e gm e n s t :
T o p rove tw o s e gm e nt s e qu a l o r p ar a ll e l, fin d a qu a d r i
l a t er a l o f wh i c h t h e s e s e gm en t s a re o p p o s i t e s i de s a n d p r o v e
that th e qu a d ri l a ter a l is a p a ra ll e l o g r am .
84 PLA N E G EO ME T RY

TH E O RE M 3 9 . S e g m e nt s of p arall e l s i nterc ep te d b etw e e n

p ar all e l li n e s ar e e qua l .

T H E O R E M 4 0 S e g m e n ts o f .
p erp en d i c u l ar s i n terc epted
b e tw e e n p ara llel l i n e s ar e e qu al .

Ex 1 . . Co n s t r u c t through a g i ven p o i n t a l ine th at S h a ll be

p ara lle l to a g i ve n l i n e .

Ex 2 . . If A B CD i s p ara ll elog ram a nd E a nd F a re res p ec

a

t i v ely t h e m id -

p o i n t s of t h e oppo s i t e s i d es A B a n d CD p rov e th at ,

AF CE .

E x 3. . G i v en D A B CD
w i th E F G an d H , , ,
t h e m id -
po i nt s of

t h e s i d es a n d t h e po i n t s j o i n e d as i n d i c at e d i n
,
.

t h e figu re ; p rov e th at A X C Y i s a p ara ll elogr am

(Fi g .

Ex 4 . . In wh at other w ay m ay t h e po i nt s
in F i g 15 7 b e
. j o ine d s o as to form a p ara ll elo P ro . 15 7
g r am ?
Ex 5 . . Co n s t r u c t
l ine th at sh a ll b e i nt ercep t e d by t h e s i des
a

of a g i ven tri angl e a n d b e p ara lle l to t h e b a se of t h e t r i an gl e an d

s h all h a ve a g i ve n l en gt h .

S PE CIAL QUAD RI LATERAL S

105 . fo ur si de d figu r e i s c a ll e d a qu adri l atera l U n l es s
A -
.

o t h er wi se s t a t e d a qu a dr i l a t e r a l s h o u l d b e d r a wn wi th n o
,

s i d e s e qu a l a n d n o s i d e s p a ra ll e l .

T h e f o l lo wi n g s p ec i a l ki n d s o f qu a d ri l at er a l s are i m p o r t an t
A qu a dr i l a t era l f o rm e d b y t w o i so sc e l es tr i an g l e s o n o p p o
s i t e si d e s o f t h e s am e b a s e i s c a ll e d a k i te ( Fi g 15 8 N o .
, .

A qu a d ri l a t er al wi t h bu t o n e p ai r o f p ar al l e l S i d es i s c all ed
a tr ap e zo i d ( Fi g 158 N o .
, .

If a tr ap ez o i d h as i t s n o n p ar a ll el s i de s e qu a l i t i s c a ll ed -
,

a n i s o s c e l e s tr ap e z oi d ( Fi g 15 8 N o .
,
.

T h e n o n p a r a ll e l s i d e s o f a tr a p e z o i d ar e s o m eti m es c a ll ed
-
.

t h e l e g s o f t h e t ra p e z o i d .

T h e p arallel si d es o f a t r ap ez o i d ar e c a ll e d t h e b as es .
 QUA D R I L A T E RA LS 5

Th e p erp en d i c u l ar di s t a n c e b e tw een t h e b as e s o f a t r a p e
zo i d i s c a ll e d t h e alti tu d e o f t h e t r a p e z o i d In Fi g 15 8 . .
,

’
No 2 b .
, and b ar e th e b as es an d a is th e a lt i t ude .

Aqu a dr i l at er a l wi th t w o p ai r s of p ara ll e l si de s h as b een

d efin e d as a p ar all e l o gr am .

T h e p erp en di c u l a r di s t an c e b a s e s o f a p ar a lb etw een th e

le lo gr am i s c all e d t h e a l ti tud e o f t h e p a r a ll e l o gr am A p ar .

allelo gr am h a s t w o a lt i t u d e s s i n ce ea c h p a i r o f p ar a ll e l ,

s i d es m a y b e c o n si d er e d a s b a s e s
v
In Fi g 15 8 N o 4 b . .
, .
,

m a y b e c o n si d ere d a s a b as e wi t h a as t h e c o rr e s p o n di n g
'

’
a lt i t ud e o r b m a y b e c o n s i d er e d as a b as e wi t h a as t h e c o r
'
,

r es p o n d i n g a lt i t ud e .

FIG . 15 8

Th e f o ll o w i n g s p ec i a l k i n d s o f p ar a ll e l o gr am s are o f con

s i d er a b le i m p o r t an c e a n d o f w i d esp r ea d o c c u rr en c e

A p a ra ll e l o gr am wi t h o n e ri gh t an g l e i s c a ll e d a re c tang l e
(Fi g 15 8 N o
.
,
.

A p ara ll e l o gr am wi t h t w o c o n secuti v e s i des e qu al is call ed

a rh o m bu s ( Fi g 15 8 N o .
,
.

A t
r ec an g l e wi t h two c o n se cuti ve si des e qu al i s ca lle d a

s quar e ( Fi g . 15 8 N o , .

m en o i ni n g t h e m i d p o i n t s o f t w o o p p o si t e s i d es
'

Th e s e g tj -

of a qu a d ri l a t era l is c a ll e d a medi an o f t h e qu a dri l a t er a l

(segm en t X Y Fi g 15 8 N o , .
, .

Th e d efi ni ti o n o f an y p a r t i c u l ar figure i s t h e f un dam en tal

tes t f o r t h e d e t erm i n a t i o n o f t h a t figur e .
86 P L A N E GE O ME T RY

T K I ES

106 . Ex 1 . . O ne d i a go na l of a k i t e is an a x is of s ym m etry .

Ex 2 . . The x i s of s y mm etry of
a a k i t e b i se c t s th e an gles
thr ough whose verte x i t p a ss es .

T H E O R E M 4 1 Th e d i a g onal s of a ki te
. are r
p p
e e n di c ular
to e a c h o th er , an d th e o n e wh i c h i s an ax i s o f s ymm e try

b i s e c t s th e o th er .

I S O S CEL E S TRAP EZO ID S

107 . Ex 1 . b ase a ngl es of a n i sosceles t rap ezo i d are
. Th e
e qu a l a n d t h e d i a go n a l s a re e qu a l .

Ex 2 . T h e se g m en t j o i ni n g t h e m id p o i n ts of t h e p arallel
.
-

s i d es of a n i s o s c el es t ra p e zo i d i s a n a x i s of s y mm et ry .

Ex 3 . I f t h e b ase a n gl es of a t rap ezo i d are e qu al t h e t rap e

.
,

z o i d i s i s o s c el es .

Ex 4 . C o n st r u c t a n i so sc el es t rap ezo i d g i ven t h e two b ases

.
,

a nd t h e a lt i tud e .

Ex 5 . C on st r u c t a n i s o s c el es t ra p ezo i d g i ven two c on se c ut i ve

.
,

s i d e s a n d t h e i n c lud e d a n gl e .

RE CTAN GL E S

108 . Ex 1 . . Co nst ru c t a rec a n t

gl e g i ven two a dj a cen t s i d es
,
.

TH E O RE M 42 . All th e ang l e s o f a r e c tang le are ri gh t ,

an g l e s .

Ex 2 .Wh at p rop ert i es h a s a rect an gle b y

.

v irtu e of t h e fac t th at i t i s a p ara llelogra m ?

Ex 3 .T h e d i a go n a l s of a rec t an gl e a re e qu al
. .

I f t h e d i a gon al s of a p ara llelogram a re F IG 15 9

Ex 4 . .

e qu a l t h e p a ra ll e log ra m i s a rec t a n gl e ( Fi g
,
.

A na ly s i s
I To
.
p ro v e C IA B CD c ] p rov eaA A = a rt A
,
. . .

II A A = a r t A p r ov e A A = A B
'

. .
.
,

III . AA A B p rov e ,

Le t t h e pup i l c om pl e te t h e a n a lys i s a nd gi ve t h e p roof .

Ex 5 . . C o n st ru c t a rec t a n gl e g i ve n o ne s i d e a n d o n e d i a go nal
,
.
88 P L A N E G E O ME T RY

P ARAL L E L S AN D S E G ME N T S ON TRAN S VE R S AL S
TE S T FO R E Q UA L S E G ME N TS
111 T H E O R E M 4 5 If a s eri e s o f p aral l e l s c uts o ff e qua l
. .

s e gm e nt s o n o n e tr a n s v ers a l , i t c ut s o fi e qu a l s e gm e n t s o n

a ll tr an s v er s als .

F IG . 16 0

H yp oth esi s : c ut th e t r a n s v ers a l h ‘

th at
so

se gm en t s a, b , an d c a re e qu a l , and c ut o ff th e s e gm e n t s

x, y, an d e o n tran sv ers a l k .

Con c lus i on : x y z .

A n a ly s i s
I . T o p ro v e dra w MN P Q a n d RS , ,
h and

p ve A
ro MN P N
A P QR N A RS T . .

I I I
a : b :C
II T o p r o v e A
. MN P N
A P QR
N
A RS T
A7 = AS 9 .

Le t t h e pupi l c om pl ete t h e a nalys i s a nd g i ve t h e p roof .

Ex 1 Pr ov e Th 4 5 b y d ra w i n g t h e c o n st ru c t i o n l i n e s fr om
. . .

t h e p o i n t s of d i v i s i o n o n k i n st e a d of fr o m tho se o n k .

P R OB L E M 7 . To d i vi d e a gi v e n se g m e nt i nto any n um

b er of e qua l p art s .

S olu ti o n : Le t A B b e t h e g i ven s eg m e n t F rom poi n t A d ra w a .

ra y m a k i n g a n y c o n v e n i e n t a n g l e w i th A B F ro m poi n t A lay o ff .

e qu a l d i v i sio n s o n this ra y T h e n u m b e r o f di v i s i o n s m ust b e t h e

.

s a m e a s t h e n um b e r o f p arts i nto whi c h A B is to b e d i v i de d J oi n .

t h e l a s t p o i n t o f d i v i sio n wi th B D ra w p a r a l le ls f r o m t h e oth e r
.

poi nt s o f di v i si o n Le t t h e pup i l dra w t h e fi gu re a n d g ive t h e p roo f

. .
 QUA DR I L A T E RA L S

Ex 2 . . A l i ne m ay b e di vi d e d i nto a ny

um b er of e qu al p art s ( f o r e x am ple by
—
n ,
5) the 9
;

c o n st ru c t i o n S how n i n F i g 16 1 G i ve th e
1

. . a r '
. B
\ o

c o m pl e t e d i re c t i o n s a n d t h e p r oof .

N O TE shee t of r uled pa pe r m ay b e used

. A
to divi de a s eg m e n t i n to a give n n um be r of
e q u a l p a ts N u m b e r t h e li n e s a s i n F i g 16 2
r . . .

I f t h e segm e nt i s to b e di vide d i n to 7 e qu a l
p a rts put t h e e nds of t h e segm e n t o n l i n e s 0
,

an d 7 . Wh y ?
’
Ex 3 . . p t S how how a
st eel s qu a re c ar en er s F IG . 16 2
m ay b e u se d to d i vi d e a b o ar d in to s t ri p s
of e qu a l w i dth ( Fi g .

N O TE . B y t h e w i dth of t h e boa rd i s m ea nt th e
pe rpendi c ul a r di sta n ce b e tween t h e sides . F IG . 163

RE L ATE D TH E O RE M S CO N CERN I N G TRIAN GLE S

112 TH E O RE M 4 6
. . A se gm e nt p arall e l t o th e b as e of a

tri an g l e an d b i s e c tin g on e s i d e i s e qu al t o h a lf th e b as e .

F IG . 16 4

H yp o th esi s : In A A B C X Y , bi se c t s AC an d lA B
I .

Con c lus i on : XY = 1
/3 AB .

A n a ly s i s a nd c o n s tr uc ti on :
1 To
. ve p o
r X Y =
%A B , p o
r ve X Y i s e qu al to a s eg

m en t t h a t is V2 A B .

t
c o n s ru c t YZ fro m Y IA C an d p ro ve X Y = A Z
a nd XY ZB
Le t th e pup i l gi ve th e p roof .
90 PLAN E G E O ME T RY

113 T H E O R E M 4 7 A s e gm e nt p ar all e l to th e b as e o f a
. .

tri an g l e and b i se c ti n g o n e s i d e b i s e c ts th e o th e r s i d e al s o .

S ugges ti o n . D ra w l i n e th rough
a th e ve rt e x o f t h e t ri a n gl e pa rallel
to the ba se a nd a pply Th 45 . .

114 . THE O RE M 48 . A segm e nt b i s e c ti n g tw o si de s of a

tri an g l e is p arall e l t o th e th i r d s i d e .

FIG . 16 5

H y po th es i s : In A A B C X Y j o i n s X ,
and Y , th e mid
p o i n t s o f A C a n d B C re s p e c t i v e ly .

Con c lus i on : X Y llA B .

A n a ly s i s a n d c on s tr uc ti on

I . T o p ro ve X Y I lA B p r o v e , th a t X Y c o i n ci d e s wi t h a

s e gm en t th a t i s II t o A B .

d ra w X Z llA B fr o m X an d p ro ve t h a t XZ c o i n
c i d e s w i th X Y .

I I I T o p r o ve th a t X Z c o i n ci d es wi t h X Y S h o w t h a t X2
.
,

a n d X Y b o t h p ass th ro ugh X a n d Y

P ro of
S TA T E ME N TS
I
X Y p as se s t h r o ugh X
. a . an d Y .

b X Z p a ss e s th r o ugh X
. .

c XZ p a s se s th r o u gh Y
.

I I X Y an d X 2 c o i n c i d e
. .

I II X Y IIA B . .

pup i l g i ve rea so n s
Le t t h e .

A pply Th 4 7 i n Ic . F o r I I se e A s 6 . . .

E x erc i s e A s eg m en t b i sec t i n g two

. Si de s of a t ri a ngl e is e qu a l
to h alf t h e b a se .
92 P L A N E G E O ME T RY

116 T H E O R E M 5 0 Th e m e d i an f rom th e ve rt ex o f th e
. .

ri ght an g l e o f a ri ght tri an g l e t o th e h

yp o t e n u s e i s o n e h a l f -

th e h yp o te nu s e .

F IG . 168

H y p o th es i s : In t h e rt . A A B C , A X i s t h e m e di an fr o m
th e A A t o t h e h yp o t en u se CB .

A n a ly s i s :

I . T o p r o ve th a t A X CB p r o v e A X, X B i s o sc el es .

II .
—
A X X B i so s c e l es , fr o m X c o n s t r u c t X O AC
an d r
p o ve X O a J_ bi s ec t o r of AB .

Le t t h e p upi l gi ve t h e p roof .

117 . Th e fo ll o wi n g ex erc i se s ar e a p p l i c ati o n s o f Th s 4 6 5 0

.
—
.

Ex 1 . . g ment s j o i n i n g t h e m i d po i nt s of t h e si des of
Th e se -

a t ri a n gl e d i v i d e i t i n to fou r c o n g r u en t t ri a n gl es .

Ex 2 . .Co n st r u c t a t ri an gl e g i ven t h e m i d p o i nt s of i t s s i d es
,
-
.

Ex 3 . .Perp en d i c ul ars fr om t h e m id p o i nt s of two s i d es of a ' -

tri an gl e to t h e th i rd s i de a re e qu al H o w m i ght th i s exerc i se b e .

p rov ed if t h e g i ven t ri a n gl e were i soscel es ?

Ex 4 . .I f D i s a n y p o i n t i n t h e s i de A C of a A A BC t h e s eg ,

m en t s j o i ni n g t h e m i d p o i n ts o f A D D C CB a nd A B fo rm a
'

-
, , ,

p ara ll elog ra m .

Ex 5 . .Th r ough a g i ven po i nt w i th i n a n a ngl e dr a w a seg

m en t ter m i nate d b y t h e s i d es of t h e a n gl e a n d b i sec t e d b y t h e
g i v e n p o i nt .

Ex 6 . D i v i d e a r i ght t r i an gl e i nto two i s o s cel es t r i a n gl es

. .

Ex 7 . W ould T h s 4 6 4 7 a n d 4 8 b e t ru e f o r p a ra ll e logr a m s as
. .
, ,

well a s f o r t ri an gl es ? G i v e proofs .
 QUA D RI L A T E RA L S 93

TRA P EZ O ID S
118 . TH E O R E M 5 1 Th e
. se gm e nt j o i ni ng th e mi d p o i nt s -
of

th e l
n o n- p ar al e l s i des of a trap e zo i d i s p ara ll e l to th e b as e s .

FIG . 16 9

H y p oth es i s : In D A B CD X Y , j oi n s X and Y t h e mi d
,

p o i n t s o f t h e n o n p ar a lle l-
si des AD and BC re s p e c t i ve l y .

Con c lus i on : X Y HA B an d CD .

A n a ly s i s a nd con s tructi o n

I . T o p r o ve X Y I ] A B an d th ere fo r e D C p ro v e
,
tha t
X Y c o i n c i d e s wi t h a s e gm en t t h a t is I
] A B .

dra w X Z A B fro m X an d p r o ve t h a t XZ c oi n

ci de s wi t h X Y .

II I To p ro ve th a t X Z c o i n c i d es wi th X Y s h o w
. , .

Le t t h e pup i l c om plete th e a na lysi s a nd gi v e th e p roo f .

119 . TH E O RE M 52 . Th e se gm ent j o i ni n g th e mi d p oi n ts -

of th e n o n p ar a ll l -
d e Si es o f a tr ap e z o i d is e qu l a to one- h alf
th e s um o f th e b a s e s .

FIG . 17 0

A n a lys i s : T o p ro ve X Y : ( A B + D C d ra w DB i n t er
s ec t i n g XY at O an d p ro v e AB an d OY = % 3 DC .

Ex 1 . . Co n st ru c t a t rap ezoi d so th at AB =6 cm .
,
B C= 3 2 .

cm .
, CD = 4 cm .
,
AD = 2 8 . cm .

Ex 2 . .
I f two t rap ezo i d s h ave th e four si des of o ne e qu a l
t i vely to t h e four si des of t h e oth er t h e
res p ec ,
a n gl es of o n e ar e

e
qua l r e s
pe c t i v e ly to t h e c o rr es
po n d i n g a n gl es of t h e oth er .
94 P L A N E GE O ME T RY

S UP P L EMEN TARY EXERCI S E S

EXE RCI S E S I N V O LV I N G P ARALL E L O G RA MS

120 . p rep a red to p rove t h e theo rem s o n whi c h a n y of

N O TE . Be
t h e f ollow i ng e x erc i se s d ep en d .

1 Ma k e a rev i ew d i a gram f o r Th 3 6
. . .

2 A ny s egm en t d ra w n th rough t h e i n t ersec t i o n of t h e d i a go

.

n als of a p ara ll elog ram a n d t erm i n a t e d by t h e s i d es of t h e p a ra l

,

lelo gram i s b i sec t e d b y t h e p o i n t of i n t ers ec t i o n of t h e d i ago n a l s

,
.

3 Perp en d i c ul a rs dr a w n to a d i a go n al o f a p arall elog ra m

.

from t h e op p os it e vert i ces are e qu a l .

4 T h e b i sec to rs of two c on sec ut i ve an gl es of a p arallelog ra m a re

.

p erp en d i c ul ar to e a c h oth er .

5 T h e b i sect ors of two O pp os i t e a n gl e s of a p arallelogram

.

a re p ara ll e l .

6 T h e b i secto rs of t h e an gl es of a p arall elo gr am fo rm a

.

rec t a n gl e .

7 Th e m e d i a n to o n e p a i r of oppo s i t e s i d es of a p arall elog ra m

.

i s e qu al a n d p ara ll el to t h e oth er two s i d es .

8 . T h e m e d i ans of a p ara ll elogra m b i sec t eac h oth er .

9 In Fi g 17 1, A B CD i s a p ara ll elog ra m
. . .

T h e s i d es are e xt en d e d th rough A a n d C s o th a t
CE = A O an d CF = A H . Pr ov e th a t E F GH i s
a p a ra llelog ram
FIG
.

. 17 1

10 In Fi g 172, A B CD i s a p a ra ll elo
. .

gram CD a nd A B a re e xt en ded s o th at
.

DE = B F , D F ut s CB a t Y
c an d BE c ut s
DA at X . Prove DX = B Y .

FIG . 172

11 . I f i n Fi g
,
. 172, DX i s m a d e qu a l to e B Y, and BX an d

DY a re d ra w n a n d e xt e n d e d to m eet CD a t E and AB at F
re sp e c t i ve ly p rov e DE ,
BF .

In Fi g 173 , A B CD i s a p ara lle log ra m

12 . . .

DX a nd B Y a re p erp en d i c ul ar to A C fr om
D a nd B re s p ec t i vely . DY an d BX a re

j o in ed . Pro ve DX B Y a p ara llelogram .

Fm , 173
96 PLA NE GEO ME T RY

E XE R CI S E S I N V O LV I N G S PE CIA L Q UADRILATERAL S
121 . 1 A re t h e
. d i a go n al s of a p arallelogram p erp end i c ul ar to
eac h oth er ? of a r hom bus ? of a s qu are ? of a tr a p e zo i d ? of a
k i te ? of a rec t a n gl e ?

2 N am e t h e
. qu a dr i l a t era l s in wh i c h th e d i ago nal s a re e qu a l
to eac h oth er .

3 . N am e t h e qu a dri l a t era l s in wh i c h th e an gles are b i s e c t ed

by th e d i a gon a l s .

4 . W h at qu a d ri l at era l s h a ve
x i s of s ym m et ry ? W h at o ne a

qu a dr i l at eral s h a ve two a xes of s y mm et ry ? H a ve a ny qu a dri

l at era l s m o re th a n two a xes of s y mm et ry ? N am e t h e a x i s o r t h e
a x es i n eac h c a se .

5 . W h at qu ad ri l at era l s h a ve a c e n er t of s ymm etry ? N am e

the c e n er t of sym m et ry in ea c h c a se .

6 . figu re form e d by j o i n i n g
Th e t h e m id -
po i nt s of th e si des
of a r ec t a n gl e i s a r ho m bu s .

7 Th e
. figu re form ed by j o i n i n g t h e mid p in s -
o t of the si des of
a r ho m bu s i s a re c t a n gl e .

8 . Th e figu re fo rm e d by j o i ni ng th e m id -
po in ts of the si d es
of a s qu a re i s a s qu a re .

9 In Fi g 178 , A B CD i s a s qu are w i th t h e e q ua l
. .

d i st a nc es A E , B F , B G CH , et c , m eas ure d o n t h e ,
.

si d es in eac h d i rec t i on from t h e v ert i c es ; p rove th a t

EH K N an d F GLM a re re c t a n gl es an d th at X YZ W
is a s qu are .

F IG 178
10 . I n ve s t i g a t e the c as e , E x 9, i n
. wh i c h A B CD i s a rho m bu s

o r a r ec an t gle i n s t ea d of a s qu a re .

11 In Fi g ; 179 , A B D C i s a re c t a n gl e , A B a n d
.

CD a re d i v i d e d i n to t h e s a m e n u m b er of e qu a l
p art s a n d t h e p o i nt s j o i ned a s i nd i c at ed P rove .

th a t t h e figu re s form e d a re r hombu s es W ould .

i t b e poss i bl e to c o n st r u c t t h e figu r e so th a t
FIG 17 9
s qu ares a re fo rm e d i n s t ea d of r ho m bu s e s ?
.
 QUA D RI L A T E RA L S 97

12 . In . Fi g . 180, A B CD is a

s qu ar e w i th i t s di agon al s A C an d B D .

CW an d YE
are p a rall el to A C an d ,
F2 an d

E X a re p a rall el to D B . Prove F IG . 18 0
th a t WX YZ i s a s qu are .

13 . G i ven A B CD
qu a re w ith a s

A C a d i a go n a l I f A X = CY p rove .
,

th a t B Y DX i s a rho m bu s ( Fi g .

Is th i s e x erc i s e t ru e i f
A B CD i s a rhom bu s ? I f A B CD F IG . 18 1 F I G 18 1 . 0

is an y Pa ra llelo gr3 3 1? A p a r q u e t flo o r d i gn
es

14 . I n v e st i g a t e th e c a se , Ex . 13 , i n wh i c h X an d Y are o n

AC e xt end ed .

15 In Fi g 182
. . g i ven t h e D A B CD wi th E , F , G, a nd H the
mi d p o i n t s of t h e
-
s i d es a nd t h e
,

p o i n ts j o i n ed a s i n d i c a t ed Pr ove .

th at WX YZ i s a s qu ar e .

A n aly si s :
To p rove WX YZ a E] p rove ,
FIG 18 2 F IG 18 2 0
wi th WX = X Y a n d
.

it a D
.

P a r q u e t flo o r d e s g n i
A 1=a rt . A .

16 In Fi g 183 , A B CD i s a s qu are
. . w i th A X BY
= CZ = D W Pr ove th at WX YZ i s
. a s qu a re .

17 In Fi g 184 , A B C i s a n i s o s c el es t ri a n gl e
. .

w i t h A C = a rt A CO _LA B f ro m C A X = X Y = Y B
. . .

X W a n d YZ are 1 A B fr o m X an d Y . Pr ov e th at
WX YZ i s a s qu are . P ro 18 4 .

18 . Co n s tru c t a s qu ar e th at sh a ll h ave its v erti ces on th e

si des of a r hom bus .
98 P L A N E G E O ME T RY

EXE RCI S E S I N V O LV I N G P ARALL E L S A N D TRAN S VERS AL S

122 . p re p a red to p rove t h e
N O TE . Be theorem s o n whi c h a ny o f
t h e f ollowi n g e x erc is e s d e p e n d .

1 Ma k e re v i ew d i a g ra m s f o r T h s 4 5 4 9 a nd 5 0
. .
, ,
.

2 N am e two i m p o rt a n t S p e c i a l c a ses of Th 4 5
. . .

3 Pr ove t h e c o n v erse to eac h of t h e th eo rem s

. ca lled f o r in
Ex 2 . .

4 . Th e segm ent s wh i c h jo i n t h e m i d p o i n ts of -

the si d es of a qu a dri l a t eral t a ken i n ord er form a

p ara llelogram ( Fig .
_

5 P r ov e Ex 4 f o r a c o nc a v e q u ad ri l at eral
. .

a nd f o r a c ros s qu a d ri l a t era l P ro 18 5
.
.

6 T h e m ed i an s of a qu a d ri l at era l b i sec t eac h oth er

. .

7 Th e s eg m e nt s wh i c h j o i n t h e m i d po i n t s of two O p p os i t e
.
-

s i d es of a qu a d r i l a t era l to t h e m i d p o i n t s of t h e d i a go n al s fo rm a -

p arall elog ra m .

8 I f f ro m t w
. o o p po s i t e v ert i ces of a p ara ll elog ra m s e g m en t s

a re d ra w n to t h e m i d po i n t s of t h e oppo s i t e S i d e s th e se s eg m en ts
-
,

t ri sec t t h e d i a go na l j o i ni ng t h e oth er two vert i c es .

9 I t i s s a i d th a t a n A ra b a b out 900 A D t r i sect e d a g i ven

.
,
. .
,

seg m e nt a s i n F i g 186 S how th a t th i s i s t h e s a m e

. .

c o n s t ru c t i o n a s th a t g i ven i n E x 8 . .

10 A s eg m en t j o i n i n g t h e m i d p o i nt s of t h e n o n
.
-

p a r a ll e l s i d e s of a t ra p e zo i d b i s e c t s b oth d i a go n a l s
F I G 18 6 .

11 T h e s eg m e n t j o i n i n g t h e m id po i n t s of t h e d i ago n a l s of a
.
-

t ra p e zo i d i s p a ra llel to t h e b a ses a n d e qu a l to th eir d iff erence .

12 I f o n e le g o f a t r a p e zo i d i s p erp en d i c ul ar to t h e b a ses t h e
.
,

se gm en t s j o i n i n g t h e m i d po i n t of t h e oth er leg to t h e e xt re m i t i es
-

of t h e fi rst leg are e qu al .

13 I f t h e m i d po i n t s of t h e l eg s of an i s o scel es t ri an gl e are
.
-

jo i ne d to t h e m i d po i n t of t h e b as e t h e figu re fo rm ed i s a
-
,

r ho m bu s .

14 G i v en A B CD a t ra p ezo i d w i th t h e b a s e A B tw i c e t h e b as e
.

CD : T h e d i a go n a ls A C a n d B D i nt ersec t a t O Pr ove th a t A O i s .

tw i c e OC .

S uggesti o n J oi n t h e m i d poi nts o f A O a nd OB wi th D a nd C

.
-
.
100 PLANE GE O ME T RY

FUN DAMEN TAL TE ST S O F IN E QUAL ITY

124 . Th e fun dam en t a l t es t o f i n e qu al i t y i s A s 29
.
, g i v en
in § 57 , th e wh o le i s gr e ater th an any o f i t s p art s .

TE S T F O R UN E Q UA L AN G LE S

125 . Th e fun d a m en t a l th eo rem f o r u n equ al an g l es i s

Th 8 .
, an e xt e ri o r an g l e o f a tri a n g l e i s gre at e r th a n

e i th er of th e n on a dj a c e nt i nt eri or a n g les
-
.

TE S T S FO R UN E QUAL S E GMENTS
126 Th e t w o f o ll o wi n g t e s t s f o r u n e qu a l s e gm en t s ar e
.

i m p o r t an t A s 3 7 m a y b e c a ll e d t h e f u n d am enta l t e s t f or
. .

un e qu al s e gm e nts I t i s k n o wn t o ev ery o n e w h o go es
.

’
c ros s lo ts r a t h er th a n a r o u n d th e corn er .

As 37 Th e
. . s um of tw o si de s of a tri an g l e i s greater
th an th e th i rd .

A s 3 8 Th e di ff ere nc e
. . b e tw e e n tw o si de s of a tri an g l e
i s l e s s th an th e thi r d s i d e .

Ex 1 . . H o w m an y t ri an gles c an be form ed w i th the si des 7,

11, 19, an d 15 cm . ?
Ex 2 . . I f two s i d es of
t r i an gl e are 8 c m an d 15 c m wh a t
a . .
,

ar e t h e u p p er a n d low er l i m i t s of t h e th i r d s i d e?

Ex 3 . I f D i s an arb i t rar y po i nt i n t h e s i d e B C of A A B C
.
,

A B + B C+ A C 2A D .

Ex 4 . . T h e s um of t h e d i a go n al s of a ny qu a dr i l at eral is g reat er
th an the s um of e i th er p a i r of oppo si t e s i d es .

qu a dri l at eral
.

Ex 5 . . Th e p eri m et er of a is great er th an th e

sum of it s d i a go na l s .

Ex 6 . . I f f ro m
po i nt w i th i n a t ri angle s eg m ents
a

are d r a w n to t h e v ert i c e s of t h e t r i an gl e t h e s um ,

of th ese segm ent s i s g rea t er th a n t h e p eri m e ter of

t h e t ri a ngl e .

Ex . Th e m ed i an to o ne s i de of a t r i a ngl e i s l ess
th an t h e sum of the oth er two s i des ( Fi g .
 ’

I NE QUA LI T IE S ,
j ,

127 T H E O RE M 53
. . If from a p o in tri an g l e s e g
t wi th i n a

m en ts ar e d rawn to th e extre mi ti e s o f o n e s i d e , th e i r s um
i s le s s th an th e s um o f th e o th e r tw o s i d e s o f th e tri an g le .

FIG . 18 8

H y p o th es i s : In A A B C segm en t s DA ,
an d DB a re d raw n
fro m p o i n t D t o t h e ex t rem i t i es o f A B .

Con clusi on : A D + DB ——
A C l CB .

A n a lys i s a nd c on s tr uc ti on :T o p r o ve A D + DB A C CB
e x t e n d A D t o m ee t B C a t E a n d p r o v e D B D E + EB an d
A D + DE < A C + CE .

S TAT E ME N TS

1 DB < DE + E B
. . .

2
.
—
A D + DE < A C l CE -
.

3 .

4 . DE + A D < E B + CE + A C .

5 . DB + A D < B C + A C .

Le t t h e pupi l gi ve the re a so ns .

Fo r 3 u se As 33
. . Fo r 4 use As 32 . .

Ex 1
. . Th e s um of t h e d i st a n ces from a ny po i nt i n a t r i a n gl e to
th e verti ces is less th an t h e p er im et er of t h e t ri an gl e .

Ex 2
. . In Fi g 188 p rov e
. th a t A A DB AC .

Ex 3
. . If 0 i s an y p o i n t in t h e si de AC of A A B C, O C+ OB
< AB +A C .

8
 P h ANE G E O ME T RY

TE S T S FO R U N E QUAL S I D E S AN D AN G L E S IN O N E
TRI AN G L E
128 . T H EO R E M 5 4 If o ne an g l e o f a tri an g l e i s
. t
gr ea e r
th an a s e c o n d , th e s i d e o pp o s i te th e fi rs t a n g l e i s
gre at er
th an th e s i d e opp o s i te th e s e c o n d an g le .

FIG . 18 9

H y p o th es i s : In A A B C A B , AA .

Co nclu s i o n :A C CB .

An a ly s i s a nd c on s tr u c ti o n :
I . T o p ro ve A C CB c o n s tru c t , a t ri an g l e wi th B C f o r
o n e S i d e s u c h th a t t h e s um o f t h e o th er t w o s i d e s

sh a l l equ a l A C .

c o n stru c t OB fr o m p o i n tth a t OB = OA th a t
B so ,

is , so th a t A2 A 1, a n d c o m p ar e A C w i t h O C + OB

an d O C + OB wi th CB .

Th e p roo f i s l ef t to th e pupi l .

129 T H E O R E M 55 If o n e s i d e of a tri ang l e i s gr e ater t h an

. .

a s e c o n d , th e an g l e o p p o s i t e th e gr eate r s i d e i s gr eate r th an

th e an g l e Op p o s i te th e le s s er s i d e .

FIG . 190

H y p oth esi s : In A A B C A C > CB ,

.

Co n c lus i on : A B AA .
 04 PLA N E G E O ME T RY

D I S TAN CE S AN D O B L I Q UE S E G MEN T S

13 0 TH E O RE M
. 56 . Th e p e rp e n d i c u l ar is th e s h o rt e s t
s e gm e nt fro m a p o i n t t o a s tr ai gh t l i n e .

Th e p roof is l eft to th e pupi l .

Ex 1. . lti tude to o ne s i d e of a t ri a n gl e i s l e s s th an h alf

Th e a

t h e s um of t h e oth e r two s i d es .

Ex 2 . .T h e sum of t h e th ree a lt i tud es o f a t r i a n gl e i s l ess th an

t h e p er im et er .

'

Th e d i s tan c e b e tw e e n a p o i n t an d a l i n e i s d efin ed a s th e
l en g t h o f t h e p er p en d i cu l a r f r o m th e ‘

p o i n t t o t h e li n e
. .

T H E O R E M 5 7 If f rom a p o int i n a p e rp e nd i c u l ar to a
.

s trai ght li n e t w o o b li qu e s e g m e nt s ar e d ra w n c utt i n g th e

s tr ai ght li n e a t u n e qu al d i s ta n c e s f r o m th e f o o t of th e p er

e n d i c ular , th e m or e r e m o te i s th e gr eat e r
p .

F IG . 193

H yp o th es i s :A O _L li n e I an d th e o b l i qu e se gm en t s AB

an d AC ar e s o dr a wn th a t OB > OC .

Con clusi on : A B > A C

A n a lys i s
I . T o p ro v e A B > A C p r o v e A 2 A1 ,
.

II . A2> A 1 A 2 an o b t u se
,
an gle .

II I . A2 an o btu se an g le , p ro v e A 2 > A 4 .

T H E O R E M 5 8 If f ro m a p o i nt i n a p erp en di c u l ar t o a
.

m th
s tr ai ght li n e tw o u n e qu al o b l q u
i e g e t d w
s e n s ar e r a n , e

gr e ater c uts th e s trai ght l i n e a t th e g t d t c

r ea e r i s a n e f r o m

th e f oot o f th e p e rp e n di c ular .

S uggesti on . U se an i ndi rec t p roo f .

 I N EQUA L I T I E S 105

TES T S FO R UN E QUAL S ID E S AN D AN G L E S IN TW O
TRIAN G L E S
13 1 TH EO R E M
. If tw o tri an gl e s h ave two s i d e s of o n e
e qu al t o tw o s i d e s o f th e o th e r , but th e i n c l ud e d an g l e o f o n e

gre ater th an th e i n cl ud e d an g l e of th e o th er , th e thi r d s i d e

o f th e fi r s t i s gr eat er th an th e th ir d s i d e of th e s e c o nd .

FIG . 194

H y p o th es i s : In A AB Can d AB Bc B C
' ’
,

’
an d AB AB .

Conc lusi on : A C

A n a lys i s a nd c o ns truc ti on

I . T o p ro ve A C c o m p ar e AC wi t h a se g m en t
’
th a t i s gr ea t er th an A C
’ ’ ’
p l a c e A A B C o n A A B C s o th a t A B c o i n
' '

’ ’
ci de s wi t h A B , A o n A an d B o n B B i s ec t ,
.

’ ’
A C B C ; le t t h e b i sec t o r m ee t A C a t X ; j o i n XC
’ ’
Co m p ar e A X + X C wi th A C an d A C .

’ ’
II I . To c o m p are A X + X C wi th A C p ro ve X C = X C , .

Le t th e pupi l c om pl ete t h e a nal ysi s a nd gi ve t h e p roof .

t u c t i n g Fi g 194 acc o r di n g t o s t a t e
’

Di s cuss i on . In c o ns r .

’
m en t I I o f t h e a n a l y s i s i t m a y h a p p en t h a t p o i n t C wi ll f a ll
o n t h e li n e A C o r w i t h i n t h e t ri a n g l e a s w e ll a s i n t h e p o s i
’
t i o n s h o wn i n t h e figu re If C fa ll s wi t h i n t h e t ri an g l e t h e
.
,

p r oo f i s t h e s a m e a s f o r t h e c a se gi v e n a b o v e If C f a ll s .

o n A C t h e th eo r em i s e v i d en t wi t h o u t p r o o f
, .

E xe rc i se . I f in D
,
A B CD, AA A B , th e di a gonal op p osi te
A A is l es s th an the di ago nal O ppo si t e AB .
 106 PLANE GEOMETRY

13 2T H E O R E M 6 0 If tw o tri an g l es h ave tw o S i d e s of
. .

o n e e q u al t o t w o s i d e s o f th e o th e r , but th e thi r d s i d e of

o ne gr eat er th an th e th i r d s i d e o f th e o th e r , th e an g l e

o pp o s i te th e th i r d s i d e b f th e firs t i s gre ate r th an th e

an g l e o pp o s i te th e th i r d s i d e o f th e s e c o nd .

S ugges ti o n . Use an i n d i re c t p roof .

E x erc i se . R ev i ew any th eorem o r th eorem s c oncern i n g c on gru

ent t ri an gl es th at are c lo sely rel a t e d to T h s 5 9 a n d 6 0 . .

S U PP L EMEN TARY EXE RCI S E S

133 . p repa red to p rove

N O TE . Be th e theo rem s on wh i c h any of
th e f ollowi ng exerci se s de p end .

N am e t h e th eorems th a t are t es t s f or u nequ a l an gl es ; f or

u nequ al se g m ent s .

2 . If ,
i n A A B C, t h e m ed i an A D i s drawn and A A B B is
ac ut e , p r ov e A C AB .

3 . In qu ad ri l at era l A B CD ,
AD= BC '
an d AD
AC . Pr ov e A B AA .

4 . CD i s t h e m e d i an to s i de A B i n A A B C a nd ,

AB AA . If an y po i n t X i n CD i s j o i n e d to A
an d B , p rov e A XB A A XA B .

In Fi g 195 p rove
5 . . th a t
’ ’
A A i s b i se ct ed at ri ght an gl es by Z Y . BA is a
F IC 195
t ght l in e
s ra i . Y is any p o i n t i n Z Y . Prove l o
a s
'

th at A A 2 .

N O TE llust ra te s som e i m porta nt fa cts from physi c s

. Ex . 5 i . In
F i g 196 X Y re p re se n ts a pl a n e m i rro r wi th a c a n dl e C i n f ro n t o f
.
,
it .

E re p re s e nts t h e ey e Th e re fle c t i o n C o f t h e
'
.

ca n dl e s e e m s to b e a s f a r b e h i n d t h e m i rro r a s C i s

i n f ro n t o f i t T h e light f ro m C st ri k e s t h e m i rro r a t
.

M a n d i s tu rn ed ba c k to t h e e y e a t E so th at t h e
d i sta nce CME i s t h e l ea st possi ble T h e l i ght .

a pp ea rs to c o m e d i re c t ly f rom C A lso A 1
’
A2 . .

S i m i l a r rel ati o n s hold wh e n a n e la sti c ob j e c t st ri k e s

F IG 196
a su rf a ce a nd rebou n ds f ree ly .
 C H A P TE R V I

C I RCL E S AN D RE LATE D LI NE S

I N TRO DU CT O RY
D E F I N IT I O N S

13 4 . W e h ave l
a re a d y d efin e d c i r c le , r adi u s , di a m eter ,

ch ord , a n d a rc .
(S ee
Two c i r c l es or two ar c s th a t c an b e m a de t o c o i n ci de ar e

ca ll e d c on gru ent c i r cl e s o r ar cs .

In u c c ee di n g c h ap t er s w e s h a ll c o n si d er t w o w a y s o f
s

m e as ur i n g a n a r c n am e l y :b y i t s l en g t h a n d b y t h e
,

n um b er o f d e gr ee s t h a t i t c o n t ai n s E a c h m e t h o d gi v e s a .

n u m er i c a l m e a s u re f o r t h e a r e but t h e m ea s u re s a n d t h e ,

m e th o d s a r e d i f f e ren t B e f o r e t w o arc s c an b e m a d e t o
.

c o i n c i d e th e y m u s t h a v e n o t o n l y t h e s a m e m e a s u r e bu t t h e
.

s am e ra d i u s Co n gru e n t ar c s wi ll h a v e t h e s am e m e a sur e
. .

whi c h ev er m eth o d i s u s e d i n m e a suri n g t h em a n d wi ll b e

ca ll e d e qual ar c s .

Th e h o r d j o i ni n g t h e en d s o f a n a r c i s c a ll e d t h e c h ord of
c

th e arc
,
E v ery a r e h as o n e an d o n ly o n e c h o r d
. E v er y .

c h or d h o w e v er h as t w o ar c s
, , If t h e c h o r d i s a di am et er
.
,

i t s t w o ar c s are c o n gr uen t a n d ar e c a ll e d s e mi c i rcl e s If .

t h e c h o r d i s n o t a d i a m e t e r i t s t w o a r c s a r e u n e qu a l
, Th e .

l ar ger a r c o f a c h o r d i s c a ll e d t h e m aj or ar c a n d t h e sm a ll er
a rc i s c a ll e d t h e m i n or arc .

A n an g l ewi th i t s v er t ex a t t h e c en t e r o f a ci r c e l is ca ll e d
a c entra l an g l e T h e s i des o f t h e a n g l e
. c u t O ff two ar c s o n

a circ e l . Th e m i n o r ar e c u t o ff b y the si d es of a c en ra t l
an g e l is s ai d t o b e th e ar c i n te r c e p t e d b y t h e an
gl e .

108
 C I RC L E S A N D RE L A T E D L I N ES 109

A S S UMP TI O N S CO N CERN IN G CIRC ES L

13 5 . In § 29 h av e
we

As 9 . . Ci r c l e s wi th e qu a l ra di i ar e c o n gr uen t .

A s 10 . . Co n gr u en t c i r c le s h av e e qu al ra di i .

'

To um p t i o n s w e sh all a dd t h e fo ll o wi n g
t h es e t wo a ss

A s 39 . Th e d i am et er o f a ci r c l e i s twi c e i t s r a di u s
. .

A s 4 0 A c i r c l e i s l o c at e d d e fini t e l y i f i t s c en t er an d
. .

i t s r adi u s ar e kn o w n .

As 41 . If a li n e p asses t hr o ugh a p o i n t wi t hi n a c i r cl e
.
,

t h e li n e an d th e ci rc l e i n t er s ec t i n t w o a n d o n ly t wo p oi nts .

A s 42 . . E v ery di am e t er b i s e c ts th e ci rc e l .

A s 43 . . A l
c i rc e is s ym m et ri c wi t h resp e c t to a ny d i am e
t er a s a n a xi s a n d wi t h res p ec t to its t
c en e r as a c en er t .

A s 44 . . B e t w een t h e s am e t w o p oi n t s On a ci r cl e th ere
is o n e a n d on ly o n e m i nor ,
arc o f th e c i rc e , l p r o vi d ed th ese
p o i n t
s a re n o t th e en ds of a di am et er .

As 45 . gm en t j o i ni n g a p o i n t wi thi n a c i r c l e a n d
. A se

t h e c en t er i s s h o r t er t h a n t h e r a d i u s .

A s 46
. If a se gm en t th a t h as o n e en d a t t h e c en t er o f a
.

ci r c l e i s s h o rt er t h a n t h e ra di u s i t li es wh o ll y wi t h i n t h e ,

ci rc l e .

A s 47
. gm ent j o i ni n g a p oi n t wi th o ut a c i rc l e an d
. A se

t h e c en t er i s l o n g er t h an t h e r a di u s .

As 48. If a se gm en t t h at h as o n e en d a t t h e c en t er o f
.

a c i r c l e i s l o n g er t h a n t h e r a d i u s i t ex t en d s wi t h o u t t h e ,

ci r c l e an d cu t s t h e c i r c l e bu t o n ce .

As 49. In t h e s am e c ir c l e o r i n c o n gr u en t ci r c l es e qu a l
.

c en t r a l an g l es i n t erc ep t e qu a l mi n o r ar c s .

A s 50
. In t h e s am e c i r c l e o r i n c o n gr u en t c i r c l e s e qu a l
.

mi n o r ar c s i n t erc ep t e qu a l c en t r a l an g l e s .

N O TE . shoul d b e ve ri fied D ra w t h e figu res o n

A ss . 49 and 50 .

fa i rly thi n p a per pla c e t h e c en ters toge the r a n d hold to t h e l ight

, , .

F i gu re s m ay b e d ra wn to illustra te A s s 3 9—4 8 . .

Th e ass um p ti o n s i n § 30 are true f or ar cs o f t h e s ame ci r c le ,

110 P L A N E G E O ME T RY

REL ATED AR CS , CH O RD S , AN D CEN TRA L AN G L E S

13 6 . Ass 49 . an d 50 ar e c o s e l ly l t d
re a e to th e two fo ll o w
i ng t h e o re m s an d s ho u l d be l earn ed wi th th em .

T H E O RE M 61 . In th e s am e ci r c le or in c o ngru e nt c i r c le s
A . Equ al c h ord s i nter c ep t e qual c e ntral an gle s .

B . Equ al c e ntra l an gles i n te rc ept e qu al c h ord s .

FIG . 201

S ugges ti on . P rov e by c ong ruent tri a ngl e s .

TH E O RE M 62 . In th e s am e c ircl e or in c o n gru ent c i r c le s

A . Equ al c h ord s h ave e qu al mi nor arc s .

B . Equal m i n or ar s c h ave e qu al c h ord s .

A n a lys i s A :
’
T o p ro v e BC = Z Y p r o v e A A , AX .

U se Th . 6 1A a nd As 49 . .

A n a lys i s B
_

T o p ro v e B C= Z Y, p ro v e A A = A X .

U se A S 5 0 . a nd Th . ~ 6 1B .

Ex 1 . . I f two c ir c l es a re n o t c o n g r u en t ,
ca n a n a r c of o ne be
c ongr uent to of t h e oth er ? a n a rc

Ex 2 .Fo r wh a t sp ec i a l c ases do t h e p roofs of T h s 6 1 a nd

. .

6 2 h a ve n o m ean i n g ?
Ex 3 .S how how to b i sec t a g i ven are
. . a

Ex 4 .A ray fro m t h e cen t er of a c i rc l e th r ough t h e m i d po i nt

,
.
-

of a c hord i s p erp en di cul ar t o t h e ch ord and b i sec ts t h e arc of t h e

c hord .
112 PLA NE G E O ME T RY

TE S T T F O R D IA ME E RS

13 8 . T H E O R E M 6 4 Th e p e rp en d i c u l ar b i s e c tor
. of a c hord
p as s e s th r o ugh th e c e nt er o f th e c i r cl e .

FIG . 2 03 .

H y p oth es i s : 0 0 i s any c i rc e l ; AB is any c ho r d of 6 0

XY i s th e L
_ b i s ec t or o f AB .

Con clus i on : X Y p a ss es th ro ugh p o i n t 0 .

A n a ly si s a nd c o n s tr u cti o n :
I . T o p ro ve th a t X Y p a s s es t hr o ugh p o i n t O , p r o v e t h a t
X Y c o i n ci d e s wi t h a l i n e th a t p ass es t h ro ugh 0 .

cons r t uct OZ fr o m O _1 A B _ an d p r ove th a t X Y

an d OZ c o i nc i de .

II I . T o p ro ve t h a t X Y an d OZ c o i n c i d e , s h o w th a t th ey
a r e b o th L b i s e c t o r s o f A B
_ .

S T A T E ME NT S RE A S O N S
I . a . X Y i s t h e l_ b i s ec t o r o f A B
_ . I . a . G i v en .

b . OZ 1 AB . b . Co n s t ru c t i o n .

c . OZ b i sec t s AB . c . Wh y ?
II XY. c oi nci des wi t h OZ . 11 ( See A s
. .

II I X Y
.
p a s s e s th r o ugh o i
p nt 0 . III Wh y ?
.

CO N S TRU CTI O N AN D D E F I N ITE L O CATI O N O F CIR CLES

139 . Ex 1 . . To find t h e c ent er f or a g i ven are .

S ugges ti o n . F i nd t h e i n ters ec ti o n o f two di a m ete rs

Ex 2 .To c onst ru ct a
. c i rc e l th a t S h all p ass th rough th e three
vert i c es of a t ri angle .

S ugges ti on Th e S i d e s o f . th e t ri a ngle will be c hords of th e ci rcle .

 C I RC L E S AN D R E L A T E D L I N ES 113

T H E O R E M 6 5 , O n e a nd o nl y o ne c i rc le c an b e drawn
thro ugh thr e e n o n c o lli n e ar -
p o i n st .

T h e p ro o f is l e f t t o t h e pupil .

W e h a ve t h e r e fo re t w o m e t h o ds o f lo c a ti n g c i rc les
, ,

d efi ni te ly
a
. If th e c en t er a n d ra di u s a re kn o wn t h e ci r cle i s ,

l oc a t e d d efini t e l y (A s .

b If a c i r c l e p as s es t hr o u gh t h r ee gi ven n o n c o ll i n e ar
.
-

p o i nt s i,t i s l o c a t e d d e fi n i t e l y ( Th .

TE S T FO R E Q UA L CH O RD S

14 0 . T H E O R E M 66 If in th e s am e c ir c le or i n c ongrue nt
.

c i r cl e s p erp e n di c ular s fro m th e c enter to tw o ch ord s are

e qu a l , th e c h o rd s ar e e q ual .

FIG . 204

H y p o th es i s :OA O X, AD J .
BC fro m A , X Z _L Y W
fro m X , an d A D = XZ .

Con c lus i on :B C YW .

A n a ly s i s a nd c on s tr uc ti o n :To p ro ve BC YW , p ve
ro

CD = l/VZ C D = , V2 CB , YW .

Le t t h e pup i l c om plete t h e a nalysis a nd g i ve the p roo f .

E x erc i s e S t a t e all t est s f o r e qu a l c ho rd s

. .

E Q UA L D I S TAN CE S

14 1 . T H E O R E M 6 7 In th e s am e c ir cl e or
. in c on grue nt
ci r cl e s p e rp en di c u l ar s f ro m th e c enter to tw o e qu a l c h ords

are e qu al ( S ee Fi g
. .

Le t t h e pup i l gi ve t h e a nalys i s a nd t h e p ro of .
 P LA NE GE O ME T RY

TAN G EN T S
TE S T S FO R TAN GEN T S
14 2 . th a t t o u c h e s a c i r c l e a t
A li n e one p o i n t bu t d o es n o t
c ut i t i s c a ll e d a ta n g e nt t o t h e c i r c l e . Thi s d efi n i t i o n i s t h e
f und am e nta l t e s t f or tan g e nt s .

Th e p o i n t a t whi c h t h e t an g en t t o u c h e s t h e c i r c l e i s c a ll e d
t h e p o i nt o f c o nta c t o r t h e p o i n t o f tan g e n cy o f t h e t a n g e n t .

14 3 T . H E O RE M 68 . A l i n e wh i c h i s p e rp en d i c u l ar to a

ra di us at i ts o uter ex r e m it ty is a tan g e nt to th e c i rcl e .

FIG . 205

H y p o th es i s : 0 0 i s any c ir c e l d i n s 0A is a n y ra di us ;
; ga

l i n e A B _1_ 0A a t A .

Co n c lus i o n : A B i s t a n ge n t to 6 0 at A .

A n a ly s i s a nd co n s tru c ti o n :
‘

I. T O p ro ve th a t A B i s t a n gen t t o 6 0 a t A , p ro v e that
a ll p o i n t s i n A B e x c ep t A li e o u t si d e t h e ci rc e l .

II . T o p ro ve th a t a n y p o i n t i n A B o t h er t h an A , s uc h as

M , li e s o u t si d e t h e c i r c l e j oi n 0 and M , and p ro ve
OM OA .

S T A T E ME NT S RE A S O N S
OM OA . Th 5 6 ( qu o t e i n fu ll )
. .

M l i e s o u t si d e 00 . As 48. .

All p o i n t s e x c ep t A li e Since M i s a ny p oint i n

'

o u t si d e 6 0 . AB o t h er t h a n A .

AB i s t an g en t to G O . Wh y
 16 PLANE GEOMETRY

TE S T FOR DIA METERS

14 7 TH E O R E M 7 1 A p erp end i c u l ar t o
. . a tang ent at th e
p o i nt o f c on ta c t p a s s e s t h r o ugh th e c e nt er of th e c i rcl e .

FIG . 207

Hyp oth es i s : In 0 0 A B i s t an gen t , to 00 at A an d

A C _L A B at A .

Con c lus i on : A C p asses thr o ugh 0 .

A n a ly s i s a nd con s tr u c ti on

I . T o p ro v e th a t A C p a sses t h ro ugh 0 , p ro v e t h a t A C
°

c o i n ci d e s w i t h a l i n e t h a t d o e s p a ss th ro ugh 0 .

c o nn ec t 0 an d A an d p ro ve th a t A O an d AC
c oi nci de .

II I . T o p ro ve th a t A O a n d AC c o i n ci d e ,
s h o w th a t th e y
are b o th L t o A B a t
_ A .
( S ee As .

Th e p roof i s left to th e pupi l

‘

EXE R CI S E S I N V O LV I N G TAN G E N T S
14 8 . 1 C o n st r u c t
. a l i ne th at S h all be t a n gent to a g i ven l
c i rc e

a nd p a ra ll e l to a g i v en l i n e .

2 C o nst ru c t
. a l ine th at sh all be t a ng ent to a g i v en l
c ir c e

a nd e
p pr e n d i c ul ar to a g i ven l i ne .

3 . C o n st r u c t a l i ne th a t sh a ll b e t a ngen t to a g i ven l
c i rc e a nd

m a ke a g i ve n a n gl e w i th a g i v e n l i n e .

4 . A t an ge nt to a c i rc l e a t t h e mi d -
po i n t of a n arc i s p ara ll el
to the c ho r d of t h e a re .

’
5 . I f two c i rc esl h a ve the s am e c en er , t a chor d of t h e l arger
wh i c h is of t h e i nn er i s b i c ted t h e po i n t of t a ng en c y
“

a t a n g en t s e at .
 C I RC L E S A N D R E L A T E D L I NES 117

6 . I f two l
h a ve t h e s am e c enter c ho rd s of t h e l ar ger wh i c h
c i rc e s ,

ar e t an g e n t s o f t h e i nner a re e qu a l .

7 I f two t a n g e nt s to a c i rc le m eet at a po i n t
.
_

w i thou t t h e c i rc l e t h e b i s ec to r of t h e a ngl e b etween

,

t h e t a nge n t s p a ss e s th r ough t h e c e n te r of t h e c i rc le .

8 Fi g 208 s how s a n i n s t ru m e n t th a t m ay b e
. .

u se d to find t h e c e nt er of a m e t a l d i s k H o w i s i t .

m ad e an d how would i t b e u se d ?

TW O CI RCL E S AN D RE L ATED L I N E S

D E F I N IT I O N S

FIG . 209

14 9 . Fi g . 209 s h o ws th e si x p o s si b l e re a l ti o n s of t wo
c i r c l es .

Tw o c i r c es l ar e sa i d to b e c onc entri c if th ey h a ve th e
sam e c e n e r t (Fi g 209 N o
.
, .

Tw o l
c i rc e s are s a i t h ey h av e bu t o ne
d to b e tan g e nt if
c om m o n p o i nt Th e y m a y b e t an g en t i n t ern a ll y as i n
.
.

Fi g 209 N O 3 o r t a n g e n t e xt ern a ll y a s i n F i g 209 N o 5

.
,
.
, .
,
. .

Thi s d efi n i t i o n i s t h e f un d am e n t a l t es t f o r t a n ge n t c i r c l es .

Th e l i n e p as si n g t h ro u gh t h e c e n t ers o f t w o c i r c l es i s
c a ll e d t h e l i n e o f c e nt e r s o f t h e t w o c i r c l e s .

Th e s e m en t t h r o ugh t h e p o i n t s o f i n t er sec t i o n o f t w o
g
c i r c l es i s c a ll e d t h e c o mm on c h o r d o f t h e t w o c i r c l e s .

15 0 S i n c e a n y di a m e t e r O
. f a c i r c l e i s a n axi s o f s y m m e try
o f th a t c i r c l e w e w i ll a s s u m e ,

As 51 . T h é l i n e o f c e nte r s of t w o c i rc le s i s an axi s o f
.

s ym m e tr y o f th e tw o c i r cl e s .

E x erc i se Wh en h a ve two c i rc l es a cent er of s ym m etry ?

.
 PLAN E GEOME TRY

IN TERS E CTIN G CIR CL E S

15 1 . T H E O R E M 72 . If tw o c ir cl e s i n ter s e c t i n on e p oi nt
n ot o n th e li n e of c e nte rs th ey , i n te r s e c t i n tw o p o i n ts .

FIG .

H y p o th esrs : 6DA and B i n t er s e c t at p o i n t P not o n th e

li n e o f c e n er s t AB .

Con c lus i on : © A an d B i n t er sec t i n a s ec o n d p oint .

A n a ly s i s : T o ve t h at © A an d B p r o i n t er s e c t at a

sec o n d p o i n t p r o v e t h a t t h er e i s o n
,
ea c h l
c i rc e o ne
’
p o i n t P wh i c h i s s ym m e tr i c t o p o i n t P .

CO R . If tw o c i r cl e s i n ter s e c t , th e p o i nt s of i n te r s e c ti o n
are s ymm e ri t c p o i nt s .

W e w i ll a ss um e vi d en t th a t
as e

A s 52 . . Tw o c i rcl e s c an n o t i nters e c t at m o r e th an tw o
p o i n ts .

T H E O R E M 73 If any tw o c i r cl e s . i n te r s e c t , th e l i n e of
c enters i s th e p erp en d i c u l ar b i s e c tor of th e c o mm on c h ord .

S uggesti o n . Prove by foldi n g th e figu re on th e a x s of sym m etry

i .

Ex 1 . . U se Th 73 to c on st r u c t a L b i s ec tor to a g i ven seg

. _

m en t an d to c on st ru c t a L to a l i n e fr om a po i n t n o t i n t h e l i ne
_
.

Ex 2 . . I f two
qu a l c i rc l es i n tersect t h e c om m on c hor d s ub
e ,

t en d s e qu a l c en tra l a n gl es i n t h e two c i rc l es .

’
Ex 3 . In Fi g 211 (9 0 a n d O a r e two
. .
, .

e qu a l 6) i n t ers ec t i n g a t A a n d B T h e l i n e of o .

’
c en t er s m e e t s t h e (9 0 at C a n d 6 0 at D .

Pr ov e A A CB = A A DB . F IG 211 .
120 PLA N E G E O ME T RY

TH E O R E M If two c ir cl e s ar e tan g e nt , th e p o i n t of

c ontac t i s on th e l i n e of c enter s .

S uggesti o n . U se an i n di re c t p roof .

Ex 1 . . In F i g . 214 , (S A a nd B t a n g en t
a re a t p o i nt
S how th a t th ey h a v e a c om m on t a n gen t ,

OX , at p o i n t 0 Co n st r irct 0 X . .

Ex 2 . . In Fi g 2 14 , X Y a n d X2 a re t an
.
-

gen t to 6) A a n d B re sp ec t i v ely fr om an y
p o i n t i n t h e c o mm o n t a n g e n t 0X . Pr ov e F ro . 2 14

th at X Y = X Z i f Y a nd Z are the po i n t s of c ont ac t .

Ex 3 . . In F i g 215 , A a n d B a re two e qu a l c i r c l es
.

t a ng e n t at C X Y i s t h e c om m o n t a n g en t a t t h e
.

p o i n t C . Pr ov e th a t a ny po i n t o n X Y m a y b e th e
c en t er of c i rc l e t a n g en t to © A a n d B
‘

a
FIG
.

. 2 15

Ex 4 . In Fi g 216 , A an d B a re two e qu a l
. .

'
no n -
i n t erse c t i n g c i r c l e s X Y i s a L b i se c t o r of t h e
. _

l i n e of c e n e rs t th a t a n y po i n t o n X Y
AB . Pr ov e
m ay b e t h e c ent e r of a c i r c l e t a n gen t to 6) A a n d B .
F IG 216 .

Ex 5 . . I n vest i g a t e t h e c a se , Ex 4 , if t h e
. l
c i rc es i nt ersec t .

Ex 6 . . S how
how to c o n stru c t c i rc e s l th a t w i ll be t angen t to
eac h of two c o n c e nt r i c c i r c l es .

Ex . 7 . W i th th ree g i v en gm en ts
se as ra di i c onst ru c t th ree
l
c i rc e s ea c h t an g en t to th e oth er two .

S UP P L EME N TARY EXERCI S E S

EXE R CI S E S IN V O LV I N G I N S CR IB E D AN D
CI R CU M S CR IB E D P O Y G O N S L
15 4 . A p o l y g o n i s s ai d t o b e i n s c ri b e d i n a c i r c l e i f i t s
v ert i c es a r e o n t h e c i r c l e a n d i t s s i d e s a re c h o r d s o f t h e

c i rc l e . t hi s c ase t h e c i r c l e i s s ai d t o b e c i rc u m s cri b e d
In
a b o ut t h e p o l y g o n A p o l y g o n i s s a i d t o b e c i r c um s c ri b e d
.

a b o ut a c i r c l e i f i t s si d e s a r e t a n g e n t t o t h e c i r c l e In t h i s .

ca se t h e c i r c l e i s sa i d t o b e i n s cri b e d i n t h e p o l y g o n .
 C I RC L ES A N D RE L A T E D L I N ES 121

1 . I n sc ri b e
qu il a tera l o c t a go n i n a g i ven c i rc le
an e .

S u gges ti n I t i s n e c e ssa y to d i vide t h e p e i go n a t t h e c e nte r of

o . r r

t h e c i rc l e i n to 8 qu a l p a ts e r .

2 I n s c ri b e a n e qu i l a t e r a l h ex a go n i n a g i v en c i r c l e
. .

S uggesti n O n e sixth o f t h e p e rigo n is

o .
-
H o w a re a ngl e s o f
60 c
°
o n st r u c t e d ?

3 I nsc ri b e an e qu i l a t er a l polygo n of 12 s i d es i n a g i ve n c i rc l e ;
.

a l s o o n e of 16 s i d e s .

4 . Prov e th a t the polygons c o nstru ct e d i n E x s 1, 2, . and 3 ar e

re gul ar .

5 . If a re gula r p ent agon i s i n sc ri b ed i n a c ir c e , l it s d i agona l s a re

e q ua L

N O TE pupil c a nn ot c on st ru c t a regul ar p en tagon a t p re s en t

. The
wi thout a p rot ra c t o r .

6 An y of t h e lo n ger d i a go na l s of a re gul ar h ex a go n i s a
.

d i am et er of t h e c irc um s c ri b e d c ir c le .

7 . H o w m any t of equ a l d i a go n a l s
se s h as a re gul ar o ct agon ?
Ar e an y of the m d i a m et er s of t h e c ir c l e ?
8 . AB an d CD two d i am et ers of a c i rc l e p erp end i c ul ar to
a re

ea c h oth e r . Pr ove th a t t an g en ts a t th e i r ext rem i t i es fo rm a s qu a re .

9 . of two O ppos it e s i d es of a c i rc u m sc r ibed qu adr i

Th e s um

l at era l i s e qu a l to t h e sum of t h e two rem a i ni n g s i des .

10 A X . t a ngent s to G O and m eet at p o i nt X

a nd BX a re

w i thout 6 0 A O a n d B 0 a re ra d i i d ra w n to t h e po int s of
.

c o n t a c t A a nd B Pr ove th a t A 0 + A X = 2 r t A th a t 0 X b i sec t s
. .

A O a n d A X a nd i s a p e r p en d i c ul a r b i s e c to r of t h e c ho r d A B
°

11 To c i rc u m scr i b e a bout a g i ve n c i rc l e a tri an gl e

.

whose a n gl es s h a ll b e e qu a l to th ree g i ven an gl es .

A na ly si s a nd di rec ti o n s
I To
. um s c ribe a t ri a ngl e a bout a ci rcl e c on stru ct
c i rc ,

t h e sid e s t a n ge n t to t h e c i rc l e .

II To c on stru c t A A e qu a l to o n e o f t h e g i ve n a ngle s
.
F G 2 17
,
I

c o n st r u c t A YO X e qu a l to t h e suppl e m e n t o f A A ( F i g .

Le t t h e pup i l c om pl ete t h e d i re c ti o n s c o n st ru c t t h e figu re a n d g i ve , ,

t h e p roo f .
 2 PLA N E GE O ME T RY

MI S CE LL AN E O U S EXE R CI S E S
15 5 . N O TEp repa red to p rove t h e theorem s o n whi ch a ny of
. Be
t h e f ollowi n g e x e r c is e s d e p e n d .

1 I f two l i n es i n t e rsec t at a po i n t w i th i n a c i rc l e an d m a k e
.

e qu a l a n gl e s w i th t h e se g m e n t j o i n i n g t h e p o i n t of i n te r sec t i o n a n d

t h e c en t er of t h e c i r c l e t h e c hor d s c ut o ff are e qu a l
, .

2 I n ve st i g at e t h e c a se E x 1 ( a ) wh en t h e po i n t of i n t erse c t i o n
.
,
.
,

i s o n t h e c i rc l e ; ( b ) wh en t h e p o i n t of i n t erse c t i o n i s w i thout t h e
c i rc l e .

3 I f two e qu a l c ho rds i n t erse c t w i th i n a c i rc l e th e y m a k e e qu a l

.
,

a n gl e s w i th t h e s e g m en t j o i n i n g t h e p o i n t of i n t er s e c t i o n a n d t h e

c e n t er of t h e c i r c l e .

4 I n v est i g at e t h e c a s e E x 3 ( a ) wh en t h e e qu a l c ho r d s i n t er
.
,
.
,

s ec t o n t h e c i r c l e ; ( b ) whe n t h e e qu a l c ho r d s a re s e g m en t s of l i n e s

th at i nt ersec t w i thout t h e c i rc l e .

5 A p erp en d i c ul a r b i se c tor of a c ho rd b i sec t s a ll c hor d s p ara ll el

.

to t h e g i v en c hor d .

6 A l i n e j o i n i n g t h e m i d po i n t s of two p arall e l c ho r d s p a ss es
.
-

th rough t h e cen ter of t h e c i r c l e .

7 I f a t ang en t a n d la c ho r d ar e p arall el th eyc ut o ff e qu al ar cs

.
,
.

8 Two p arall e l c ho rd s i n a c i rc l e c ut o ff e qu a l ar c s
. .

S ugges ti o n D ra w a di a m e te r p e rp e n d i c ul a r to o n e o f t h e c ho rds a n d
.

u s e t h e A s :E qu a l a r c s subt a c t ed f ro m e qu a l a r c s giv e
. r qu a l a rc s e .

9 A c ho r d th r ough t h e po i n t of t a n g en c y of t an g en t c i rc l es
.

s ubt e n d s e qu a l c e n t r al a n gl es i n t h e two c i rc l e s .

10 A l i ne th rough t h e c ent er of a c i r c l e i s c ut
.

by two p ara ll el t a n gent s Prov e th a t t h e segm ent s .

c u t f r o m th i s l i n e b etw ee n t h e t a n g e n t s a n d t h e

c i r c l e ar e e qu a l .

11 In F i g 218 , A B i s a n y c ho r d
. . an d CD i s a

d i am et er i nt erse c t i n g t h e c ho rd DE . a nd CF a re

1 A B f r om D and ,
C res p ec t i vely . Pr ov e th at
AE = BF .

'

12 In Fi g 219, A B i s any c ho r d i n O 0
. . CD .

is a di am et er d ra wn t o t h e m id p oi nt of arc A B -
.

Prove A 1 A2 . F IG 2 19
.
124 P LA N E G E O ME T RY

F UN DAMEN TAL REL ATI O N

15 7 I t f o ll o ws th a t a c en tra l an g l e o f 3 0 i n t er cep t s a n
.
°

a c en t ra l a n g l e o f 4 2 7 15 i n t er c e p t s a n arc o f
°
arc o f

42 7
°
We s h a l l a c c o rd i n g l y a ss um e t h a t i f t h e m e a sure
o f a c e n t ra l a n g l e i s a n y n um b er wh a t s o e v er t h e m e a s ur e ,

of t h e i n t er c e p t e d are is ex p r es s e d b y th e s am e n um b er .

We h ave th ere fore , ,

A s 53 . . Th e m e a s u re of a c entra l an gl e a nd i t s i nter
c ep te d ar c a re e xp r e s s e d b y th e s am e n u m b er , or a c e ntra l
an g l e i s m eas ure d b y i t s i nt erc ep te d arc .

15 8 A pro tr a c tor i s a n i n s t rum en t f o r m easuri n g a n g l es

. .

It u su a ll y c o n s i s t s o f a s em i c i r c l e o r Ci rc l e d i vi d e d i n t o u n i t
ar c s a nd is u sed l i ke an y o t h e r s c a l e f o r m e a s u ri n g . Fi g 220
.

s h o ws o ne f o rm of p r o t r a c t o r .

F IG . 220

Ex 1 . . T0 m e a s u re an an gl e w i th a p rotrac tor ,

Pl a ce t h e p r ot rac to r w i th t h e c en t er C o n t h e v ert e x of t h e
a ngl e a nd t h e l i ne of z er o s CO a lo n g a s i d e of t h e a ngl e Re a d o ff .

th e b er of d eg rees o n t h e s c al e a s i nd i c at ed by t h e oth er s i d e
n um

of t h e a ngl e .

Ex 2 S how how to c o n st r u c t w i th t h e p r ot ra c to r a n angl e

. .

th at sh a ll h a ve a g i v en n u mb er of d eg re es .

Ex 3 C o n str u c t w i th t h e p rot r ac to r an gl e s of
. .

D ra w a n u m b er of a n gl e s ; m e a s u re e a c h w i th p r ot ra c to r .

Ex 4 W i th
p rotrac tor d i v i de a g i ve n c i rc le i nto 10 e qu a l
a

p art s ; i n to 9 e qu al p a rt s ; i nto 15 e qu a l p a rt s B y th i s mean s

. .

i ns cr i b e i n a g i ven c i r c l e e qu i l a t era l polygo n s of 10 9 a n d 15 , ,

s i d es . P rov e th a t th ese polygo n s a re re g ul a r .

 C I RC L E S A N D R E L A T E D A N G L ES 125

I NE Q UAL ITIE S IN CIR C ES L

159 . fo ll o wi n g a re t h e fu n d am en t a l as s umpti ons
Th e
c o n c ern i n g i n e qu a l i t i es i n c i rc l es :
In th e s am e c i r cle o r i n c o ngru e nt c i rc le s if
‘

A s 54 . .
,

tw o c en tra l an g l e s ar e un e qu a l th e m i n or ar c s ubte n d e d b y ,

th e gre ate r ang l e i s gr eater th an th e m i n or ar c s ubte nd e d

b y th e l e s s er an g l e .

As 55 . In th e s am e c i r cl e o r i n c on gru e n t c i r cl e s if
.
,

tw o mi n or ar c s ar e u n e qu a l th e an g l e s ubte n d e d b y th e ,

gr eater ar c i s gr eater th an th e an g l e s ubte nd e d b y th e

l e s s er ar c .

TEX . 1 . l i n c o n g ru en t Ci rc l e s i f two c ho rd s
In t h e s a m e c i rc e o r ,

a re u ne qu a l t h e c en t ra l a n gl e s ubt e n d e d by t h e g re a ter c ho rd i s
,

grea t er th an t h e cent ra l a ngl e subte nde d by t h e l esser c ho rd .

S uggesti o n D ra w rad i i to t h e e nds o f t h e c ho rds a n d a pply Th 60

. . .

TE x 2 I n vest i g at e t h e c o nverse of E x 1 a nd p rov e you r

. . .

c o n c lu s i o n .

TEX 3 In t h e s a m e c irc le o r i n c o ng ru en t c i rc l e s i f two m i n o r

. . ,

ar c s a re u n e qu a l t h e c ho r d s ubt en d e d by t h e g re a t e r a r c i s g reat e r
,

th a n t h e c hord s ubten d ed by t h e les ser a rc .

S ugges ti o n A pply A s 5 5 a n d t h e p re c ed i ng e xerc i s e

. . .

TEX 4 I n vest i g at e t h e c o n verse of E X 3 Pr ove you r c o n

. . . .

elu s i o n s .

TE X 5 In t h e s a m e o r i n c o n g ru e nt c i rc l es t h e g reater of two
. .

u nequ al c hord s i s at t h e l ess d i st an c e from t h e c ent er ( Fi g .

A na ly s i s

I To p rove p erpe ndi c ul a r

. OY p e rp end i c ul a r
p rove O Y a pa r t of 0 X
0X , .

pla c e A B wi th poi nt A o n poi n t C a n d so t h a t ,

B li e s b e twee n D a n d C p rov e t h a t O Z c uts ,

D C a n d th a t O Y a p a rt o f O Z
, F I G 22 1 . .

II I To pla c e A B i n positio n re qui red i n I I p rove AB DC

.
, .

TE X 6 Prove t h e c o n verse of E x 5 by a n i nd i rec t p roof

. . .
.

E x 7 C o n st ru c t i n a g i v e n c i rc l e t h e sho rt es t c ho r d th at
. .

sh all p as s th rough a g i v e n po i n t .
126 P LA N E G E O ME T RY

RE L ATI O N B ETWEEN I N S CRIB ED AN G L E S

AN D TH EI R ARCS
TH E M EA S URE O F TH E I N S CRIB ED AN G E S L
160 . An an gle i s sa i d t o b e i nsc ri b e d i n a c ir cl e if i ts
v er t ex i s on th e l
Ci r c e a n d its si des ar e C hords o f th e cl e
ci r .

Th e a r e c ut o ff b e t wee n t h e si d es o f a n i n s c ri b e d a n g l e
is call e d i t s i n t erc ep te d arc .

E x er c i se . I n scr ibe i n a g i ven c i rc l e an gl es of

Fi n d t h e m eas ur e of t h e i nt ercep t ed U se p rot rac tor
‘

et c . a rc s . a .

16 1 . T H E O R E M 7 7 An i n s cri b e d
. an g l e i s m e as ur e d b y
o ne -
h alf i t s i nterc epte d arc .

FIG . 222

H y p oth es i s : A CA B i s i n s c ri b e d i n 0 0 .

Con clusi on : A CA B i s m ea su r e d b y BC .

Ca s e A . W h en th e c en er o f
t th e l
c i rc e is o n o n e si de of

th e an gle .

A n a ly s i s a n d co n s tr ucti on

1 T o p r o v e t h a t A A i s m e a s ur e d b y
. B C, c om p ar e
A A w i t h an a n g l e wh o s e m e a su re i s kn o wn .

II . c o nn e c t C an d 0 a n d c o m p ar e AA an d Ax .

III . To c o m p are AA an d A x , c o m p are A A + A C w i t h A x .

P r oof
S T A T E ME NT S
I . AA + A C= Ax .

AA = A C .

2AA = Ax .

AA = Ax ,
128 PLA NE G E O ME T RY

CO R O LLA RI E S :TES TS FO R E Q UA L L
AN G E S , RI G H T AN G L E S
AN D S UP P E M E N
L TARY AN G E S L
162 . CO R g l e s m e a s ure d b y th e s am e o r
. 1 . In s cri b e d an

b y e qu a l arc s ar e e qu al, a nd , c o nve r s e l y , ar c s th at m e as ure

e qual i n s c ri b e d an g l e s ar e e qu a l .

Ex 1 . . If th e vert i c es of a s qu are A B CD lie on a l

Ci rc e a n d

E is a ny p o i n t in th e arc A B, p rove th a t CE and DE t r i se c t th e

A AEE .

An an gle i sd t o b e i n s c ri b e d i n a n are i f i t s V ertex

sai

l i es on t h e ar c a ri d i t s S i d e s p a s s th ro ugh t h e e x tr em i t i e s
of th e c h o r d o f t h e ar e In th i s c a se t h e a r c i s s ai d t o
’

c ontai n th e an g e l .

CO R . II . An an gl e i n s c ri b e d i n a s em i c i r cl e is a ri ght
an gle .

F or s um m ary of t es t s f or er
p p en d i c u l a rs an d r i ght
an g l es , s ee p 3 01 . .

EX 2 . . Th e a ng el b etween t h e segm en t s jo i ni n g a p o i n t w i th
in a c ir c e l to the e n d s O f a d i a m e t e r i s a n ob tu s e a n gl e
‘

Ex 3 . . gl e b etween t h e segm ent s j o i n i n g a poi nt wi th

Th e an

out a c ir c l e to t h e e n d s of a d i a m e t e r i s a n a c ut e a n gl e .

EX 4 . . If
d i u s of o ne c i rc l e i s t h e d i am eter of a sec on d
the ra ,

a ny c ho rd of t h e l a rg er d ra w n f r o m t h e po i n t of c o n t a c t i s b i s e c t e d

b y t h e sm a ll er c i rc le .

Co n s t r u c t a ri ght t r i a n gl e g i ve n ,

Ex 5 . . Th e hyp oten u se and o ne leg .

Ex 6 . . Th e hyp ot en u se and an a c ut e an gl e .

CO R . I II . I n s c ri b e d an gle s ar e s upp l e m e ntary if th e

s um o f th e i r i nte rc e pte d arc s i s

EX 7 . . Th e o p pos i te an gles of an i ns c r i b e d qu a d ri l a t era l a re

s u p p l e mentary .

Ex 8 . . If a t ri a ngl e l i s i nsc ri b e d i n a c i rc e , th e sum of the

angl es i ns c r ib ed i n t h e a rc s s u b t en d e d b y t h e s i d es is 4 ri ght an gl es .
 C I RC L E S A N D R E L A T E D A N G L E S 129

EXERCI S E S IN V O LV IN G CEN TRAL AN D I N S CRIB E D L

AN G E S

16 3 f o reg o i n g th eo rem a n d i t s c o ro ll a ri es g i ve u s
. Th e
I A n e w m e t h o d f o r p ro v i n g a n g l es e qu a l
.
.

I I A n ew m e t h o d f o r p ro v i n g a rc s e qu a l
.
.

III A n ew m e t h o d f o r p r o vi n g a n g l es s up p l e m en t ary
.
.

IV A n e w me t h o d f o r d e t e rm i ni n g a n d c o n s t ru c t i n g ri ght
.

ang les .

1 Fi n d t h e are wh i c h m e a s u res A A CD i n
_ .

Fi g 225 . .

2 . I f fro m po i n t P on a l P 0 a nd a
c ir c e B

d i a m eter P R are dr a w n a ,
r ad i u s p a ra ll e l to

P 0 b i se c t s QR F G 225
. I .

3 A c i rc l e i s c i rc u m s cri b e d a bout A A B C a nd P i s t h e m id
.

p o i n t o f A B P r ov e th a t A A B P i s A C. .

4 Co ns tru c t a n u m b er of a n gl es i n sc r i b e d i n t h e s am e a re a n d
.

t h e b i se c to r of e ac h a n gl e W h a t th e o rem c a n b e .

i nferred f ro m t h e d ra w in g ?
Pr o v e i t .

5 . S how th a t th e c e n er o t
a g i ven c i rc l e m ay
f be
’
fou n d w i th a p tcar e n e r s s ee s t l qu are a s s hown in
Fi g 226
. . G i v e reas o n s ( Th .

F IG . 22 6

6 . AB .. is a t ri a ngl e i ns c r i b e d i n l whose
a c i rc e

t
c e n er 0 D i s p e rp en d i c ul a r
is 0 . to A C Prove .

th at A GOB = A B .

7 S how th a t t h e cent er of a g i ven are m ay b e

.

’
fou n d b y u si ng two c ar p enter s st eel s qu a res a s show n
i n Fi g 227 G i v e re a s o n s
. . .
P ro . 227
’
8 . In Fi g . 228 , 0 a nd 0 a re two e qu al
l
c i rc e s in t e rse c t i n g at A a nd B . C an d D a re a n y
’
po int s o n 0 and 0 r es p ec t i vely . Pr ov e A B CA
A A DB . F I G 228 .

9 A . c en ra t l an gl e is twi c e an i n sc ri b e d a n gl e th a t i nt e rc e pt s
th e s am e a r e .

10 . I n scribe i n a gi ven c i rc le a t ri angle whose a ngl es ar e e qu al

to t h e an gl es of a g i ven t r i angl e S uggesti on U se E x 9 . . . .
13 0 PLA N E G E O ME T RY

AN G L E S F O RMED BY I N TERS E CT I N G CH O RD S

164 T H E O R E M 7 8 A n a n g l e f o rm e d b y
. .
tw o c h o rd s
i nte r s e c ti n g w i th i n a c i r cl e i s m e a s ur e d b y o ne - h alf th e
s um o f th e i n t e r c e t e d ar c s
p .

FIG . 22 9

H y p oth es i s :Th e hords

C AC and B D i n t erse c t wi t hi n
6 0 .

Co n clusi on : A 1 i s m e as u r e d b y (AD
A n a ly si s a nd co n s tr u c ti o n :
’
I . T o p r o ve th t A 1 i s m e a sur e d b y
a (A D T c om
-

ar
p e A 1 wi th a n g l e s wh o s e m e a s ur e s ar e kn o w n .

II . c o n n ec t A an d B an d p ro ve A 1= A A + A B .

Le t t h e pup i l gi ve t h e p roo f .

Ex 1 . I f in Fi g 230 D C = 5 5 ,
,
.
,
°
a nd

BC A D fin d th e n u m b er of d e gr ee s i n e ac h gl e
‘

, an

of the figu re .

Ex . 2 . D i sc u ss t h e p ec i a l c ase of Th 78 i n
s . F IG . 23 0
wh i c h th e g i v en c ho rd s i n t e rs e c t a t t h e c en t e r of
the c i rc e l .

Ex 3 . . In Fi g 23 1, P i s t h e m i d p o i n t of CD A
.
,
-
.

PA and PB a re a n y two c ho rd s f r o m P Pr ov e th at .

’
A 1= A 1 A 2= A Z
'
and .

F IG 23 1
.

EX 4 . . Fi n d t h e s umof e a c h p air of opp os i t e a rc s i n to wh i c h

two p erp en d i c ul a r c ho r d s d i v i d e a c i rc l e .

E X :5 . If in ,
d i am et er A 1 h ad b een
F i g 230, A C h ad
. b een a ,

a n d D C h a d b ee n 97 A B wh a t would h a ve b een t h e n um b er of ,

deg rees i n e a c h of t h e oth er an gl es of t h e figu re ?

13 2 P LANE G E O ME T RY

ARCS F O RMED B Y P ARA LLE L CH O RD S :TE S T

FO R E Q UA L AR CS

16 6 . TH E O RE M 80 . P ar a ll e l c h o rd s i n te rc e p t e qu a l ar e

on a c i rcl e .

FIG . 23 5

H y p o th es i s : 6 0 i s any c i rc e a n d l AB
Co nc lus i on :AD = B C .

A n a ly si s a n d co n s tr u c ti o n :
I . T o p r o v e AD B C p ro v e , t h a t t h ey ar e i n t er c e p t e d b y
e qu a l i n s c r i b e d a n g l e s .

II . j oin A C
pupil c om pl ete t h e a n alysi s a nd g i ve t h e p roof
Le t t h e .

EX 1 I f i n Fi g 235 A D = 3 2 a n d m i n o r DC i s
. .
,
.
,
°
of m inor
A B fin d t h e n u m b er of d eg rees i n ea c h a re
,

EX 2 . . If o n a c i rc e l A C= B D, p r ove th a t AD is ei th er p ar
a llel w i th or e qua l to BC .

Ex 3 . . I f t h e v ert i c es of a t ra p e zo i d lie on a l
c ir c e , its d i ago
n als a re e qu a l and its b ase a n gl e s a re e qu a l .

EX 4 . . Prove
Th 79 b y c om p ari n g A B .

wi th o ne i n scr i b e d a n gl e .

S ugges ti n F ro m D c on stru c t a l i n e p a ra llel

o .

to A B a nd c o m p a re A B with A FD C ( Fi g .
FIG . 23 6

Ex . 5 . Pr ove Th . 78 by c om p ari n g A1 w i th o ne i nsc r i b e d

an gle .

F ro m o n stru c t l i ne [
“

S ugges ti o n . A c a ID B .
 C I RC L ES A N D R E L A T E D A N G L E S

CO N S RUC T TI O N O F P ERP E N D I CU ARS L

16 7 . PRO B L E M 9 . To c o n s tru c t a p erp e nd i c u l ar to a

l i ne f ro m a p o i n t in th e li n e .

FIG . 23 7

A n a ly s i s a n d co n s tr u c ti o n

I . In or d er t o c o n s ru c t t a p e rp e n d i c u l ar t o li n e I at A ,
c o n s t ru c t a ri gh t an g le at A .

II . To co ns r t uc t ght a n g l e a t A i n sc ri b e
a ri ,
in a s em i

ci rc e anl a n g l e w i t h i t s v er t ex a t A .

II I . To cons r t uc t l t h ro u gh A t ak e a n y
a s em i c i r c e , p oint 0
a s c e n t e r a n d s e gm e n t OA a s r a d i u s

Le t t h e pup i l c om plete t h e di rec ti on s a nd g i ve t h e p roof .

168 . P R O B L E M 10 . To c o n s tru c t a p e rp e n d i c u l ar to a

l i n e f ro m i t n ot in th e l i n e
‘

a p o n .

F IG . 23 8

A n a ly s i s a n d c o n s tr uc ti o n :
I . In ord er t o c o n s ru c t t
d i c u l a r t o l i n e I th r o u gh
a p p
e r e n

p oint A c o n s t ru c t a r i g ht a n g l e w i t h i t s v e r t e x
,

o n I a n d wi t h o n e s i d e p a ss i n g t h r o u g h p o i n t A .

c o n s t ruc t a c i r c l e t h r o u gh A c u tt i n g l i n e I .

u s e a n y o b l i qu e s e g m en t t h r o u gh A t o l i n e I as

a di am e t er .

Le t t h e
'
pupil co m pl tee th e di re c tion s a nd gi ve t h e p roof .
134 PLA NE GE OME T RY

CO N S TRU CT I O N O F TAN GEN T S

169 . P R O B L E M 11 . c on s tru c t a tan g ent
To to a c i r c le
f ro m a g i ve n p oi nt w i th out th e c i r c le .

Gi ven O O a n d p o i n t A w i t h o ut t h e c i rc le .

To con s tr u c t a t an g en t t o 6 0 fr o m p o i n t A .

A n a ly s i s a nd co n s tr u c ti o n

I . In or d er to cons r t an g en t t o 6 0 fr o m p o i n t A
t uc t a ,

c o n s t ru c t a ri ght a n g l e wh o s e v er t ex i s o n GO
a n d wh o s e s i d e s p a s s th r o ugh p o i n t s 0 a n d A .

j o i n OA an d c o n s t ru c t a c i rc l e o n OA a s d i am e t er ,

cu tt i n g 6 0 a t X a n d Y J o in A X a n d A Y . .

L e t t h e pup i l gi v e t h e p roo f .

Ex 1 . Le t P re p resen t a n y p o i nt wi th i n
.

(9 0 ( F i g . S uppos e P to m ov e a way
fr o m t h e t
lo n g t h e ray OX H o w
c e n er a .

m a ny t a ng e n t s c an b e d ra w n to 6 0 t h rough
p o i n t P w h e n P i s w i th i n t h e c ir c l e ? wh en
P i s o n t h e c i rc l e ? w h en P i s out s i d e t h e
c i rc l e ? H o w a re th ese t a ng e nt s c o n st ru c t e d
i n e a c h c as e ? L o c a t e v ar i ou s p os i t i o n s of P out si d e t h e c i r c l e
a n d s k e t c h i n t h e t a n g e n t s f ro m P a t e ac h po s i t i o n of P As P .

m oves a w a y fr o m t h e c i r c l e how do es t h e a n gl e b e tw een t h e

t a ng ent s c h an ge ? H o w do t h e p o i n ts of c o nt a c t m ove ? Wh at
a r e t h e l i m i t i n g p o s i t i o n s of th es e po i n t s ? H o w do es t h e l en gth
of t h e se g m en t between P a n d t h e po i nt of c ont a c t c h an ge ? Wh a t
are t h e l i m i t i n g l e n gt h s of th i s s eg m e n t ?

Ex 2 . C i rc u m sc ri b e a n i s os c el es t ri an gl e a bout a c i rc l e g i ven
.
,

t h e b a se o f t h e t ri an gl e Is t h e p rob l em a lw a y s p o ssib l e ?
‘

.
136 P L A N E G E O ME T RY

AR CS F O RM E D B Y PARA LL E L CH O RD A N D TAN G E N T
17 1 .THE O RE M 82 . If a c h or d an d a tan g ent ar e p ar

a ll e l , th e y c ut o ff e qu al ar s c .

Th e a na lys i s a nd the p roo f a re l eft to th e pupil .

E x er c i se . Th e c hor d of an arc i s p ara ll e l to the t a n g e n t d ra w n

to t h e m i d p oint -
of th e a rc .

AN G L E S F O RM E D B Y S E CA N TS AN D TA N G E N TS
17 2 T H E O R E M 83 An an g l e f o rm e d b y a s e c an t an d a
. .

tan g e nt i s m e a s ure d b y o n e h alf th e d iff er en c e o f th e i nte r -

c ep t e d ar s c .

T H E O R E M 84 An an g l e f orm e d b y two tan g e nts i s

.

m e as ur e d b y o ne h a lf th e difier en c e o f th e i nterc ep te d ar c s
-
.

Le t t h e pup i l re vi ew Ths . 78 a nd 79 .

Ex 1 . . In F i g . 24 3 , i f A X C i s find
u
t h e n mbe r of deg rees in A B .

Ex 2 . . In Fi g 243 i f A B i s.
, find t h e
n u m b er of d eg rees in A XC and A YC .

Ex 3 . . Two t a ngent s are p ef p end i c ular FIG 24 3

to e ac h other H o w m an y d eg rees i n t h e a rc s
.

form e d by t h e p o i nt s of t angen c y ?
Ex 4 . . I f l i ne B C ( Fi g 24 3 ) m ov es s o th a t i t
. re m a i ns p ara ll el
to i t s or i g i na l posi t i on , how w i ll A B b e m eas ured wh en B C p a ss e s
th rough p o in t A?

Ex 5 . . In Fi g 24 4 let A B a n d CD .

rep res e n t a n y two c ho r d s i n t ers ec t i n g

w i th i n O 0 H o w i s A l m e as u red ? .

H o w w i ll t h e m e a s u re of A 1 c h a ng e i f
CD re volve s ab out po i n t C i n e i th er FIG .

d i rec t i on ? V ari ous p osi t i ons of CD a re s hown b y ‘

li nes H o w would A 1 b e m ea s u re d i n e a c h c a se ?
.

xas e i n wh i c h CD b ec o m es p ara ll e l to A B .
 C I RC L E S AN D RE L A T E D A N G L E S 13 7

S U MMARY AN D S U PP L E MEN TARY E XE RCI S E S

173 . S UMMARY O F I MP O RTAN T P O IN TS IN CH AP TER V II
I T e s ts
. f or m eas ur em ent gles of an .

a . A c en tra l a n g l e i s me asur e d b y e t c , .

b . A n i n s c ri b e d a n g l e i s m e a su re d b y e t c , .

c . A n an g l e fo rm ed b y a t a n gen t a n d a c h o r d , et c .

d . An an g l e f o rm e d by two c h o r ds i n t ers ec t i n g
wi t h i n e t c , .

e A n a n g l e f o rm e d b y
. two sec a n s t i n t er sec t i n g
wi th o ut e t c ,
.

f.A n a n g l e f o rm e d b y a seca n t an d a t a n g en t

g . An an g l e fo rm e d b y tw o t a n g en t s , et c .

II . G e n eral test .

A n gl es a n d ar c s ar e bo th m easu r e d i n d e gree s . It is e vi

d e n t th eref o re th a t
, , in t h e s am e c i rc e l or in c o ng r ue n t
c i rc e sl :
An gles are e qu a l if t h ey a re m ea s u r e d b y e qu a l a rc s .

A rc s are e qu al
t h e y m e a su re eq u a l a n g l es
if .

Fo r s u m m a r y of t es t of e qu a l a r c s se e p 3 03 ,
. .

E XER CI S E S C O N CER N I N G TAN GE N T S TO CIRCLE S

174 1 Prove th a t a t a n ge nt c an b e d ra w n to a c i r c l e f ro m
. .

a g i v en po i n t w i thout t h e c i rc l e by t h e follow i n g m ethod ( Fi g .

Le t A b e t h e g i v e n po i n t Jo i n 0 A W i th . .

0 a s c en t e r a n d 0 A a s r ad i u s d ra w c i rc l e A B C .

Le t 0 A c u t t h e g i ven c i rc l e a t D A t D d ra w 5 .

B C t ange n t to t h e g i v e n c i rc l e a n d c utt i n g t h e
outer c i rc l e a t B a nd C Dra w O B a nd 0 C c ut .

t i ng t h e g i ven c i rc l e a t E and F A E and A F

F 10 24 5
.

a re t a n ge n t to t h e g i ve n Ci r c l e .

S ugges ti o n P rove A 1 = A 2 = I rt A by c om p a ri ng A OE A wi th
. .
,
i

A ODB .

NO TE . The c on stru c ti on g i ve n i n Ex 1 is
. s i m i l a r to E u c l i d s '
.
138 PLANE GE OMET RY

T2 . Fr om t h e follow i ng figures ( Fi g 24 6) g i ve t h e an a lys i s

.
,

d i rec t i ons ,
and p r oof f o r c o n st ru c t i ng t h e c o mm o n t a ngen t s

FIG . 24 6

to two g i ven l
c i r c es . N ot e t h e a ppl i c at i on of th i s to b elt s over
pull eys .

3 . A l i ne th at i s t an gen t to e a c h of two e qu al c i r c les i s p a rallel

to t h e s eg m en t jo i n i n g th e i r c en t er s o r i t b i se c t s th i s s e g m en t .

4 . Two c omm on i nt er i or t ang ent s to two l

c i rc es a re e qu a l .

5 . Is t h e sam e tru e of the e xt eri or t an gen ts ?

6 . H o w m an y
o m m on t an gent s c a n b e d ra wn to two c i rc l es
c

if th e y a re i n e a c h o f t h e p o ss i bl e po s i t i o n s s how n i n F i g 209 ? .

S how how to c o n st r u c t t h e t a n g en t s i n e a c h c a s e .

7 An. gl e b etw een two t an gent s to a c i rc l e i s doubl e th e

an

a n gl e b etw een t h e c ho r d jo i n i n g t h e p o i n t of c o n t ac t a n d t h e

r a d i u s d r a w n to o n e p o i n t of c o n t a c t .

8 . C i rc u m s cr i b e an i s o sc el es t r i a ngl e ab out a c irc le g i v e n , th e

a lt i tude of th e t r i a n gl e . IS t h e p r obl em a lw a y s p o ss i bl e ?

9 . C i rc u m sc ri b e bout a g i ven c i rc l e a
a ri ght t ri an gl e g i ven ,

o ne leg . Is t h e p r obl e m a lw a y s p o s s i bl e ?

MI S CELL AN E O US E XER CI S E S

17 5 .
,
p rep a re d to p rove t h e theorem s
N O TE . Be on w hi c h a ny

t h e f ollowi n g e x c is e s d e p e n d er .

1 Ma k e re v i ew d i a g ram s f o r T h s 8 2 a n d 83
. . .

2 . In Fi g 247 t h e s i d es of A X YZ are t an
.

g en t to t h e c i rc l e at t h e v e rt i c es of t h e i n scri b e d
t ri a ngle A B C I f A an d A 3 = 62
. fin d
°
,

t h e n u m b er of d eg re es i n eac h a ngle o f t h e figure F IG 24 7

'

. .
14 0 PLAN E G E O ME T RY

14 . onst r u c t e d o n two si d es of a t ri angl e a s d i a met ers

Ci r c l es c

w i ll i ntersec t o n t h e th i rd s i de .

15 A c i rc l e c o n st r u c t ed o n o n e leg of an i s o s cel es t ri angl e as a

.

d i amet er p asse s th rough t h e m id po i nt of t h e b ase -

.

16 . If
l a re c on st r u c t e d o n t h e si d es
s em i c i rc e s

of an e qu i l at era l t ri a n gl e a s d i a m et er s th ey w i ll ,

i n t ersec t a t t h e m i d po i n t s of t h e O ppo s i t e s i d es
-

( Fi g . FIG . 252
i
Ch u rc h w n d o w
det a l i
17 . wh i c h b i sec t s t h e an gl e fo rm ed by
Th e ra y a t an g e n t an d

a Cho r d b i s ec t s a l s o t h e i n t erce pt e d a r e .

18 . g tIf a t
d w to a c i r c l e a t t h e e xt rem i ty of a
an en is ra n '

Cho rd t h e m i d p o i n t of t h e i n t e rc e pt e d a re i s e qu a lly d i s t a nt fr o m
,
-

t h e c ho r d a n d t h e t an g e n t .

19 . If th e e xt rem i t i es of a ny two d i a m eters in a c i rc e l are

jo i ne d in ord er ,
t h e figu re fo r m e d i s a re c ta n gl e .

’
20 . I f i n Fi g
,
. 25 3 , O 0 and 0 a re t an
g ent at X a n d A B a n d CD p a s s th r ough t h e
po i nt of c o n t a c t p r ov e th at A C i s p ara llel
,

to B D .

FIG . 25 3

21 Pr ov e E X 20 i f t h e
. . Ci rc e s l a re t a n g e n t i n t e rn a lly .

’
22 . I f i n Fi g
,
. 25 4 , O O a nd 0 a re t an
gent a t X a n d A B p a ss es th rough po i nt X, p rov e
th at t a n ge nt s at A a n d B a re p a ra ll el .

FIG . 25 4

23 . Pr ov e E x 22 i f t h e
. c i rc le s a re t an gent i nt ern a lly .

’
In F i g
24 . . 25 5 , 0 an d O a re t an g en t
at X an d A B p a s s es th r ough X . Pr ov e t h a t
d i a m e t e rs f r o m A a n d B a re p a ra ll e l .

FIG . 25 5

25 . Pr ov e E x . 24 i f t h e c i rc es a re l t a n g ent i ntern ally .

 C I RC L E S A N D RE L A T E D AN G L E S 14 1

26 . In Fi g 256 , . 0 and X a re t a n gen t at C . A B is o ne

of the c o mm o n e xt e r i o r t a n g e n t s w i th A and B
th e po i nts of c o nt ac t . Pr ov e th a t A A CB
i s a ri ght a n gl e .

27 I f two e qu al c i rc l es i nt ersec t a n d a
.

se gm e n t i s d ra w n th r ough e i th er po i n t of i n ter
FIG 25 6
se c t i o n t e rm i n a t i n g i n t h e c i r c u m fe ren c es
.

th e ,

se gm e nt s j o i n i n g t h e e xt re m i t i es w i th t h e oth er p o i nt of i nt er
se c t i o n o f t h e c i r c l es a re e qu a l .

28 . In Fi g . 25 7, A C a nd BD a re t angen t to
0 0 a t oppos i t e e nd s of t h e d i a m et er A B CD .

i s an arb i t r ary t a n g en t i nt er se ct i n g A C a n d B D
A
a t C a n d D re sp ec t i v ely Pr ov e th a t A COD i s a .

ri ght an gl e .

u
S gges ti o n I f X i s t h e poi n t o f
. co n ta c t o f ta ng e n t
CD , d ra w 0 X , 0 C, a nd 0 D a n d p ro ve A 2 + A 3 FIG . 25 7
th e stra ight a ngl e . p ove A 1
r A2 a nd AS A4 .

29 G i v e n
. a c ir cle ( Fi g . 258) di vi d ed i n to ei ght equ a l p a rt s
an d th e po i nt s j o i ned as i n d i c a t ed ,
p rove

e AK = K B = B Y .

g AA AB= AC .

a AK = KP .

m
I O P QRS T U V i s a re gul a r
o ct a gon .

e
. WX Y Z i s a s qu are .

3 0 In Fi g
. . 25 8 fin d t h e n um

b er of de gr ee s in A A, A A KB ,
A H VB , A B VC .
FIG . 258

3 1 Co ns t ru c t
. figure s i m i l ar to Fi g 25 8 b y d i v i d i ng t h e
a .

c ir c l e i n to s i xt e en e qu a l p a rt s a n d j o i n i n g e v e r y s e v en th po i n t of

di v i s i o n o r by d i vi d in g t h e c i rc l e i nto twelve e qu a l p a rt s a n d
,

j o i n i ng e very fifth po i nt a nd find t h e n um b er of d eg rees i n t h e

,

a n gl es fo rm e d .

N O TE S ta rs si m il a r to t h e a bove though o f te n m o
. c o m pl i c a te d , re ,

a re co mm o n i n c u t g la ss d e sig n s -
.
 2 PLA NE G E O ME T RY

32Two c i r c l es i nt ersect at t h e p oi nt s A a n d B Th ro ugh A

. .

a v ari a bl e s e c a n t i s dr a w n c utt i n g t h e c i r c l e s i n C a n d D Pr ov e .

th a t t h e angle CB D i s c o n st a n t f o r a ll po s i t i o n s of t h e se c a nt .

C oll eg e E n t r a n ce E x am i n a t i o n B o ar d Pl a n e Geom et r y E x a m i n a ,

t i on 1908
,
.

33 In Fi g 25 9 t h e c i rc e l is
'

. .

d i v i d ed i n t o e i ght e qu a l p art s .

Fi n d t h e c e nt er of ADC s o th a t i t
s h a ll p a ss th r ough t h e th r e e po i nt s

A O and C
, ,
Pr ove th a t A O C i s a .

s em i c i r c l e .

34 In Fi g 25 9
. . p r ove th at L is
th e m id po i n t of -
and OL B .

Pr ov e th a t 0L and OM a re e qu al ;
l o A L , LB an d BM
‘

a s , .

F IG . 25 9

35 . Do you k n ow a ny p ra ct i c al u ses of r osett es s i m i ar l to

th e a bove ?

36 qu a d ri l at era l A B CD i s i nsc ri b e d i n a c i rc l e A t t h e
. A .

p o i n t s of d i v i s i o n t a n g e n t s a r e d r a w n fo r m i n g a c i r c u m s c r i b e d
qu a dr i l at era l A B = 5 5 5 2 14 02 . F i n d t h e nu m b e r
°
,
5

of d e grees i n ea c h a n gl e of t h e i n sc r i b ed qu ad ri l at era l i n ea c h ,

a n gl e of t h e c i r c u m s c ri b e d qu a d r i l a t er a l an d i n t h e a n gl es fo rm ed ,

b y t h e d i a go n a l s of e a c h qu a d ri l at era l .

3 7 Fi g 26 0 s how s a s i m p l e tu rn out u se d o n
. .

s t reet ra i l r o a d t ra c k s T h e ra i l s AB a n d CF a re .

a rc s of c i rc l es t a n g en t to r a i l s A B an d CD a t A

a n d C r es p ec t i v ely Ra i l A E c ro sses ra i l CD at H . .

Pr o ve th a t A 1 m a d e b y ra i l CD a n d th e t a n gen t ,

to A E a t H i s e qu a l to A 2 0 i s t h e c enter f o r .

A73 CF
.

a nd .

6
38 . hows two opposi te tu rnout s
Fi g . 26 1 s

from t h e end of a s t ra i ght t rac k Th e c urved .

ra i l s a r e t a n g en t to t h e s tra i ght o n es a t C a n d D

r es p ec t i v ely P rov e th a t t h e a n gl e b et w e en t h e
.

t an g en ts a t F i s e qu al to A X A Y if X a n d Y
are t h e c en t ers f o r t h e arcs . Pro . 26 1
14 4 PLAN E GE O ME T RY

is th en d e t erm i n e d b y a c ar e fu l d em o n s t r a t i o n t h e n ature ,

o f wh i c h w i ll b e d i sc u s s e d i n t h e n e xt s e c t i o n .

N O TE O n e o r m o re o f t h e f ollo w i ng e x
. e r c is e s m a y b e i n t r od u ce d

h ere if t h e tea c he r de si re s In m a n y c a s e s t h e loc us c a n n ot b e

.

fou nd u nl e ss a v ery l a rg e n um b e r o f poi n ts a re lo c a ted S om e of .

th e se e xe rc i s e s l ea d to oth er k i nds of l i n e s tha n t h e stra i g ht li ne a nd

t h e c i r c l e li n e s th a t a re studi e d i n m o re a dva n c d c ou r s e s i n g e o m e t ry
,
e .

In th e s e l a tte r e xe r c i s e s t h e lo c a ti ng o f t h e p o i n ts m us t b e by e xp e ri
m e n t a s t h e pup i l k n ows n o c o n st ru c t i o n by wh i c h h e c a n fin d th em
,
.

S u c h e xe rc is e s a re v a lu a bl e i n th a t th e y f o c e ho m e to t h e pup i l t h e
r

p o ssibil i ty a n d t h e o c c a sion a l n e c e ss i ty of fi ndi ng l o c i by exp eri m en t

a n d i n th a t t h e se t h i m t o th i n ki n g o n a sub j e c t e n ti re ly n e w t o h i m
y .

N o p ro o f s sho u ld b e e qu i re d r .

EXE R CI S E S IN FI N D I N G L O CI
Fi n d t h e f o ll o wi n g l o c i b y e x p eri m en t .

1 T h e ray (1 st a rt s fr o m p o i n t P o n G) X a s
.

o ri gi n Fi n d t h e lo c u s of t h e m i d po i nt s of t h e
.
-

c ho rd s c ut f r o m th i s ra y by t h e c i rc l e a s t h e r a
y
m oves a bout p o i n t P ( F i g .
F IG . 26 2

2 Fi nd t h e lo c u s c all e d f o r i n E x 1 if t h e o ri g i n of
. . a is w i thout
DX
C .

3 . l a dder st a n ds u p ri ght a ga in st a w a ll Fi n d t h e lo c u s of a
A .

p n t o n t h e m i ddl e r ou n d if t h e foot of t h e l a dd er i s pull e d out

o i
u nt i l t h e l a dder i s flat o n t h e grou nd .

4 O X a n d O Y a re two l i ne s a t r i ght a n gl e s to e ac h oth er

. .

Fin d t h e lo c u s of a po i nt wh i c h i s twi ce a s f a r f r o m O X a s fr o m O Y .

5 In Fi g 26 3 A B CD i s a p ara ll e log ram

. .
,

an d 1 a n y l i n e I m a g i n e l i n e I to m ove s o a s
.

a lw a y s to r em a i n p a ra ll e l to i t s o r i g i n a l pos i t i o n .

Fi n d t h e lo c u s of t h e m i d po i n t s of t h e s e g m en t s
-

c ut f ro m l by t h e s i d e s of t h e ll log m F I G 26 3
p ara e r a .
.

6 Fi n d t h e lo c u s of a p o i n t
.
t h e w ay up t h e l a dd er m en t i o ne d
in Ex . 3 .

7 Fi n d t h e
. lo c u s of c ent ers of c i rc l es t an gent to eac h of two
g i ven c i rc l es when ( 1) t h e o ne c i rc l e i s w i th i n t h e oth er ( 2) t h e ,

c i rc l e s i n t ers e c t ( 3 ) o ne c i rc l e i s w i thout t h e oth er ( 4 ) t h e

, ,

c i r c l es a re t a n g e nt i n t ern a lly
( 5 ) t h e c i rc l es a re t a ng e n t e xte rn a lly
, .
 L OCI 14 5

8 . Fi n d t h e
lo c us o f c e nters of c i rc le s wh ic h p a s s th rough a
gi ve n po i nt a n d ar e t a n ge n t to a g i ve n l i ne wh e n ( 1) t h e po i n t is
o n t h e g i ve n l i n e ( 2) t h e po i n t i s no t o n t h e g i v e n l i ne
, .

9 Fi n d t h e lo c u s of ce n t ers of c i rc les wh i c h a re t a n ge n t to
.

a g i v en c i rc l e a n d to a g i ve n l i ne wh e n ( 1) t h e l i n e i n t e rs e c t s t h e

c i rc l e ,( 2) t h e l i n e i s t an g e n t to t h e c i rc l e ( 3 ) t h e l i ne i s wholly
,

w i thout t h e c i rc l e .

W h a t i s t h e lo c u s of
10 A p o i n t o n t h e kn ob of a s w i n g i n g doo r ?
.

11 A po i nt o n t h e s i d e of a s p i n nin g top ?
.

12 T h e hub of a wh eel of a m ov i n g b i c y c l e ?
.

13 A po i nt o n t h e t i re of a m ov i n g wh eel ?
.

14 A po i nt o n t h e r im of a pl at e m ov i n g a bout a n oth er pl at e ?
.

NO T E N o d.r a wi n gs a re r e qui re d f o r E x s 10— 12 . .

C O M P E E P RO O
L T FS F O R L0 0 1
‘

17 8 . A ft er t h e lo cus
b e en f o u n d b y s o m e m e t h o d i t
h as ,

i s n e c es s a r y t o gi v e a c o m p l e t e f o rm a l p r o o f t h a t t h e l i n e ,

o r s e t o f l i n es f o un d r ea ll y c o n s t i tu t es t h e l o c us I t i s
, .

n e c e s s ar y t o s h o w th er e f o r e t h a t e v er y p o i n t o n t h e l i n e
, ,

o r s e t o f li n e s i s a p o s s i b l e p o s i t i o n o f t h e v a ri a b l e p o i n t

a n d th a t e v er y p o s si b l e p o s i t i o n o f t h e v ar i a b l e p o i n t i s

o n t h i s l i n e o r s e t o f li n e s If t h ese t w o f a c t s c an b e p ro v ed
.
,

i t i s e v i d e n t t h a t t h e l i n e o r se t o f li n e s c o n s ti t ut es t h e wh o l e
l o c u s an d n o th i n g bu t t h e l o cu s .

T o p u t i t m o re f o rm a ll y :
In or d er th at a li n e or s e t of li n e s i s th e lo c us
t o p ro v e
of a p o i n t wh i c h m o v es so as t o f u l fi ll c e r t a i n r e qu i r e m e n ts ,

p ro v e

I . Every p oi nt i n th e l i n e or s et of lin e s f u lfi ll s
r e qu i re m e nt s , a n d

11 Eve ry p o i n t wh i c h f u l fi ll s th e
. re qui r em ents i s on

li n e o r s e t of l i n e s .

N O TE . It i s i m m a te ri a l i n whi ch order I a nd II a re pro ved .

 46 PLA N E GE O ME T RY

L O CI O F P O IN T S
TH E B I S E C O R O F AN T AN G L E

17 9 TH E O RE M
. 85 . Th e b i s e c to r o f a n an gle i s th e lo c u s
o f p o i nt s e qua ll y d i s tan t fro m th e si des of th e an gle .

FIG .

H y p o th es i s : A X b i s e c t s A CA B .

Co nc lus i on : A X i s t h e l o cus of p o i nt s e qu a lly di st a n t

fr o m AB and A C; th a t is ,

1 E v ery p o i n t i n A X i s
. e qu a ll y di st an t fr o m A B an d AC .

II . E v ery p o i n t th a t i s e qu a ll y di st an t fr o m A B an d AC
li es i n A X .

Th e a na lysi s a nd th e p roof f or I a re l ef t to th e pupil .

A n a ly s i s a nd c o n s tr uc ti o n f or II

1 . Le t Q be a p o i n t e qu all y d i s t a nt f rom A B and AC .

2 T o p ro v e
. th a t Q l i es In AX, j oin Q an d A an d p r o ve
th a t QA an d AX c oi n ci de .

3 . T o p r ov e th a t QA an d AX c o inci de , s h o w th a t b o th
b i s ec t A A .

Le t t h e pup i l c om pl ete th e a nal ysis a nd g ive th e p roof .

you d et erm i n e a p o i n t e qu a lly d i st a nt from t h e

'

Ex l . . Can
si des of an a n gl e w i thout c o n st r u c ti n g t h e b i s e c to r of t h e a n gl e ?

Ex 2 . . W h at is t h e lo c u s of a p o i n t e qu a lly d i s t an t fr o m t wo
int erse c t in g l i n es ?
14 8 P LA N E GE O ME T RY

Pr o v e t h e f o ll o wi n g by Th . 86 an d Co r .

Ex 1 . . d i a gon al s o f a rhom b u s o r of a s qu are b i sect

Th e
ea c h oth er a t r i ght a n gl es .

Ex 2 . O n e d i ago n a l of a k i t e b i s ec t s t h e oth er a t r i ght a n gl es

. .

Ex 3 . I f t w o c i r c l es i n t ersec t t h e l i ne of c en ters i s a p e rp en
.
,

di c ula r b i sec to r of t h e c o mm o n c ho rd .

Ex 4 . I f two e qu a l c i rc l es i n t erse c t t h e s eg m en t jo i n i n g t h e
.
,

c ent e r s a n d t h e c o mm o n c ho r d b i s e c t e a c h oth e r a t r i ght a n gl e s .

Ex 5 . T h e p erp en d i c ul a r b i s ec to r of a c ho rd p a s s es th r ough
.

t h e c e n t er of t h e c i rc l e .

Ex 6 . A ra d i u s to t h e m i d po i n t of a n arc i s t h e p erp en
.
-

di c ula r b i sec to r of t h e c hor d of t h e a rc .

Ex 7 . Two t a nge nt s to a c i rc l e wh ere t h e c e n t er i s O i nt er

.

sec t a t p o i n t X Pr ov e th a t O X i s t h e p er p en d i c ul a r b i s ec to r of
.

t h e c ho r d j o i n i n g t h e po i n t s of c o n t ac t of t h e two t a n gent s .

O TH ER .
S I MP L E L O CI
18 2 . l o c i c a ll e d f o r i n t h e f o llo w m g
Fi n d t h e e x er c i s es ;
gi v e c o m p l et e p r o o f f o r e ac h a s f o r T h s 8 5 a n d 8 6 . .

Fi n d t h e lo c u s of a p o i nt wh i c h is

Ex 1 . . At ag i v en d i stan ce fro m a g i ve n p o i n t .

Ex 2 . . A t a g i ven d i st a n c e f ro m a g i v en s t ra i ght l in e .

Ex 3 . . E qu a lly d i st ant fro m two g i v en p ara ll el s .

CO N CURREN T L INE S
183 . Th e t w o f o ll o wi n g e x er c i s e s ar e p r e l i m i n a r y an d m ay
be qu o t e d t h e o r em s i n p r o v i n g T h s 8 7 a n d 89
as . .

Ex 1 . Li n es th a t a re p erp en d i c ul ar to i n t ersec t i ng st rai ght

.

l i nes wi ll i nt ersect .

S ugges ti o n U s e a n i n di re c t p roof
. A D a n d D B a re .

t h e g i ve n i n t e r s e c ti n g li n e s J oi n A a n d B
. S h w t hat . o

i f A C a n d B C we re p a ra ll el A 1 + A 2 would e qu a l two
,

r i ght a n gl e s ( Fi g .

Ex 2 . Th e b i s ec tors o f an y two a n gl es of a
.
F IG 26 6

t ri an gle wi ll i nt ersec t .
 L OCI 14 9

184 T H E O R E M 87 Th e p e rp e n d i c u l ar b i s e c to r s o f th e
. .

s i d e s o f a tr i an g l e are c o n c u rre n t a t a p o i nt wh i c h i s e qually

d i s tan t f ro m th e ve rti c e s .

FIG . 26 7

H y p o th es i s : A A B C i s an y ,
t ri a n g l e . Li nes x, y, and z

ar e t h e p e rp e n d i c u l a r bi se c t o r s of AB ,
BC ,
an d AC r es p ec

t i v e ly .

Co nc lus i on : x y a n d z , ,
ar e c o n c urr en t at a p o i n t e qu a l ly
di s t an t fr o m t h e v e r t i c e s .

A n a ly si s :
I . T o p ro ve x, y, and z c o nc urr en t , p r o ve
Th a t x a n d y i n t er sec t a t s o m e p o i n t a s O
a .
,
.

b Th a t t h e i n t er s e c t i o n o f x an d y i s o n 2
. .

II T o p r o ve th a t t h e i nt er se c t i o n o f x an d y i s o n 3
.
,

p ro v e th a t O i s e qu a ll y di s t a n t f r om A and C .

p ro v e 0 e qu a ll y d i s t a n t fro m A an d B al so from ,

B an d C .

S T A T E ME NT S
I . x and y i n t er s ec t a t s om e p o i n t , as a t 0 .

II . a . x is l o cu s o f p o i n s e t qu all y d i s t an t fr o m A a nd B .

b .qu a ll y d i s t a n t fro m A a n d B
O is e .

III a y i s l o cu s o f p o i n t s e qu a ll y di s t an t fr om
. . B an d C .

b O i s e qu a ll y di s t an t fr o m B a n d C
. .

IV . O is qu a ll y d i s t an t fro m A a n d C
e .

V . a . z i s l o c u s o f p o i n t s e qu a lly d i s t an t fr o m A an d C .

b . O is on 2 .

Le t t h e pupi l gi ve th e rea sons .

11
150 PLANE G EOMETRY

THE O RE M 88 . Th e a l ti tu d e s of a tri an g l e a re c o nc urre nt .

FIG . 26 8

H y p o th es i s : A A B C i s an y t ri an g l e . x, y, a n d z are th e
a lt i t ud es to si des AB , BC ,
an d CA r esp ec ti ve ly .

Con c lusi on : x y , , a n d z ar e c o n curr en t .

A n a ly si s : T o p ro v e x y a n d 3 c o n c urren t c o n s t ru c t , , ,

th ro ugh A B a n d C l i n e s p ar a ll e l t o t h e o p p o si t e s i de s o f
, ,

A AB C an d p r o v e th a t x, y , an d z are t h e p erp e n d i c u l ar
b i sec t o r s of th e si des o f th e t ri a n g l e so f o rm e d .

Le t t h e pup i l put i n th e c on stru c tion , c om pl ete th e a na lysis , a nd

gi ve the p roof .

18 5 T H E O RE M 89
. . Th e b i s e c to r s o f th e an g l e s o f a tri
an g l e are c o n c urr e n t at a p o i nt e qu all y d i s ta n t f r o m th e
s i d e s o f th e tr i an g l e .

F IG . 269

H y p o thesi s : A A B C i s a ny t ri a n g l e . x, y , an d z b i s ec t
AA, B, and C r es p e c ti v e l y .

Conc lu s i on : x y an d , ,
z ar e c o n c urre n t at a p oin t e qu a ll y
di st an t fr o m t h e si d es .
15 2 PLA N E GE O ME T RY

DETERMI N ATI O N O F P O I N TS BY T H E
IN TERS ECTI O N O F L O CI
187 . G i ve a n a l y si s di re c t i o n s
, , p oo
r f , an d d i s c u s si o n f or
th e f o ll o wi n g e xe rc i s e s .

Ex 1 . . Fi n d i n a g i ve n l i ne a po i nt th at is e qu ally d i st ant
fro m two g i ven po i nt s .

A n a ly s i s :
I Le t 1 re p re s e n t t h e giv e n li n e a n d A a n d B t h e g i ve n poi nts
. .

I I To fin d a p o i nt i n li n e I equ a lly d i sta n t f rom A a n d B fin d t h e

.
,

i n te rs ec tion o f li n 1 with t h e loc us o f poi nts e qu a lly d i sta n t

e

f rom A a n d B .

Le t t h e pup i l gi v e t h e d i re c ti on s a n d t h e p roof .

D i s c u ssi o n
H o w m a ny poi n ts c a n b e fou nd a s requi red ?
A re th e re a n y sp e c i a l pos i tio n s o f t h e g i v e n l i n e o r t h e g i v e n p o i n t s
tha t wi ll a lte r t h e re sults ? G ive a ll rea son s .

Fi n d i n a g i v en l i n e a po i n t th at i s
Ex 2 . A t a g i ve n d i st a n c e f r o m a g i ven po i nt
. .

Ex 3 . E qu ally d i st a n t f ro m two g i v en p ara ll el l i nes

. .

Ex 4 . A t a g i v en d i s t a n c e f ro m a s e c o n d g i v e n l i n e
. .

Ex 5 E qu a lly d ist a n t fr o m two g i ven i n t ers ect i n g l i n es

. . .

In t h e p r ec e di n g fiv e p r o b l e m s t h e r e qui re d p o i n t m u s t
n o t o n ly b e i n a g i v e n l i n e but m u s t a l s o fu l fi ll a s e c o n d ,

re qu i rem en t wh i c h c a ll s f o r t h e c o n s t ru c t i o n o f a l o c u s In .

t h e p r o b l em s t h a t f o ll o w t h e c o n s t ru c ti o n o f t w o l o c i ar e
,

n e c ess a r y i n o r d er t o d e t er m i n e t h e p o i n t T h e an al y si s .

s h o u l d s t a t e c l e a r l y wh a t l o c i ar e n ee d e d W e h a ve seen .

th at t h e i n t ers ec t i o n o f t w o s tr a i ght l i n es l o c a t es a p o i n t
'

a n d th a t t h e i n t er sec t i o n o f a s t r a i gh t l i n e a n d a c i rc l e

l o c a t es t w o p o i n t s A s s o m e l o c i c o n si s t o f t w o s t rai gh t
.

li n es i t i s o ft en p o ssi b l e t o fin d m o r e t h an o n e p o i n t t h a t
,

fu l fi ll s t h e r e qu i rem en t s Th e p u p i l sh o u l d b e gi n b y d raw
.

i n g a figu r e t o i ll u s t r a t e t h e m a x i m um n u m b e r o f p o i n t s
p o s s i b l e a n d a f t er , g i v i n g t h e a n a l y s i s w i t h t h e d i re c t i o n s

f o r t h e c o n s tr u c t i o n a n d t h e p r o o f h e s h o u l d di sc u ss a n d
dr a w figu res f o r a ll s p ec i a l c a ses .
 L OCI 15 3

Ex 6 . . Fi n d a po i nt wh i c h is at a gi ven di st a nc e fro m a
g i ven po i nt C a n d at the sa m e t in i e e qu a lly di st a n t fr o m
two g i ven p o int s A an d B .

A n a ly s i s

I To
. poi nts tha t a re a t a gi ve n di sta nce f rom poi nt C
find a ll ,

c o n st ru c t t h e lo c us o f

II To fin d a ll poi nts e qually dista n t f rom A an d B c o n stru c t t h e

.
,

loc us of
III . c o n st ru c t

Le t t h e pupil give d e fi n ite di re c tio n s f o r t h e c on stru c tio n also t h e ,

proof a n d t h e dis c uss i on .

Ex 7 . . P o i n t s m ay b e fou n d wh i c h w i ll ful fill an y two of the

follow i ng re qu i re m en t s :

0 . g i ven d i st an ce ( 1%i n ) from a g i ven po i nt

Be at a .
'

6 B e a t a g i ve n d i st a n c e ( 1%i n ) f r o m a g i v en l i ne
. . .

c B e e qu ally d i s t an t f r o m two g i ve n p o i n t s
. .

d B e e qu a lly d i st an t f ro m two g i v e n p a ra ll e l l i n es
. .

e B e e qu a lly d i st an t fr o m two g i ven i n t ers e c t i n g l i nes

. .

St at e a n d s olv e p robl em s m a d e by c o m b i n i n g i nto p a i r s th e

re qu ir em en t s g i v e n a bov e .

L O CI O F CEN TERS O F CIRCL E S

D ETERM IN ATI O N O F TH E L O CI
188 . In t h e d e t erm i n a t i o n of the lo ci t
o f c e n er s o f c i r c es , l
w e m ay t h i n k o f a c i r c l e a s c h an g i n g . Fi g . 27 1 s h o ws a

n u m b er o f c i r c l es o f t h e s am e r a d i u s t an

gen t t o l i n e I A gr e a t m an y m o re s u c h
.

ci r cl es m i ght b e dr a wn W e m i ght .
,

h o wever, c o n s i der th ese a s v ari o u s p o si F IG . 27 1

t i o n s o f o n e c i rc l e wh i c h r o ll s o r s l i d es
alo n g t h e li n e In t h e s am e w a y i n F i g
. .

272 a n um b er o f c i r c l e s a r e s h o w n t a n g en t
t o A B a n d A C ; b u t w e m i gh t c o n s i d er
t h em a s v a ri o u s p o si t i o n s o f o n e ci r c l e I

whi c h e x p a n d s a n d c o n t r a c t s as i t ro ll s Fm . 272

or s li d e s b e t w een A B an d A C .
15 4 P L A N E G E O ME T RY

Fi n d t h e l o cu s c a ll ed f o r i n each of the fo ll o wi n g e x er ci ses

an d gi ve c o m p l e t e p ro o f f o r eac h .

Ex 1 . . F i nd t h e
lo c u s of t h e c en t ers of c i rc les wh i c h a re
.

t an gen t to t h e si des of an a ngl e .

1 To fin d t h e lo c us sk et c h i n a n u m b er o f c i rc l e s ta n g en t to t h e
.
,

s i des of t h e g i ven a ngl e A A Le t A X b e t h e loc us . .

I I To p rov e th a t A X i s t h e re qui re d lo c us p ove th a t

.
,
r

a E ve ry poi n t i n A X m a y b e t h e c e n te r o f a c i rc l e ta ng en t
.

to t h e s i de s o f t h e a ng l e A B a n d A C a nd , ,

b Th e c e n t e r o f e v e ry c i rc l e ta ng e n t to A B a n d A C l i e s i n A X
. .

I I I Di scus si o n A X m a y b e c o n si de re d a s t h e p a th o f a c i c l e tha t
. . r

e xp a n ds a n d c o n t ra c ts a s it rolls o r slid e s b e tw ee n t h e r a ys

AB a nd AC
‘

Fi n d t h e lo c u s of t h e c ent er of a c i rc l e wh i c h
Ex 2 . . Is t a n g en t to e a c h of two i n t er s ect i n g l i n es .

Ex 3 . . Pa sses th r ough two g i v en po i nt s .

Ex 4 . . Is t a n g en t to a g i v en l i n e a t a g i ven p o i nt .

Ex 5 . . Is t a n g e nt to a g i v en l i n e an d h a s a g i ve n ra d i u s .

Ex 6 . . Is t a n gen t to a g i ve n c i r c l e a t a g i v en po i nt .

Ex 7 . . Is t a n g en t to a g i ve n c i r c l e a n d h a s a g i v e n ra d i u s .

Ex 8 . . Pas s es th r ough a g i ven p o i n t a n d h as a g i v en ra d i u s .

CO N S TRU CT I O N O F C IR CL E S

18 9 . Mak e th e c ons r t u cti ons ca ll e d f or i n th e f o ll o wi n g

e xer c i se s . Th e c en e r t l is of th e re qui r e d c i rc e t h e i n t er
s ec t i o n o f t w o l o c i Th e d i s c u ssi o n i s o ft en i n t e res t i n g
. .

Ex 1 C on st r u c t a c i r c l e th at s h a ll b e t a n g ent t o a g i ven
. .

l in e at a g i ven p o i nt a n d p a ss th rough a s ec on d g i ven po i nt .

Ex 2 Co n st r u c t a c i r c l e t a n gen t to t h e si d es of an angl e an d
. .

t o o ne of th ese s i d e s a t a g i ve n po i n t .

Ex 3 Co n st ru c t a c i rc l e th a t s h a ll b e t an gent t o a g i v en
. .

c i rc l e a t a g i v en p o i nt a n d p a s s th r ough a se c o n d g i v en p o i nt .

C o nst ru c t l of g i ven ra d i u s th a t sh all

a c i rc e

Ex . 4 B e t ang en t to eac h of two g i ven i n t ers ec t i n g l in es

. .

Ex . 5 Pa ss th rough a g i v en p o i n t and b e t an g en t to a g i ven

.

l in e o r . to a g i ven c i rcl e .
15 6 P L A N E G E O ME T RY

EXER CI S E S I N V O LV I N G CO N S TRU CTI O N O F CIRCL E S

19 1N o t i c e ( 1) th a t a c i r c l e c a n b e c i r c um s c r i b e d a b o u t
.

a o
p yl g o n i f th ere i s a p o i n t e qu a ll y d i s t a n t f r o m t h e v er

t i c es th a t i s i f t h e p er p en d i c u l ar b i sec t o r s o f t h e s i d es a r e
, ,

c o n c u rr e n t a n d ( 2) t h a t a Ci rc l e c a n b e i n s c r i b e d i n a p o l y
,

go n if th ere i s a p o i n t e qu a ll y d i s t a n t f ro m t h e si d e s th a t
,

is ,
i f t h e b i se c t o r s o f t h e a n g l e s a r e c o n c ur r en t .

1 Co n st ru c t
. a c i rc el of g i ven ra d i u s th at shall p as s th rough
two g i v en p o i nt s .

2 G i v e n t h e b a s e of a n i s o s c el e s t ri an gl e a n d t h e ra d i u s of
.

t h e c i rc u m scri b e d c i r c l e to c o n s t r u c t t h e t r i a n gl e
, .

3 Can a c i rc l e b e p a sse d th rough fou r a rbi t ra r y po i nt s ?

.

Why ?
4 Wh en w i ll t h e p er p en d i c ul a r b i se cto r s of t h e s i d es of a
.

t ri angl e m eet o n o n e of t h e s i de s of t h e t ri a n gl e ? Wh en w i ll th ey
m eet wi th i n t h e t ri an gl e ? W h en w i ll th e y m ee t wi thout t h e
.

t ri a ngl e ? Wh y ?
5 Ca n a c i rc l e b e c i r c u m sc r i b e d ab out a p ara ll elog ra m ?
.

a r e c t a n gl e ?
.
In c a se t h e c i r c u m s c r i b e d c i rc l e i s pos s i bl e g i v e ,

a n a ly s i s d i rec t i o n s a n d p roof In c a se t h e c i r c um sc ri b e d c i rc le
'

.
, ,

i s n o t p o ss i bl e s how why ,
.

6 A n s w e r t h e qu es t i o ns i n E x 5 f o r a n i s o sc e l es t ra p e zo i d
. .

a nd f or a t r a p e zo i d .

7 H o w m a n y c i rc l es c a n b e c o nst r u c t e d t a n gen t to e a c h of
.

th ree i nt ersec t i n g l i nes ? Di s c u ss all p oss i ble ca s es .

8 C a n a Ci rc l e b e c o nst r u c t e d t a n gen t to e a c h of th ree a rb i

.

t rary l in e s ? D i s c u ss a ll po ss i bl e c a ses .

9 I nsc rib e a c i rc l e i n a g i ven r ho m bu s

. .

10 I ns c ri b e a c i r c l e i n a g i v en k i t e
. .

11 Ci rc u m s cri b e ab out a g i v en c i r c l e a n i s o s ce l es
.

r i ght t ri a n gl e .

12 C o nst r u c t i n
. full F i g 275
. .

F I G 2 75.

13 . Pr ov e th a t t h e c ent er of t h e c i r c l e c i r c u m s c ri be d ab out a n

e qu i lateral tri a n gle i s a l s o t h e c ent er of t h e i ns c ri b e d c i rc le .

 L OC I 15 7

14 Co ns t r u c t t h e i ns cri be d , t h e c i r c um scri b ed , a n d t h e th re e
.

es cri b ed c i r c l es of an e qu i l a t eral t r i a n gle Pr ov e th a t t h e ra d i u s .

of t h e i n sc ri be d c ir c l e i s d i u s of
th e ra th e c ir c u m s c ri be d c ir c el
and the r a d i u s of t h e e s c r i be d c ir c l es .

15 . Ma ke the c o m plete dr aw i n g f or th e
m old in g hown i n Fi g 276 Th e arc A O i s
s . .

t ange n t to l i ne A X at A Th e arc B O i s .

t an gent to l i ne B Y a t B B oth a rc s p as s .

thr ough 0 t h e m i d po i nt of s eg m ent A B

,
-
F IG 27 6 . .

A re t h e arc s A O a nd B 0 t a n ge nt to e a c h oth er ?

N O TE Co m pou nd c u ve s m a y b e m a d e f ro m
. " r
x
ta nge nt c i c l s a s shown i n Fi g 27 7 Th e s e m a y
5
r e . .

b e us e d f o r m oldi n gs a s shown i n Fi g 276 o r f o r .

,

other a rc h i te c tu ra l de ta i ls F I G :277
.

16 S how by a c o m p l et e d ra w i n g how to c o n st ru c t Fi g
. . 278
Two di a gon a l s treet s m eet a t A Th e c orn e r bu i ld in g .

h a s a fr o n t th a t i s a n a r c of a c i r c l e of a g i v e n ra d i us
t a n gent to e a c h of t h e s t reet s I f A A i s 60 a nd t h e .
°

ra d i u s of t h e c i r c l e 50 f t wh a t w ill b e t h e len gth of .

,

A B an d B C i f B a n d C a re t h e po i n t s of t an ge n c y ? F IG . 278

A c to r o f a c i r c l e
se is a figur e b o un de d b y two ra dii an d

th e s ub t e n d e d ar e .

17 . C o n st r u c t a c i r c le in s cri b ed in a se c to r of a g i ven c i rc e l .

18 . hows a dec orate d raft er desi gn

Fi g . 279 s .

A A CB i s a r i ght a n gl e A D B i s t an gen t to t h e s i d es .

of A C Co nst ru c t t h e s m a ll c i rc l e t a n gent to t h e
.

s i d es o f A C a n d to A D B .

F IG . 27 9
19 . F i g 280 s how s
d ec o rat ed t i le des i gn A B CD
. a .

i s a s qu a re w i th i t s d i a go n a ls C o n st r u c t 0 and .

O i n s c r i b e d i n t h e A A D C a n d A B C res p e c t i ve ly
'
.

Co n st r u c t t h e q u a d ra nt s w i th A a n d C as c e n t e r s
’
tan gen t to 0 an d O .

F IG . 28 0
N O TE possibiliti e s of this figu re a s a de sign u ni t m ay b e s ee n
. The
by d a wi ng se ve a l figu e s of t h e s a m e siz e like F i g 280 a nd pla ci ng
r r r , .
,

them tog e th er i n va rious pos i ti o n s .

15 8 P LA N E G E O ME T RY

20 Fi g 28 1 s how s a w i n dow an d r a f ter

. . d esi gn . ABC
is a n i s o s c el es ri ght t r i a n gl e Co nst ru c t G) O .

i n s cri be d i n A A B C an d 6) X an d Y t an gen t to
t h e s i de s of t h e t ri an gl e a n d to G) 0 .

F IG . 28 1

21 . t refo i l In a g i ven Ci rc le (Fi g

I n s cri b e a

N O TE T h e th re e s m a ll Ci rc l e s a re ta n g e n t to
. th e
la rge c i rc le a n d to ea ch other .
“

F IG . 28 2

22 S how . how to c on stru c t c i rc l es wh i c h

a re t angen t to e ac h of two c oncent ri c c ir c les .

23 . An y p o i nt i n t h e p erp en d i c ul a r b i s eo
t or of t h e seg m e n t j o i n i n g t h e c en t ers of two
e qu a l c i r c l es m a y b e u s e d a s t h e c en t er of a _

c ir c l e t a n g e n t to eac h o f t h e two g i v en c i r c l es .

F m 28 2
Use v ari ou s p os i t i on s of t h e two g i v en Cir c l es .
' 0

N O TE . p e rp endi c ul a r b i se ctor m en ti oned

Th e
i n E x 23 i s a p a rt o f t h e lo c us o f t h e c e n te r o f
.

a c i r c l e ta n g e n t to ea c h o f two e qu al c i rc l e s Th e .

re m ai n d e r o f t h e lo c us i s be yo n d t h e p rovi n c e
of el em e nta ry geom etry but m ay b e rea d ily
fou nd by exp e ri ment
,

FIG . 28 3

24 . In Fi g 283 , . HF and B Care c o n c en

tri c wi th p oi nt A as c en t er DE and A C a re .

c o n c en t ri c w i th p o in t B as c ent er DP a n d .

DE a re t a ngen t a t D A D = DB AF a n d
. .

B E a re dr a w n w i th D as c e n t er and AB
as r a d i u s Co n s t ru c t G) O t an gen t t o A C
.

BC FD a nd DE .
F IG . 28 3 a
, ,

25In F i g 284 , A A B C Is e qu i l a te ra l
. .
AB, .

B C, an d A C a re dr a w n w i th A B as r a di u s a n d
C, A , a n d B as c en t ers res p ec t i vely C o n s t r uc t .

G) O tan gent to AB ,
B C, a nd AC
.

NO TE . F i g 284 i s
. f rom a chu rc h wi n dow d es i gn .
FIG 284 ,
160 PLA N E G E O ME T RY

14 . Fi n d t h e
lo c u s of t h e ext rem i t i es of t ang ent s t o a c irc le
th at h a ve t h e s a m e l en gth .

15 Fi n d t h e lo c u s of po i n t s fr om wh i c h t an gen t s t o a g i ven
.

c i rc l e m eet a t a g i ve n a n gl e .

16 Fi n d t h e lo c u s of po i n ts of c o n t a c t of
.

t an gen ts d ra wn f rom a fix ed po i n t to a syst em

of c o n c ent ri c c i rc les .

17 C o n st ru c t a ser i e s of c i rc l es t a n gen t to
.

ea c h oth er at t h e s am e po i n t ( F i g .

F i n d t h e lo c u s of po i n t s of c o n t a c t of t a n gen t s
dra wn to th ese c i rc l es fro m an y po i nt i n t h e
c o mm o n t a n g en t .
P o 28 5 r .

18 . l Tw o t a n g ent to a g i ven str a i ght l i ne at two gi ven

c i r c e s a re

poi nt s a n d a re a l so t a n g en t to ea c h oth er F i n d .

t h e lo c us of po i n t s of t a n g en c y of t h e two c i r c l es .

S ugges ti o n Le t A a n d B b e t h e t w o g i v e n
.

poi nts C t h e poi n t o f t a nge n c y of t h e t w o c i rc l e s

, .

P rov e th a t CO is a lwa ys e q u a l to A B (Fi g

F IG 28 6 .

19 In F i g 28 7 A A CB i s a r i ght t r i a n gl e
. .
, w i th
th e r i ght a n gl e a t C B CDE i s t h e s qu a re . co n ~

t u c t ed
s r de B C Fi n d t h e lo c u s of t h e v ert e x
o n si .

D as C m oves a bout t h e se m i c i rc l e E CA U se E x 4 F I G 287

. . . .

20 U po n a l i n e s e g m en t A B a n a rc o f a Ci rc l e c o n t ai n i n g
'

24 0 i s c o n st ru c t e d a n d i n t h e a r e a n y c ho r d CD h a v i n g a n ar c
°

of 6 0 i s d ra w n Fi n d t h e lo c u s ( a ) of t h e po i nt of i ntersec
°
.

t i o n of A C a nd B D ( b ) of t h e p o i n t of i nt erse ct i o n of A D a nd B C
,
.

— Colleg e E n tran c e E x a m i n a t i o n B o a r d P l a n e G e o m etry E x ami

,

nat i o n 1906 , .

21 Le t A a nd B b e two fixe d p o i n t s o n a g i ve n c i rc l e a n d P
.

an d Q t h e e xt re m i t i e s of a v a r i a bl e d i a m et er of t h e s a m e c i r c l e .

Fi n d t h e l oc u s of t h e p o i n t of i nt ers ec t i o n of t h e s t r a i ght l i nes A P

and B Q
— Coll e ge E n t ran c e E x am i n at i o n B o ard Pl a n e G eo m et ry
.
,

E x am in a t i o n 1908 ,
.
0

22 Fro m a g i v en p o i n t o n a c ir c l e d raw t h e c ho r d s th at a re
.

bi sec ted b y a g i ven c hord Is i t a lway s poss ibl e to dra w s u c h .

c ho r d s ? G i ve rea s on s f o r you r a n swe r C oll e g e E nt ran c e E xa m i

— .

n at i o n B o ar d P l an e G e o m et ry E x a m i n a t i o n 1907
, ,
.
 C H A PTE R IX

RATI O AN D P RO PO RTI ON

MEAS URE ME NT O F S E G MEN TS

193 . T o m eas ur e a segme nt i s t o fin d t h e n u m b er o f t i m es

th a t it t c o n a i ns a n o t h e r s e gm e n t wh i c h i s t a k e n a s a u n i t .

In m ea su ri ng t h e se g m e n t two m e t hods a re possibl e B y t h e fi rst .

m e thod t h e u n it is a c tu a lly l a id dow n su c c e ssive ly o n t h e s e g m e n t to

b e m ea su re d Th i s m e thod m i ght b e used i n fi ndi ng t h e l ength
.

of a room i f nothi ng but a ya rdsti c k we re a t h a nd B y t h e s e c ond .

m thod a n oth e r s eg m e n t upo n whi c h t h e u n it a n d i t s subdivisi o n s

e ,

a re a l re ady m a rk ed i s l a id b e s i d e t h e s e g m e n t to b e m e a su re d
, .

Th e num b er f o u n d i s c a ll e d t h e m eas ure n u m b er , th e

m eas ure , o r t h e l e n gt h o f t h e se gm en t .

194 . A se gm e n t d is s ai to b e m e a s ure d e xa ct ly if it wi ll
t
c o n ai n th e u n i t wi t h o u t r e m ai n d er .

A gm e n t t h a t i s
se not m e as u re d e x ac tl y m a y b e m e a s ur e d
ap pro xi m ate l y .

In c o n si d eri n g the t h eo r e t i c a l m e asu r em e n t of se gmen t s

we h ave th e fo ll o wi n g c a s es :
Fi rs t: T h e uni t
h o s e n m a y b e c o n t a i n e d i n t h e g i v en
c

s e gm e n t w i t h o u t r em ai n d e r T h e l e n g t h o f t h e s e gm e n t i s
.

t he n a n i n t e ger T h e se gm en t i s m e asu re d e x a c tl y
. .

I llust ra tion 1 u n i t c hos e n i s a s eg m e n t of o ne i nc h it

. If th e , m ay
b e c o n ta i n e d i n a give n se g m e n t 5 ti m e s wi th n o re m a i nd e r . Th e
length o f t h e give n s g m e nt is 5 e .

S econd : T h e t Ch o s e n m a y n o t b e c o n t ai n e d i n t h e
uni

gi ven s e gm e n t wi t h o u t r em ai n d er In su c h c a ses i t m a y .

h ap p en t h a t s o m e fr a c ti o n o f t h e u ni t c a n b e f o u n d th a t
wi ll m easu re t h e se gm en t e x a c t l y If o n e i n c h i s t h e un i t .

16 1
162 PLAN E G E O ME T RY

C h o s en in ih
, Mi n o r 1 i n m ay b e u se d If su ch
.
,
.
,
.
, . . .

a u n i t c an b e f o u n d t h e s e gm en t i s s ai d t o b e m e a su r e d ,

ex act ly In s u c h a c a se t h e l en g t h wi ll b e a n i n t eg er wh en
.

e x p r e s s e d i n t erm s o f t h e n ew uni t but a fr ac t i o n wh en ,

e x p re s s e d i n t erm s o f t h e o ld u n i t In ei th er c a s e t h e s eg .

m en t h a s b een m e a s ur e d e x ac t l y .

I llu stra ti on u ni t c hos en i s o ne i n ch i t m ay b e c onta i ne d

2 . If th e ,

i n a gi v e n s eg m e n t 7 ti m e s wi th a re m a i nd e r l e ss th a n o ne i n c h ; but
when 4 i n ch i s c hose n a s a u n it t h e m ea su re m a y c om e out e xa c tly 3 1
1
.

T h e l ength i s 3 1 qu a rte r i n c he s o r 7 3 4 i n ; o r -
, .

I llust ra ti on 3 T h e u n i t c hose n o n e i n c h m a y b e c ontai ne d i n a

.
, ,

gi ven s eg m en t 3 ti m e s w i th a rem ai nder l e ss tha n o ne i nc h ; a sm a ll er

'

u ni t 1 i n m a y b e c onta i n ed i n t h e s eg m e n t 3 2 t i m es with a rem a i nder

,
.

l e ss tha n 1 i n ; a still s m all er u ni t 01 i n m ay b e c onta i ned i n t h e

. .
, . .
,

seg m en t 3 24 ti m e s wi th a rem ai nd er l e ss tha n 01 i h ; but t h e u ni t . .

. 001 i n m ay b e c o n ta i ne d e xa c tly 3 247 ti m e s

. T h e l e n gt h of t h e s eg .

m en t i s 3 24 7 thous a n dths o f a n i n c h Or a s i t i s usu a lly w ri tte n in , , ,

.

Th i rd : I t m a y h ap p en th a t n o s ubdi v i si o n o f t h e uni t
c a n b e f o u n d t h a t wi ll m e a s u r e t h e s e gm en t e x ac t l y . In
s u c h a c as e w e m ay o b t ai n an a p p ro xi m a t e m e a s ur e B y .

s ubd i v i d i n g t h e u n i t u se d t h e a p p r o x i m a t i o n m ay b e m a d e

a s c l o se as d e s i r e d .

I llustra ti on u ni t c hose n o ne i n c h m a y b e c onta i ned i n th e

4 . Th e , ,

gi ven s egm e nt 5 ti m e s wi th a rem a i nde r le ss tha n o ne i n c h In thi s .

c a s e 5 w ould b e a n a pp rox i m a te l e n gth o f t h e s eg m e n t I f w e c hoos e 1 . .

i n a s a u n i t i t m a y b e c o n ta i n ed i n t h e gi v e n s e g m e n t 56 ti m e s w i th a
.
,

re m a i n d e r l e ss th a n 1 i n W e n o w h a ve i n a s a n a pp r oxi m a te
. . .

l e n gth B u t i f w e should Choos e 01 i n a s a u ni t w e c ould g e t a sti l l

. . .
,

Clos er a pp rox i m a tio n I t m ight h a pp e n t h a t 01 i n would b e c on tai n ed

. . .

i n t h e s eg m e n t 56 2 t i m e s wi th a r e m a i n d e r l e ss th a n 01 i n Th e . .

a pp roxi m a te l en gth i s n o w in Thi s p rocess m i ght b e c onti nu ed .

i nd efi n it e ly .

195 In a c tu a l p r ac t i c e a n e x a c t m e as ur em en t c an n e ve r
.

b e o bt a i n e d W e c a nn o t b e s ure t h a t a s e gm en t i s ex a c tl y
.

7 in or . in lon g In t r y i n g t o m e a s ur e t h e s e gm en t t h e
. .
,

e n d wi ll f a ll b e t w een t w o m a rk s o n t h e sc a l e Ei t h er o f .

th e s e gi v es a n a p p r o xi m a t i o n t o t h e l en g t h o f t h e s egm en t ,

o n e a li tt l e t o o s m a ll a n d o n e a l i ttl e t o o l a r g e It i s t h e .
164 P L A N E G E O ME T RY

RATI O O F S E G ME N S T
197 . B y th e ra ti o o f tw o s e gm en ts i s m ean t t h e ra ti o of

t h ei r m e asu r es wh en ex p r es s e d i n t h e s am e u n i t .

E x er c i s e . Dr a w
two segm ent s o ne 2 c m a n d o ne 3 ,
. cm . lon g .

Mea s u re eac h i n i n c h es a n d s i xteenth s of a n i n c h o r in i n c hes

an d t en th s of a n i n c h Fi n d a n a pp rox i m at e ra t i o
. .

19 8 . Tw o gm en t s a re s a i d t o b e c o m m e n s urab l e i f th ey
se

c an be m e asu r e d e x a c t l y b y a c o m m o n u n i t o f m ea sur e .

Two gm en t s a r e s ai d t o b e i n c om m e n s urab l e i f t h er e i s
se

n o c o m m o n u n i t th a t w i ll m e a s ur e e a c h e x a c tl y W e s h a ll .

l a t er p r o v e t h a t t h e s i de a n d t h e di a go n a l o f a s qu are a re
i n c o m m en sur a b l e If t h e s i de o f a s qu are i s o n e i n c h t h e
.
,

di a g o n a l i s x/E i n c h e s a n i rr a ti o n a l n um b er
'

.
,

A n i rra ti o n a l num b er i s a n u m b er t h a t c a nn o t be e x p re s s e d

as an i n t e g er o r a s t h e qu o t i en t o f t w o i n t e g er s .

Th e tio o f ra two c o m m en s ur ab l e se gm en t s is an i n t e g er
o r a fr a c t i o n .

T h e rati o o f t w o i n c o m m en s u r a b l e
’
se gm en t s is an I rr a

t i o n al n um b er .

O t h e r i ll u s t r a t i o n s of i n c o mm en s u r a b l e s wi ll b e m et l a t er .

Tw o es p e c i a ll y m a y b e m en t i o n e d
1 Th e
. si de qui l a t era l t r i a n g l e
of an e and t he a lt i tu d e of

th e s am e t r i a n g l e a r e i n c o m m e n su r a b l e .

2 . Th e di am e t er of a c i rc e l i s i n c o m m en su r a b l e wi t h th e
Ci r c u m f er en c e l of th e c i rc e .

N O TE T h e n atu e o f t h e d e c i m a ls th a t c o rr sp o n d to ra tio n a l a n d
. r e

to i rra tion a l n um b e s i s i n te re sti ng a n d shou ld b e n oted F ra c ti o n s

r .

a re ra t i o n a l a n d wh e n re du c e d to d e c i m a ls g iv e d ec i m a ls th a t e i th e r

te rm i n a te o r rep ea t f o r e xa m p le ,

M6
0

. 06 25 3 33 + or . 3
or . 16 54 or . 14 285 7

I rra ti on a l u m b e rs o n t h e other h a nd g i ve de c i m a ls whi c h nei th e r

n , ,

te rm i n a te n o r repea t A n i n exa c t root like V2 r § is a n i rra ti on a l

‘

. o

nu m b e r but no t t h e only k i n d of a n i r a t i o na l nu m b e r A n ot h er
,
r .

e xa m pl e i s t h e n u m b e r c a ll e d rr ( pi ) ( see 298 3 01 a n d , ,
 RA T I O A N D PRO PO R T I O N 5

A S S UM P IO N S T I N V O LV IN G RATI O S

199 . fo ll o w i n g a s sum p ti o n s wi ll b e u se d ; A s 56
Th e .

e xp r esses t h e fu n d a m e n t a l c h ar a c t eri s t i c o f r a t i o s :

A s 56 . Mu lti p l y i ng or d i vi d i n g b o th te rm s of a rati o b y
.

th e s am e n u m b er d o e s n o t c h an g e th e va l u e o f th e rati o .

As 57 . Rati o s e qu al to th e s am e rati o ar e e qu al .

As 58 . Equa l r ati o s m ay b e s ub s ti tute d f o r e qua l rati o s

. .

TH E O RY O F P RO P O RTIO N
D E F I N IT I O N S

200 . A p ro p orti o n i s a n e qu a l i t y o f r a t i o s ; th a t i s i f t w o ,

ra ti o s a re e qu a l t h e f o ur n um b e r s i n v o l v e d a r e i n p r o p o rt i o n
, .

A p ro p o r t i o n m a y b e wri tt en i n t wo f o rm s , a :
b= :
d or c

a
2 ,
a nd 15 re a d a IS to b as c i s t o d, or th e t
ra i o a to b
b
,
51

e qu a l s th e ra ti o c to d . Th e e x r em e s o f
t t h e p r o p o rti o n ar e

a an d d . Th e m ean s are b a nd c .

Si nce i n d ea l i n g wi t h r a ti o s w e are d ea l i n g wi t h n um b ers ,

th e l a w s o f a l ge b r ai c e q u a t i o n s a p p l y t o p r o p o r t i o n s .

E x er c i s e . Fi n d t h e v alue of x in ea c h of th e follow ing

35 8 x x +1 x —l
b ‘

7 x 55 64 6 2

F UN D AM EN TAL TH EO RE MS O F P RO P O R TI O N
201 T H E O R E M 90 If f o ur
. . um b er s ar e in prop ort i o n ,
n

th e p r o du c t o f t h e m e an s i s e qu a l t o th e p ro du c t o f th e

ex r et m es .

The p roo f i s le ft to th e pup i l .

T H E O R E M 9 1 If th e pro du c t of tw o n um b e r s e qu al s th e
.

p ro du c t o f t w o o th e r n u m b ers , e i th er p a i r o f f a c t o r s m ay b e

m ad e th e e xtr e m e s and th e o th e r p ai r th e m ean s o f a

prop o rti o n .

H yp o th esi s : a y 35
Q
bx . Co n clus i on I

~
Q
S uggesti o n . D iv i de both si de s of ay = bx by by .

12
 PLA N E G EO ME TRY

Ex 1 . . G iven ay = bx ,
p ro v e
—E
C b y 3 . and 2 Q
x b a x 0

Ex 2 . . Deri ve at l eas t two p r op o r t i o n s fr o m e ac h of the

follow i ng equ at i on s
(1 . a b = xy c .
( + y) (
x x —y) = ab

b (L —
( 0 4) ( —l)
x

TH E O RE M 92 . th re e term s o f o n e prop ort i o n ar e e qu a l

If
re s p e c ti ve l y t o th r e e c o rr e s p o n d i n g t e rm s o f an o th er p r o
:

p o rt i o n , th e f ourth t erm s ar e e qu al .

H y p oth esi s 9
6 i — an d
g Con c lu s i o n x ==
y .

The p roof i s l e f t to th e pupi l .

TRAN S F O RMATI O N S O F PRO P O R TI ON S

202T H E O R E M 93 If f our n umb ers ar e i n p rop o rti o n ,
. .

th e fir s t i s t o th e t h i r d a s th e s e c o n d i s t o th e f o urth ; th a t
i s th e y a r e i n p r o p o r t i o n b y m ean a l te rn ati o n
,
.

H ypoth es i s 3 29 “
Con clusi on 3 . fl .

b y x 3’
S uggesti o n . F i rst p rove tha t ay = bx ; th en u se Th . 91
.

T H E O R E M 94 If f o ur n u m b er s ar e i n p rop orti on , th e
.

f o urth i s to th e s e c on d as th e th ir d i s to th e fi rs t ; t h a t i s ,

th ey are i n p r o p o r t i o n b y extr e m e al tern ati on .

a
1 6 ’ x
H y poth es i s “
Co n c lus i on 2
b y b a

Le t t h e pupi l g i ve the p roof .

TH EO RE M 95um b er s ar e i n p rop orti on , th e

. If f o ur n '

s e c on d i s to th e fi r s t a s th e f o urth i s t o th e th i r d ; th a t i s ,

t h e y ar e i n p r o p o r t i o n b y i nvers i on ‘

x
H yp o th es i s Con clus i on

Let t h e pup i l gi v e t h e p roof .

Ex 1 . . V eri fy p roport i on b y m ea n and e xtrem e a ltern a t i on

8 28 15 9 a2 ac
I n vers i on —
a nd In
18 63 20 1 ab be
168 P LA N E G E O ME T RY

f
Ex 4 If i —
p rove e ac h of t h e follow i n g
j
. .
,
b
" —b
a +b x +y a +b Q a b
d
a x
'

x+y Q x —y
‘ y
a+b +b
a x Q a x +y
+b +y +y —b —
'

a x x R a x y
a —b
o e
x —y a —b Q 02 2
u

a x x —
y R

RATIO S O F S E G ME N T S MAD E B Y P ARALL EL S

F UN D AM E N TAL TH EO RE M
203 T H E O R E M 98 If thr e e p ar all e l sc ut tw o tran s vers a l s ,
. .

th e s e g m e nt s o n o n e tr an s v er s a l h ave th e s am e r ati o a s th e ,

c orr e s p on d i n g s e g m ents o n th e o th er tran sver s a l .

FIG . 28 8

H y p o th es i s : A X BY CZ .

Co n clus i o n : T h e ra ti o of
g th e ra ti o of
s
I?
Ca s e A : W h e n A B an d BC ar e c o mm e n s ur a b l e .

A n a lys i s a n d co n s tr ucti o n :
AB Y
I . To S ho w t h e ra i ot
BC
th e t
ra i o
iE
———
Z
n us e t h e m ea s

u r es o f t h e s e gm e n t s AB B C X Y
, , , and YZ .

II . Th e m eas ur es of AB an d BC are to b e a ss um e d .

111 T o fin d t h e m e a s ur es
. of XY an d YZ di v i d e A B
, and

B C i nto gm en t s e qua l t o th ei r c o m m o n u n i t o f
se

m e a s ur e a n d dr a w l i n e s t h r o ugh t h e p o i n t s o f
di vi si o n p ara ll e l t o CZ d i vi di n g X Y a n d YZ i n t o,

se gm e n t s .
 R A T I O A N D P RO P O R T I O N 169

Verifica ti o n
I . a . Le t t h e com m on u ni t of m e a sure of se gm en t s
AB and BC be segm e n t p .

b . Let t h e m easu re of AB = m .
( In th e figure rn

c . Let t h e m ea su re of BC= n .
( In th e figur e n= 4 .
)
AB rn m— 3
d Th e t
ra i o o f
— -

( th e
In figure .
)
E Z
.

BC 7L

II . a . Th e l i n e s p ar a ll e l t o C2 di vi d e X Y i n t o i n e qu a l
se g m e n t s a n d YZ i n t o n e qu a l s e gm e n t s ( Th .

b . O n e o f t h e s e s egm e n t s m a y b e t ake n as t h e u n i t
o f m e as ur e o f X Y a n d Y Z .

XY m
c . Th e ra i o o f
t
YZ n

AB XY
III . . . th e ra i o o f
t th e t
ra i o of
BC Y2
N O TE 1 . For I§ d a nd II t i o o
c s ee f two s e g m ts
197 , t h e
e n ra .

N O TE 2 Si n ce we a ssu m e th a t t h e n u m b e r o f di v i sio n s o n X Y a nd
.

YZ a r re sp e c tive ly e qu a l to t h e n u m b e r o f div i s i on s o n A B a nd B C
e ,

t h e f o rm a l rea so n i n g a bov e h a s b e e n c a ll e d a v e rifi c a tion r a th er th a n a

p roo f .

Ca s e B : Wh e n A B an d BC ar e i n c o mm e n su ra b l e . Si nc e
it is no t b l e i n t h i s c ase t o ex p r es s t h e l en g t h s o f A B
p o s s i
an d B C i n i n t e g r a l o r fr ac t i o n a l t e rm s o f t h e s am e u n i t ,

t h e ar gu m e n t g i v e n f o r C a se A c a nn o t b e u s e d C ase .

B w i ll b e a s sum e d w i t h o u t p r o o f T h e p ro o f i s p o ssi b l e .
,

bu t t o o di f fi c u l t f o r t hi s c o ur se .

In t h e ne xt s ix e x erc i se s t h e lett ers re erf t o F i g 288

. .

Ex 1 . . A B = 7, B C = 9, X Y = 17 % ,
fin d YZ .

Ex 2 . . A B = 12, X V = I5 ,
Y Z = 18 , fin d B C .

Ex 3 . . A B = 3, B C = V2, X Y = 5 , find YZ .

Ex 4 . . AB =B % ,
BC= 1 % ,
YZ = 7, fin d X V .

Ex 5 . . YZ = 7 , find B C .

Ex 6 . . B C = 2 3, . X V = 5 7, . YZ = 9, fin d A B .
 PLANE GEOMETRY

APP L I CATI O N OF TH E O REM 98 TO TRIAN GLE S

204 T H E O R E M 99 If a li n e i s p ara ll el t o th e b a s e of a
. .

tri an g l e , th e rati o o f th e s e gm ent s o n o n e s i de e qua l s th e

rati o of th e c orr e s p o n d i ng s e g m e n t s o n th e o th er s i d e .

CO R . If a li ne i s p ar all el to th e b a se of a tri an g l e , o ne
‘

si de i s to th er ei o f i t s s e gm e nt s a s th e o th er s i d e i s t o i t s

c orr e sp on di n g s e gm e nt .

S ugges ti o n . U se Th 96 . .

Ex 1 . . In F i g . 289 p rove th at
CD DA CA DA CA CD
= _
=

CE BE CB EB CB CE

Ex 2 Pr ov e Th 99 i f t h e p ara lle l c ut s t h e A
FIG
. . .

28 9
si des of t ri a ngle e xt en ded
.

th e .

Ex 3 . V eri fy Th 98 an d Th 99 a nd i t s c o r b y m easu ri ng
. . . .

e ac h of t h e s eg m en t s i n Fi g s 288 a n d 289 i n i n c h es a n d s i xt een th s

.

( o r t enth s ) of an i n c h a l s o i n c ent i m et ers a n d m i ll im et ers a n d

, ,

fin d i n g t h e r a t i o s fr om t h e m eas urem ent s .

In t h e ne xt ei ght exerc i ses the l ett ers re er f to F i g 289

. .

Ex 4 . . CD = 8 % ,
DA 3 95, GE = Z % ,
fin d E B .

Ex 5 . DA CA CB = 9 % ,
fin d CE and EB .

Ex 6 . . CD = 6 % , CA = 25, CB = 15 , fin d CE a nd EB .

Ex 7 . . DA E B = 2 4, . CB = 10 8 , fin d CD
. .

Ex 8 . CD = 2 s/
3 , DA = 3 , CE = 5 , find E B .

Ex 9 . . DA = 6 , CE = 7, E B = 7, fin d CA .

E x 10 CD : 28 ,
. . DA 14 , CB = 98 , fin d CE an d EB .

E x 11. . CA = 8 , B B = 15 , fin d E C .

E x 12. . N am e the p a ir s of gm ent s h av i ng

se e qu al ra t i os
wh en a l i ne p ar a ll e l to t h e b a ses of a t ra p e zo i d
c ut s t h e n o n p ara ll el s i d es -
a n d t h e d i a go n a l s .

E x 13. . S how
how Th 99 m ay b e u sed . to D
find an i n ac ces s i bl e d i st an c e (s ee Fi g . FI G .
290

E x 14. . D ra w a fig ure s howi n g four p arallels c utt i n g two

t ra n s v er s a l s . N am e t h e e qu al rat i o s fo rm e d .
172 P LA N E G E O ME T RY

CO N S RU C T TI O N O F P RO P O RTI O NAL S EG ME NT S
206 . Ex 1 . . B y a lg eb ra d i v i d e 120 i n to p a rt s th a t s h a ll b e in
th e ra t i o of
Ex 2 . Usi ng Pr ob 7 111 find 96 of a gi v en s egm ent
. .
, , .

Ex 3 . B y a lg ebra d i v i d e 144 i nto th ree p art s th a t s h all

. be
in t h e rat i o of 4 5 an d 9 , , .

P R O B L E M 14 . To d i vi d e a se gm ent i nto tw o gm e nt s
se

th at s h all b e i n th e s am e ra ti o a s tw o g i v e n s e g m e nt s .

FIG . 292

S ugges ti o n . If X Y i s th e g i v e n s eg m e n t , S how how to c on st ru c t

th e figu re so tha t you can p rove t h at
fib _
S e gm e n ts l ette re d a li k e
a re e qu a l . G i ve p roof .

P R O B L E M 15 . To d i vi d e a g i ve n s e g m e nt i n to se g m e nt s
prop or ti ona l to a ny n u m b e r o f g i v e n s e g m e nt s .

FIG . 2 93

S uggesti on . It is n ec e ss ary to c o n s t r uc t th e figu re so th a t you

h k
“

n
c an p rove that — —
5 b 2

Ex 4 . . S how
th at Pr ob 15 m ay .

b e s olv e d a s follow s ( F i g Fro m .

a x

A d ra w ra y 1 a n d fr o m B d r aw m H 1 .

Lay o ff t h e g i ve n s eg m en t s o n I a n d i n
a s s how n i n t h e figu re a n d jo i n t h e

po i nt s of d i vi si on . P ro . 294
 RA T I O AN D PRO PO RT I O N 173

CO N S TRUCTI O N O F F O URTH P RO P O R TI O NAL S

207 . Ex . 1 G i ve n th ree s egm e nt s
. a, b, and 6 c o ns t r u c t, a

fo urth se g me n t x so th at ( Fi g .
a
b

Sugges ti o n . T he on struc tio n

c is ba se d o n 0

Th . 99 . How a re t h e s e g m e n ts a ,
b, a n d c la i d

o ff on th e s i de s o f A 0?

Ex 2 . . U smg t h e th ree se gm ent s g i ven P ro . 295

b
o

in Fi g
0

295 , c onst ru c t x so th a t i t
—
g
.
,
a

5 6 b b
so th a t — — SO th a t — L
(

x ,
a x r
c x
,

Ex 3 . . Do any of t h e figur e s ca lle d f o r i n Ex 2 . g i ve t h e s am e

value f or x? Wh y ?
Th e fo ur t h t erm o f a p ro p o rt i o n i n whi c h t h e o t h er t hr ee
t erm s a r e t h e t hr e e g i v en n um b er s t a k e n i n o r d er i s c a ll e d

t h e f o u rth p rop or ti onal to th e t h r ee gi ven n um b ers ; f or

e x am p e , l if E —9
"
li 2
i
9
x s th e f o urth p ro p o r ti onal to a, b , and c .

Ex 4 . . Fi nd t h e fou rth p roport i on a l to

a . 21, 5 , a nd 4 c . 8 36, a nd 5 e . a + 1, a , a nd a +4
b . 5 a, 3 a, a nd 2b d . a, a + 1, a nd 6 a 2
f . 26 , an d 35

P R O B L E M 16 . To c ons tru ct a f o ur th p rop o rt i on a l t o three

gi ven se gm e nts .

A n a ly s i s :

Let a, b , a n d 0 r e p resen t th e gi ven se gm en t s an d x th e

fo ur t h r
p o p or t i o na l .

To c ons r t uc t a fo ur t h r
p po o r ti o n a l to a, b , a n d c , c o n s ru c t t
that f
x so
b
_
(S ee Fi g .

Ex 5Usi ng th ree g i ven segm ents a b a nd 6 find a fou rth

. .
, ,

p ropo rt i o na l to a c a nd b ; to b c a nd a ; to c a a n d b Are t h e
, , , , , , .

wo rds i n o rde r ess e n t i a l i n t h e defi ni t i on of t h e fou rth p ropor

“ ”

t i o nal? Wh y ?
174 P LA N E G E O ME T RY

Ex 6 . . Fi n d
by geom etry a fou r th p ropo rt i ona l to t h e s egmen t s
who se l en gth s a re g i ven b elow In ea c h c a se v eri f y by m ea s ur e .

ment a n d c o m put a t i o n .

a . cm .
,
cm .
, 37 cm .

b . cm .
,
cm .
, cm .

c. 3 cm .
,
c m .
, Cm .

Ex 7 . . If a, b, and c rep resen t th ree g i ven se g m e nt s , find a

2b
fou rth se gm ent x so th at ( a ) x= ( b) x= ~ —£
; ( )
c A4 3
2

M I S CELL ANE O U S E XERCI S E S I N V O LV I N G

RAT I O S AN D P ARALL E L S

CD 1
208 1 In Fi g 296 ,
_ _ .
I f DE ”A B and
3
. .

CA
.

DF [
I CB , p rove t h at DE = % A B . W h at is th e
ra t i o of BF to CB ?
FIG . 29 6
2 . C o n s t ru c t b etw ee n two des of a t ri an gl e a s eg m en t th at
si

s h all b e p ara llel to the th i r d s i de an d e qu a l to of t h e th i r d si d e .

3 . I f i n Fig
,
. 297, E D CB an d CF EB ,

4 9 AB AD AB 4 ? AF
’ ’ an '

DB BF AB AF DB BF

A na ly s i s : F I G 297
To p rove t he two ra ti os equ al p rove them e a c h e qu al to a thi rd ra ti o ,
.

4 . l i ne i s d ra wn th rough t h e i nt ersec t i on of t h e m edi ans

A
of a t r i a n gl e c utt i n g two of t h e s id es of t h e t r i a ng le a n d p a ra ll el
to a th i rd In wh a t rat i o are th ese s i des d i v i ded ? Why ?
.

In F i g 298, O i s a n y po i n t wi th i n A A B C
5 . . .

’ ’
A B II
A B f r o m A
'
,
a n a r b i t ra r y po i n t i n A O ,
’ ’ ’ ’
an d i nt erse c t s O B at B . B C llB C f r o m B an d
’ ’ ’
i n te rsec ts OC at C . A an d C a re jo i ned . Prove
’ ’
th at A C ”A C .
.

F IG . 298
,

6 Would Ex 5 b e t rue if po i nt
. . 0 were out side A AB C Draw
th e fig ure and gi ve t h e p r o of .
 176 P LA N E GE O ME T RY

S I MI L AR TRI AN G L E S
TE S T
TRI AN GLE S I F O R S I M I AR L
209 T H E O R E M 101 . If t w o tr i ang l e s h ave th e an g l e s of
.

o n e re s p e c ti ve ly e qu al t o th e an g l es of th e o th e r th e c orre ,

s p o n d i n g s i d e s h av e e qu al rati o s .

B D A ’

FIG . 3 03

H y p o th es i s : A A B C an d A DE F a re any t wo t ri an g l es
wi t h A A = AD, AB = A E, an d A C= A F
AB BC CA
Co n c lus i on
DE EF FD
A n a ly si s a nd co n s tr uc ti o n

AB BC
I . T o p ro v e u se a li n e p ar all e l t o a t hi r d si de
DE EF
'

of A DE F .

II .
p l ac e A A B C u p o n A D E F wi t h p o i n t B o n p o i n t E ,

A B a l o n g D E , an d B C a l o n g E F Th en p r o v e .

’ ’
A C [
ID F .

Le t t h e pupi l c om pl ete t h e a n a lysis a nd gi ve th e p roof .

g £4
It is n e c e ss a ry a lso to p rov e fi

’ ’ ’
E x erc i se . If a an d a ,
b a nd b ,
c and c a re c orrespon d i n g
si de s of m utu a lly e qu i a n gul ar t ri an gl es ,
fin d
’ ’ ’=
= 12, b = l 8,
'

1 b and c if a c = 24 an d a 20 .
, ,

’ ’ ’=
2 . b and c ,
if a b = 4, c an d a 25 .

= 10 ’= ’= ’=
3 . b an d c if a
2
3, a 16 , b 20, an d c 27 .

2 10 . Tw o o
p yl go n s ar e s a i d t o b e s i m i l ar i f

a . Th e an g l es of one ar e e qu a l to th e c o rr es p o n di n g
an g l es of th e o t h er an d

b . Co rr esp o n di n g si d es h av e e qu a l ra ti o s .
 RA T I O A N D PRO PO RT I O N 177
‘

T h e o rem 101 gi ve s u s o u r fi rs t t es t f or l
si m i ar t ri a n g l e s .

We wi ll s t a t e i t fo rm a ll y a s
T H E O R E M 102 . Tw o m utu ally e qui angular tri an g l e s ar e

S i m i l ar Wh y ?
.

In p op u l ar l an gu a ge ,
l
s i m i ar figur e s h a ve th e sam e

s hap e . A ll l
e n ar g em en s a n d t d r a wi n g s to l
s c a e are p ra c ti c a l
l
e x a m p e s o f S i m i ar l fi gu r e s .

Ex 1 . . Prove
th at all e qu il a teral t ri a n gle s a re s im i l ar .

Ex 2 . A re a ll i s osce le s t r i a ngl es s i m i l ar ? Wh y ? W h en
. a re

two is osceles t ri an gl es s im i l ar ?
Ex 3 . I f two i s o sce les t ri an gle s h a ve e qu a l vert ex an gles
.
, th e
leg s h a ve t h e s ame rat i o as t h e b as es .

Ex 4 . A re all r i ght t ri an gl es S i mi l ar ? Wh y ? W h en
. ar e

two r i ght t ri a ngl es s i m il ar ?

Ex 5 . IS a s qu are s i m il ar to a rec t a n gl e ? Wh y ?
.

Ex 6 . Co ns t r u c t two rec t an gl es t h a t a re s i m i l ar
. .

TE S T S F O R E Q UA L P RO D U C S T AN D E Q UA L RATI O S

2 11 . At th e b egi n ni n gur s e i n ge o m e t r y c o n si d
of th e co

er a b le ti m e w a s S p e n t o n t h e u se o f c o n g ru e n t t ri a ng l e s i n

p ro v i n g s e g m en t s a n d a n g l e s e qu a l S o i m p o r t a n t i s th i s .
-

th a t wh en i t i s n e c es sary t o p ro ve t w o se gm en t s e qu al w e
o f t e n lo o k fi r s t f o r a p ai r o f c o n g ru e n t t ri a n g l e s In th i s .

c h a p t er w e a r e s t ud y i n g e s p e ci a ll y e qu a l r a t i o s whi c h a re ,

ju s t a s i m p o rt an t a s e qu a l s e gm en t s T h e t e s t s f o r e qua l .

ra t i o s a r e as i m p o r t a n t as t h e t es t s f o r e qu al s e gm e n t s .

Wh en t w o r a t i o s ar e t o b e p ro ve d e qu a l t h e fo ll o wi n g p o ss i ,

b i li t i es m u s t b e c o n si d er e d :

A . Ou r fun d am en t a l m e t h o d s f o r p r o vi n g r a t i o s e qu a l a re

1 . B y p ar all e l s a n d t r a n s v er s a l s .

2 . B y si m i l ar t ri an g l es .

B . B efo re ei t h er
th ese m e th o d s c a n b e a p p l i e d i t i s
of

o ft en n ec es s ar y t o fin d a t h i r d r a t i o t o wh i c h e ac h o f t h e

g i v en r a t i o s c an b e p ro v e d e qu a l .
178 PLAN E GE O ME T RY

Th e u s e o f s i m ilar tri an g l es i n rvi n g r a t i o s e qu a l i s o f

p o
c o n si dera b l e i m p o rt an c e . Th e f o ll o wi n g c o n si dera t i o n s a re
o f t en h e l p f u l

Fi rs t : To s elec t th e pr op er tri a n gles : T h e d e fin i ti o n of

si m i arl figures s ay s th a t c orr esp o n di ng si d e s h ave e qu a l

!
Z
2 ZZ
a
ra ti o s . Thi s gi v es 7
an d by a l t ern ati o n -
If ,
b

3
th en , we ar e t o p ro v e t w o
?
ra
f
ti o s e qu al
‘
, s ay
? , w e m ay

c h o o se t h e t ri an gl e s s o th a t o n e o f th em s h a ll h a v e c a n d e

a s s i d e s a n d t h e o t h er s h a ll h a v e d a n d f a s S i d e s o r s o th a t ,

o n e o f th e m s h a l l h a v e c a n d d a s s i d e s a n d t h e o th er s h a ll

h a v e e a n d f a s s i d es ; t h a t i s so th a t t h e n u m er a t o rs sh a l l
b e s i d e s o f o n e t r i a n g l e a n d t h e d en o m i n a t o r s s i d es o f t h e
o t h er ,o r s o th a t t h e t e rm s o f o n e r a t i o s h a l l b e s i d es o f o n e

tri an g l e: a n d t h e t er m s o f t h e o th e r r a t i o s i d es o f t h e o th er .

S econd : To s elec t th e c orr es p ondi n g s i d es f f

o a p ai r o

s i mi la r tri a ngles : In Fi g 3 03 t h e t r i a n g l es . ar e s o p l ac e d

th a t c o rr esp o n di n g s i d e s c an b e s e l ec t e d i mm e di a t e l y b y
i n sp ec t i o n W h en t h e t ri a n g l es a r e n o t thu s c o n v en i en tl y
.

p lac e d i t i s n e c e s sa ry t o re m em b er t h a t c o rr e s p o n d i n g s i d e s

a r e a l w a y s o p p o Si t e e qu a l a n g l es Th e c o rr e s p o n d i n g s i d es
.

s h o u l d b e se l e c t e d c a r e fu ll y fro m t h e e qu al a n g l e s as i ll u s

t ra t e d i n t h e p r o o f t o E x 1 o n p 179 N o t i c e th a t e qu a l a n gle s
. . .

’
m ay b e d esi g n at e d b y t h e s am e n um b ers a s A 2 an d A 2 , .

W h en i t i s r e qu i re d t o p r o ve t w o p ro du c t s e qu al a p ai r ,

o f e qu al r a t i o s m ay b e o bt ai n e d fr o m t h e e qu a l p ro du c t s b y

Th 91 a n d t h e ra ti o s p ro v e d e qu a l a s e x p l ai n e d a b o ve
. .

N O TE . If we sa y tha t c orre spondi ng s i de s of s i m i l a r t ri a ngle s ha ve

b
e qual ra ti os t h e ra ti os should b e re ad 2
, 7
3
I f however w e sa y tha t
"
7
°

, ,

c orr e spon d i n g S i d e s o f s i m il a r t ri a ngl e s a re p r o p o rt i o n a l w e m a y u s e ,

a 9 1
e i th e r
5 7 ’
b
’
b
S i
b
m il
.
a rly i n F i g 2 8 9 i f w e sa y t h e s i d e
. s a re

di vi ded prop orti o nally w e m ay ,

u se th e ra ti os given i n T h . 99 a nd Co r .

o r e i the r o f t h e f o rm s i n E x 1 .
, 204 .
180 P LA N E G E O ME T RY

6 . In Fi g . 3 07, A A B C i s a ri g ht t ri an gl e w i th A B a rt . A .

DE i s draw n _ _ 1 AC fr om any po i n t i n A B Pr ove .

AB AD = AB AC .

7 . I n ve st i g a t e th e s
ca e, Ex . 6 , in wh i c h po i n t D
is on AB e xt en d ed .

FI G . 3 07

8 . I n v est i g at e th e s
ca e, Ex . 6, in wh i c h po i n t D is on BA
e xt en ded .

9 . Prov e th a t t h e p ar a ll el S i des of a t ra p e zo i d h a ve t h e s am e
rat i o as th e s e g m e n t s i nto wh i c h o n e d i a go n a l i s d i v i d e d b
y the
oth er .

10 In F i g 3 08 , A A B C i s i s o sce l es an d B X B A
. .

é .

Pr ov e th at c i s a m e an p ropo rt i on a l b etw e en A C
an d AX .

FIG . 3 08

11 In Fi g . . 3 09, CX _LA B a nd B Y _LA C . Prov e

'

A C CX
th at
AB BY

12 . In Fi g 3 09, . p rove th a t BO B Y =BA BX .

F IG . 3 09

13 . In F i g 3 10, l i nes h a n d k a re p a rall e l an d a re

.

c ut by t h e pe n c i l of ra y s f rom po i n t O P rove th a t .

a c

b d

S ugges ti o n . Pr ove th t a eac h ra tio is e qu l a to a t hi rd

ra ti o . FI G . 3 10

14 . W h at
t i o s would b e e qu a l
ra if h and 1
3 ( Fi g . 3 10) were
on oppo s i t e s i des of po i n t 0 ?

15In Fi g 3 11, A A B C i s a ri ght t r i an gl e

. .

w i th A C a ri ght an gle CD LA B from C Pr ove . _ .

A A CD N A CB D a n d re a d t h e rat i o s of c or re
°

S p o n di n g S i d es . F IG . 3 11
 RAT I O A N D PRO PO R T I O N 18 1

16 .In Fi g 3 12, A B i s a di am et er of 6 0 , B D tan gent

. to the
l
c i rc e at B A D i s a n y l i ne fr o m A c utti n g t h e c i rc l e
.

at E t an g e n t a t D
an d the . Prove th a t A B is a m e an
p rop ort i ona l between A E and AD .

17 In Fi g 3 12 dr a w B E Pr ov e th at B E i s
'

. . . a

mean p ropo r ti o n al b e tween A E a n d E D .

F IG . 3 12

18 . In Fi g 3 13 , CD i s a di a m et er p erp en d i c ular to
.

Chord AB Prove th a t A C i s a m e a n p r opo rt i o n a l

.

between CE a nd CD .

19 . In F i g .
‘

3 13 p rove th a t A B is a m e an p ropor
t i o n al b etween CE an d ED .
pm . 3 13

20 In Fi g 3 13 p rov e
. . th a t CE E B = AE 4 3 3 .

21 Th e . o
ti on of a st reet s urface i s t h e arc
c r ss - s e c

of a c i rc le ; t h e d i st a n ce fro m c ur b to c ur b i s 30 f t ; .

t h e ri se o f t h e c ent er of t h e s t re et above t h e gutte r i s

7 in c h e s Wh at i s t h e ra di u s of t h e c irc le ?
.

22 In Fi g 3 14 , X Y
. . AB an d YZ BC . Prove th a t
a 6 F IG . 3 14
b d

23 Dra w qu are
go na ls A C a n d B D
A B CD and t h e di a
'

. a s .

Let E F G a n d H b e t h e m i d po i n ts of t h e S i des A B B C CD
, , ,
-
, , ,

an d D A res p ec t i ve ly Jo i n ea c h v ert ex to t h e m i d po i n ts of t h e two

.
-

n o n a dj ac e n t s i d e s th a t i s j o i n A to po i nt s F a n d G a nd s o o n
-
, , , .

Fi n d p a i rs of s im i l a r t r i a n gl e s a n d rea d t h e r at i o s of c o rres p o n d i n g
s i de s .

24 . Fi g . 3 15 shows th ree c onc urren t l i nes

b
XY AB, an d YZ llB C . Prov e that

25In Fi g 3 16 t h e c ir c l es ar e t an gent at X
. . .

A B an d CD a re d ra w n th r ough t h e p o in t of t an
F IG 3 15
gen c y , m eet in g t h e c i rc l e s hown Pr ove th at
.

as s .

cb = ad ( See § 175 , E x
. .

26 . I n v e s t i g at e the c a se , E x 25 , i n
. wh i c h the
l
c irc es are ta ngent i nterna lly . F IG . 3 16

19.
 182 PLA N E G E O ME T RY

IMP O RTAN T S PE CIAL CA S E S

IN TERS E CT I N G CH O RD S

213 T H E O R E M 103 If tw o c h ord s i nters e c t wi thi n a

. .

Ci r cl e , th e p r o du c t o f th e s e gm e nt s o f o n e i s e qual t o th e

p r o du c t o f th e s e g m e nt s of th e o th er .

FIG . 3 17

H y p o th es i s : C i rc l e O i s a n y Ci r c e l wi t h the c h o rds A B
and CD i n t er s ec t i n g at X so th a t a an d b ar e th e s e gm en s t
of AB an d c an d d th e se gm en t s o f CD .

Con c lusi on : a b ed .

Th e a na lys i s c on stru c ti on
, , a nd p roof a re l ef t to th e pupi l .

In t h e ne xt x
s i x e erc i s es th e l ett ers f
r e er to F i g 3 17
.

Ex 1 . . Fi n d b , if a : 12 d = 2
, % ,
an d c = 15 .

Ex 2 . . Fi n d a and b , if A B = 22, d = 8 , and c = l2 .

Ex 3 Fi n d a an d d, i f A B = 19, b = 10, an d c = 6 .

%
. .

Ex 4 . . Fi n d d, if a =5 % , c =4
,
an d b=5 .

Ex 5 . . Fi n d a, i f d = 8 % = 2% ,
c ,
and b=3 %
Ex 6 . . Fin d 0 an d d, i f A B = 26 , b = 8, an d c = d .

214 . If p n
o i t C is b e tw een A an d B on li ne AB AC , and

CB are s a i d t o b e s e gm e n t s o f A B an d AB is s ai d t o b e di vi de d
i n ternally at C . In Fi g 3 18 A B i s
.
, di vi d e d
i n t ern a ll y at C . A C + CB = A B . A

’ F IG 3 18
If i t C is li ne AB
but n o t b etween
.

p o n on
’ ’
A an d B A C a n d B C a r e s ti ll s ai d t o b e s e gm en t s o f A B
, .

’
AB i s s ai d t o b e d i vi d e d e xt e rn a ll y a t C In Fi g 3 18 . .
,

’— ’= ’
AB i s di vi de d e x t er n a ll y a t AC BC AB if C is
’— ’= ’
on AB e x t en d e d BC AC
. B A i f C i s o n B A ex t en d e d .
184 PLANE GE O ME T RY

INTERS E CTI N G TAN GE NT AN D S E ANT C

2 16 TH E O R E M 105 If a s ec ant an d a tang ent m e e t
. .

Wi th o ut a c i r c le , th e tang ent i s a m ean prop orti on al b e tw e e n

th e w h ole s e c ant an d i t s external s egm ent .

F IG . 3 21

H yp oth esi s : Ci rc l e 0 i s an y c i rc e l wi t h s ec an t k and

t an gen t h m eeti n g wi th o ut th e c ir c e a t l C so th a t a i s the

e x t ern al s e gm en t o f k .

Conclusi on : h 2
ah .

Th e a na lysi s c on stru c ti on
, , a nd p roof a re le f t to th e pupi l .

In t h e x t fiv e e xerc i ses t h e l etters refer to Fi g 3 21

ne . .

Ex 1 . F i n d k i f a = 4 a nd h = 6
.
,
.

Ex 2 . F
. i n d ka n d a if A B = 7 a nd h = 12
, .

Ex 3 . F
. i n d a i f h = 10 t h e ra d i u s of t h e c ir c l e i s 7
, , a nd
“

th e
s ec a n t p asse s th ro ugh t h e c e nt er of t h e c i r c le \
.

Ex 4
. . Fi nd 3 a nd a ,
1 if A B = 27 a nd h = l8 .

Ex 5. . d
Fi n t eh ra d i u s of t h e c i r c l e i f a = 4 h = 12 a nd t h e , ,

secan t p as ses th rough t h e c en ter of t h e c i rc l e .

Ex 6. . In Fi g 3 20 wh at m ot i o n of A X w i ll S how t h e rel at i o n
.
,

betw een T h s 104 an d 105 ?

.

Ex 7. . Draw a se g ment A C = 8 c m O n A C fr om C lay o ff .

CB = 2 cm D raw any c i rc l e p ass i n g th rough p o i nt s A a n d B

. .

Draw a t an gent to th i s Ci rc l e from po i nt C D ra w se vera l figu res .

,

vary i ng t h e ra d i u s of t h e c ir c le dra wn b ut u si ng a lw a ys A C 8 c m
,
.

a nd CB = 2 c m Co m p are t h e len gth s of t h e v ari ou s t an gent s

. .

Can y o u e xp l a in t h e res ult s ?

Ex 8. . T ang ent s dra wn to two i ntersec t ing c i rc les from any
p o i n t i n th ei r co mm o n c ho r d ar e e qu a l .
 RA T I O A N D PRO PO RT I ON 185

S EG MEN S T MAD E B Y T H E B I S E C O R O F AN AN G E T L
OF A TRIAN G LE
2 17 . T H E O RE M 106 . Th e b i s e c tor of an angle of a tri
angle di vi d e s th e o pp o s i e t si d e i ntern ally i nto s egm ents
th at h a ve th e s am e ra ti o as th e o th er tw o s i des o f th e

FIG . 3 22

H y p oth es i s : A A B C i s an y tri an g le wi t h CO bi se c ti n g
A B CA an d di v i di n g A B i n t o se gm en t s r a n d s .

Con clusi on :
r a

s b
A n a ly si s a nd co n s tr uc ti o n

I . Two rati o s m a y b e p ro v e d e qu a l b y Th
use o f . 98 ,

Th . 99 o r Th 101
, ( W h y
?
) W e
. . wi ll u s e Th . 99 .

}
c ons r t u c t A D fr o m A HO C an d get
b ?

g 9 ub s ti t u t e
'
111 T o p r o v e
.
- .

p ro v e b b and s in
b
,

Le t t h e pup i l c om plete th e a na lys i s and g i ve th e p roof .

In t h e ne xt x
s i x e erc i se s th e l ett ers re fer to Fi g 3 22 . .

Ex 1. . c = l2 b = 9, r = 5, fin d s .
,

Ex 2. . a = 72 b = 6 0, r= 3 2, fin d s .
,

Ex 3 a = 28 b = 21, A B = S5 , fin d r an d s .
,
. .

Ex 4. . r= 15 , s = 18 , a = 40
,
fin d b .

Ex 5. . r = 8 s = 9, b = 34 , fin d 0 .
,

Ex 6 a = 18 b = 16 , A B = 24 , fin d r a nd s .
.
,
.

Ex 7. . D i s c u ss t h e ca s e , Th . 106 , i n wh i c h A A B C i s i so scel es :
Prove by p rop o rt i o n .
186 PLA NE G E O ME T RY

S E G ME N T S MAD E B Y TH E B I S ECT O R O F AN
EXTE RI O R A N G L E O F A TRIAN GLE
218T H E O R E M 107 Th e b i s e c tor of an ext eri or an g l e of
. .

a tri an g l e d i vi d es th e Opp o s i t e s i d e e xt ern all y i nto s e gm e nt s

th at h ave th e s am e r ati o as th e o th er tw o s i d e s o f th e tri an g l e .

FIG . 3 23

H y p othes i s : A A B C i s any tri an g l e wi th CO b i sec ti n g t h e

ex eri o r
t A A CE an d d i vi d i n g BA t
e x ern a ll y i n t o s e gm e n t s
’
r an d 5 . Let B C = a , CA = b , and CD = b .

r a
Conc lus i on
s b

Th e a n al ysi s c onstru c ti on
, , a nd p roof a re l eft to th e pupi l .

Di s cuss i on . Th eo rem 107 i s no t tru e f o r t h e ver te x a ng e l

o f an i s o sc e l e s t ri an g l e .

In t h e next fo ur e x erc i ses t h e l ett ers refer to Fi g . 3 23 .

Ex 1 . . Fi n d a i f r = 24 s = 6 an d b = 5
, , ,
.

Ex 2 . . Fi n d r i f a = 18 b = 5 an d s = 7
, , ,
.

Ex 3 . . Fi n d r an d s if A B = 8 d = l 2 an d b = 6
, , ,
.

Ex 4 . . Fi n d r a nd s if A B = 4 a = 9 a n d b = 6
, , ,
.

219 . If gm en t i n t er n a ll y a n d e x t er
t w o p oi nt s d i vi de a se

n a ll y i n t h e s am e ra t i o t h e s e gm en t i s s a i d t o b e d i vi d e d
,

h arm oni c all y b y t h e t w o p o i n t s .

Ex 1 . . In F i g 3 24 , A B C i s a ny t ri a n gl e
. .

’
CX b i sec t s A A CB a n d CX b i se c t s t h e e xt e r i o r
A B CD . Pr ov e th at A B is d i v i ded h arm o n i
F IG 3 24
c al ly at x and x
'
.

Ex 2 . . S how how to d i vi de a ny g i ven seg men t h arm oni ca lly .

S uggesti o n . Co n st ru c t a ny t ri a ngl e o n t h e s eg m en t A B a s b a se .
 188 P LA N E GE O ME T RY

Ex 1 I f a an d b are two g i ven segm en t s c o nst r u c t a s egm en t

.
,

x so th at ( 1) x = s/a b ; (2) x = vzo b ; ( 3 ) x = vi go r) ; (4 ) x = V55 3 %

Ex 2 . .
T ak in g
g i ven l ength to rep res ent 1 find s egm ent s
a ny
,

e qu a l to V2 s/ 8 4 12 Meas ure t h e res ult s a nd c om p are th em

, , .

w i th t h e a p p rox i m at e s qu are root s of 2 8 an d 12 , , .

2
S ugges ti o n . If x = V2 x 2=
2 , Then 5; 3
,
;

REL ATI O N B ETWEE N T HE S ID E S O F A RI G H T TRIAN G LE

222 T H E O R E M 110 Th e s um of th e s qu ar e s of th e legs
. .

of a ri ght tri an g le i s e qu al to th e s qu ar e o f th e h o t e n u
yp se .

F IG . 3 27

H yp oth es i s : A A B C i s a ny ght tri an g l e wi th

ri AC a

rt . A c th e h y p o t en u s e , an d a an d b t h e l e g s .

Conc lusi on : a 2
+b = c
z 2
.

A n a lys i s a nd c on s tr ucti o n

2=
I . T o p ro ve a + b 2
c
2
, fin d a va l ue f or a
2
an d a val ue
f o r b an d a dd
2
.

II . Th e t erm s a a n d b a b o ve sugges t t h e u se o f t h e m ean

2 2

p ro p o rt i o n a l th e o rem .

dra w a p erp en di c u l ar fro m C t o A B an d fin d a 2

a n d b i n t erm s o f A B a n d i t s s e g m en t s
2
.

T
S A T E ME N TS
2= 2=
1
. a n c and b mc .

2 .

3 . a
2
+b = c
2 2
.

Le t t h e pupi l g i ve t h e rea sons F o r 2 u se :t h e s um of n u m be r s .

havi ng a c omm on fa c to r i s t h e c omm on f ac tor m ulti pli e d by t h e s um

of t h e c oe ffi c i e nt s .
 RA T I O AN D PRO PO R T I ON 189

N O TE . Th
of t h e m ost i rn p o rt a n t theorem s of geom etry
. 110 i s o ne

an d o ne o f t he m ost f re que n tly us e d Mo re than o n e hu nd re d p roof s .

a re kn own I t i s ca lled t h e Pyt h agor e an th e orem Pyth ago ra s a

. .
,

G ree k i s supposed to h a ve give n a ge n e ra l p roo f a lthough t h e f a c t w a s

, ,

be l i eved to b e t rue m u c h ea rli e r W e do n o t k n ow t h e na tu re o f t h e .

proof th a t Pytha gora s gave but i t i s p rob abl e tha t i t w a s som ethi ng ,

l i k e t h e o ne gi ven above Pythago ra s settled i n C ro t o na S outhe rn .

,

I taly wh ere h e f ou nded a b rothe rhood t h e m em be rs of wh i c h we re

, ,

pledged to se c rec y They spe n t t he i r ti m e i n t h e study of phi losophy

.
,

e th i c s a n d m a th e m a ti c s a n d dis c ov e re d m a n y i m po rta n t
, theo re m s
i n ge om e t ry P yth ago ra s di ed a bout 5 01 B C
. . .

E x e rc i se . Wh at is th e hyp ot enuse of a ri ght tri an gle if t h e

p erp en d i c ul ar si des a re 3 and 4?
‘

N O TE . Th e fa c t tha t
t ri a ngle whos e si de s a re 3 4 a nd 5 i s a a , ,

ri ght t ri a n gl e a n d t h e re l a ti o n 3 4 = 5 we re kn ow n to t h e E gypti a n s 2- 2 2
l -

m o re th a n th ree thous a n d y ea r s b e f o re th e ti m e o f Pyth a go ra s .

T h e E gypti a n s use d rop e s k n otte d a t e qu a l d i sta n ce s The se we re .

stretc he d about three pole s so a s to form a ri ght t ri a ngl e T h e ,

.

E gypti a n s c a ll ed t h e m e n who k n e w how to u s e th e se rop e s ro pe

s tretc h ers S u rv e yo rs u se s i m i l a r m e thods to da y
. H o w m a n y k nots -
.

m u st th e re b e i n t h e rop e a nd how i s i t us ed to c o n stru c t a ri ght

tri a ngle ?
Th e py ram ids o f E gypt h a ve a n a ngl e n e a r ly e qu a l to a n a c ute
a ngl e o f a t ri a n gle whos e s i d e s a re 3 4 a nd 5 Th e Chi n e se a n d , ,
.

t h e H i n dus p rob a bly kn e w a bout thi s ri ght t ri a ngl e a t a very ea r ly

d a te .

AP P L I CATI O N S T
O F PY H AG O REA N TH EO RE M
W h at
'

223 . Ex 1 . . is th e di a go nal of a rec t a n gl e who se si des

a re 25 ft . an d 60 f t ? .

Ex 2 . . d i ago nal of a rect an gle i s 50 f t ;

Th e . o ne s i de i s 14 f t .

Fi n d t h e oth er si de .

Ex 3 . . F i nd all of t h e segm ent s i n Fi g 3 28 i f .

,

n= 16 , = 12 d b = 10, = 24
a .
p . . a .

b . m = 8, b = 17 . e . c = 50, b = 30 .

= 9, u= m = 28 , = 63
c .
p 12 .
f . n .
Fm , 3 23
Ex 4 . . Th edi u s of a c ir c le i s 11 i n
ra .

Fi n d t h e l en gth of a t a ngent d rawn from a po int 6 1 in . f ro m the

c en ert .
190 PLA N E GE O ME T RY

Ex 5 g i ven c ir c l e let r rep resent t h e

. . In a rad i u s c a c hord
, ,

and d t h e d i st a n c e of t h e c ho r d f ro m t h e cent er . Fi n d t h e m i s s i n g
t erm s as i n d i c at ed b elow
a . d = 8, c= 3 2, r= ? c . d = l 2, r = 36 .

b . c= 28 , r = 18 . d d = 5,
. r= 45 .

Ex 6 . . O ne s i de
of a s qu are i s 12 Fi n d t h e s i d es of a n i so sc e l es .

t ri a ngl e fo rm e d b y j o i ni ng t h e m i d po i nt of o ne s i de to t h e oppo si t e -

vert i c es .

Ex 7 . . O ne si de
of a s qu are i s 14 Fi nd t h e si des of a n i soscel es .

tri angl e form e d b y j o i ni ng o ne v ert ex to t h e m i d p o i nts of t h e s i des -

n o t p a s s i n g th r ough th a t vert ex .

Ex 8 . . If o ne s i de of a s qu are i s 8 , fin d t h e d i ago nal . Fi n d t h e

d i agon al if o ne s i de i s 6 ; 10; 12 ; 20; s .

Ex 9 . . If a d i a gonal of a s qu are i s 15 , fin d t h e si de .

E x 10 . . I f t h e hy p ot en u se of an i s o s ce le s ri ght t ri angl e i s 12,

find t h e si de .

_ TH EO
R EM 111 . If d e of a
one s i sq u ar e is 3 , i ts d i ag o n a l
is s V2 . If th e d i a g ona l of a s quare i s d , th e si de is 1
/2 d V2 .

E x 11 . . Th e b a se of an i s o s c el es tri an gl e i s 12 ; t h e e qu al s i des
a re 18 . W h at is i t s a lt itude ?
E x 12 . . Fin d o ne of th e legs of an i s o scel es t ri a n gle if t h e a lt i
tud e is 8 and th e b a se i s 12 .

E x 13 . . Fi nd t h e lt i tude of a n e qu i l a t era l t ri a n gl e o ne of
a

who se si des is 4 . F i n d t h e a lt i tud e i f t h e s i d e i s 5 ; 10 12 ; s .

E x 14 . . If the lt i tude of a n equ i l at era l t ri a ngl e

a i s 14 , fin d t h e .

si de . Fi n d t h e s i d e if t h e a lt i tud e i s 6 ; 8 ; a .

T H E O R E M 112 If o n e s i d e of an e qui l atera l tri an g l e i s 3 ,

.

i ts al ti tu d e i s V3 If th e al ti tud e i s a , o n e s i d e o f th e ,

e qui l at e ra l tri an g l e i s a

E x 15 . . O ne si de of a r hom b u s i s 24 ; o ne of it s an gl es is
Fi n d t h e d i a gonal s .

E x 16 . . O ne an gl e of a r homb us is Th e longer d i a gona l

i s 12 . Fi n d t h e si de .
192 PLA N E GEO ME T RY

8 . S how
th at an i nac cess ibl e d i st ance A B (Fi g . . 3 3 2) m ay b e
O b t ai n e d as follow s : Ma k e CA L A B a nd e xt en d _

A C un t i l CD i s s o m e c o n v en i en t p art of A C
or Ma k e DE L A D Fi n d E t h e p o in t at _ .
,

wh i c h B C an d DE would in t ers e c t W h at m eas ur e .

m ent m u s t b e t a k en ? Is i t nec essary th at A B and F 10 ~ 3 32

DE b e l_ A D ? _ Wh y ?
9 B efo re t h e i n v en t i o n
. of t h e t el esc op e an i nst ru ment c alled
t h e c ro ss s t af f w as s o m et im es u se d to m e as u re i n ac c ess i bl e h ei ght s
-

a n d d i s t a n c es T h e c r o ss b ar c w as m ad e to sli de
t
- N
. o A
a N
“ V

up a nd dow n t h e s t af f a ( Fi g S how how th i s

“

R
.

i nst rum en t c ould b e u se d to fin d t h e w i dth of t h e F IG 3 3 3 .

st rea m R H o w c ould i t b e u se d to find t h e h e i ght of a st eep l e ?

.

TRI G O N O METRI C RAT I O S

225 . Fr o m § 2 10 w e k n o w th a t i f

Z
' ’ ’ =
A AB C N AA B C ( Fi g 3 3 4 )
.
-

'
a a
Wh y Th e c
se o n d r
p o
b b FIG . 334

p or ti o n m ay tran s l at ed thus :T h e r a t i o o f t w o S i des o f

be
o n e o f t w o s i m ilar t ri a n g l e s e qu a l s t h e ra t i o o f t h e t w o c o rr e

s p On di n g S i d e s o f t h e o th er In ri ght t ri an g l e s w e h a v e : .

If ght tri an g l e s h a v e an a c ut e an g l e o f o n e e qu a l
t wo ri to
a n ac ut e a n g l e o f t h e oth er t h e r a t i o o f an y t w o s i d es ,
of

o n e i s e qu a l t o t h e r a t i o o f t h e t w o c o r r es p o n d i n g s i d e s of

t h e o th er .

’ ’ ’
Ex 1 . . In Fi g 33 5 , A A B C . an d A B C are

l
si m i a r ri ght t ri angl es A p p ly . the p r o p o rt i o n
g i ven ab ove . O bt ai n th ree a i
p rs of e qu a l rat i os .

N O TE . In F i g 3 3 5 t h e t ri a ngl e s a re l e tte red so

.

tha t S i de a i s O ppos i t e A A , s i d e b i s O ppos i te A B ,

s i de c i s opposi te A C A ngl e C i s t h e right a ngl e . .

F o r c o n ve n i e n c e i n t h e di s c uss i o n t h a t f ollows t h e , FIG . 335

ri ght t ri a ngl e s w i ll b e l ett e re d i n th i s w a
y .
 RA T I O AN D PRO PO RT I O N 193

Th e ra ti o
g
— is th e s am e f or all ri ght t ri an gles h avi n g t h e
sam e a c ut e an g le A . Wh y ? Th e s am e m ay b e s ai d of the
ra ti os
5 5 and " We m ay sa y , there fo re t ha t ,

I If. g l e o f a ri ght t r i an g l e i s k n o wn w e c an
an a c ut e an ,

fin d t h e r a t i o s o f t h e s i d e s .

I I If t h e r a t i o o f a n y p a i r o f s i d es o f a ri ght tri an g l e i s
.

kn o wn w e ca n fin d t h e a n g l e
, .

Th e se s am e ra ti o s a re o f so m uc h i m p ort a nc e i n re a l ti o n
t o th e A A th a t th e y h a ve b e en gi v e n sp e ci a l na m es . Th e
n am e s o f t h e r a t i o s a r e a s fo ll o ws :
S l d e O p p o si te [A
is ca ll e d si n e o f AA an d is w ri tt en
c h y p o t en u s e
si n A .

S l de dj ac e n t t o [ A
a
is l d
c al e c o si ne of AA a nd is
c h y p o t enu s e
wri tten c o s A .

Q si de t AA
o p p o si e

s i de a dj a c en t t o A A
“
0

wri t t en t an A .

Co ns tr u c t two ri ght t ri angles w i th a ngle A = 50 i n ea c h °

Ex 2 . .

b ut w i th si d es of d iff eren t l engt h s In eac h tri a n gl e m ea s u re a b

.
, ,

a a
an d c a n d c o mp ute the ra i t os c c b

Ex 3 . . Follow t h e d i rec t i o ns g i ven i n Ex 2 f or . t ri an gles wi th

an gles of
C o m p are t h e r es ult s obt a in e d i n E xs 3 an d 4 wi th t h e ta bl es .

gi ven o n p age 299 s how i ng t h e va lu e s of th es e ra t i os f o r an gles

o f 311 de g rees from 1 to T h e r at i os i n t h e t a bl es a re g i ve n
°

a pp rox i m a t e ly w i th th re e figu re s Wi th you r c rud e m ethods of .

me as uri n g you c an not e x p ec t to b e as a c c u ra te .

a
Ex 4 Co n s t r u c t a ri ght t ri an gle so th at th e ra i to IS
7;
. .

Meas ur e AA w ith a p rotra c tor a nd c o m p are the ult w i th t h e

r es

t a ble . Loo k f o r t h e t an gent th at i s ne arest an d n o t e t h e angl e .

194 PLAN E GE O ME T RY

226 . It ti c e th a t e ver y a c u t e a n g l e h as
i s i m p o rt an t t o no

a p art i c u l a r v a l u e f o r e a c h o f t h e t h r e e ra t i o s If t h e a n g l e .

i s gi v en t h e ra t i o s s i n e c o si n e a nd t a n g en t c a n b e r e a d
, , , ,

fr o m t h e t a b l e ; f o r e x a m p l e ,

i s 391
°
si n 23 . .

Ex 1 . . Fi n d f ro m th e t able
sin cos t an
si n cos t an

So a so l if th e ra ti o is gi v en , th e l
an g e c an be f o u n d fr o m
the t ab le .

Ex 2 . . W h at i s A A if
sin A . 5 15 ; sin A . 966 ; s in A . 777 .

cos A cos A co s A
t an A . 3 25 ; t a n A t an A

If th e gi v e n ra ti o i s no t f o un d i n th e t ab le , u se t h e o n e

n ea r e s t t o i t ; f or e x am p e , l
if si n A . 23 9 A A i s
,
b o ut
a

i f t an A AA i s about

Ex 3 . . Fin d A A when
sin A cos A t an A 726 .

227 . Th e t ri go n o m e tri c ra t i o s a re use d t o fin d th e si des

an d an g les o f ri ght t ri a n g l e s .

Ex 1 In A A B C ( Fi g 3 3 6 ) i t i s
. . . k now n th a t
a = 23 a n d c = 3 0 find A A
; .

S olu ti o n :
Se le c t t h e ra ti o i nvolvi ng th e opposi te side a n d t h e
hypote nuse .

si n A

23
30
. 76 7 (by di vi si on) .

AA =
4
50
°
a bout (f rom table ) .
 PLA N E G E O ME T RY

F o r m ea s uri n g g l es t h e s urv ey o r u ses a tr an si t whi c h i s

an

r e a ll y t w o p r o t r ac t o r s a l e v e l i n g tub e a n d a t e l e sc o p e f o r ,

e a s y a n d ac c ur a t e s eei n g F o r a c c ur a t e w o r k h e m e a s u re s
.

a n g le s t o t h e n eare s t m i n ut e o r e v en c l o s er a n d u se s m o r e

ex t e n d e d r a ti o t a b l es R o ugh a p p r o x i m a t i o n s m a y b e
.

m a d e w i th i n s t rum en t s th a t a n y i n g en i o u s p u p i l c a n mak e .

A g o o d p ro tra c t o r a p l u m b li n e a n d a c o u p l e o f p e gs f or
, ,

si gh t s a r e a ll th a t i s n e e d e d f o r a ro u gh a n g l e m ea su r e r In .

Meas uri n g Imp lem en ts of L on g A go Mr W E S t ark . . .

d e sc ri b es s o m e an c i en t f o rm s o f s u c h i n s t rum en t s .

In fi n di n g h ei ght s g l e of e l evati on i s
th e an

u s e d If B i s t h e t o p o f a t o w er ( Fi g
. th e .

A CA B i s t h e a n g l e o f e l e v a ti o n N o t i c e th a t .

l i n e A C i s h o ri z o n t a l P ro 3 3 9 .

I t i s s ugg est e d th a t a ft er s o l vi n g t h e f o ll o wi n g e x er c i s es
t h e p u p i l a p p l y h i s k n o w l e dge t o s o m e p r a c t i c a l p r o b l em s
o f h i s o w n d ev i si n g .

Ex 1 . . A tower st a nd s o n l e vel grou n d . Th e an gl e of el ev at i on

of its top at a po i n t 160 ft f ro m i t s b as e i s
. Fi n d t h e h ei ght
of t h e tow er .

Ex 2 . . What gl e of el evat i on of t h e sun i f a t ree

is t h e an

3 2 ft h i gh c a s t s a s h a dow 18 ft lon g ?
. .

Ex 3 . Wh a t i s t h e h ei ght of a b alloon i f i t s an gl e of el evat i on

.

i s 19 wh en s een f ro m a pl a c e 10 m i l es fro m a po i n t d i r ec tly

°

below i t ?
Ex 4 . T h e l en gt h of a s t r i n g a tt ac h e d to a k i t e i s 3 00 ft
. .

Fi n d t h e h e i ght of t h e k i t e if i t s an gl e of e l e v a t i o n i s
N O TE E x 4 o f c ou rs e a ssu m e s th a t t h e st ri ng i s st ra i g ht wh i c h
. .
, , ,

i s n e ver rea lly t ru e W i ll t h e h e ight f ou n d b e too ggr e a t o r too s m a ll ?

.
z

Ex 5 . A p erp en d i c ul ar c l iff 6 50 ft h i gh s ubt en d s a n an gl e

. .

of ele v at i on of H o w f a r i s i t to t h e b a se of t h e Cl i ff ?
Ex 6 S how how to m ea s u re a n a n gl e A
. .

i n d i re c tly w i thout t h e u se of a p rot ra c to r by

m e a s u ri n g t h e se gm e n t s m ar k e d o n F i g 3 4 0 . .

I f A A i s g i v en how i s t h e rem a i n d er of th e a
,

figu re c onst r u ct ed ?
 RA T I O AN D PRO PO RT I O N 197

S UMMARY AN D S UP P L EMEN TARY EXERCI S ES

229 S UMMARY O F
. I MPO RTAN T P O IN TS IN CH AP ER IX T
A . T e st s .

I . T o prove two pro du c t s e qu al , u se t h e f a c t o r s o f o n e

as t h e e x t rem e s a n d t h e f ac t o r s o f t h e o t h ers a s

t h e m e an s of a p p r
ro o ti on an d p r o ve th e ra ti os
qu a l ( Th 9 1 an d
e .

II To p rove tw o rati o s
. e qu al , l o o k f or
a . Two l
si m i ar t ri a n gl es and Th s . 101 an d

b . Two tran sver s a l s cu t by three p ar a ll e l s

a n d Th .

c . A l i n e p a ra ll e l t o t h e b ase Of a t ri an g l e
a n d Th .

d . Tw o ra ti o s e qu a l to a t hi r d ra ti o and

As .

B Al g e b rai c e quati on s i ndi c atin g c ons tru c ti o ns

%i
. .

b
I . If , ax = bc , or x
f , c o ns r t uc t x, a fo urt h

p r o p o rti o n a l t o a, b , an d c

x
II i i — ’ x
2=
ab , or x Va b cons r t uc t x, a m e an
b
.
,
x

p ro p o r ti o n a l b etween a an d b ( def . Ex 4 .
, § 2 12 ;
§ l)
22 .

EXE RCI S ES I N V O LV I N G
L RATI O S E Q UA
A N D E Q U AL P R O D U CT S

23 0 N O T E . B e p re p a re d to p rove t h e th eo re m s o n whi c h
. any of
t h e f ollowi n g e x e rc is e s d e pe nd .

1 Ma k e a re v i e w d i ag ram f o r Th s 102 105 a n d 106

. .
, ,
.

2 In Fi g 3 4 1 O i s an ar b i t ra ry p o i n t i n A B
. .
,
.

X Y and Z W are a n y two l i nes th rough po i nt 0 .

I f A Y an d B X a re p e rp en d i c ul a r to X Y a n d ,

A W a n d B 2 p e rp end i c ul ar to Z W p rov e th a t ,

AY AW
F IG . 34 1
BX BZ

14
198 PLA N E G E O ME T RY

3In Fi g 3 4 2, A B CD i s a p ara ll elogram

. .

a nd Y i s a n a rb i t rar y po i n t i n D C e xt en d e d .

2
Prove th at A o OX or .
pm , 342

4 . D ra w t ri an gl e a nd i t s th ree a lt i tudes Fi nd a ll poss i bl e

any .

a i
p rs of s i m i l ar t ri an gl es a nd rea d t h e rat i o s of c o rre s po nd i n g s i de s .

5 In F i g 3 4 3 , P i s t h e m i d po i n t of t h e a rc CD
. .
-
.

P A a n d P B a re a rb i t ra ry c ho rd s i n t ersec t i n g c ho r d
CD at X an d Y res p ec t i vely . P rov e th a t PY PB
PA PX .

6 . Fi g 344 i s. d i ago na l s A C
a s qu are wi th it s
FIG 343
A E b i sec t s A B A C T h e oth er s e g m e n t s
.

and B D . . D

a re s i m i l a rly d r a w n Fi n d p a i rs of s i mi l a r t ri .

a n gl es a n d rea d t h e r a t i o s of c o rres po n d i n g S i d e s . F

S ugges ti o n F i st p rove tha t A E CG and D B

. r , ,

a re c o n c u rre n t a n d th a t A E a n d CF a re p a ra ll e l .

W h a t o th e r s e g m e n ts m ust b p rove d c o n c u rre nt ? e

W h a t o ne s m ust b e p ro ved p a ra ll e l ? FIG 344 .

T7 I f two p aralle l l i n es a re c ut b y a p en c i l of ray s c o rrespo n d

.
,

i n g se g m e n t s o n t h e p ar a ll e l s h a v e e qu a l ra t i o s I n v est i g a te two .

c as e s .

T8 . S t at e and p rov e t h e c on verse of Ex 7

. .

9 . In Fi g 3 4 5 , A B C i s a ny t ri a n gl e
. AX = B Y . .

XW HB C a n d Y Z T
IA C P r ov e th a t W Z |lA B . .

10 . I f i n Fi g
,
. 345 , A X = B Y, X W | GB , an d
WZ HA B i s YZ llA C ? G i ve p roof
FIG
.
,
. 345
11 T h e o m m o n t an gent to two c i rc l es d i v i d es t h e segm ent
. c

jo i n i ng t h e c ent e rs i n to segm ent s th a t h a ve t h e sa m e ra t i o a s t h e

ra d ii I n vest i g at e d i ff ere n t c ases
. .

12 In F i g 3 4 6 C0 b i sec t s A B CA
. . Pr ov e ,
.

th at 5 by p r olon g i n g BC so th at CD = CA
;
a nd j o in i n g AD .

13 . If ,
in Fi g . 34 6, pr ov e th at CO
FIG . 346
bi sec ts A B CA .
200 P LA N E G E O ME T RY

3 In Fi g 3 5 1, E D i s a p erp en d i c ul ar b i sec to r of t h e c ho rd A B
. . .

In eac h c a s e g i v e n b e low c o nst r u c t t h e figu re to s c al e f ro m

th e d a t a g i ve n Co m pute t h e l ength s of t h e seg m ent s
.

re qu i re d a n d v e ri fy y ou r re s ult s by m ea s u rem e n t .

a CE = 4 . A B = 20 Fi n d A E E O a n d A D
, .
, , .

b A B = 36 . E G = 3O Fi n d E C A E a n d A D
,
.
, ,
.

c A B = 26
. CE = 10 F i n d A B E O and A D
,
.
, ,
.

d A E = 6 1 A B = 120
. Fi n d CE E D a n d A D
,
.
, ,
. F IG . 35 1

4 . Th e ra d i u s of a c i rc l e i s 12 i n . Fin d t h e length of a t a n g en t
dra w n from a po i n t 13 i n c h e s f ro m the c en er t .

5 . In Fi g 35 2, A X a n d B X a re t a n g en t to ( DO f r o m p o i n t X
. .

A B is t h e c ho r d jo i n i n g t h e po i n t s of c o nt a c t In eac h c ase g i ve n .

b elow c o n st ru c t t h e figu re to s c a l e fro m t h e d at a

g i v en C o m put e t h e l en gth s of t h e s egm ents t e
.

qu i red a nd v eri fy you r re sult s by m eas u rem en t .

a AX = 6 . O X = 10 Fi n d A O a nd A B ,
. .

b A X = 40
. AO = 9 Fi n d O X a nd A B ,
. .
F IG . 3 52
c A O = 15
. OX = S9 Fi n d A X a nd A B ,
. .

d AO = 5 . AB =8 Fi n d A X an d OX ,
. .

6 . Th e ra d ii of two c on c ent r i c Ci rc l es a re 9 a nd 15 resp ect i vely .

Fi n d t h e l en gth of a c ho rd of t h e out er c i rc l e wh i c h i s a t angent

of t h e i nner .

7 . In t h e m i ddle
of a p o n d 10 ft s qu a re gre w a reed Th e reed . .

p roj ec t e d o n e foot a bov e t h e s u rf a c e of t h e w at er Wh en b lown .

a si de by t h e w in d i t s t o p re ac h e d to t h e m id po i nt of a s i d e of
,
-

t h e po n d H o w d eep w a s t h e p o n d ? ( A n old Ch i n es e p rob l em )

. .

8 Th e
. l en gth of t h e c o mmon c hord of two i nt ersec t i ng c i rcles
i s 16 i n t h e ra d ii a re 10 a n d 17 i n r esp ec t i v ely
.
,
Fi n d t h e di s . .

t an c e b etw een t h e c ent ers .

9 . p an of a c i rc ul ar
Th e s a rc h i s 120 ft . If t h e ra d iu s of the
c i rc l e of wh i c h i t i s a p a rt i s 720 f t .
,
fin d t h e h ei ght of t h e m i ddl e
of t h e a rch .

10 Fi n d t h e . a lt i tud e of an i s os cel es t rap e zo i d i f t h e p ara ll el

si d es a re 40 in . an d 58 i n . resp ec t i vely and th e n o n p a ra ll el s i d es
-

a re 4 1 in .
 RA T I O A N D PRO PO RT I O N 01

Two p a ra ll el c hords i n a c i rc le a re o ne in c h ap a rt Fi nd t h e
11 . .

ra d i u s of t h e c i rc le if t h e c ho r d s a re 8 a n d 6 i n c h e s lo n g re s p e c t i v el y ,

Is th ere m o re th an o ne s olut i o n of th i s p robl e m ?

S ugges ti o n F i nd two e xp re ss i o ns ea c h equ a l to t h e squa re of t h e
.

ra d i us o f t h e c i rc l e a n d f o rm a n e qu a t i o n S olve t h e e qua ti o n . .

12 . D i v i d e a g i ven seg m en t i n t h e rat i o of 1 to 4 2 .

13 . Fi g . ght t r i a ngl e
3 53 s hows an i s o s c eles ri .

X Y i s p a ra llel to A C an d s o c o nst ru c te d as to e qu a l
Fm 353
CY . S how how to c o n st r u c t X Y a n d fin d t h e
rat i o of C Y to Y O ( s ee § 8 6 Ex ,
.

14 . hows a n i so s celes ri ght t ri angl e

Fi g . 3 54 s
A O a
w ith i t s i n sc ri b e d c i rc l e Fi n d t h e ra t i o of CX to .

FIG . 354
X0 an d h en ce t h e l en gth of X0 if A B = 4 .

In Fi g 3 55 t h e a rc s A C a nd B C a re d ra w n
'

15 . .

wi th A B as rad i u s a n d B a n d A as c en t e rs resp ec
t i v ely . Th e c i rc e l 0 is t a n gent to A C, CB , an d

to the se m i c ir c e l . If AB = s an d th e rad i u s of
(9 0 i s r, fin d r in t e rm s of s a nd c o n s t ru c t t h e
F IG 3 55

figure A c h u rc h w i ndow
.
d es g ni
—
OB = s —r , %
2 Z z
S ugges ti o n . DB = s, OB = OD + D B
Ma ke substi tuti on s a nd solve t h e e qua ti on
th e .

16 Fi n d t h e s ho rt est p a th th at an i n sec t c a n t a k e ( w i thout

.

fly i n g ) fr o m o n e c o rn e r of a r oo m to t h e d i a go na lly oppos i te c o rn er
i f t h e roo m i s 15 ft lo n g 12 ft w i d e a n d 10 ft h i gh .
,
.
,
. .

17 . Choo se
two po in t s A an d B u p o n a g i ven st ra i ght l i ne and , , ,

two oth er p o i nt s C a nd D upo n a s tra i ght l i ne p erp end i c ul ar to

, ,

AB . P rove th at t h e hypot en u s e of a r i ght t r i an gl e who se l egs

a re equ a l to A C a n d B B i s e qu a l to t h e hypot en u s e of a r i ght

t ri an gl e whose l egs a re e qu a l to A D a nd B C — College E nt ra nce .

E xa m i nat i o n B o ar d Pl ane G eo m et ry E x a m i n a t i o n 1910 , ,

.

18 . hom bu s w i th A a n d C a s oppos i te vert ic es

A B CD i s a r .

O i s a p o i n t w i th i n t h e rho m bu s s u c h th a t O B = O D Prove .

th a t A O an d C are o n t h e sam e st ra i ght l i ne a nd th a t OA 0 C

, , ,
_ 2 z
AB — OB —Coll ege E n t ran c e E x a m i na t i o n B o ard Pl ane G eo m
.
,

e t t y E xa m in a t i o n 19 16 , .
202 PLA N E G E O ME T RY

lop i n g emb an km ent r i ses fro m a l evel fi eld O ne end

19 A . S .

o f a p r o p 20 ft lo n g re st s o n t h e g rou n d 16 ft f ro m t h e foot of
,
.
,
.

t h e em b an k m en t a n d t h e oth e r en d re st s 9 ft u p t h e e mb an k m ent
,
. .
,

m eas u r e d a lon g i t s S lop i n g s i d e H o w h i gh i s t h e up p er e n d of .

t h e p r op ab ove t h e l e ve l fi eld ? Res ul t i n f ee t to o ne d e c i m a l .

C oll ege En t r an c e E x a m i nat i o n B o ard P l a n e G e o m et r y E x am i ,

n at i o n 19 14 , .

20 . I f i n Fi g 3 5 6 A B = A C = 1 show th a t
, .
, ,

BC V 2 I f
. A D = B C wh at i s t h e l en gth of ,

BD? I f A E B D wh a t i s t h e l en gth of B E ?
= :
,

S how how t h e figure m a y b e c ont i n u e d s o a s to F IG . 356

c o n st ru c t se g m en t s e qu a l to 5 VB x77 et c , , ;
.

2 1 In F i g 3 5 7 , A B CD i s a s qu are
. . . D is th e t
c en er an d DB
is t h e ra d i u s f o r t h e a r c B E ; A i s t h e c e n er t 1) c E

an d A E is th e ra di us f or th e a rc EF D is th e
t an d DF i s t h e d i u s f o r t h e a rc F G
‘

c e n er ra ,

et c . Fi n d t h e l engt h of DE A F DC A H , , , ,
A

et c if A B = 1 - F IG 3 57
.
,
.

EXE R CI S E S I N V O LV I N G TH E TRI G O N O METRI C TAB LE S

23 2 . 1 F i n d t h e l e gs
. an d lt i tude of
the a an i s os c e l es t ri a n gl e
if t h e b ase i s 24 a nd e a c h a c ut e a n gl e i s

2 . O ne of th e e qu al s i de s of a n i so sc ele s t ri a n gle is 45 a n d ea c h
b ase an gl e is Fi n d t h e b a s e a n d t h e a lt i tud e .

3 . Th e d i st a n c e a c ro s s t
a s rea m m ay b e fou n d
as follows ( Fi g La y o ff A C 1 A B . _ _ ,

e xt en d i n g A C to s o m e po i n t f r o m wh i c h B i s v i s i bl e .

Me a s u re A C a n d a n gl e C F i n d A B i f A C = 3 00 .
0

ft an d A C = 5 6
.
°
F IG . 3 58

4 . Fi n d t h e d i st anc e AC ac r ss ao p o n d as s how n in
Fi g . 3 59 . CB is p p
e r e n d i c ul ar to AC . A B = 34
°
,

CB 16 5 ft .

F IG . 359
204 PLA N E G E O ME T RY

In Fi g 36 2, A B CD i s a S qu are
3 . . . A K = BF
CG = DH X Y a n d Z W are m ed i an s
. GN i s p ar
.

alle l to ADf ro m G I f . DC = % D C, wh a t i s t h e
rat i o of H M to MK ? I f HM = BK, wh at is t h e
ra t i o of D C to D C

4 . Rest at e Th s th at two F m m P m p
. 103 an d 104 so
F IG . 3 62
a o ei a n

ra t i o s ra th er th an two p rodu c t s a re to b e p r ov e d
,
m
,
o s ai c

e qu al In Th 103 t h e s e g m en t s of t h e c ho rd s a n d i n Th 104 t h e
. .
, .

s e g m en t s of t h e s e c a n t s a re i n v ersely o r rec i p r o c a lly p r o p o rt i o n a l

,
.

Wh y ?
5 . In Fi g 3 63 , 63 0 . an d X i nt ersec t at p o i n t s

A an d B . AD and AC are t an gent to © X a nd

0 p ect i vely at p oi nt A
res . Pr ove th a t A B i s a
m ean p r oport i o n a l b etw een DB and BC .
F IG . 3 63

6 . how s t h e outl in e of a roof t ru ss

Fi g 3 64 . s .

A B C i s an i so s cel es t r i an gl e T h e e qu a l s i d es
“
.

a re e a c h d i v i d e d i n to 3 e qu a l p a rt s CD E F .
, , A

a n d H K a re L A B I f A C = 3 5 a n d CD =
_ . AB , ,
F IG 3 64

fin d t h e l en gt h of A B CD E F a n d E D
Fm r ° °f t ru s
;
s
es i g n
.
, , ,

In Fi g 3 65 , A B C i s a ny i n scri b e d
7 . . t ri an gl e .

A 1= A 2 Pr ove th at A C RE = CK A T
.
~
a n d th a t

AC TB = CT AR .

FIG . 3 65
8 .Two t an gent s ea c h 24 in . lon g d rawn from
a re the s ame

p o i n t to a c i rc l e of ra d i u s 7
. in . F i n d t h e l en gt h of th e c hord
j o i nin g t h e poi n ts of c on t a c t .

T9 . A p erp en d i c ul ar i s dr aw n fr o m t h e vert ex of t h e ri ght

an gl e of a ri ght t ri a ngl e to t h e hyp ot enu se Prove . th at t h e rat i o
of t h e s qu ares of t h e l e gs e qu a l s t h e r at i o of t h e a dj acen t s e gm ent s

o f t h e hyp ot en u se .

10 In Fi g 3 6 6 , A B C i s
. . a ny i nsc ri b ed t ri a ngl e .

CN i s p erp e n d i c ul ar to A B an d CD i s a d i am et er .

Pr ov e th a t ( 1) CB A N = CN DB ; ( 2) A C NB =
CN AD ; (3 ) A C CB = CD CN v
.

F IG . 366
 RA T I O A N D PRO PO RT I O N 205

11 Fi g 36 7 S how s a d ia g ram of t h e roof of a

. . b arn . DE L A F . .

Th e rafters A D a n d F D mak e e qu a l an gl es
w i th DE . If A E = 26 ft .
,
A D = 30 f t .
,
and

D C = 13 f t .
,
fin d CB . CB i s J . AF .

F IG . 3 67

12 Fi n d
. by geomet ry two seg ment s whose sum qu al t o
is e

a se gm en t 5 cm lon g a nd who se ra ti o is
. Fin d b y a lgebra

th e value of a an d b if a + b = 5 a nd

13 . Fi n d by geom et ry two se gm ents whose d i ff erence i s

cm .
,
a nd who se ra t i o i s 5 to 8 . Fi n d b y algeb ra t h e v alue of

—
0
—2
a and b if a b 1 5 and
- -
.
-

b 8

14 . In Fi g 368 , A B C i s a n i sos ce l es t ri angl e

. .

CE = CB , CF = CA F G, CO , a n d E H a re l . . .

AB f ro m F , C, an d B p ec t i vely Prove th a t i f
r es .

E F CH i s qu are a s CO = O B W h at m u s t b e t h e
.

F IG 3 68
ra t i o of CO to O B if CE = M CB a n d E F CH
.

i s F ro m a r o of t ru ss
a s qu are ? Co nst ru c t t h e figu re i n ea c h c as e .
des g n i

15 . qu are i n a g i ven t ri angl e

I n scribe a s .

S ugges ti o n Th e c o n stru c tio n i s sugge sted i n F i g

. .

T O p rove t h a t H G = H E p rove
D C D W
3 69
FIG
.
,
HG HE . 3 69

16 . So lve E x 15 . by the c o nst ru c t i o n s how n i n Fi g 3 70 . .

F IG . 3 70 FIG . 3 71 F IG . 3 72

17 . S how how to i nscribe a s qu are in a sec tor ( 1) as s hown in

Fi g 3 7 1;
.
( 2) a s s how n i n F i g 3 72 . .

18 . I n sc r i b e a s qu are in a g i ven s em i c irc e l .

S ugges ti o n . Solve by at lea st two m ethods ; u se t h e

m ethod em ploye d f o r Fig . 3 72 ; also th a t sugge ste d by
Fi g 3 73. .

F IG . 3 73
206 PLA N E GE O ME T RY

19 . tri a ngl e w i th a ri ght angl e at C Dra w

Let A B C b e a .

CD a nd CE e qu a lly i n c l i n e d to CB a n d m eet i ng A B ( o r A B p ro ,

lon ged ) ln D a n d E resp ec t i vely Le t M b e t h e m id po i nt of A B .

-
.

Pr ov e th a t M B i s a m ea n p r o p o rt i o n al b etw ee n MD a n d ME '

C olle g e E n t ra n ce E x a m i n a t i o n B o ar d Pl a n e G e o m et r y E x a m i n a ,

t i on 1910
, .

20 T h e . di st ance b etw een two

llel c ho rd s o n t h e s am e s i de p ara
of t h e c e nt er of a g i ven c i rc l e i s 6 c m I f t h e c ho rd s a re 3 6 c m . .

a n d 4 8 c m re s p e c t i v e ly fin d t h e r a d i u s of t h e c i rc l e
. W h a t would
,
.

b e t h e d i st a n c e b e tw e e n t h e c ho r d s if th e y w ere o n oppo s i t e s i d e s
of t h e c e nter ?
21 . I f two l
t a ng en t ext ern ally a nd a s egm ent i s
c i r c es a re

d raw n th rough t h e po i nt of c o nt a c t t erm i n at e d by t h e Ci rc l es ,

t h e c ho rd s i n t er cep t e d i n t h e two c i rc l e s h a v e t h e s am e r a t i o a s
t h e ra d ii .

22 Fi g 3 74 rep res en ts a g a bl e ov er a n e qu i l a t era l G oth i c

. . arc h .

Th e arc s CA a n d CB a re d r a w n w i th B a n d A a s
t
c e n e rs a n d AB d i us T h e s i d e s o f t h e g a bl e DE
a s ra .

an d DF a re t a nge n t to t h e s i d es of t h e arc h fro m a

po i nt in t h e c o m m o n c ho rd GC e xt e n d e d .

a . Prov e th at DE = DF .

b . Co nst r u c t t h e figu re so th at AB = 6 cm . a nd

DC = 4 cm
FIG
.

. 3 74
c . Co ns t ru c t t h e figure so th at AB = 6 cm . a nd

DE : 10 c m .

d C o n s t ru c t t h e figu re th a t AB = 6 A E DF = 30
°
. so cm . and .

23 . P rov e t h e P yth a go rean th eo rem by m ea ns

of F i g 3 75 . .

S ugges ti o n p re se nt t h e di sta nc e OB b r p re ;
. Le t a re ,
e

s ent t h e ra dius o f G O a nd c re p re s ent t h e ha lf c h rd ,

o

p erpendi c ul a r to A C a t B P rove tha t ( b — a ) ( b + a ) c .

2

or b2—a
2
6
2
.

24 . Co n s t r u c t a se g m en t x so th at x =3 V ab ; x = V 3 ;
a 2
x

c
wh ere a, b, an d c are g i ven se gm ents .
 C H AP TE R X

A RE A AN D E Q U I VA LE NCE

IN TRO DU CT O R Y

MEAS URI N G S URF ACE S

23 4 . ur fa c e i n c l o se d b y t h e si des o f a
T o m eas ur e t h e s

p o l y g o n i s t o fin d h o w m an y t i m es i t c o n t ai n s an o t h er sur
fa ce c h o sen a s a u ni t o f m eas ure .

Th e ar e a of a po l y g on i s t h e m ea sure n u m b er of th e
s u r fa c e of t h e p o l y go n .

It i s th e ti c e t o us e as a u ni t o f su rfa c e a
c o mm o n p r a c

s qu are wh o se s i d e i s a u ni t o f len gth Thu s i f t h e u n i t o f .

l en gth i s a n i n c h t h e un i t o f s ur fa c e i s a s quar e wh o s e s i de
,

i s a n i n c h a n d i s c a ll e d a s qu a re i n c h .

W h ile a ny s e gm en t m a y b e u se d as a u ni t o f l en gth wi th
i t s c o rr esp o n di n g u n i t o f s ur face i t i s m o s t c o n v en i en t p ra e
,

t i ca ll y t o u se o n e o f t h e re c o gni z e d s t a n dar d un i t s o f l en gth ,

s u c h as t h e i n c h fo o t y ar d m i l e t en th o f a n i n c h c en ti
, , , , ,

m et er e t c ,
wi t h th ei r c o rr e sp o n di n g u ni t s o f surfa c e
.
,

s qu a r e i n c h s qu ar e mi l e e t c
,
T h e p ar t i cu l ar u n i t c h o sen
,
.

d ep en d s u p o n t h e sur fa c e t o b e m ea sure d .

E Q UIVAL E N T P O L Y G O N S

23 5 . Ex 1
. . In Fi g 3 78 , A A B C i s i s o s c el es
.

an d CD i s e
p pr e hd i c ula r f r o m C to A B .

S how th at 33 0 a nd b a re c o ngru ent . D raw

th e A A B C; c ut out A o an d b and pl ac e
th em togeth er so th a t
A D c o i n c i d es w i th D B
s o as to fo rm A X YZ A re A A B C a n d X Y Z
.

c o n g ru ent ? Do th ey c ov er t h e s am e e xt ent
of s urfac e ? Fm , 3 7g
 A REA A N D E QU I V A L E N CE 209

T w o p o l y go n s t h a t c o v er t h e s am e e x t e n t of s ur fa c e ar e
c a ll e d e qui va l e n t p o l y g o n s T h e s ym b o l . i s u s ed f o r
e qu i v al e n c e . Si n c e a rea i s t h e m eas ure of s ur fa c e ,

1 Equi vale nt p o l yg o n s h ave

. e qual areas .

2 P oly g on s
. w i th e qual ar e as ar e e qu i valent .

Si n c e gr u en t p o l y g o n s c a n b e m a d e t o c o i n c i d e the y
con ,

m a y b e m a d e t o c ov er t h e s am e s ur fa c e a n d a re e qu i va l e n t .

Co n gr u en t p o l y g o n s a re t h e si m p l e s t e xam p l es o f e qui va l en t
o
p y l g o n s .

It do es n o t f o ll o w t h a t e qui va l en t p o l y go n s a re a l wa y s ‘

c o n gr u en t Th e f o ll o wi n g e xerc i s e gi v e s i ll u s t r a ti o n s o f
.

o
p y l g o n s t h a t m a y b e m a d e t o c o v e r t h e sam e s ur f a c e but
are n o t n ec es s ari l y c o n gru en t .

Ex 2 . . C o n st r u c t
two c ongru ent ri ght tri angles th at a re no t
i so s c el es Cut th e m out a n d pl ac e th em tog e th er i n d iff ere nt
.

po s i t i o ns s o a s to fo rm two i s os cel es t ri a n gl es a re c t an gl e a k i t e , , ,

two obl i que p ara llelog ram s a n d oth er polygons all of wh i c h are
, ,

e qu i v a l e nt Ma k e c areful d ra w i n gs of th ese figu res Th e use of

. .

c r o ss sec t i o n p a p er i s s ugg es t e d
-
.

23 8 I t i s e vi den t t h a t c o m b i n a ti o n s o f c o n gru en t p o ln n s
.

wi ll gi ve p o l y go n s th a t a r e e qui va l en t but n o t n e c e ss ar i l y
c o n gru en t T h e fo ll o wi n g d efi ni ti o n s are n ec e ss a ry :
.

If t w o p o l y g o n s are so p l ac e d th a t a si de o f o n e f a ll s u p o n
a s i d e o f t h e o th er bu t n ei th er p o l y g o n o v e r l a p s t h e o th er
, ,

t h e p o l y go n i n c l o se d b y t h e en ti re p eri m et er i s t h e s um of
th e tw o p o l y g on s .

If o ne p o l y g o n i s p l a ced en t i re l y wi t hi n th er t h e sp a c e
ano ,

b e tween th e p eri m e t ers is th e d ifi e rence b e tween th e

p y
o l g o n s .

A p o l y go n i s b i se c te d b y a s e gm en t i f t h e se gm en t d i vi d es
i t i n t o t w o e qu i v a l en t p art s ; f o r ex am p l e t h e d i a g o n a l ,

of a p ar a ll e l o gr am b i sec t s t h e p a
a r ll e l o gr am . S i m i l ar l y , a

p o l y go n m ay b
e tri s e c t e d o r m ay b e di v i de d i nt o an y

n um b er o f e qu i va l e n t p ar ts .
210 P L A N E G E O ME T RY

One figu r e is tran s f orm e d into a sec o n d if th e s ec o n d is

e qui va l en t to t h e first .

23 7 fo ll o wi n g a s s u mpti on s wi ll b e u s ed
. Th e i n th e d i sc us
si o n o f e qu i v a l e n t fi gu r es :

A s 59 . If e qu i va l en t p o l yg o n s a r e a dde d
. to e qu i v a l en t
o
p y l g o n s t h e r e s u lt,
s a r e e qu i va l e n t p o l y g o n s .

A s 60 . If e qui va l en t p o l y g o n s a r e s ub t ra c t e d fr o m e qui v
.

a len t p o l y g o n s t h e r e s u lt s a r e e qu i v a l en t p o l y g o n s
, _
.

As 6 1 . If e qu i v a l e n t p o l y go n s a r e d i v i d e d i n t o t h e s a m e
.

nu m b e r o f e qu i v a l e n t p o l y g o n s e a c h p a r t o f o n e i s e qu i v a l e n t
,

t o a n y p a r t o f t h e o t h er .

AS 62 . P o l y g o n s e qu i v a l e n t t o t h e s a m e p o l y g o n o r t o
.

e qu i v a l e n t p o l y g o n s a r e e qu i v a l e n t .

23 8 W e h a ve th en
. th e fo ll o wi n g p r e l i m i n ary te s t f or
e q u i va l e n t p o l y g o n s :

I . T o p rove tw o p o l y g o n s e qu i va l e nt , p ro v e t h a t t h ey a re

m a de u p o f p ar t s c o n g r u en t i n p a i r s .

11 T o
. c o n s tru c t tw o p o l yg o n s e qu i va l e nt , c o n s ru c t t t hem
of p ar t s c o n g r u e n t i n p a i r s .

Ex 1 . . G i v en A A B C w i th D t h e m id
o i t of AC DF AB a nd BF AC P rov e
‘

p n . .

A A B C = C 7A B F D ( Fi g .

FIG . 3 79
A n aly s i s
I To p rov e
. A A B C = C 7A B FD , p r ove tha t the y
a re th e su m s of c o ng rue n t p a rts .

II . p rove A B E D + A I = A B E D + A IL
III . p rove SB A I L
A I—

Ex 2 . . T ra nsform a tra p ezo i d i nto a p a ral

lelo gra m ( Fi g .

FIG . 3 80
A n a ly s i s
To t ra ns fo rm A B CD i n to a pa ra ll elog ra m c onstru c t ,
th e p a rt s
t h e p a ra ll e log ra m c o ng ru e n t to t h e p a rts o f A B CD .
212 PLANE G E O ME T RY

S o m e t i m es o n e b o th o f t h e si des o f t h e gi ven rect an gle

or

are n o t e x ac tl y d i vi si b le b y t h e u ni t c h o s en but a re d i v i si b l e ,

b y s om e a l i qu o t p art o f th i s u n i t In thi s c a se t h i s p art .

o f t h e c h o sen u ni t m a y b e t a k en a s a n e w u n i t o f len gth ,

a n d a s qu a r e wh o se s i d e i s t h i s n ew l i n ea r u n i t m a y b e c o n

s i de r ed a s t h e u ni t o f ar ea T h e a s s um p ti o n i s th en e vi d en t
.

a s a b o ve .

I llustra ti on uppos e t h e u ni t c hose n i s a squ a re i nc h

2 . S . In
Fi g 3 82 o n e i n c h i s n o t c o n ta i n e d e xa c tly i n e i the r A B o r A C
. . O ne
qua rte r i n c h i s howe ve r e xa c tly c on ta i n ed
-
, ,

i n both A B a n d A C O n e qu a rt e r i n c h ma y
.
-

b e us e d a s a c o n ve n i e n t li n ea r u ni t The .

m ea su re n u m b e r o f A B i s 5 a nd o f A C i s 3 .

A squ a re qu a rte r i n c h m a y b e c o n s i de re d a s
-

t h e u n i t o f a rea B y d ra w i ng t h e p rop e r
.

li ne s w e ca n show th a t t h e rec ta ngl e c o n A -

s i sts of 3 rows wi th 5 u n i ts o f su rf a c e i n a F G 3 82 I .

ro w . T h e m ea su re n u m b e r o f t h e a rea i s 15 .

In thi s c a s e w e m a y e xp re ss t h e u ni t t h e m ea su re o f t h e s i d e s , , a nd

t h e a rea i n f ra c ti o na l te rm s o f a l a rge r u ni t .

T h e u n i t o n e qu a rt e r i n c h i s M i n -
.

T h e m ea su re o f A B 5 qu a rte r i n che s i s , in -
,
.

Th e m e a su re o f A C 3 qu a rte r i n c h e s i s , in -
, .

Th e a re a 15 squ a re qu a rte r i n c h e s i s
, sq i n -
,
. .

B . Wh en on e or b oth s i d es o f th e r ecta n gle ar e i n com

m en s ura b le w i th th e ch os en un i t .

In th i s cas e i t i s n o t p o s si b l e t o m eas ure o n e s i de o r p erh ap s

b o th s i d es o f t h e re c t ang l e i n i n t e gra l o r fra c t i o n a l t erms o f
t h e c h o sen uni t S i n c e t h e r a t i o o f t w o i n c o m m en s ura b l e
.

s e gm e n t s i s a n i rr a t i o n a l n u m b er th es e s i d e s m a y b e
e x p r e s se d i n i rra t i o n a l t e rm s o f t h e c h o s e n u n i t a n d a r e
‘

m e a s u r e d a p p r o xi m a t e l y F r o m th es e a p p r o xi m a t e l en gth s
.

a n a p p r o x i m a t e a r e a i s c o m p ut e d b y t h e ru l e c o n t ai n e d i n

t h e a ss um p ti o n W e h a v e s e en
. th a t b y s ubdi vi d i n g
t h e u n i t o f l en gt h w e c a n o bt ai n a p p r o xi m a t e m ea su r e s f o r
t h e s i d e s o f t h e r ec t a n g l e th a t a r e a s c l o se a s w e c h o o se t o
m a k e t h em It i s e vi d en t t h a t t h e a p p r o xi m a t i o n f o r t h e
.

a re a m a y a l so b e m a d e as c l o s e a s w e c h o o se t o m a k e i t .
 A REA AN D E QU I V A LEN CE 213

I llustra tion 3 . S uppo se t h e

u ni t c hosen i s o ne squa re cen ti m et er .

In Fi g 3 8 3 A B i s 2 c m an d i s c o m m en su ra ble wi th t h e u n it ; A C
.
, .

i s e qu a l to t h e d i a go n a l o f a squ a re whos e si d e
i s 2 c m a n d is i n c om m e n su ra bl e with t h e u ni t
. .

T h e l e ngth o f A C c a n not b e e xp re ss e d i n i nte g ra l

o r f ra c ti o n a l t e r m s o f t h e u ni t We k now how .
,

e ve r th a t w e c a n e xp re ss A C a s 2
, cm A c c o rd .

i ng to o u r a ssu m pti o n th ere f o e t h e a re a o f R

'

,
r ,
_

i s 2 X 2 V2 o r 4 V2 s q c m W h i l e t h e le ngth o f
. .

A C ca nnot b e e xp re ss d exa c tly a n a pp roxi m a te e ,

le ngth c a n b e fou nd f o r it F rom thi s a pp roxi m a te .

le ngth a n a pp roxi m a te a re a c a n b e fou nd f o r R F o 3 83 . r .

Thes e a pp roxi m a te va lue s c a n b e m a de a s c lose a s we c hoos e .

S uppose th a t is ta ke n a s t h e a pp oxi m a te V2 then 2 X 1 4 c m r ,

. .
,

or cm i s t h e a pp roxi m ate l e ngth o f A C a nd 2 X 2 8 sq c m

.
, or , . . .
,

sq c m i s t h e a pp roxi ma te a rea of R In Fi g 3 83 t h e a rea o f t h e

. .
, . .
,

re c ta ngl e A B CH r e p re s e n ts this a pp r oxi m a te a re a o f R .

S uppos e a g ai n th a t ,
i s ta k e n a s t h e a pp roxi m a te V2 th en
, ,

2 X1 4 1 cm or . cm i s t h e a pp roxi m a te l e ngth of A C a n d 2 X 2 8 2
.
,
.
, ,
‘

sq c m o r
. .
, sq c m i s t h e a pp roxi m a te a re a of R A lthough t hi s
. .
, .

a pp roxi m a ti o n c a n n ot b e re p re s e n t ed o n t h e figu re w e k now th a t ,

i t i s c los e r tha n t h e othe r but a littl e l e ss th a n t h e a rea o f R .

In t h i s c a se t h e f o ll o wi ng p o i n t s s h o u l d b e n o t e d :
1 T h e s i d e o r s i d e s th a t are i n c o mm en s ura b le wi t h t h e
.

un i t c a nn o t b e exp re sse d i n i n t e gr a l o r fra c ti o n a l t erm s o f

th a t un i t .

2 T h e s i d e o r s i d e s th a t a re i n c o mm en s ur a b l e wi t h t h e
.

u ni t ca n b e exp r esse d i n i rr a t i o n a l t erm s o f t h a t u n i t In .

ill us tr a t i o n 3 A C i s ex p r es se d a s 2 x’
, 2 cm .

3 I t c a n b e p ro ve d t h a t A s 6 3 i s t ru e f o r th ose c ases i n
. .

wh i c h t h e si des o f t h e r e c t a n g l e c an b e e x p r esse d o n l y i n
i rra t i o n al t e rm s o f t h e c h o s en u ni t Th e p r o o f i s h o we ver .
, ,

t o o di ff i c u lt f o r t hi s c o u rs e .

4 . S o m et im e s des o f t h e rec t an g l e
wh en th e si ca n be
exp ress e d o n l y b y i rr a t i o n a l n u m b er s i t i s p o ss i b l e t o ,
e x p re s s

t h e a re a o f t h e r e c t a n g l e b y ra t i o n a l n um b ers .

I llustra ti o n 4 . Conne c t t h e m i d -
poi nts of t h e si de s o f a square whose
s i de i s 4 cm . F i nd o ne side of t h e squa re so f orm ed a nd i ts area .
 14 PLA N E GEO ME T RY

24 0 . Wh en i t i s d e si red t o use
P r ac ti ca l m ea s ur em en ts .

t h e ru l e c o n t a i n e d i n A s 6 3 t o c o m p u t e t h e a r ea o f a gi v en .

r e c t a n g l e fr o m m eas urem en t s a c tu a ll y m a d e an a p p r o xi m a t e ,

are a o n l y i s p o s si b l e .

W e h a v e seen § 195 th a t t h e ex a c t l en gth o f a gi v en

'

, ,

se gm en t c a n n o t b e o b t a i n e d i n t er m s o f a u n i t c h o sen i n

a dva n c e S i n c e t h e m e a s ur e s o f t h e s i d e s m u s t o f n e c e ssi t y
.

b e a p p ro xi m a t e t h e a r e a m u s t o f n ec e ss i t y b e a p p ro xi m a t e
,

also T h e a p p ro xi m a t e ar e a m a y h o w e v er b e m a d e a s
.
, ,

cl o se a s w e c h o o s e i f o n l y t h e d i vi si o n s o f t h e sc a l e a r e m ad e
s u ffi ci en tl y s m a ll .

EXE RCI S E S I N V O LV I N G A RE A O F RE C A N G E S T L
241 . 1 D ra w
gl e who se si d es are
. a re c a n tc m and cm . .

Fi n d t h e a pp rox i m at e a rea of th i s rec t an gl e i n i n c h e s m e as u ri n g ,

( )
1 to t h e n eare s t i n c h ( 2) to t h e n eare s t half i n ch,( 3 ) to t h e ,

nea res t qu a rt er i n c h ( 4 ) to t h e n e a re st s i xt ee n th i n c h
, Ma ke a n .

ac c u ra t e d ra w i n g f o r e a c h a p p rox i m a t i o n a n d c o m p are i t wi th

t h e g i ven re c t a n gl e .

2 Fi n d t h e area of a rec t an gl e who se s i d e s ar e 3 %

. 6 i n an d .

4 %i 2 n .

3 . If the a rea of a rec t an gl e is sq . in . a n d o ne s i de is

3 %i n .
,
fin d t h e oth er s i de .

4 . Fin d t h e a re a of
w a lk 3 ft 6 i n w i de wh i c h c omp let el y
a . .

s u rr ou n d s a lot 300 f t 1> <5 00 ft T h e d i m en s i o ns of t h e lot are .

t a k en o n t h e i nsi de of t h e w alk .

FIG . 3 84

5 Fi g . s how s fo rm s of c olu m n s i n c ro s s sec t i o n

. 3 84 Th e -
.

outs i de mea su res a n d t h e w i dth a re t h e sa m e i n ea c h c a se Fin d .

t h e a rea of e a c h c ro ss sec t i o n s how n -

.

N O TE T h e a re a o f t h e c ross s e c ti o n i s a n i m po rta n t e l em e n t i n
.
-

de te rm i n i ng t h e s t re n g th of t h e c o lu m n .
 6 PLA N E GE O ME T RY

MEAS URE MEN T O F TH E P ARALL EL O GRAM

242 T H E O R E M 113 Th e are a

. . of a p ar alle o gral m i s th e
pro d u c t o f th e b a s e an d a l ti tud e .

FIG . 38 5

H y p oth esi s : P i s a D wi th b as e b and a lti tud e 0 .

Co n c lusi o n : A r ea P = ab .

A n a lys i s a n d c on s tructi on :
I . T o p r o v e ar ea P c o m p are P wi th a rec t an g l e R
ab , , ,

th a t h a s b f o r b ase a nd a f o r a lt i tude .

c o n s tru c t r ec t a n gl e R wi t h b f o r b ase a nd b etween

t h e p a r a ll e l s A B a n d CD .

II I . T o p r o ve a r ea P = ar e a R p ro ve
,
th a t P an d R ar e

e qu i v a l en t .

IV .
p r o ve A A D F N
A B GE .

P roof
T A T E ME N T S
S RE A S O N S
I .
A A DF A B E C
M
. I . Let t h e p up i l i v
g e de
t ai l s i n ful l .

II . 1 . P is e qui va l en t t o R . II . 1 A s 60
. . .

2 . P = ar e a R . 2 S ee § 23 5
. .

A rea R = ab . I II Wh y .
?

ar ea P = ab . IV W y
h ? .

Ex 1 . Th 113 f o i t h e c ase i n wh i ch p o in ts E and

. Pr ove .
'

F b oth f all o n CD ext end ed .

E x 2 C o nst ru c t a p ara ll elog ram who se s i d es are 5 c m an d 8

. . .

c m a n d o ne o f who se a n gl es i s
. Fi n d i t s a lt i tud e a n d area .

Ex 3 Co ns tru c t a p ara llelog ra m who se s i d es are 6 c m an d

. . .

cm an d o ne o f who se a n gl es i s
. Fi n d i t s a lt i tud e an d area .

Ex 4 . . Co nst ru c t a p ara ll elogram wi th s i d es cm . and

cm . a n d o ne a n gl e Fin d i t s a lt i tud e a n d area .

 A RE A A N D E QU I V A L ENCE 217

MEA S URE MENT O F TH E TRIAN G LES

24 3 . TH E O R E M 114 . Th e ar e a of a t ri an gle is '

o n e - h alf

th e pro duc t of th e b as e an d a l ti tu de .

FIG . 386

H yp o th esi s : A B C i s a A wi t h b a s e b and a lt i tude a .

Co n c lus i on : A r ea A B C ab .

A n a lys i s a nd co n s tru cti on

I . T o p r o v e th a t a rea A B C ab , c o m p are A AB C
w i t h a p ara ll e l o gr am wh o se Si des a re AB an d BC .

II . c ons r t uc t
Le t t h e pupil gi ve th e c o n stru c ti on .

S T A T E ME NT S
1 .
A ABC is e qui va l e n t to t h e p a ra ll e l o gram .

2 . A rea C7 = a b .

3 .
5aba re a A
Le t t h e pupil g i v e t h e re a so n s .

Ex 1 . Fi n d t h e ar e a of a t ri an gl e who se b ase i s 6 ft 3 i n an d
. . .

whose a lt i tud e i s 2 ft 7 i n . .

Ex 2 . Fi n d t h e a lt i tud e of a t ri a n gl e if i t s a rea i s 8 %s q ft
. . .

and i t s b ase is 6 ft 7 in . .

Ex 3 . Fi n d t h e a rea of an i s o s c el es t ri an gl e i f i t s b as e i s 3 2 ft
. .

and o ne leg i s 3 4 ft .

Ex 4 . Fi n d t h e a rea of an e qu i l at era l t ri an gl e if eac h s i d e

.

is 4 i n ; 6 i n ; 8 in
. . .

Ex 5 . . Th e b ase of
t ri angle i s 3 ft m o re th an i ts a lt i tud e
a . .

Fi n d t h e b ase and t h e a lt i tud e if t h e area i s 90 s q ft . .

Ex 6 . Th e b ase of a t ri a ngl e i s 3 t i m e s i t s a lt i tud e

. Fi n d .

t h e b ase and t h e a lt i tud e if t h e a rea i s 3 3 6 s q ft . .

2 18 P L A N E G E O ME T R Y

MEASURE MEN T O F TH E TRAPEZ O ID

24 4 TH E O R E M 115 Th e area of a trap e zoi d i s e qu al t o
. .

one - h alf th e p r o du c t o f th e a l ti tud e an d th e s um o f th e b as e s .

F IG . 387

H yp oth esi s :A B CD i s a D w i t h b a se s b and b

’
an d

tude a .

Co n c lusi on : A r ea A B CD
A n a ly si s a nd c o n s tru c ti o n :
I . T o p r o ve a r e a d i vi d e A B CD
t w o t ri a n g l e s a n d a dd th ei r are as .

II . c ons r t uc t
Le t t h e pupi l c om pl ete th e a na lysi s .

S T A T E ME NT S
A r ea ab

%b
.

’’
A r ea A D C = a .

’’
Ar ea A B C + a r ea A D C = § ab +é a b
a = afi

A r ea A B CD a
s
Le t t h e pup i l gi ve the re a son s .

Ex 1 . . b as e of a t ra p ezo i d i s 3 ft m o re th a n t h e oth er
One . .

I f i t s a lt i tud e i s 6 ft an d i t s a rea 8 1 s q f t fin d t h e b a s e s
. . .
, .

Ex 2 . Th e a rea of a t ra p e zo i d i s 96 s q f t i t s a lt i tud e 8 f t
. . .
,
.
,

o ne b as e 9 ft Fi n d t h e oth er b ase
. .

Ex 3 . Th e a rea of a t ra p e zo i d i s t h e p r odu c t of t h e alt i tud e

.

an d t h e m e d i a n d ra w n b etw een t h e n o n p ar a ll e l S i d e s -
.

Ex 4 . Th ere a re oth er m ethod s of d ra w i n g

.

c o n s t r u c t i o n l i n es i n t h e t r a p e zo i d A B CD ( F i g .

38 8 ) so a s to d i v i d e i t i n to p art s who se a rea s

m a y b e fou n d a n d a dd e d Pr ov e Th 115 by
.
F G 3 8 9 .
I

mean s of Fi g 3 88 a n d s ugg est oth er p o ss i bl e figu res

. .
220 PLA N E G E O ME T RY

Ex 5 . . Fi nd fi eld S hown
the a rea of th e in Fi g .

A B = 3OO f t E G = 140 f t .A B i s a r i ght

,
.
,

a n gl e DE = 125 ft
,
O ff set s a re ru n e very .

50 ft fr o m D to A
. A D = 3 10 ft Th e . .

length s of t h e off sets a re

at D 0 a t 150 ft .

a t 5 0 ft 22 at 200 ft
. .

F IG 3 92
a t 100 ft 26 a t 25 0 ft
. .

Ex 6 . . Fi n d th e a rea s hown in Fi g .

3 93 , u s i n g t h e d i m en s i o n s g i v en . A B CD i s
a rec t an gl e AE = BF. .

Ex 7 Two st reet s i nt ersec t at ri ght a ngles A

. . .

th i rd st reet c ut s t h e oth er two a t a ngles of 30 a n d °

T h e s ho rt e st s i d e of t h e t ri an gul ar p ar k l eft i s 200 feet .

I f t h e s t reet s a re 60 feet w i de ea c h fin d t h e a rea of ,

p a v e m en t a t th e i r i n t ers ec t i on .

FIG . 3 94
Th e i rr egul ar p o l y g o n m a y b e f o u n d a p p ro xi
a r ea o f a n

m a t e l y b y w ei gh i n g Cu t t h e figu re a n d a l s o a s qu ar e u n i t
.

fro m t h e s am e s h ee t o f p ap er o r c ar db o ar d a n d w ei gh th em
b o th T h e area s h a ve t h e s am e ra ti o a s t h e w e i gh t s A r c h i
. .

m e d e s u se d t h i s m e th o d t o fin d t h e a r e as o f c er t ai n figu res .

S u rv e y o r s s o m e ti m e s u s e i t t o da y -
.

E QUIVAL EN T P O L Y G O N S
TE S T S FO R E Q U I VAL E N CE
24 6 . Th e f o ll o w i n g no a t ti o n s w i ll be u se d
Fo r A A B C or D A B CD S f o r , are a , b f o r b a se , and a f or
a l ti tude .

' ’ ’ ' '

For A A B C or S f or ar ea , b f or b ase , and
’
a f or l ti tude a .

A p re l i m i n ary t e s t f o r e qui v a l e n t p o l y g o n s w as gi v en i n
§ 2 3 8 O. t h e r s a r e g i v en i n t h e as s u m p t i o n s o f § 37 Th e
2 .

fo ll o wi n g t es t s ar e n o w e vi d en t a nd a re h ere s t a t e d fo rm a ll y
f or con v eni en c e :
 A REA AN D E QUI V A L E N CE 221

Tes t a :f o r e qui v a l e n t tri a n gl es p ara ll e l o gram s

or . Th .

116 i s r ea ll y a c o ro lla r y of Th s . 113 a n d 114 .

T H E O R E M 116 . Tw o p ar all e l o gram s or tw o tri an gles are

e qui va l e nt if
1 Th e y h ave
. e qual b as e s and ar e b e tw e e n th e sam e

pa ral e s l l .

2 . d = a
'
a nd b = b
'
.

3 .

Tes t b :f o r t ri an g l e s p ara ll e l o gr am s
and . Th . 117 i s a

c o ro ll ary of Th s . 113 a n d 114 .

T H E O R E M 117 If a tri ang l e an d a p aralle l o gra m h av e

.

e qu al b as e s and e qu a l a l ti tud e s , th e tr i an g l e i s e qu i val e nt

to h alf th e p ar a ll e l o gram .

By u mp t i o n s o f § 23 7 a ny tw o p o ly g on s a re
th e a ss

e qu i va l en t if th e y ar e s u m s , d i fi ere n c e s , o r e qu al p art s o f
'

e qu i va l e n t p o l y g o n s .

TRA N S F O RMATI O N
EXERCI S E S IN

24 7 1 Fi n d i n Fi g 3 95 fou r e qu i v al en t p ar a ll elog ra m s
. . . .

2 H o w m a n y e qu i v al e n t p a ra ll elo
.

gra m s c an b e c o n st ru c t ed w ith th ei r b a ses

o n two g i v en p a ra ll e l s ?

3 U s in g a n y C 7A B CD c o nst r u c t two
.
,

ll log m qu v l t to us g F IG 3 95
i i t ( 1) i
.

p a ra e r a s e a e n n ,

A B as t h e c o mm o n b a s e a n d ( 2) u s i n g A D as t h e c o mm o n b ase
,
.

4 W h at e qu i v a l en t p a rall elog ra m s c a n
.

b e fou n d i n Fi g 3 96 ? S e gm en t s w i th t h e
.

sa m e l ett ers a re e qu a l T h e l i n es a r e p a r .

all el as i n di c a t e d : a I ]h m H
[ n r I ]s , ,
.

5 T ransfo rm D A B CD i n to a pa ra l
.

lelo gr am h a v i n g i t s b a se e qu a l to A B a n d
o ne s i d e e qu a l to a g i v e n s e gm en t Is t h e .

p r o b l e m a lw a y s p o ss i b l e ? F IG 3 96 .

6 T ransfo rm
. A B CD i n to a p ara ll e log ra m h a v i n g i t s b a se
e qu a l to A B a n d o ne a ngl e e qu a l to a g i v e n a n gl e Is th i s p r obl e m .

alw a y s p oss ibl e ?

 22 PLA N E G E O ME T RY

7 H o w m an y
. qu i v al ent t ri an gl es
e c an y o u fin d i n Fi g 3 97 ? .

T h e s e g m e n t s l ett ere d a l i k e a re
e qu a l T h e l i n es a re p a ra ll e l as i n
.

d i c a t e d :13 H h an d m | | n .

T ra nsform a g iven A A B C in to
8 A t ri an gl e h a v i n g t h e b a s e
.

e qu a l to A B a n d o n e a n gl e e qu a l
FIG 3 97
t o a g i ven angle
.

9 A . t ri a ngl e h av m g the b ase e qu a l to BC a n d o ne s i d e e qu al

to a g i v e n s e g m en t .

10 A n i so s cel es
. or a ri ght t ri a ngle h a v i ng the ba se e qu a l to
( 1) AB, (2) B C, (3 ) AC .

11 A . t ri a ngl e h a v i n g two s i d es equ al to g i ve n se g m en t s .

S ugges ti o n Two t ra ns fo rm a ti o ns a re ne c e ss a ry
. .

24 8 . Th e t r a n s f o rm a t i o n s i n t h e p r e vi o u s s e c t i o n m a y b e
p e r ofrm e d b y m e an s of an a l ge b r a i c a n a l y si s .

P R O B L E M 18 . tran s f orm
To a g i ve n ar
p a ll e l o g ram i n to
a re c tang l e wh i c h s h all h ave a gi v e n s e gm e n t as i ts b a s e .

F IG
‘

. 3 98

Gi ven t h e D A B CD wi t h b i ts b a se an d a i ts a lt i t ud e ,
and
’
b th e gi ven se gm en t . Le t P r ep re s e n t t h e D A B CD .

To tra n sfo rm D A B CD i n t o a r e c an t g l e wi t h b '

as its b a se .

A n a ly si s a nd con s tru c ti o n :
’
L et R re p r e sen t th e rec a n t gl e , a its a lti t ud e .

’
I . To c o n s tru c t R=P , c o ns r t uc t a so th a t
’
b a
II c ons r t uc t a so th a t
b
.

’
III . c o ns r t uct a fo u r th r
p po o r t i o n al to b , b , an d a .

Le t t h e pupi l m a ke t h e c onstruc ti on in f ull a nd gi ve p roof .

224 PLAN E G EO ME T RY

Ex 1 .T ransfo rm. a g i ven qu adri l at era l A B CD i nto a t ri an gl e

th at s h all h ave
g It s b ase i n t h e l i ne AB v ert ex a t C
an d .

Its b a se i n t h e l i n e B C a n d v e rt ex at A
fl
Q .

It s b ase i n t h e l i n e B C a n d v ert e x a t D .

It s b ase i n t h e l i n e A D a n d v er t e x a t C .

It s b a se i n t h e l i n e D C a n d v ert e x at B .

P R O B L E M 21 . To tran s f orm a gi ve n p o l yg o n i nt o a

tri ang le :

FIG . 4 00

Th e lysi s d i rec ti on s a n d p roof a re l ef t to t h e pupil T h e figu re

ana , ,
.

sugge sts t h e c o n stru c ti on Le t t h e pup i l e xte nd t h e m ethod so a s to

.
“

tra n s fo rm a gi ve n h e xagon i n to a tri a ngl e .

Ex 2 . Co n st ru c t a s qu a re e qu i v al ent to a g i ven 4 S i de
.
-
.

Ex 3 . Co n st ru c t o n a g i ven b a se a rec t angl e e qu i v a l e nt to a

.

g i v en 4 S i d e -
.

Ex 4 . C o n s t ru c t o n a g i ven b a se a n i so s ce l es t ri a ngl e e q u i v a
.

len t to a g i ve n 4 s i de -
.

EXER CI S E S I N V O LV I N G V L
E Q UI A EN T F I G URE S
250 . 1 T h e m ed i a n
. of a t ri angl e d i v i d es i t i n to two e q ui v a

lent p art s .

2 D i v i d e a g i v e n t ri a n gl e i n to th ree e qu i v a l en t p art s by seg

.

m ent s dr a w n fr om t h e v ert e x to t h e b a se .

3 Th e d i ago n a l s of a p ara ll e log ra m d i v i d e i t i nto fou r e q ui v a

.

l en t t ri an gl es .

4 G i v en t h e D A B CD w i th X a n y po i n t
.

i n t h e d i a go na l A C Pr ov e th at A A XD .

A A XB ( see Fi g .

5 . I n v e st i g a t e the c a se , Ex 4 , i n
. wh i c h
p o i nt X i s on AC ex ent ded . P ro . 4 01
 AR E A A N D EQU IVA L E NCE 225

6 . G i ven A B CD , a ny qu adri l a teral w i th E ,

and F t h e mid
.

po in ts of AB and CD re sp ec t i v ely Pro v e .

A E CF = A A F D + A E B C ( Fi g .

S uggesti o n . D ra w A C .

7 . Two t ri an gles are equ i va len t two s i d es if

e qu a l re s p ec t i v e ly to two s d e s of t h e
F 4 02
of o n e a re i I G

o th er an d t h e a n gl es i n c lud e d b y th ese S i d es a re s u pp l em en t ary .

8 In Fi g 4 03 , A B CD i s a t ra p e zo i d w i th i t s
. .

d i agona ls A C a nd D B Prove A A CD : A B O C . .

S u ggesti o n . Fi rst c om p a re A ABD a nd A AB C or

A ADC a nd A BDC . F IG . 4 03

9 In. Fi g . 4 04 , AE HD B . Prove A A EE
A AED ; A B DE = A B D A ; A A B O = A E DO ;
A A D C = B CD E .

F I G 4 04 .

10 S how . how to d i v i d e a t r i a ngle i nto fou r equ i v al ent p arts .

Ca n th i s be done in m or e th a n o ne way ?

11 . If o ne ba se oft ra p e zo i d i s tw i c e t h e other t h e d i a gona l

a
,

d i v i des the t ra p e zo i d i n to two p arts o n e of wh i c h i s doubl e t h e

oth er .

12 A B CD i s
. ll elogra m E a nd F a p a ra . a re t h e m id -
po i nt s
of A B a nd A D r es p e c t i ve ly Prove th a t CF .
,
CA , and CE d i v i de
t h e p ar a ll e log ra m in to 4 e qu i v a l ent p a rts .

13 . S how how to d i v i de a p a ra llelogram i n to s ix e qu i va l e n t

p ar s t by l i nes dra wn from t h e s a m e vert ex .

14 S how . how to d i v i de a p ara llelogram i n to th ree e qu i v a lent

p a r t s by l i n e s d ra w n f r o m t h e s a m e v e rt e x .

15 . An i s os c el es ght t ri an gl e
ri is e qu i v a l en t to M of t h e s qu a re
c o nstru c te d on it s hypoten u se .

16 . Th e fi gu re form ed b y j o i n in g t h e mi d ,
-
po in ts of th e si des of
a. s q u are is e qu i v a len t to of the s qu are .

S ugges ti o n . Co n stru c t t h e m e di a n s of t h e gi ve n sq ua re .

17 . Is E x
‘

. 16 t r ue f or any p a ra ll elogram ?
226 P LA N E G E O ME T RY

THE S Q UARE O N T H E H YP O TE N USE O F A

RI G H T TRIAN G L E

25 1 T H E O R E M 118 Th e s quare c o ns tru c te d o n th e

. .

h yp o te n u s e o f a ri gh t tri an gle i s e qui vale nt to th e s um o f

‘

th e s qu ar e s c o n s tr u c te d o n th e o th er t w o s i d e s
'

.
FIG . 4 05

H y poth es i s :AB C i s a rt . A wi th £A=1 rt . 4 an d th e

[
S] I I I a nd I I I
, , cons r t uc te d on th e si des A B A C , , and BC
re s p e c t i v e l y .

Co nc lus i on :[1111 D I+ D II .

A na lys i s a nd c o n s tr u c ti o n :
I . D II I c an b e p r o v e d e qu i v a l e n t t o [
3 1+ [111 b y
'

d i vi d i n g D II I i n t o t w o p ar t s e qui v a l en t t o D I
an d c ti vely
DH r esp e .

I I O n e w ay o f di vi di n g E] I I I i n t o t h e t w o p ar t s re qui re d
.

i s b y d r a wi n g a li n e fr o m A L B C a n d p r o vi n g _

B E ML = D I a n d CD ML = D II .

I I I T o p ro ve CDML = D II c o m p a re th em wi th c o n
'

.
,

g u en t tri a n g l e s
r .

IV Th e . tri a n gles d e si r e d m a y b e o b t ai n e d by j o i ni n g
A D an d B K Th e n p r o ve
.

I . A A CD N
B CK . 2 . A A CD = %CDML .

3 . A B CK = %D II .
228 PLA N E G EO ME T RY

S U MMARY AN D S U P P L E MEN TARY EXER CI S E S

25 2 . S UMMARY OF . I MP O RTAN T P O IN TS IN CH AP TER X

A . Form ula e o btai n e d .

I . A rea o f r e c t an gle = ab

II . A r ea of p a ra l lel o gra m = a b _

III . A re a of t r i an g l e ab

IV A re a . of t ra p ez o i d a

V . If a an d b are t h e le g s an d c th e h y p o t en u s e o f a ri g ht
tri an g l e ,
a
2-
lb
- 2 = c
2

Fo r a rea o f tri a n gle s ee § 25 3 , Ex 4 1. and Ex 44 . .

Ex 4 1
. . S= /2 b c s i n A
1 .

Ex 44
. . S= \/
s (s -
a ) ( — b ) (
s s — c) w h er e a, b, a n d c a re

Si d es of A
For a r ea s o f i rr eg u l a r p o l y g o n s se e § 24 5 .

253 . E XER CI S E S I N V O LVIN G N UMERI CA L CO MP UTAT I O N S

N O TE p repa red to p rove t h e theorem s o n wh i c h a ny o f t h e

. Be
f ollowi n g e xe rc i se s d e p e nd .

1 A rec t a n gl e who se b ase i s 8 1 ft h as t h e sa m e a re a a s a s qu are

. .

who se s i d e i s 3 6 f t Fi n d t h e d i ff eren c e b etw een t h e p eri m et ers

. .

T h e a lt i tud es of two t r i angl es a re e qu a l a n d th ei r b ases are

25 ft a n d 4 0 f t res p ec t i v ely
. W h a t i s t h e b a se of a t r i a n gl e
.
‘
.

e qu i v a l e n t to th e i r s um h a v i n g a n a lt i tud e 2%t i m es a s g r ea t ?

3 T h e b as e a n d a lt i tud e of a t ri an gl e a re 18 ft an d 24 ft
. . .

re s p ec t i v e ly A t a d i st a n c e of 10 ft f ro m t h e b as e a l i n e i s dr a w n
. .

p a ra ll el to t h e b as e F i nd t h e a rea of t h e two p a rt s i nto wh i c h t h e

.

t ri an gl e i s d i v i d ed .

4 F i n d t h e a lt i tud e of a t r i a n gl e w i th b ase 21 i n wh i c h h as
. .

t h e s a m e a re a a s a p a r a ll e log ra m whos e b a s e i s 18 i n a n d who se .

a lt i tud e i s 15 i n .

5 T h e area of a r ho mb u s i s
. t h e p r odu c t o f t h e d i a go n al s -
.

6 Fi n d t h e a rea of a r ho m bu s i f t h e s u m of t h e d i a go n a l s i s
.

12 ft a n d t h eir ra t i o i s 3 5
. U se E x 5 . . .

L
7 A rec t an gul ar fi eld i s 3 0 X 80 ft I t i s s u rrou n d e d b y a r o a d
; .

of u n i fo rm w i dth t h e en t i re a rea of wh i c h e qu a l s t h e a re a of t h e
fi eld Fi nd t h e wi dth of t h e ro ad
. .
 A REA A N D E QU I V A L EN C E 229

8 . T h e l egs
of a ri ght t ri angle a re 15 ft a nd 20 ft A p e rp en . .

d i c ular i s d ra w n fr o m t h e v e rt e x of t h e r i ght a n gl e to t h e h yp ot e n u s e .

F in d t h e a reas of t h e two t r i an gl es fo rm e d .

9 Th e area of a rec t a n gl e i s 120 s q f t ; o n e s i d e i s 8 ft

. Fi n d . . .

t h e d i a go n a l .

10 T h e p er i m et er of a r ho m bus i s 100 f t ; t h e s ho rt er di a gon al

. .

i s 14 ft F i n d t h e a re a . Use E x 5 . . .

11 Th e are a of a r ho m bu s i s 2 184 s q f t ; t h e s ho rt er di ago nal

. . .

i s 26 ft Fi n d t h e lo ng er d i a go n a l a n d o n e s i d e
. U se E x 5 . . .

12 A hou se i s 4 5 ft lo n g 3 2 ft w i d e 24 ft to t h e r oof a n d
. .
,
.
, .
,

3 0 ft to t h e r i dg e pol e
. F i n d t h e n u m b e r of s q ft i n t h e e n t i re
. . .

ext eri o r s u rf a c e .

13 Fi n d t h e a re a of a r i ght t r i a n gl e i f i t s p er i m et e r i s 84 ft
. .

a nd i t s S i d e s a re i n t h e ra t i o 3 4 5 .

14 . The h e ight of a l ean to r oof -

is 8 f t ; . t h e s p a n i s 15 ft Fi n d .

the a r ea of t h e roof if t h e l e n gth i s 5

21 ft (see
. Fig .

F IG . 4 07

15 p ara lle l s i des of a n i sos cele s t rap ezo i d a re 3 0 ft a n d

. Th e .

4 0 ft r es p ec t i ve ly ; t h e n o n p ar a ll e l s i d es a re e a c h 13 ft
.
Fi n d -
.

t h e a lt i tud e a n d t h e a rea .

16 . Th e a re a of a k ite is the p rodu c t of th e

d i ago nal s .

17 . In Fi g 4 08 , A A = 1 rt 4
. A B = A D and . .

A C is t h e p erp e n d i c ul a r b i s ec to r of D B If A B = 4
FIG
.

in . and A C= 8 %i n .
,
fin d the a re a of A B CD
. 4 08

and the l ength of DC .

18 .d es i gn shown i n Fi g 4 09
Th e . is s y m m et

ri c w i th reg a rd to both d i a go n a l s of qu are the s

%A B
.

If AY= and fin d t h e a re a of
the k it e A Y X Z
. a nd h en c e of t h e Malt e s e c ros s
show n I f AB = 6 ,
in .
F I G 4 09 .

19 Upo n t h e di a go n a l of a re c t a n gl e 11 ft w i d e a n d 60
. .

f t lo n g a t r i an gl e i s c o n st r u c te d whos e ar ea e qu a l s t h e a re a of t h e
.

re c t an gl e Fi n d i t s a lt i tud e. .
23 0 PL AN E G E O ME T RY

20 O n e s i d e
. of a ri ght t ri an gl e i s 8 i n a nd t h e hypot en use i s
.

17 i n . Fi n d t h e a rea of a n e qu i l a tera l t r i a n gl e c o n st r u c t ed o n t h e
th ir d s i de .

21 T h e . d i agon als of two s qu ares a re 10 ft a nd 15 ft resp ec . .

t i v ely . F i n d t h e d i a gon a l of a S qu are e qu i v a l e n t to th e i r s um .

22 Fi g 4 10 re p resen t s a qu are w i th e a c h s id e ”
. . s

d i v i de d i n to 8 e qu a l p a rt s Wh a t fr a c t i on of t h e ,
.

g i ve n s qu a re i s e a c h of t h e i rregul ar figu res S how n ?

I f A B i s 6 ln fin d t h e l e n gt h of t h e S i d e s of e a c h
.
,

figu re '

F I G 4 10 .

N O T E : Mod e rn sta n d a rd ti l s a m a d e i n c e rt a i n d efi n i t e s i z e s e re ,

a n d sh a p e s a ll o f wh i c h a re d e ri v e d d i re c t ly f o m t h e six i n c h squ a re
'

,
r -
.

Fi g 4 10 shows th re e su c h t i l e s
. .

23 . qu are w i th t h e l i nes d raw n

F i g 4 11 i s . a s

sy m m et r i c w i th re sp ec t to both m e d i a n s If .

A B = 12 i n a n d A X = 3 i n fin d t h e a re a of t h e
. .
,

sh a d e d p o rt i o n .

FIG . 4 11
24 . Fi n d t h e a r ea of an e qu i l a t eral t ria n gl e i f F ro m a p a r q u et
flo o r
ea c h s id e i s 7 i n ; 9 in ; . . 12 i n ; if e a c h s i d e i s s
. .
( 16 8 18 9

25 . If th e a r ea of an e qu i l at era l tr i angl e i s 6 0, fin d o ne s i de .

26 . F in d t h e a re a of a re gul ar h ex a gon if ea c h si de is 4 in .

27 . Th e d es of
si a gul a r h ex a gon a re ext e nd ed u n t i l th ey
re

i n t e rs ec t . Find t h e a rea of t h e st a r fo r m e d i f e a c h s i d e of t h e

h ex a go n i s 3 c m .

28 U p o n t h e a lt i tud e of a n e qu i l a t era l t r i a n gl e a s a S i d e a s e c o n d
.

e qu i l a t era l t ri a n gl e i s c o n st ru c t ed F i n d t h e a re a of t h e s e c o n d .

t ri a n gl e i f a s i d e of t h e fi rs t i s 6 i n .

29 . Fi n d t h e a rea of a n i so sc el es ri ght t ri a n gl e i f th e hyp ot en u se

is 6 in ; 4 in ; 8 in ;
. . . 10 i n ; i f t h e hypot e n u se i s a
. .

30 In F i g 4 12, A B C i s a n i s o s cel es ri ght

. .

tri angle E D i s p a rall el to B C F i s t h e

. .

m i d p o i n t of E D
-
F G a n d F H a r e p a ra ll e l to .

A B a n d A C re s p e c t i v ely I f CB = 9 i n a n d .

%i
.

AD = 4 n .
,
fin d t h e ar e a s of t h e v a r i ou s p a rt s
i n to wh i c h th e figu re is d i v i ded . P ro . 4 12
23 2 P LANE G E O ME T RY

41 . I f c a n d b r ep resen t two s i d es of a t r i a ngle a n d A lud ed

t h e inc
an gl e p r ove th at t h e a lt i tude upon S i de b i s c S i n A
, th a t t h e a lt i tude
u p on s i de 0 i s 6 s i n A a nd th at t h e a rea i s b c si n
,
A .

Fi n d t h e a re a of A A B C, u si n g th e t ri gon om et ri c t abl es , if
42 A B = 8 3 A C= 3 Q cm 4 A = 37
°
. . cm .
,
. .
,
.

A C= 5 4 4 A = 54
°
43 . AE = Q 6 . cm .
,
. cm .
,
.

T44 . If a, b, a n d c a re th e si des of a t ri an gl e ,

wh ere s F IG 4 17
.

A n a ly s i s
I To
. fin d t h e of a t ri a ng le i n term s of t h e th ree s i de s find
a rea ,

t h e a re a i n t e m s O f t h e b a s e a n d a l t itud a n d e xp ss t h e
r e re

a lti tud e i n t rm s o f t h e th re e s i d e s by m a n s o f t h e P y t h a g o
e e

rea n th e o re m .

II . A rea = ch (F i g .

III . h 2
b —x
2
2
.

IV . h 2
a
2 —
(c x ) 2
.

S olv e t h e two e qu a ti on s for h a nd x a nd substi tute th e v lu e

a of h in
th e a re a f orm ula .

O utli n e of proof :
a lgeb ra i c

b 2— 2=
x a
2
(c — x ) 2

2— 2= 2 — 2— —
b x a c l 2cx x 2 -

b +c
? 2
a
2

—
( 2b c b 2 — 2— 2
c la ) -
( 2b c + b é
+c 2 — a2
)
462
— ——
( a b l C) ( +
a b — C) (b l - -
c —a)
2
4c

Thi s m ay b e put in a m o re c on c is e f or m by n o t i n g
a +b — 2c
a
— 2b
b +c — 2a

W e m ay let a b
+ + c = 2s f o r c on v n i e ence .

The n a +b — a = 2s — 2c = 2 ( s — c) ‘

a — = — =
b + c 2s 2b 2 ( s b ) —
b +c -
a = 25 —2a = 2 (s — a )
 A RE A A N D E QU I V A L E N CE 23 3

S ubsti tuti n g i n t h e v alue f or h ’

,

2 —
(s b ) 2 ( — c) s 2s 2 (s— a)
h ?

N O TE . What
h a nge s m ust b e m ade i n t h e d eta ils a bove i f k fa lls
c

outsi de t h e t ri a ngl e ?
N O TE Thi s form ula w as given by a noted G ree k ngi ne er a nd
. e

su rveyo r H e ro of A lexa nd ri a (about 100

,

4 5 Fi n d t h e area s of t r i an gl es who se s i d es a re
.

a . 13 , c . 15 ,
b . 12 d 24 , 33 , 4 1
.

46 . Co m put e from t h e follow i n g d at a t h e area of the fi eld

s hown i n Fi g . 4 18 us i n g t h e fo rm ul a g i v e n i n E x 4 4
,
. .

A B = 210 ft ft . DE = 305 .

B C = 210 ft E A = 225 ft . .

CD = 210 ft B D = 394 ft . .

A D = 4 25 ft .

FIG . 4 18

EXERCI S E S I N V O LV I N G
V L T P O LYG O N S E Q U I A EN

254 N O T E
. B e p rep a r d to p rov e t h e th e o m s o n whi c h a n y o f
. e re

t h e f ollowi n g e xe rc is e s d e p e n d .

1 . Mak e a re v i e w d i a g ra m f or Th . 117 .

2 Th e
. of a t ri an gl e i s o ne h a lf t h e p rodu c t of t h e p eri m et er
a re a -

an d t h e ra d i u s of t h e i n s cri b e d c i rc l e .

3 . Th e a re aof
polygon c i rcu m sc ri b ed a bout a c i rc l e
a ny is o ne

h a lf t h e p rodu c t of t h e p e ri m eter a nd t h e ra d i u s
of t h e i nsc ribed c i rc le .

4 . G i ven t h e i s o s ce l es
ght A A B C w i th CF and ri

GE d ra w n f ro m t h e m i d po i n t of A C p a ra ll el to A B -

a n d B C res p e c t i v e ly p rove a rea E B F G = are a ,

ABC ( see F i g .
F IG . 4 19

5 . l i ne jo i n i n g t h e m id po i nt s of t h e p arallel si des of
Th e -

a t rap ezo i d d i v i des i t i nto two p art s th at h ave e qu a l areas .

 4 PLANE G E O ME T RY

6 . G i ve n A A B C w i th
b i tra r y po i nt o n
X an ar th e
m ed i an CO . Prove A A CX e qu i v a l en t to A B CX .

7 Th e
. th ree m ed i an s of a t ri angl e d i v i de i t i nto 6
e qu i v a l e n t t r i a n gl es .

8 G i v en A A B C an d D B E w i th A D = D B D E
.
,

E C A A D C + A B D E 2 rt A p r ove are a D BE
,
= =
}5
F I G .
,
' 4 20

ar e a A D C ( Fi g.
.

9 . G i v en A A B C w i th CD a n a rb i tr ary s eg m en t
,

fr o m C to A B, d i vi d e d i nto th ree e qu a l p a rt s a t po i n ts
X a nd Y, c om p a re are a A YE , a r ea A XB , and a rea

A CB ( Fi g .

FIG 4 21
10 Co n st ru c t qu are whos e h all of
.

. a s a r ea S be
th e a rea of a g i v en s qu a re .

11 In . . Fi g . 4 22, A B C i s an i s o s c e l es ri ght t ri
an gl e . A E = EB ; B F = FC; EG a nd FH a re p e r

p e n d i c ular
'

to AC . C o m p a re a rea s A E G, E BF ,
EF H G, and ABC .

P ro . 4 22

In Fi g 4 23 , A B C i s a n i so s c gle s A
12 . . . AC
a n d CB a re e a c h d i v i d e d i n to 3 e qu a l p a rt s . CD ,
F M,
A
and GN a re __ 1 AB . C o m p are t h e a r ea s of 13 16
4 23 0

th e vari ou s figu res form ed i

K n g ro d a nd -

s
.

Qu e e n r o d t r u s
-

des gn i
13 . Gi ve n t h e qu a dri l at era l A B CD w i th t h e
d i a gon a l EU b i s ec t e d a t X p rov e th a t A X CD i s
,

e qu i v a l e n t to A X CB (see Fi g .

14 T ran sform qu a d r il a t era l A B CD i nto qu a d

.

r i la t e r a l A B CE so th a t ( 1) A E CB sh a ll b e e qu a l to
~

a g i v e n a n gl e ( 2) s i d e A E sh a ll b e e qu a l to a g i v e n
, P ro 4 24
s e g m en t Is t h e p robl e m a lw a y s po s s i bl e ?
.

15 . A qu adr i l a t era l i s b i sect ed by o ne of i t s d i ago

n als if t h e s e c o n d d i ago n a l i s b i s e c t e d by t h e fi rs t .

16 . G i v en A A B C w ith EF HA B . Pr ov e A A CF
e qu i v alent to A B CE ( Fi g . 4 25 )
F IG 4 25
236 PLA NE G E O ME T RY

25 In F i g 4 3 1, A B CD i s a s qu are
. . wi th its
di ago n a l s a nd m ed i ans OX , O Y , OZ , . a nd OW
H
a re eac h of th e orres pon d i n g sem i d i a gon a l
c -
.

C o m p a re t h e area of t h e st ar w i th t h e area of t h e
s qu are A B CD .

FIG . 43 1
N O TE F i gs 4 26 4 3 0, a nd 43 1 f rom p a rque t
'

. .
, a re flo o r d e s i g n s .

26 . I f t h e m i d po i nt s of two -
dj a c en t s i d es of a a p ara ll elog ra m
ar e j o i n ed , th e t ri an gl e form e d i s e qu i v a l en t to t h e p arall elo
g ram .

27 . I f t h e m i d po i nt s of two -
sides of a t ri a ngl e are j o i n e d to
a ny po i n t of t h e b ase , th e qu a d ri l at era l fo rm ed i s equ i v a l ent to
t h e t ri an gl e .

28 . t ri an gl e form ed by j o i ni n g t h e m i d po i n t of o ne of
Th e -

t h e n o n p a rall el S i d es of a t ra p e zo i d w i th t h e e xt rem i t i es of t h e
-

O pp o s i t e S i d e i s e qu i v a l e n t to t h e t ra p ezo i d .

29 . G i v en t h e D A B CD and 0, an y po i nt w i th i n t h e p a ra llelo
g ram , p r ov e th at A A OB A DO C i s e qu i v a l en t to D A B CD .

30 . If in Ex . 29 p o i n t O w er e Wi thout th e D A B CD , wh at
would b e th e re a l t i o n b etween A A GE an d DOC and D A B CD ?
3 1 In Fi g 4 3 2, A A B C i éi s o s cel es
. . CD i s .

p erp e n d i c ul a r to A B A B ,
A C ,
a n d CB are .

eac h d i v i de d i nto 3 e qu a l p a rt s a n d t h e po i n t s
are j o i n e d as i n d i c a t e d C o m p a re t h e a reas of .
F IG 432
F ss
p

ro m a o of t ru
t h e t ri an gl es fo rm ed . !
d e s Ig n

T3 2 . C o n st ru c t
gl e so th at i t s area
a r ec an t
S h a ll b e e qu a l to t h e a r e a of a g i v e n s qu are

a n d t h e s u m of i t s b a s e a n d a lt i tud e e qu a l to

a g i v en s e g m en t ( s ee F i g .

FIG 4 33
A naly si s :
.

Le t x re p re se n t t h e b a se a n d y t h e a ltitud e of t h e rec t a ngl e .

To c on stru c t a re c ta ngle so tha t i t s a re a i s e qua l to t h e a re a of t h e

a
squ a re c on stru c t or a n d y so th a t xy = a o r so tha t z
,
2
,

x + y m ust b e d i v i d e d i n to two s e g m e n ts so t h a t a i s a m e a n p ro

porti on al betwee n x a nd y .

D i re c ti on s a n d p roof a re l ef t to t h e pup i l
'

.
 A RE A A N D E QU I V A L E N CE 23 7

Co ns t ru c t t
th a t i t s a rea sh all b e gl e eq ual
J
[3 3 . a r ec a n so to
th e area of a g i ve n s qu ar e a n d t h e d i ffe re n c e b etw ee n

it s b ase an d a lt i tud e e qu a l to a g i ven se g ment

(see Fi g .

S uggesti o n . s i de o f t h e squa re a nd x
Le t a be o ne
“

a n d y t h e b a s e a n d a ltitude o f t h e re c t a n gl e A n a n a lys i s .

S i m i l a r to th a t f o r E 3 2 will S how th a t a will b e t h e

x .

m ea n p ropo rtion a l b e twee n two s egm en ts x a nd y whos e

diff e ren ce i s A B (see F i g .

T3 4 I f two t ri an gl es h a v e
. gl e of o ne equ a l an an

to a n angl e of t h e oth er t h e ra t i o of t h e a re a s ,

e qu a l s t h e ra t i o of t h e p r odu c t s of t h e s i d e s th a t

i n c lud e t h e e qu a l a n gle s ( see Fi g .

A na ly si s
a rea ABC bc
I To p rove 77
, c om pa re t h e a rea of e a c h tri a ngl e W i th
’ ’
36
.

a re a AB C
th e a rea of a thi rd tri a ngle ha vi ng th e s a m e a lti tude .

a re a AB ?
d raw CB
’
a nd fin d t h e ra ti o o f a re a AB C
and of
a nd m ulti ply .

Le t t h e pup i l gi ve th e p roof .

’ ’ ’
35 . If s a nd s re p resen t the a re a s of the A A B C a nd AB C
sh own i n Fi g 4 3 5 , fin d
.

’ ’
if b = 24 , b = 15 , c= =s '
1 . c , 18 , and s
’ = 70, = 2s ’
i f b = 56, b = 3 5 ,
'
2 . c , c an d s .

’=
b , if b = 18 , = 45
'
3 . a 28 , c ,
an d

36 . G i ven
t ri a ngul ar fi eld A B C S how how to d i v i de
a ,

i t i nto two e qu i val en t p a rts by ru nn i n g a fen c e fro m

poi nt X o n o ne s i de ( see F i g .

F IG 4 3 6 .

S ugges ti o n Le t Y b e t h e poi n t a t whi ch t h e f e n c e m eets B C

. .

Re p re se n t A C by b X C by b C Y by a a n d B C by a P oi n t Y a n d
’ ’
.
, , ,

’ ’ a
a a re to b e f ou nd Fi nd a so t ha t . W h y ? G i ve c On _

a b 1
stru cti on i n f ull .
 PLA N E G E O ME T RY

'

EXE RCI S ES I N V O LV I N G T H E P Y H AG O REANT TH EO REM

255 . 1 In t h e d et a i l s of t h e
. p roof of
Th 118 as g i ven a bove p rove th a t
.
,

A CB F an d A B E h a v e e qu a l b as es an d
e qu a l a lt i tud e s i ns t e a d of p rov i n g th em

c o n g ru ent ( Fi g .

A naly si s FIG 4 37 .

I To p rove th a t A CB F a n d A A B B h a v e e qu a l ba se s a n d equ a l
.

a lti tud e s u s e B F a n d A B a s b a s e s a n d p rove t h e a l t itud e s

,

e q ua L

d rop p e rp endi cul a rs f ro m E a n d C t o A B and BF e xtended

re sp e c ti v e ly a n d p rov e A B E P 2 A B R C .

2 G i ve t h e
. d et a i l s f o r t h e p roof f o r Th 118 ( 1) i f s qu are CE i s .
.

c o ns t ru c te d o n t h e o p p o s i t e s i d e of CB fr o m th a t s how n i n F i g 4 3 7 ; .

( 2) i f S q u a re A F i s c o ns t ru c ted o n t h e O ppos i te s i d e of A B fro m

th a t s how n i n t h e figu re ; ( 3 ) i f b oth CE a nd A F a re o n O p po s i t e
s i d es o f CB a nd A B r esp e c t i v ely f ro m thos e s how n i n t h e figu re .

3 S how how Fi g 4 3 8 m a y b e u sed to p rov e

. .

t h e Pyth a go rean th eo re m A E H i s t h e g i ven .

ri ght t r i a n gl e E xt en d A E a nd A H m a k i n g A B
.
,

AD = a+ b C o m ple t e t h e s qu a re o n a + b
. Ma k e .

Jo i n E F G a nd H Fr o m E , , , .

a n d F dr a w l i n e s p a ra ll e l to A D an d A B re s p ec P o 4 38 r .

t i v ely Pr ove th at E FGH i s a s q u

. a re e qu i v a l en t to a + b
2 z
.

4 . S how how F i g 4 39 m ay b e u se d to p rov e

.

th e P yth agore an th eo rem A BE i s t h e g i ven ri ght

.

tri angle Co ns tr u c t t h e s qu a re o n A B Ma k e
. .

A K = B E Jo i n DK Co n st ru c t A DCF a n d A CB G
. .

c o n g ru ent to A A B E Pr ov e K H F D a n d B GH E .

s qu ares w ho s e s um i s e qu i v a l ent to c 2
. P ro . 439

5 . S how how
Fi g 4 3 9 m ay b e . c onst ru c t ed by c onst ruc t i ng
squ ares B GH E and K H F D firs t .

I f a a n d b a re two g i ve n
6 . se g m e nts ,
S how by g eo m et ry th at
2 —2
x/
a l b is no t a + b
-
.
 C H AP TE R X I

S I MI LA RITY

I N TRO D U CT O RY
DE F I N ITI O N

256 . S i mi l ar p o ly go n s h a v e b e en d e fi n e d as p o l y go n s t hat
h ave
1 T h e a n g l es
.
.
of o ne e qu a l to th e c o r res p o n di n g an g l es o f
th e o t h er , an d

2 . de s pro p o r ti o n a l
C o rresp o n di n g si .

B y t h e rati o o f s i m i l i tu d e o f t w o s i m i l ar p o l y g o n s i s m e an t
t h e r a t i o o f a n y t w o c o rr e s p o n d i n g s i d e s . Fo r c on v en i e n c e
’ ’
c o rr es p o n d i n g s i d es wi ll b e l e tt er e d a l i k e , as AB an d A B ,

’ ’
BC and B C

TE S T S F O R S I MI L AR P O L Y G O N S

TE S T I F O R S I M IL AR TRIAN G L E S
25 7 . fi rs t t e s t f o r s im i l ar t ri an g l e s
Th e IS gi v en in Th . 102 .

T wo m utu all y e qui an gu l ar tr i ang l e s are s i m i ar l .

Le t t h e pup i l re vi ew t h e p roof f or Th . 102.

Ex 1 . . t ri angl es are s i m i l ar i f two a n gl es of o ne a re

Tw o
e qu a l r esp ec t i v ely to two a n gl es of t h e oth er .

Ex 2 T w o ri ght t ri a n gl es a re s i m i l ar i f a n a c ut e an gl e of
. .

o ne i s e qu al to an a c ut e a n gl e of t h e O th er .

Ex 3 Two i so sc el es t r i a n gl e s a re s i m i l ar if an a ngl e of o ne i s
. .

e qu a l to a c o rre s po n d i n g a n gl e of t h e oth er .

Ex 4 C o n s t r u ct two s i m i l a r t ri a n gl es wi th t h e rat i o of
. .

s i m i l i tud e

Ex 5 Two t ri angles s i m i l ar to a th i rd a re s i m i la r to e a ch
. .

oth er .
 S I MI L AR I T Y 24 1

TE S T II FO R S IM IL AR TRIA N GLE
’ ’
258 . Ex . 1 Gi v en A B C any t ri a ngl e a nd A B of
.
,

AB AC
tu t
c ons r c AA B C
I I I
so t h at A A —AA I
an d ’ ’
— ’ ’
A B A C
T H E O R E M 119 tr i an g l e s ar e . Two s i mi a r l if an an g le of

o ne i s e qu al t o an an g l e o f th e o th e r an d th e ra ti o s of th e
i n c lud i n g s i d e s are e qu al .

F IG . 442

H y p o th es i s : In A A B C
’
an d AA AA and

A B A C
’ ’ ’ ’
A B A C

Co nclus i o n : A A B C N

A na ly s i s a nd c o ns tr uc ti o n

’
I . T o p r o ve p ro ve AH = AB a nd
’
A C= A C .

’ ’ ’ ’
II . T o p ro ve A B = A B p l a c e A A B C u p o n A ,A B C
s o th a t t h e S i d es o f A A a r e c o ll i n e ar w i t h t h e s i d e s
’ ’ ’
of AA a nd p r o ve BC | B C .

’ ’
A B A C
II I . T o p ro v e B C “B C , p ro ve
A B
’ ’
A C
’ ’

Th e p roof i s le f t to th e pup i l .

’ ’ ’
Ex 2 . . C o ns t r u c t A A B C s i m i ar l to A A B C if t h e s um of
’ ’ ’
si des A B
'
a nd B C is g i ven .

Ex 3 . . If
g me n t i s d ra w n p ara lle l to t h e b as e of a t ri an gle
a se

a n d t erm i n a t e d by t h e S i d e s t h e t r i an gle fo rm e d IS s i m i l a r to t h e
,

g i ven t r i an gle G i ve two p roofs . .

Ex 4 . . S olve E x 3 if t h e . p ara llel to th e b as e c ut s the si des of

the t ri an gle ext ended .
242 P LA N E G E O ME T RY

TE S T III F OR S I M IL AR TRIAN GL E S
’ ’
259 G i v en A A B C a n y t ri a n gl e C o ns t r u c t A A B C '
. Ex 1 . . .

1
l
A ; 2g
l
— ’
th at r , g i v e n A B of
'
so ,

T H E O R E M 120 Tw o tri an g l e s . ar e s i m i ar l i f th e c o rre

s p o n di ng s i d e s h av e e qua l rati o s .

Fm . 443

H y p o th es i s : In A AB C an d AA B C
’ ’ ’

Con clusi on : A A B O m

A n a ly s i s a n d co n s tr u c ti o n

I . T o p ro ve c o m p ar e eac h W i th a

th i r d t ri an g l e .

’ ’
II . O n CA c o ns r t u c t CX = b , on CB c o n s ru c t t CY = a ,

an d v e TI T3 and T2 T3 wh ere TI A AB C
N
p o
r N
,

and T3 = A X Y C .

’=
111 T o p r o v e T2 2 T? p r o v e
.
” c 2 .
( U s e Th .

’
IV . T o p ro ve c 2, c o m p ar e t wo p p
ro o r t i o ns t
c o n ai n i n g
I I

? 2
’
z an dc fr o m A TI an d T3 , and g i v en .

V . T O p ro ve r
p o ve Tl m T3 .
(U se Th .

Le t t h e pupi l gi ve the p roof . Fo r IV u se Th . 92 .

Ex 2 . . C o n s t ru c t a t ri an gle s i m i l a r to a g i ven t ri angle wi th

i t s p eri met er qu a l to g i v en segment
:ov
e a .

Ex 3 . Pr th a t two t ri a ngles a re s i m i l ar i f two s i des a nd

e

th e m e d i an ‘

to o ne of th em a re p roport i on a l to t h e c o rres pon d i ng

p a r st of t h e oth er .
 PLAN E G EO ME T RY

P RO P ERTI E S O F S I MI L AR P O L Y G O N S
CO MP O S IT I O N O F S I M IL AR P O L Y G O N S

263 T H E O R E M 122 If tw o p o ly g o n s are s i mi l ar , d i ago

. .

nals d raw n f ro m t w o c orr e sp o n d i n g v e rti c e s d i vi d e th e

p y
o l g o n i n t o th e s am e n u m b e r o f tr i a n g l e s s i m i l ar e a c h t o
e a c h a n d S i m i l ar l y p la c e d .

Th e a na lysi s and th e p roof a re l e f t to th e pupi l .

RATI O S O F CO RRE S P O N D I N G S E G M E NT S

26 4 . T H E O R E M 123 Th e rati o o f c o rr e sp o n di n g a l ti tud e s

.

of tw o s i m i l ar tri an g l e s e qu a l s th e rati o o f th e b a s e s .

F IG . 44 5
H y p o th es i s : In A A B C N
’
h an d h a re c o rr e
’
s p o n di n g a lt i tudes an d c an d c ar e th e b a se s .

h c
Con cluszon ’ ’
h c

A n a ly si s :To p r o ve c om p ar e an d
f
, wi t h th e

t hir d ra ti o

Le t t h epupi l c om plete t h e a na lysis a n d give t h e p roof .

Ex 1 .Pr ov e th a t i n two s i m i l a r t r i a n gl es t h e rat i o of t h e

.

f o llo w m g s eg m en t s e qu a l s t h e ra t i o of s i m i l i tud e of t h e t r i an gl es :
a B i sec tors of c o rres po n d i n g a n gl e s
. .

b C orresp o n d i n g m e d i an s
. .

c T h e ra d i i of t h e c i rc u m s cri b e d c i rc l e s
. .

d T h e rad i i of t h e i n s cr i b e d c i rc les
. .

Ex 2 . . A re th ere a n y oth er s eg m ent s i n two s i m i l ar t ri a ngl es

whose ra t i o is e qu a l to t h e r a t i o of s i m i l i tud e of t h e t ri a n gl es?

Gi ve p roofs .
 S I MI L A R I T Y 24 5

Ex 3
'

. . In two s im i l a r polygon s t h e ra t i o of c o rres po ndin g

di a go n a l s i s e qu a l to t h e ra t i o of s i m i l i tud e of t h e p olygo n s .

’ ’
Ex 4 . . If b an d b a re th e b ases of two t ri a ngles a nd a an d a

the c o rrespo n d i n g a lt i tudes ,

S how th at
g g ; r if t h e t ri a ngl e s are

a
l
s i m i ar a n d — if th ey a re e qu i va lent .

26 5 T H E O R E M 124 In a s eri e s o f e qu al rati o s th e s um

. .

of th e an te c e d e n t s i s to t h e s um o f th e c o n s e qu e n t s a s a n y

ante c e d en t i s to i ts c o n s e qu en t .

a c e
H y poth es zs —
7; E f
a +6 e e tc a
Co n clu s i o n
.

b +d f etc . b

S T A T E ME NT S
a C a e
1
7
’ '
b
'

b d
2 . ob = ab

bc = a d
be = a f

3 .

4 .

a c e + e tc . a
'
— — ——
b l d l f l e tc
- -
. b

Le t t h e pupi l gi ve a ll re a son s .

AD DB
Prove Th by t h at h ’ ’ a n( 1
123 p ro v m g
_
Ex 1 '
A D
h
. .
.

T H E O R E M 125 . Th e ra ti o of th e p e ri m e ters of tw o s i mi lar

tri an g l e s i s e qual t o th e rati o of s i m i l i tu d e .

Le t t h e pup i l g i v e t h e a n a lys i s a n d t h e p roo f U s e Th 124 T he . . .

se ri e s o f qua l rati os i s obta i n e d f o m t h e ra tios of c o r r spo nd i ng S i de s

e r e .

Ex . 2 . C o rres po n d i n g d iago nal s of two s imi ar l polygo n s h ave

th e s a me ra tio as th e p e r i m e t e rs .
24 6 P LA N E G E O ME T RY

RATI O S O F AREA S

26 6T H E O R E M 126 Th e ar e a s o f tw o s i m i l ar tri ang l e s

. .

h ave th e s am e ra ti o a s th e s quar e s o f th e b a s e s o r th e s quar e s

of t h e a lti tu d e s .

FIG . 446

H y po th es i s : In A A B O N
’
b and b ar e c o rr e
’
s p o n di n g b ases a nd a and a the a l ti t ude s .

A r ea A B C b 2
a
2

Con c lus i o n ’ ’ ’ ’
A re a A B C b 2
a

ABC b 2

A n a lysi s : T o p r o v e
a re a a
’ ’ ’ p r o ve ea ch
a r ea A B C
72
5 E
ra t i o e qu a l to a th i rd ra ti o .

S T A T E ME NT S
A r ea A B C = ab .

’’
A re a a b .

a re a AB C ab
’ ’ ’ ’’
a re a A B C a b

Le t t h e p upil g i ve s s
a ll re a o n
248 PLA N E GE O ME T RY

Ex 1 . . If the a re a of o n e polygo n i s tw i c e th a t of a l
S im i ar

p olygo n w h a t ,
is t h e r a t i o of t h e b a s es ?

Ex 2 . . The a rea of o ne polygon i s th ree t i m es t h e a rea of

a l
s im i ar polygon . I f t h e b as e of o n e i s 15 fin d t h e b as e of t h e ,

othe r .

Ex 3 . Two c o rres po n d i n g S i des of two s i m i l ar polygo ns a re

.

5 and 9 res p ec t i v e ly I f t h e a rea of t h e fi rs t i s 3 0 find t h e area

.
,

of th e s ec o n d .

Ex 4 . . Th e sum of th e a re a s of two l
s i m i ar polygon s i s 9 10 .

Th e ra t i o of s i m i l i tud e i s 36 . Fi n d t h e a rea .

S U MMARY AN D S UPP L E MEN TAR Y E XE RCI S E S

26 8 . S U MMARY O F I M P O RTAN T P O IN TS IN CH AP TE R XI

A . Te s ts f or s i m ilari ty .

I . T o prove two tri an g l e s s i mi l ar , p r o v e th a t

a Th ey are m u t u a ll y e qui a n gu l ar
.

b . Th ei r c o rr esp o n d i n g si d es h ave eq u a l ra ti o s

c . An an g le of o ne e qu a l s an an g l e o f t h e o th er ,

an d th e ra ti o s o f , et c .

II T o prove tw o p o ly gon s
. s i m ilar , p r o ve th a t di a g o n a l s
d r a wn f r o m c orr e s p o n di n g v er ti c es , et c .

B . P ro p erti e s of Si m ilar polygons .

I . A n g l es are e qu al an d c o rr e sp o n d i n g si d es h av e
e qu al ra ti o s
11 T w o . si m i ar l po l y go ns m a y b e di vi de d i n t o t r i a n g l es .

s i m i ar l i n p ai rs b y , et c .

III . R at i o s of c o rre sp o n di n g gm en t s i n s i m i l ar p o l y
se

g o n s e qu a l th e ra ti o o f s im i l i t ud e o f t h e p o l y g o n s

26 4 ,

IV Ra ti o . of th e a r ea s o f s i m i ar l p o l y go n s
qu a l s t h e e

s qu a re of th e ra ti o o f s i m i l i tud e o f t h e p o l y g o n s
 S I MI L A R I T Y 249

EXE R CI S E S I N V O LV IN G S IM ILAR P O LY G O N S

26 9 . 1 . Ma ke
v i ew di agra ms f o r T h s 122 an d 127
re . .

I f t h e segm n ts w hi c h j oi n t h e ve rti c e s o f a polygo n wi th a gi ve n

e

po i nt a e d ivide d i n t h e sa m e ra ti o f rom t h e g i ven poi nt a n d t h e poi n ts

r

of divisio n j oi n ed i n t h e s a m e o rde r a s t h e ve rti c es of t h e polygon ,

t h e polygo n so f o rm e d a n d t h e g i ve n polygo n a re ra d i ally pl a c e d .

Th e poi n t m a y b e without t h e polygo n a s i n Fi g 4 4 8a o r wi thi n t h e .

,

OA O B
polygon a s i n F i g 4 4 8 b In ea c h ca se A ’ —B ’= et c T h e ra di a l poi nt
. .
_
= .

O O
i s c a ll d t h e c en t er o f s i mi li t u de o f t h e polygon s
e .

F IG 44 8 . a F I G 4 4 8b
.

2 Two polygo n s th at a re
. ra d i a lly pl a c e d a re S i m i l ar . G i ve
t h e p r oof f o r t h e two c ases .

3 . S how how
p olygo n m ay b e c o n s t ru c t e d s i m i l ar to
a g i ven a
’ ’
polygon A B CD w i th a g i ven s e gm en t A B c o rr e spo n d in g
to s i de
A B a n d wi th any a rb i t rary p o i n t 0 as a c en t er of s i m i l i tud e .

N O TE T h e c e n te r o f s i m i l i tud e o f two si m il a r fig ure s m ay b e Of

.

u i n e nla rg i n g o r redu c i n g d ra wi ngs

se .

4 . Ma k e a d raw in g a nd gi ve a p roof f o r Ex . 3 w i th p o int 0

fa ll in g ( 1) on p o in t A ; ( 2) o n A D .

5 . If the p erim et er of a n e qu i l at era l t ri an gl e i s 66 , fin d t h e

si des of a s i m i l a r t ri a n gl e w i th h a lf t h e a lt i tud e .

6 . On o ne s i d e and o n t h e a lt i tude of a n e qu i la teral tr i an gle

as b ase s c o n s t ru c t s i m i l ar t r i a n gl es W h a t i s t h e rat i o of their
.

a rea s ?

7 On. s i d e a nd o n
o ne t h e di a go na l of a s quare c o ns t ru ct
e qu i l a t e ra l t ri an gl es W h at . is th e r a t i o of th e i r a rea s ?
i

8 . Co n s t r uct a t ri an gle l to a g i ven t ri an gle who se a rea

s i m i ar

s h all be M th e a re a of a gi ven t ri angle ; t h e area ; 36 t h e a re a ;

the a re a .
250 PLA N E G E O ME T RY

T9 I f . th e hypot en u se of a ght t ri angl e i s tw i c e

ri the s horter
si de ,
o ne of th e ac ut e an gl es of t h e t ri a ngle i s
10 Th e . t ri an gl e
gh t a ngl e a t C a nd D t ri sec t s
A B C h as a ri ,

A C s o t h at A D = 2D G It i s th en fou n d th a t A D = B D Fi n d
'

. .

t e s z e of a ngl e
h i A — Coll eg e E n t r a n c e E x am i n a t i o n B o a r d Pl a n e
.
,

G eo m et ry E x am i n at i o n 1907 , .

T11 I f two tri an gles h a v e th ei r

. c orrespon d i n g si des p ara ll el
eac h to eac h ,
th e t ri an gles a r e s i m i ar l .

T12 I f two t ri an gl es h a v e th ei r
. o rres pon d i n g
c Si des p er p en
di cu la r eac h to eac h ,
the t r i angl es a re s i m i l a r .

13 . hows two qu ad ri l at era l s w i th th ei r

Fi g 4 4 9 . S
’ ’
s i d es re sp ec t i ve ly p a r all el If A C [ I A C p rove t h e .
,

qu a dri l at era ls s i m i lar .

14 C o n st ru c t a qu a dr i l a t era l s i m i l ar to a g i v en
. a

qu a d ri l at era l h a vi n g o ne d i a gon al e qu a l to a g i ven

eg m ent F IG 4 4 9
s . .

15 T h e p eri m et ers of two s i m i l ar t ri an gl es a re 21 an d 36

.

T h e a lt i tud e of t h e fi rs t i s 8 Fi n d t h e a lt i tud e of t h e sec ond . .

In Fi g 4 5 0, A B C i s a n i s o s c el es t ri an gl e
16 . . .

CD 1 from C to t h e b a s e A B P Q i s t h e p er .

p en di c u lar b i se c to r of A C Pr ov e th a t A A B O .

is s i m i ar l to A A B O a n d find th e l en gth of AO
in t erm s of A D and CD : F IG . 450
17 In Fi g 4 5 1, A B CD i s a s qu are
.
A.E = EF .

CG = DH a n d t h e p o in t s a re jo i n e d a s i n d i c a t e d .

Fi n d a ll p a i rs of c o n gr u en t t ri an gl es a n d of s i m i l a r
t ri an gl e s fo rm e d . Rea d t h e ra t i os betw een c o rre
s p o n d i ng S i d es of th e s im i a rl t ri an gl es I f A B = 3 6
.

cm . and AE = %A B ,
find A X, X Y , a nd YF . F IG . 451

18 . qu a l s i d es of a n i so scel es t ri an gle a re 13 t h e b ase

Th e e ,
is
10 . Fi n d t h e s i d es of a S i m i l ar t r i a n gl e who se a lt i tud e i s 4 .

19 Wh at is th e a re a In a c res of a p o rt i o n of a m ap th at c overs
4% q
.

s . in ? . Th e s ca e O fl t h e m ap i s 1 in c h = 1 mi le .

20 Th e
. sides of a polygo n a re 10, 15 , 9, a nd 22 . Fi n d t h e
si des of a s i m i l a r polygo n i f i t s p e r i m e t
er i s 14 0 .
 C H A P TE R X II

RE GU L A R PO LY G O N S

DEFIN I TI O N

27 0 . A re gular p o l y go n h a s b een d efin e d a s a p o l y go n

wi th a ll o f i t s s i d e s a n d a ll o f i t s a n g l e s e qu a l .

Ex 1 . . A regul a r qu a dri l a tera l is a s qu are .

Ex 2 . . An e qu i l at e ra l t ri a n gl e is a re gul ar polygo n .

CO N S TRU CTI O N O F RE G UL AR P O L Y G O N S
G E N E RA L TH E O REMS
27 1 . THE O R If a c i r cl
EM 128 . e i s di v i d e d i n to 6
n ua l
eq

ar cs , th e c h o rd s j o i ni n g th e p o i n t s o f d i vi s i o n f o rm a r e gu l ar

o l
p yg o n .

The a na lysi s a nd p roof a re lef t to th e pupi l .

27 2 T H E O R E M 129 If
. . a c i r cle is d i vi d e d i nto 11 e qu al
arc s , th e ta n g ent s d ra wn t o th e p o i n t s of d i vi s i o n f o rm a

r e gu lar p o ly g o n .

FIG . 4 34

H y p oth es i s : 6 0 i s di vi d e d i n t o t h e e qu a l a r c s WX X Y , ,

YZ e t c a n d t an g en t s A B B C CD e t c ar e d ra wn t o t h e
, .
, , , , .
,

p o i n s t
o f d i v i si o n X Y Z
, , , , etc .

Con clus i o n : A B CD et c . is a r e gu ar l po l y go n .
 RE G U L A R P O L Y G O N S 253

A n a ly s i s a n d c o n s truc ti o n

1 . To p ro ve t h a t A B CD e t c . 18 a r e gu l a r p o ly go n , p r o ve
AA A B = A C = et c , . and

II . To p ro ve th a t AA A B = A C = et c .
, an d tha t
j oin l/VX X V, YZ Z V
, , , et c .
,

and p r o ve A WXA N
A X YB 2 A YZC 2 , et c .

S uggesti o n . N oti c e tha t

AX B Y = CZ etc By ong ru en t tri a ngle s
c .

BX CY = ZD etc B y c ong ru e n t t ri a ngl e s .

AB BC CD etc E qu a l s e gm e n ts a dde d to qu a l e se gm e n t s .

Th e p roo f i s l eft to t h e pup il .

CO N S TRU CT I O N O F T H E I N S CRIB ED S Q UARE AND

RE L ATED P O LY G O N S

27 3 P R O B L E M 26 . To i n s cri b e a sq uar e in a ci r cle .

F IG . 4 55

A n a lysi s a n d c o n s tru c ti on ( g 455 N o

Fi .
,
.

I . T o i n s c ri b e a s qu ar e i n a ci rc l e di vi de
,
t h e ci r c l e i n t o
4 qua l arc s
e .

II . . . d i v i de t h e p eri go n a b o ut th e c en t er of th e c i rc e l
i n t o 4 e qu a l a n g l e s .

III . c o n s ru c t t
Le t t h e pupi l c om ple te th e d i re c t i o n s a nd gi ve the p roof .

274 . PR O B L E M 27 . T o i n s c ri b e a r eg ular o c tag o n in a

c i rc le ( Fi g . 4 55 , N o .

Ex 1 . . W h a t oth er re gul ar ins c ri be d polygons c an be obta i ned

f ro m t h e in s c ri be d s qu a re ?
Ex . 2 S how how to c o n st ru c t
. re gul a r c ir c um s c r i b e d polygo ns
of 4, 8, an d 16 s i d es ( F i g 4 5 5 N o .
, .
254 P L A N E G E O ME T RY

C O N S RU C T TI O N O F T H E RE G U A R L I N S CRIB ED
H EXA G O N A N D RE L ATE D P O L Y G O N S

27 5 . P R O B L E M 28 . T o i n s c ri b e a re gu l ar h exa g o n in a

c i rcl e .

FIG . 45 6

A n a ly s i s a n d c on s tr uc ti on
(Fi g 456 .
, N o 1) .

I T o i n s c ri b e a r e gu l ar h ex a g o n
. in a c i rc e , l di vi de “

th e
ci rc l e i n t o 6 e qu al ar c s .

II . di vi de t h e p eri go n a b o ut th e c en er t of th e c i r cle

i n t o 6 e qu a l a n g l e s .

III . S i n ce of 3 6 0 i s 60 , c o ns r t uc t 6 an g l es of 60
°
eac h at

th e c e n er o f t th e c irc e l .

IV . c ons r t uc t
Le t t h e pupi l c om pl ete t h e di rec ti on s a n d g i ve t h e p roof .

Ex 1 .Prove th a t t h e s i d e of t h e r e gul a r i n s c r i b e d h e x a go n
.

i s e qu a l to t h e ra d i u s of t h e c i r c l e .

Ex 2 .I ns c ri b e a n e qu i l atera l t ri an gle i n a c irc le

. .

Ex 3 .I n sc ribe a r egul ar 12 s i d e i n a c i rc l e
.
-
.

Ex 4 .Wh a t oth er regula r i n s c ri b e d p olygo ns m ay b e obtai n ed

.

from t h e regular i n scri b e d h e x a go n ?

Ex 5 .S how how to c o nst ru c t regular c i rc ums c ri be d p olygons
.

of 3 6 a n d 12 s i des
, ,
.

N O TE R egula r polygo n s a re i n ve ry c omm o n u se f o r t owe r s S p i re s

.
, ,

b a y a n d do rm e r wi n dows hopp er s n uts a n d t h e lik e ,

Th y a , ,
. e re

e xte n siv e ly us e d i n o rn a m e n t E v e n t h e l e ss c o mm on f o m s su c h a s
. r ,

polygo n s wi th 7 9 11 o r even 13 s i de s oc c a si on a lly oc c ur

, , , ,
.
256 PLANE GEO ME T RY

If a gm en t i s s o di vi de d th a t t h e l arger p o rt i o n i s a m e a n
se

p r o p o r ti o n al b e t w een t h e wh o l e s e gm en t a n d t h e s m a ll er
p o r t i o n t h e
, s e g m e n t i s s a i d t o b e d i vi de d i n t o extrem e
an d m ean rati o P r o b l em 3 0 m a y b e s t a t e d :
. T o d i vi de a
s e gm en t i n t o e x tr em e a n d m e a n r a t i o .

N O TE T h e d i vi si o n o f a s egm en t i n to e xt rem e a n d m ea n
.

ra ti o i s o f te n c a ll e d t h e Golde n S ecti o n I t wa s k n own to .

t h e P yth a go rea n s I t i s a n i n tere sti n g fa c t o f te n used i n

.
,

t h e the o ry o f d e s i g n th a t th a t d i vi s i on o f a re c ta n gl e whi c h
,

i s t h e m ost pl ea s i ng to t h e m a j o ri ty o f p e opl e i s t h e o n e
tha t m ost c los ely a pp roxi m a te s t h e golde n s e c ti on . It m i ght
b e us e d i n d e s i g n s f o r doo r s o r wi ndows ( F i g 4 58) .
F IG 4 5 8

a x
E xerc rs e . S how th a t I f —x th e w h o 13 a pp rox i m a tely
a

277 . P R O B LE M 3 0 . To i n s cri b e a reg ular d e c a go n i n a

c i rcl e .

FIG . 4 59

Gi ven l
c i rc e

To c on s tru c t a r e gu l ar i n s c ri b e d d ec a g o n .

A n a ly szs
I To c o n s tru c t
. AB , a si de of th e d ec a go n , cons r t uc t
AO= % o o f 4 rt . A or % of 2 rt . A .

c o n s t ru c t A A B O i s o s c e l es so th a t AA = 2AO .

II . T h e p r o b l em i s re du c e d t o t h e c o n st ru c ti o n o f A A OB .

Th e f a c t th a t A A 2 A 0 s ugge s t s dr a w i n g t h e
b i sec t o r of AA . A ABC and ABO wo u l d t he n be
OB AB _ z
S l m l lar a nd or A B = OB '
BC
TE E5
.

A
 R E GU LA R PO L Y G O NS 25 7

Co ns truc ti o n
I . Di vi d e t h e ra di u s of th e c i rc e , l OB i n t o
, t
e x r em e a n d

m ea n ra ti o at C .

II . U se t h e lar ger se gm en t OC , , a s a si de of th e d eca go n .

III . m ak e A B = O C . J o i n OA a nd p r o ve of a

t
s ra i g ht an gl e .

S T A T E ME NT S
1 OB. OC
0C CB
2 OB. AB
AB BC
3 . A AB C N A A B O .

4 . A A B C i s i so sc e l e s .

5 . A A B O i s i so s c e l e s .

6 . A C = A B = OC
7 A OG i s i so s c e l e s .

8 . A2 AO .

9 . AS AO .

10 . A A = t wi c e A O .

11 . AA A B + A O=5>
< A O = 180
°

12 . AO $ 5 180
°
% o

Le t t h e pupi l g i ve t h e re a so ns .

Ex 1 . .S how th at t h e ra d i u s o f a c i rc l e m ay b e d i v i d e d i nto
ext rem e a n d m e a n r a t i o a n d th erefo re th a t a s i d e of

t h e re gul a r i n s c ri be d d ec a go n m a y b e obt a i ne d a s
follows :D ra w A B a nd CD two d i am et ers p erp en di c ,

ul ar to ea c h oth er Le t E b e t h e m i d po i n t of 0 A
.
-
. A

W i th E as c ent er a n d E C as r a d i us cut O B a t F .

OF is a s i de of t h e d eca go n ( Fi g .

Ex 2 . . C o ns t ru c t w i th r ul er a n d c o m p asses F IG 4 6 0 .

a ngl es of 72
°

Ex 3 . . Wh a t a n gl es c a n y o u c o n st ru c t w i th ruler an d
c o m p as ses wi thout t h e a i d of a p rot ract or ?
258 PLAN E G E O ME T RY

27 8 . P RO B LE M 3 1 . T o i n s c ri b e a re g ular p e nta go n i n a

c i r cl e .

Th e a na lysi s a nd t h e p roo f a re le ft to t h e pupi l (F i g 4 6 1 N o .

, .

Ex 1 . . W h a t oth er regul a r i n s c ri b e d polygo ns c a n b e obt a i ne d .

fr om the r e gul a r i n s c r i b e d d e c a go n ?

Ex 2 . . S how how to c on st ru c t re gul a r c i rc u m sc r i b e d polygon s

of 5 a nd 10 S i d es .

27 9 . P R O B L E M3 2 . T o i n s c ri b e a re g ular p e n a t d e ca gon
in a c i r cl e .

S ugges ti o n . T he t l
c e n ra an gle m u st b e 60
°
—3 6 °
= 24 °
(Fi g 4 6 1 .
,

NO .

E x e rc i s e . W ha t i nsc ri b e d an d c i rc u m sc ri b ed regul ar p olygo n s

m ay b e obt a i ned from th e re gul a r i n sc ri be d p en t a d ec a go n ? H o w ?

F IG . 461

CO N S TRUCTI O N O F O TH E R REGULAR P O LY G O N S /

280 N OT E . F rom t h e ti m e of E u cl i d u nti l 1796 i t w as supposed

.

tha t t h e regul a r p o lygon s me nti oned i n 273 —279 we re t h e o nly ones

,

th a t c ould b e c o n st ru c te d wi th rul e r a nd c o m p a ss e s Th i s i n c lude s

"
.

polygon s wi th 3 4 5 a n d 15 2 s ides T h e s m a ll e r poly .

go n s no t i n c lud d i n thi s se t a re thos e o f 7 9 11 13 14 17 18 19

e , , , , , , ,

s i d es In 1796 howe ve r K a rl F ri ed ri c h G a uss th e n a you ng ma n

.
, , ,

o f n i netee n i n o ne o f t h e G erm a n u ni versiti e s p roved tha t regula r ,

polygon s wi th a p ri m e nu m b e r o f s i de s c ould b e i n s c ri bed i n a c i rc le

by m ea n s of a ru l e r a nd c om p a ss e s i f a n d on ly i f t h e p ri m e num ber wa s
of t h e fo rm Tha t n o polygon s o f 7 9 11 13 19 e t c s i des , , , , ,
.
,

c a n b e c o n st ru c te d i n t h e g i ve n m a n n e r f ollows f o m G a uss s p ro o f
’
r .

A polygo n o f 7 S i d e s c a n b e c on st ru c ted by t h e u se o f a p a ra bol a a nd

a c i r c l e ; o n e o f 9 s i d e s by t h e use o f a hyp e rb o l a a n d a Ci rcle . . .
260 PLA N E GE O ME T RY

TH E I N S CRIB ED CIR C E L
283 . T H E O R E M13 1 . A c i rcl e c an b e i n s c rib e d i n an y

r e gu lar p o lygon .

F IG . 4 63

H y p o th esi s : A B CD E et c . 13 any re gu l a r po l y go n .

Co n c lu s i o n : A cir cl e c an be i n s c ri b e d in p o ly go n
A B CD E et c .

A n a ly s i s a nd c o n s tr uc ti on

I . A n i n s c ri b e d c i rc e l wi ll be ta n gen t to th e si des o f t h e
p o l y gon .

II . t h e p erp en di c u l ar s fr o m th e c e n er t t o th e si d es of

t h e p o l y go n m u st b e ra di i an d e qu a l .

III . c o n s t ru c t th e ci r cum sc ri b e d c i rc e , l d raw t h e p e r

p e n di c u lar s OX , O Y , OZ , et c .
, fro m th e c en e r t
to th e si de s , an d p r o ve OX = O Y = OZ = e t c .

Th eproo f i s lef t to t h e pup i l .

S uggesti o n S how th a t Th 13 1
. . m ay b e p rove d by Th . 67 or by
Th 13 0 C o r a nd Th 8 5
. . . .

P R O PE R T IE S D EP E N D EN T UP O N T H E CIR CU M S CRIB E D AN D
I N S CRIB ED CIR C E S L
284 . Th e t ci rc um sc ri b e d a n d o f t h e i n s c ri b e d
c e n er o f th e
ci r c l e o f a regu l a r p o l y g o n i s c a ll e d t h e c e nter o f t h e p o l y g o n .

T h e r a di u s o f t h e ci r c u m s c ri b e d c i r c l e o f a re gul a r po l y g o n
i s c a ll e d t h e ra di u s o f t h e po l y g o n .

Th e ra di u s o f t h e i n s c ri b e d c i r c l e o f a re gu lar p o l y go n i s
c a ll e d t h e ap o th em o f t h e p o l y g o n .

B y t h e c entral an gle o f a r e gu l ar p o l y g o n i s m ea n t t h e
z ,

a ng l e b e t w ee n t w o c o n s ec u t i v e ra d i i .
 RE GU L A R PO L Y G O N S 1

CO R . I . Th e c entr al an gle of a r e gular p o lyg o n of n s i de s

is of

CO R . II . Th e gu l ar p o ly go n b i s e c ts th e
ra di u s of a re

an g l e b e tw e e n t wo c o n s e cu ti v e ap o th e m s , an d th e ap o th e m

b i s e c ts th e an g l e b e tw e e n t w o c ons e c uti ve ra dii .

CO R . I II . Th e ra di u s of a r egular p o ly g o n b i s e c ts th e
ar c b e tw een th e p o i nt s o f c o n ta c t o f th e i n s c ri b e d c i r cle .

Ex 1. . two d i ago na l s of a regul ar p ent a gon a re e qu a l

An y .

Ex 2 . Two d i a gona l s fr om t h e s am e vert e x of a re gul ar

.

p ent a go n t r i s ec t t h e a ngle a t th a t v e rt ex .

Ex 3 . S how how to d i v i d e a re gul a r h e x a go n i n to two c o n

.
-

g r u e n t i s o s c e l e s t ra p e zo i d s th r e e c
,
o n g r u e n t r ho m bu s es o r S i x ,

c o n g r u e n t e qu i l at e ra l t r i a n gl es .

Ex 4 . O n a g i v e n b as e c o n st ru c t a re gul ar h ex a go n w i thout
.

c o ns t r u c t i n g t h e c i r c u m s c r i b e d c i rc l e .

Ex 5 . A p r i nc i p a l d i a go n a l of a re gul a r h e x a go n
.

p a sses t h r ough t h e c e n t er of t h e c i r c u m s c r i b e d c i rc l e

a nd i s p a rall e l to a p a i r of o p p o s i t e s i d e s ( Fi g F .

Ex 6 . I f a r egu l ar p olygo n h a s a n e v en n u mber

.

of s i d es t h e d i am et er of t h e c i rc u m sc ri b ed c ir c l e d ra w n
,

Fm 464
fro m a ny vert ex p a ss es th rough t h e oppo s i te vert ex .
'

Ex 7. I f a re gul a r p olygo n h a s a n e ven n u m b e r of S i d es t h e

.
,

o p pos it e s i d es a re p arallel .

Ex 8. I f a ny re gul ar polygon h as a n odd n u m b er of S i d es t h e

.
,

d i am et e r of t h e c i rc u m s c ri b e d c i rc le d ra wn fro m a ny vert ex i s a
p erp e n d i c ul ar b i s ec to r of t h e op p o s i t e S i de .

Ex 9 . A s i d e of a n i n s cri b e d e qu i l a t era l t r i an gl e b i sec t s t h e

.

ra d i us dr a w n to t h e m i d po i n t of t h e s ubt en d e d arc
-
.

E x 10
. T h e c ent r a l a n gl e of a r egul ar p olygo n i s t h e s up p le
.
.

m en t of t h e i n t eri o r an gl e of t h e polygo n .

E x 11
. T h e a re a of a s qu a re c i rc u m s cri b e d a bout a c i r c l e i s
.

tw i c e t h e a re a of t h e s qu are i n s c ri b e d i n t h e s am e c irc le .

E x 12
. I f squ a res a re d e s c ri b e d outw a rdly o n t h e s i de s of a
.

re gul a r h e x a go n t h e out e r v e r t i c e s of t h e s qu a r e s a r e t h e v e rt i c e s
,

o f a re gul ar duod e c a go n .
26 2 PLA N E GE O ME T RY

L
T H E A N G E O F A RE G U A R P O L LY G O N
28 5 . TH E O RE M 13 2 . E ach an gle of a r e gu ar l l
p yg o n
o of

. 2n —4
n S Id e S Is rt . A .

n
The p r oof i s l ef t to t h e pup i l .

TH E ARE A O F A RE G UL AR P O LYGO N

28 6 T H E O R E M 13 3
. . Th e ar e a of a re gu l ar po ly g o n is
o ne -
h alf th e p r o du c t of th e p e r i m e t e r and th e ap o th e m .

A n a ly si s :
T o fin d t h e a r e a o f a r e gu a r l p o l y go n d r a w th e ra du an d

add th e ar e as of th e t ri a n g l e s f o rm e d .

S IMIL AR RE G U L AR P O L Y G O N S
TE S T FO R S I M I AR RE GU AR P O Y G O N S
L L L
287 TH E O RE M
. 13 4 . Tw o reg u l ar p o ly g o n s of th e s am e

n u m b er o f s i d e s ar e s i m ilar .

F IG . 4 65

H y p o th es i s :Th e two re gu l a r p o l y go n s O an d
’
O h ave t h e
s am e n um b er
de s of Si .

Con clusi o n : P o l y g o n
’
O m p o ly g o n O .

A n a ly s i s
’ ’
I T o p r o ve p o ly go n p o l y go n O , p r o ve AA AA ,

AB -
BC CD
[B [B et c and 1 ]
W

l
W

,
CD
i I
.
,
A 3 B c
’ ,
AB AB A B
I I To p r o v e ’ ’ ’ ’ p r o ve I !
A B B C BC B C
The p ro o f is l e f t to th e pupil .
264 P L A N E G E O ME T RY

S U MMARY AN D S UP P L E ME N TARY EXERCI S E S

290 S UM MARY. OF I MP O RTAN T P O I NT S IN CH AP T ER XII
A . Co n s tru c ti on o f re ular g p o ly g ons .

I . To c on s tru c t a u l ar i n sc ri b e d o r c i r cum s c ri b e d
re g

p y
o l g o n o f n s i d e s , d i v i d e t h e c i r c l e i n t o n e qu a l

by c o n s t ru c t i n g a n a n g l e / o f 3 60 a t t h e
1 °
ar c s n

c en t er o f t h e c i r c l e and

I I T o c o n s tru c t re gu l ar
. 4 8 or 16 - s i d e d p o y g o n s , l
cons r t uct two p e rp e n d i c u l ar di am e t ers

111 T o . c on s tru c t
gu l ar 3 6 o r 12 s i d e d p o l y g o n s ,
re -

c o n s t ru c t a c en t ra l a n g l e o f 60 b y m ea n s o f a n
° ‘

e qu i l a t era l t ri a n g l e

IV T o c o n s tru c t re gu l ar 5
. 10 o r 15 s i d e d p o l y g o n s , -

d i vi d e t h e ra di u s o f t h e c i r c l e i n t o e x t r em e a n d
m e an ra ti o 278 ,

B . P r op erti e s of re gu l ar po ly g o n s .

I . A l
c i rc e c a n be c i rc u m s c ri b e d a b o ut , et c .

II . A c i rc l e c an b e i n s c ri b e d i n , et c .

III . Th e ra d i u s o f t h e c i rc u m sc ri b e d c i rc e l of a re gul a r
p o l y go n b i se c t s et c , .

2n — 4
IV . E ach an gle of a re gu l ar p o l y go n is rt . A

V . Th e c en r a t l an gle of a re gu l ar p o l y go n i s of 3 60
°

C . Th e are a of a re gu l ar p o ly g o n is p er . ap o th e m

D . S i m i l ar re gu l ar p o l yg on s .

1 Re gu l a r p o l y g o n s
. are s i m i ar l if th ey h a ve , et c .

II . Th e ra ti o of t h e p eri m e te r s e qu a l s , et c .

III . T he ra ti o of th e a re a s equ a l s , etc .

F o r S i m i la r polygon s i n ge neral s ee § 26 8 .
 REGU LA R PO L Y G O N S 265

EXERCI S E S IN V O LVI N G P R O P ERTIE S O F A N D S P E CI AL

CO N S TR UCT I O N S F O R RE G UL AR P O L Y G O N S

291 . 1 In. gula r h ex ago n t h e

a re s ec o nd ar y d i a go na l s FD and

AC ar e p ara ll e l to ea c h oth er ( Fi g .

2 In F i g 4 6 7, p rov e
. . th at U VWX Y Z i s a re gu
lar h exa gon .

N OTE sta r shown i n F i g 4 6 7 i s e xtre m e ly c o m

. Th e .

mon I t s e e m s to b e a n a n c i en t s y m bol o f D ity It

. e .

’
i s use d i n su c h m od e n i n sta n c e s a s t h e poli c e m a n s
r

sta r a nd m a n y tra dem a rks FIG 4 67

.
.

3 Th e area of t h e i ns cri b e d e qu i l a t er a t ri a n gle i s h a lf t h e a rea

.

l
of t h e regul a r h ex agon i nsc r i b e d i n t h e s am e c ir c le .

4 . S how
th a t t h e area of a re gul a r h ex agon i ns cri b ed i n a c i rc l e
i s a m e an p ropo rt i o n a l be tw een t h e a re as of t h e i n s cr i b e d a n d
.

c i r c u m s cri b e d e qui l a t er a l t ri a n gl e s .

5 . Th e c en ra t l an gl e of a re gul ar o c t a go n is

6 . G i v en
de of a regul ar o c t a go n to c o nst ru c t
a si ,

t h e c i rc u m s c ri b e d c i rc l e .

S ugges ti o n . See Fi g . 4 68 . In order to c on stru c t

A 1 = 22 % c on stru c t A 2 = 4S
Fm . 4 68

7 Gi ven t h e
. on d ar y d i a gon a l A B of a regul ar o ct agon
sec

( Fi g . to c on str u c t t h e o c t ago n .

S ugges ti o n S i n c e t h e n u m b e r o f deg re e s i n A 1 i s
.

known A A B B m a y b e c on st uc ted T h e p oble m i s

,
r . r

then t o c onstruc t D C 1]A B so th a t D C = A D .

N O TE E 7 i s a p ro b le m w h i c h m i g ht o c c u r i n
. x .
‘

bui ldi ng oc tagon a l b a y wi ndows A D CB would b e t h e .

outlin e of t h e wi ndow a nd A B t h e l i ne o n t h e house F IG 4 69 . .

8 S how
. th a t a regul ar o c t a go n m ay b e i ns c rib e d
i n a s qu a re by t h e follow i n g m e thod ( Fi g .

Wi th 0 as c en ter a nd O F t h e h a lf m e d ia n as , ,

r a di u s c u t t h e d i a go n a l s a t Y Z W and X A t , , , .

Y Z W an d X c o n st r u c t p e rp en d i c ul ars to t h e
, , ,

di agon al s .
P ro . 4 70
26 6 P L AN E G E O ME T RY

9 .t h a t a regul a r o c t agon may b e i nsc ri b ed

S how in a s qu are
b y t h e follow i n g m ethod ( Fi g W i th t h e .

v ert i c es of t h e s qu are a s c en t ers an d t h e s em i

d i a gon a l a s ra d i u s c ut t h e s i d es of t h e s qu ar e at
X Y Z et c an d j o i n t h e p o i n t s as i n d i c a t ed
, , ,
.
,
.

F IG . 4 71

FIG FI G 4 73
. 4 72 .

N O TE E s 8 a n d 9 a re e xtre m e ly use f ul
. x . They ca n b e use d .

as shown i n F i g 4 7 2 to c o n s t u c t a til e d flo o r p a tte rn c o m pos e d o f

. r -

re gul a r o c ta go n s a n d squ a re s o r a s i n F i g 4 73 to c u t a squ a re t i m b e r

,
.

down i n t o a n o c tago n al o n e T h e c utti ngs a t t h e s a wm i ll would b e

'

a lo n g t h e li n e s A B a n d B X D C a n d C Y a n d so a ou n d t h e ti m b er , ,
r .

E x 9 g i v e s t h e c om m o n m e thod f o r c utti n g out a n o c ta gon a l t a ble t o p

. .

10 F i g . . 4 74 s hows an i n s c r ib e d re gul ar p ent agon w ith it s

d iagon a ls . Prov e

( 1) ( )
2 A B = AY .
(3 ) AC
is d i v i d e d i nto e xt rem e a n d m e a n r a t i o a t Y .

(4 ) A Y i s d i v i de d i nto ext rem e a n d m ea n ra ti o a t X .

AC CB
S ugges ti o n f or Pr ove th a t
CB CY
CB = A Y . F I G 4 74 .

11 Fr om t h e fo re go i n g e x e rc i s e s S how how to c on st ru c t t h e
.

d i a gon a l of a regul ar p en t a go n g i ve n o ne s i d e ; a nd th erefore how t c ,

c o n s t r u c t t h e re gul ar p e nt a go n g i v en o n e s i d e , .

12 S how th a t i f A D i s t a k en a s t h e r a d i u s of a c ir c l e A B w il
.
,

b e a s i d e of t h e regul a r i n s c r i b e d d ec a go n ( F i g .

13 Pr ov e th at VWX Y Z i s a r egul ar p en t a go n ( F i g
. .

14 T h e seg m e n t s j o i n i n g t h e m i d p o i n ts of t h e s i d e s of a re gul a
.
-

p e n t a go n i n o r d er fo r m a re gul ar p en t a go n .

N O TE T h e sta r shown i n F i g 4 74 i s c a ll ed t h e p e n ta g ra m s t a
. .

a n d w a s us e d a s a sy m bol o f re c og n i ti o n a m o n g t h e P yth a g o ans re

a n a n c i e n t G re e k b roth e rhood th a t studi e d g e o m e t r y The y c a ll ed i .

H ea lth I t i s a lso t h e sta r use d i n t h e fla g o f t h e U ni ted S ta te s

. .
 68 PLA N E G E O ME T RY

11 Fin d t h e
. t i o of t h e S i de of a s qu a re In s c r i be d i n a c i rc l e
ra

to t h e s i de of a n e qu i lat era l t ri angl e i n sc ribe d i n t h e s a m e c i rc le .

12 A B CDE F i s a regul a r h ex a go n
. X Y a n d Z a re t h e m i d .
, ,

p o i n t s of A F B C a n d D E re s p e c t i ve ly
, , P r ov e th a t X Y Z i s a n .

e qu i l a t e r a l t r i a n gl e a n d fin d i t s a re a i f A B = 20 i n .

S TAR P O L YG O N S

293 . Fi g . 4 74 S h o ws a s art p o l y go n of fiv e p o i n t s a n d
Fi g 4 6 7
. o ne of si x p oi n t s Th er e a r e . one o r m o r e r e gu l a r

t
s ar p o ly go ns re l a t e d t o e a c h o f t h e

re gu l a r c o n v ex p o l y g o n s Th e y c a n .

b e c o n s tru c t e d b y d i vi di n g t h e c i r c l e
i n to i t e qu a l p ar t s a n d j o i n i n g e a c h
p o i n t o f d i v i s i o n t o t h e k t h o n e f ro m
i t wh er e k i s a n i n te ger gre a t er th a n
,

o ne a nd less th an
3 Fi g 4 78 h o ws
‘

. S

an o th er i ll u s tr a ti o n ( S ee a l so F i g . .

F IG 4 78
Th e se figu r es h a v e b een s t udi e d
'

wh erev er g eo m e t r y h a s b e en s tudi ed Th ey a b o u n d i n c ut .

g l a ss d esi gn s Th e fiv e p o i n t e d s t ar m en t i o n e d i n t h e n o t e
.
-
,

§ 9 1 E 1 4 d h i i t d t m t i d i h
'

2 x ,
a n
. t e s x p o ,
n e s a r e n o n e n t -
e

no t e § 291 E x 2 a re o f S p ec i a l i m p o r t a n c e
, ,
.
, .

E x erc i se . In Fi g 4 78 t h e c i rc l e i s d i v i d e d i n to 16 e qu a l p a rts
.

an d ea ch p o i n t j o i n e d to t h e 7t h f rom i t T h e follow i n g qu e st i o n s
.

ap p ly to F i g . 4 78

1 H o w m any
. t of e qu al a ngles are th ere ? se s

2 F i n d t h e n u m b er of d eg rees i n o n e a ngl e of e a c h s et
.
.

3 Pr ov e th a t
.

4 H ow m a ny oth er s et s of e qu al s eg m en t s a re th ere ?
.

5 H o w m an y r e gul a r p olygo n s of 16 s i d es c a n b e fo rm e d b y
j o i n i n g c orresp on d i n g i n tersec t i ons ? G i ve p roof f o r eac h .

6 C a n regul ar o c t a go n s b e fo rm e d b y j o i n i n g c o rres po n d i n g
.

i nt erse c t i o n s ? H o w ?
7 H o w m an y squ ares are i n t h e figu re ?
.
 C H A PT E R X III

ME A S U RE ME NT O F TH E C I RCL E

TH E CIR CUMFEREN CE O F T H E CI RCL E

D E F I N IT I O N

294 . Th e l en gth of a s r ai
t gh t l i n e
g m en t w a s d e fi n e d
-
se

as t h e n um b er o f t i m es a c er t ai n s t r ai ght li n e s egm en t -

t a ken as a u n i t c a n b e a p p l i e d t o t h e s e gm en t t o b e m ea s
u re d . It i s a t o n c e e vi d en t th a t w e c a nn o t m ea sure a Ci r c l e
i n th i s w a y W e S h a ll h o w e ver a ss um e t h a t t h e Ci rc l e c a n
.
, ,
1

b e m e a s u re d i n t e rm s o f a s t ra i gh t l i n e u n i t
. Th e m e as u re
-
.

o f t h e c i r c l e i s ca ll e d i t s l e n g t h o r i t s c i r c u mf e re n c e .

G EN ERAL METH O D
29 5 T h e p e ri m e t er o f a n i n s c ri b e d o r o f a c i r c um s c ri b e d
.

p y
o l g o n o f m a n y S i d e s m a y b e u se d a S a n a p p ro x i m a t i o n t o

th e l en g t h of th e l
c i rc e .

If a r e gu l ar h exa g o n i s i n scri b ed i n a c i r c l e a n d t h e ar c s
b e t w een i t s v ert i c es a re b i s e c t ed t h e c h o r d s j o i ni n g t h e
,

p o i n t s o f d i v i s i o n f o rm a r e g u l ar i n s c ri b e d o
p y l g o n o f 12 s i d e s .

B y t h e s a m e p ro c e s s r e gu l a r p o l y g o n s o f 24 4 8 96 192 , , ,

s i d es m a y b e o b t a i n e d a n d s o o n i n d efi n i t e l y
, If s uc h a .

s u c c e s s i o n o f p o l y g o n s i s c o n s t ru c t e d o n e i s s o o n fo u n d
,

whi c h c a n w i t h d i ffi c u l t y b e d i s t i n gu i sh e d fro m t h e c i rc l e
'

I n st ea d o f t h e r e gu l a r i n s c ri b e d h exa g o n t h e i n sc ri b e d ,

s qu a re m i gh t h a v e b een u se d as t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t .

Ex 1 . . p eri m eter of a re gul a r i nsc ri bed poly

Th e
go n i s l e ss th a n t h e p e r i m et e r of t h e re gul a r polygo n
of doubl e t h e n u m b e r of S id es i nsc ri b ed i n t h e s a m e
Ci rc l e ( F i g .

F IG . 4 79
270 PLA N E GE O ME T RY

If a re gu l a r h exa go n 18 Ci r c um sc ri b e d a b o u t a c i rc l e a n d
t h e a r c s b e t w een t h e p o i n t s o f t a n g e n c y a r e b i s e c t e d t h e ,

t a n ge n t s d ra w n a t t h e p o i n t s o f d i vi si o n fo r m a re gu l a r
c i rc u m s c r i b e d p o l y go n o f 12 si d e s B y t h e s a m e p r o c e s s .
,

re gu l a r c i r c u m sc ri b e d p o l y g o n s o f 24 4 8 96 192 S i d e s m a y , , ,

b e o b t a i ne d a n d s o o n i n d efi n i t e l y
, Ju st as i n t h e s eri es o f .

r e gu l a r i n sc ri b e d p o l y g o n s s o i n t h i s s e ri e s o f r e gu l ar c i r
,

c um sc ri b ed p o l y g o n s a p o l y g o n i s s o o n f o u n d wh i c h c a n
,

w i t h d i ffi c u lt y b e d i s t i n gu i s h e d f ro m t h e c i rc l e T h e s t a r t .

i n g p o i n t o f th i s s er i e s m i gh t h a v e b ee n t h e c i rc um sc ri b e d
s qu a r e i n s t e a d o f t h e r e gu l ar c i r c um sc ri b e d h e x a g o n .

T h e p eri m e t ers o f t h e p o l y g o n s i n th e se s e ri e s h a v e b e e n
c o m p u t ed T h e c o m p ut a ti o n s c a n b e m a d e a s i n d i c a t e d i n
.

t h e n e x t t w o p r o b l em s .

Ex 2 . . T h e p eri m e ter of a regul a r c i rc u msc r i b e d

p olygo n i s g rea t er th a n t h e p er i m eter of t h e re gul ar
polygo n of double t h e n u m b er of si d es c i rc um
s cr i b e d a bout t h e s a m e c i rc l e ( Fi g .

FIG . 4 80

29 6 . P R O B LE M 3 3 . d e of a re gu l ar I n s cri b e d
T o fin d a si

p o ly g o n o f Zn s i d e s , gi v e n a s i d e o f a r e gu l ar i n s cri b e d

p o l y g o n o f n s i d e s a n d th e r a d i u s o f t h e c i r cl e .

FIG . 48 1

Gi v en a Si de AC ( or a ) of a r eg u la r o
p yg o l
n o f n s i d es
i n s c ri b e d 111 a l
Ci rc e o f r ad i us r .

R eq ui red t o fin d a si d e (x ) o f a re gu l a r i n s c ri b e d p ol y go n
of 2n si d es .
272 PLA N E GE O ME T RY
’

P E RI M E E R ST L
O F RE G U AR P O LY G O N S IN S CRIB ED IN O R
CI R CU M S CR IB ED A B O UT A CIR CL E W ITH D IA METER O N E

298 . Th e m e th o d s i n d i c a t e d i n Pr o b s 3 3 a n d 3 4 h a ve b een
.

u se d i n o bt ai n i n g t h e r e su lt s g i v e n i n t h e t a b l e s b e l o w .

P ER I M E ER
T P ER I ME ER
T
o :
r O
INSC R I ED PO L
B Y GO N C I RC M R I E D P O
U SC B LY G O N

P ER I ME ER
T P R I M E ER
E T
or or
I NSC R I ED P O
B LY G O N CI R U MS C R I E D P O
C B L Y GO N
 MEA S URE ME N T O F T H E C I RC L E 3

Ta b l e I S h o ws t h e p er i m e t e r s of a s er i es o f i n sc ri b e d p ol y
go n s a nd of a um sc ri b e d p o l y g o n s t h a t s t a rt
s e ri e s of c i rc

wi t h t h e r e gu l ar i n s c r i b e d a n d c i r c u m sc r i b e d h ex a g o n
r e s p ec t i v e l y T a b l e I I s h o ws t h e p eri m e te rs o f t w o s eri e s
.

t h a t s t ar t w i t h t h e i n s c r i b e d a n d c i rc um s c r i b e d s qu a re
res p e c t i v e l y Th e d i a m e t er o f t h e c i rc l e i s 1 i n e a c h c a s e
. .

Ca n y o u c o m e t o an y c o n c l us i o n b y c o m p a ri n g r esu lt s ?
In h i gh er m a t h e m a t i c s i t i s p r o v e d t h a t t h e p eri m e t ers
o f t h e p o l y g o n s i n T a b l es I a n d 11 a p p r o a c h a d e fi ni t e n um

b er . Th i s n um b e r c a n n o t b e f o u n d e x ac tl y It h a s b ee n .

nam e d 71 ( p i ) .

CO MP U A T TI O N O F P E RI M E E R S T L
O F REG U AR P O Y G O N S L
I N S CRIB E D IN O R CI RCUM S CRIB E D AB O UT ANY CI RCL E

299 . PR O B L E M 3 5 . To find th e
t p e ri m e e r s of re gu lar
po l yg o n s i n s c ri b e d i n or c i rc um s c ri b e d ab o ut a ny c i rcl e .

S o lu ti o n
’
1 Le t d. and d r e p r e s en t t h e di a m e t er s of t wo c i r c es l .

’
p an d p r ep r ese n t t h e p eri m e t er s of two gu l a r
re

po l y go n s of th e s am e n um b er of si d es i n s c ri b ed i n
o r c i r c um s c r i b ed a bo ut th e two c i r c esl .

I I Th en.

ii ,
.
( S ee Th . 13 5

’=
d , wh en d l .

P
’ ’
p =d
p i f th e d i a m e t er o f C i rc e a l b ou t p is 1 .

T h e p eri m e t e r o f a r e gu l a r p o l y g o n o f an y num ber o f si d es

i n sc ri b e d i n o r c i r c u m s c ri b e d a b o u t a lc i rc e c a n be fo u n d
’
f ro m t h e e q u a t i o n p = dp i f t h e , p er i m e t e r of a si m i a r l
p yo l g o n i n s c r i b e d i n o r c i rc u m s c ri b e d a bo ut a c i rc e l of

d i a m e t e r 1 i s k n o wn .

T h e p e ri m e t e r s of p ol y go ns i n sc ri b e d i n o r c i rc u m sc r i b ed
ab o u t an y c i rc l e a nd S i m i l ar to th o se - in Ta b l e s I a nd II
fo u n d di am e t er
'

m ay b e b y m u lt i p ly i n g t h e of th e gi ven
Ci rc e l b y t h e p ro p er n u m b er i n th e t a b l es .
 74 P LA N E G E O ME T RY

L I M I T I N G VA L U E S O F PE RI M E E R O F T I N S CRIB ED AN D
CIR CUM S CRI B E D P O Y G O N S L
3 00 . A s 64 . . Th e li m i t of t h e p er i m e t er s of a s e rIe s of

re gu l a r p o l y g o n s i n s c r i b e d i n o r c i rc u m sc r i b e d a b o u t t h e
sam e c i rc l e a s t h e n u m b e r o f s i d e s i s i nc r e a se d i n d e fi n i t e l y

is th e s am e .

Th i s l i m i t d o e s d e p en d u p o n t h e n u m b e r o f s i d e s o f
not

t h e i n i t i a l p o l y g o n n o r u p o n t h e m e th o d o f i n c r e a si n g t h e
n u m b e r o f s i d es Th i s l i m i t i s 7rd . .

T h i s a s su m p t i o n Is p ro ve d i n h i gh e r m a t h e m a t i c s .

L E N G TH O F T H E CI RC E L
3 01 . Th e a ss um p t i o n s in § 300 l ea d us to the f o ll o wi n g
d efi n i t i o n :
T h e l e n gth c i rc umf ere nc e o f a c i rcl e i s d efi n e d a s
or th e
t h e l i m i t o f t h e p eri m e t e rs o f a s e ri e s o f re gu l a r p o l y g o n s
i n sc r i b e d i n o r c i r c um s c r i b e d a b o ut a c i r c l e a s t h e n um b e r
o f S i d e s i s i n c r e a se d i n defin i te l y .

T h e p e ri m e t e r o f a n y o n e o f t h e p o l y g o n s m a y b e r e g a r d e d
a s a n a p p ro x i m a t i o n t o t h e l e n gth o f t h e c i r c l e .

F ro m A s 6 4 . and the d efi n i t i o n a b o v e , we h ave

THE O RE M 13 7 . T h e c i r c u mf er e n c e o f a c i rcl e of d i am eter
d is 7r d .

If c i s t h e c i rc um fe ren c e d t h e d i am et er , , r th e ra di u s ,

We h ave c = i rd o r c = 2 7rr .

N O TE . u m be r 7r i s a ve ry i m porta n t nu m b e r i n m a th m a ti c s
Th e n e .

I t i s a n i ra tio n a l n u m b e r (s e e
r b u t v e ry u nlike su c h i rra tio n a l
n u m b e r s a s V2 o r V3I W e f ou n d it possibl e by m e a n s o f a st ra ight

e d g e a n d c o m p a ss e s to c o n st ru c t a st ra i g h t l i n e s e g m e n t t o re p re s e n t -

V2 ( E x 2 . T h e a nc i e n t G re e ks c ould do this
,
They f a il ed .
,

however i n t h e a ttem pt to c on stru c t a stra i ght li n e s egmen t to re p re

,
- ~

se n t In m od e rn ti m e s i t h a s b e e n p rov d tha t it i s i m p o ssibl e to e

c o n st ru c t su c h a s eg m en t f o r 71 by t h e u s e o f st ra i g h t ed g e a n d c o m
“

p a sse s I t c a n howe ve r b e do n e by m ea n s of a n i n stru me nt c all ed a n

.
, ,

i n teg ra ph i nv e n t e d by a P o l e a bout 18 78
, . .
276 P L A N E G E O ME T RY

ARE A S O F S E G ME N TS
3 06 . A c irc ular se gm ent i s a figu re b o un d ed b y an a rc

an d i tsc ho r d .

T h e r e l a t i o n b e tw een c i r c u l a r s eg m e n t s a n d

s ec t o r s m a y b e sh o w n b y c o n s t ru c t i n g t h e s ec t or

h a vi n g t h e s am e a r e as a gi v en c i r c u l ar s e gm en t .

I t i s a t o n c e e vi d en t ( Fi g 4 83 ) th a t t h e a r ea .

o f a c i r c u l a r s e gm e n t c a n b e o b t a i n e d i f t h e F m 4 83 ,

a r ea s o f t h e a s s o c i a t e d s e c t o r a n d t ri a n g l e c a n b e o b t a i n e d .

RATI O S AN D CI RCL E S
'

3 07 . Th e fo ll owi n g t h eo rem s f o ll o w at o nce f ro m th e

f o rm u l a e ‘

TH E O RE M 13 9 . Th e ra ti o of th e c i r c umf ere n c e t o th e
d i am eter i s th e s am e f or all c i r cl e s .

If c = 7r d, th en
T H E O R E M 14 0 ti o o f th e c i r c umf ere nc e s o f t w o
. Th e ra

c i rcl e s e qua l s th e rati o of th e ir d i am eters or of th ei r radi i .

U s i n g c an d c l f o r t h e c i r c um feren ces o f t w o c i r c l es d a n d ,

d1 f o r t h ei r d i a m e t ers r a n d r l f o r t h e i r r a d i i w e h a ve :
, ,

C 61 C d
d dl 61 ( 11

Since é g
t 1 C
1
r

dl 27 1 (5

T H E O R E M 14 1 . Th e ra ti o o f th e are a s of " tw o c i r cl e s
e qu a l s th e rati o of th e s qu are s o f th e i r ra d ii o r of th e i r
di am e t er s .

U s i ng A a n d A I f o r t h e a rea s o f t wo ci rc l es , r a n d r1 f or
t h ei r r a dii d a n d d1 f or t h ei r d i am e t e r s h a ve :
'

, , we

A 717
2
A r
2

A1 717 1
2
A1 71
2

2
i A d
Si nc e -
r . .

71 dl 71
2
61 h 2
AI dr 2
 MEASURE MEN T O F T H E C I RC L E 27?

S UMMARY AN D S UPP L EMEN TARY EXERCI S E S

3 08 . FO RMUL AE O B TAINE D IN CH AP TER xm

A . Fo r o ne c i rc e l : B . Fo r t w o c i rc e s l :
c 2 7rr 7rd 6 d
A 177
2 C] ( 11

c c r
7T
d Cl 71

A
i

r
2
d 2

Al 71
2
(1 1
2

C . Fo r s ec o r s t
2
7rf d

3 60

EXER CI S ES I N V O LVI N G TH E M EAS URE ME N T O F TH E

C IR C E L
3 09 . 1 Fin d t h e
. u m ference
c i rc and th e a rea of a c i rc e l if the
d i a m e t er is 4 f t .
; 6 f t ; 25 ft. .

2 Fi n d t h e
. r ad i u s of a c i rc l e if t h e c i rc umf erenc e i s 10 f t ; .

25 f t ; . 63 ft .

3 . Fi n d t h e ra d i u s of a c ir c e l if th e a re a i s 20 s q f t ; 56 s q f t ;
. . . .

96 sq ft . .

4 I f a wh ee l i s 3 ft i n d i am et er how m an y r evolut i o n s w i ll
. .
,

i t m a k e i n go i n g a m i l e ?
5 Wh a t i s t h e d i am e t er of a wh ee l th a t m a k es 25 0 revolut i o ns
.

i n t ra v e l i n g o ne m i le ?
6 A lo c o m ot i ve i s r u nn i ng at t h e ra t e of 4 0 m i p er hou r
. If . .

t h e d ri v i n g wh eel s a re 80 i n i n d i am et er a n d t h e t ru c k wh eels are .

36 i n how m an y re volut i o ns p er m i n ute do e s e a c h m a k e ?

.
,

7 Th e 72 i n d ri ve wh eel of a lo c o m ot i ve m a k es 250 tu rns p e r

.
-
.

m in ute Wh a t i s t h e ra te of t h e lo c o m ot i ve i n m i l es p e r hou r
.
?

8 T w o p u lley s o ne 36 i n a n d o ne 15 i n i n d i am ete r a re
.
,
. .
,

conn ect e d by a b e lt T h e 36 i n pull ey m a k es 200 tu rn s p er m in ute

.
-
. .

H o w m an y tu rns does t h e l 5 i n p ull e y m a k e p er m i n ut e ? -

.

I 9 I t is t h e ge nera l t i n t to p m i t t h i m o f a fl
.
p r a c ce o er e r y
whee l to h ave a g rea te r ve loc i ty th a n a m il e a m i n ute H o w m a n y .

re volut i o ns p e r m i n ut e m a y b e a llowe d a n 8 f t fly wh eel ? -

.

19
278 P LA N E G E O ME T RY

10 F i g 4 84 s how s t h e c o n st r u c t i o n of c erta i n typ es

. . of t refo i l s .

F i n d t h e e n t i re a rea i f o n e s id e of t h e e qu i l a t eral
t ri a n gle is 5 ft .

. t i o of t h e a rea of
11 F i n d t h e !
ra a c i rc el to t h e
a re a o f t h e i n s c ri b ed s qu a r e a nd to the a re a of t h e

c i rc u m sc ri be d s qu a re .
F ro . 4 84

12 O ne . si d e of t h e e qu i la t era l t r i a n gl e i n F i g .

4 85 i s 7 ft . S how how t h e sh a d e d po rt i o n i s fo rm e d
and fin d i t s a re a .

F IG 485
13 S how how t h e s h a d ed figu re i n t h e s qu are i n '

F i g 4 86 i s
. fo rm e d a n d fin d i t s a re a i f o n e s i d e of t h e
s qu a re is 6 in .

14 . S how
how t h e fou r l e af s h a p e d figu res i n -

F i g 4 8 7 a re fo rm e d a n d fin d t h e s um of th e i r a re a s
.
F ro . 4 86
if o ne s i d e of t h e s qu a re i s 6 i n .

15 . If th e e qu a to ri a l d i a m et er of t h e ea rth i s 7926
mi .
,
w h at is t h e l e n gth of a d eg ree of lo n g i tu de a t
the e qu a to r ?
FIG 4 87 .

16 C o n s t r u c t t h e lo c u s of t h e c e n t e r of a c i rc l e ra d i u s o n e
.
,

h alf i n c h wh i c h r oll s a rou n d a n e qu i l at era l t r i a ngl e a lt i tude two

, ,

i n c h es ( 6) C o m put e to t wo d ec i m a l s t h e a rea i nc los e d by t h e

.

lo c us a d t h e p er m e t e r of t h e lo c u s
n i — C oll eg e E n t ra nc e E x am i n a
t i on B o a rd Pl a ne G eo m et ry E x a m i na t i on 19 14
, ,
.

17 A l of rad i u s 2 i n roll s arou n d a s qu a re whose s i de i s

. c i rc e .

4 in C o n s t r u c t t h e lo c u s of t h e c e n te r of t h e c i rc l e a n d fin d to two
.
,

de c i m a l p l a c es both t h e l e n gth of t h e lo c u s a n d t h e a rea i n c los ed

by i t College E n tranc e E xa m i nat i on B o ard Pl a ne G eo m et ry
— . ,
,

E x a m i n a t i o n 19 15 , .

18 . If a c i rc e l is c on st ru c ted h of t h e s i des of a r i ght

o n ea c

tr i an gl e a s d i a m eter t h e , a rea of t h e c i rc l e o n t h e hypot e n u s e

is e qu a l to t h e s u m of t h e a rea s of t h e oth er two c i rc l es .

19 Fi n d . b y g e o m e t r i c a l c o n st r u c t i o n th e d i a m et er of a p i p e
th e a re a of whose c ro ss —se c t i o n i s e qu a l to the s u m of t h e a re a s of

th e c ro s s se c t i o n s of two g i ven p i p e s
-
.
280 P L ANE GE O ME T RY

27 To rel ie ve t h e jolt th at a lways c om es

. i n p a ss i n g fr o m
a t a n g en t to a s h arp c u r ve m a n y ra i lw a y ,

c u r v e s a re m a d e up of a r c s of d iff e ren t c u r v a

tu re F i n d t h e len gt h of t h e c om pou n d c u r ve
.

i n F i g 4 91 . .

ft . C is c e n er t of AM .

’
ft C i s cent er of N7 3
. . 3

A P = 60 D i s c e n t e r of MN Th e figu re
°
. .

F IG
is s y m m et ri c w i th resp ec t to OP .
491

28 . Fi n d t h e a re a of a c i rc ul ar se g m en t if its a re is 45
°

29 . In F i g . 4 92, t h e arc s AC a nd BC a re

c onst ru c te d w ith B an d A as t c e n er s re s p e c

t i v ely and d i us AB t h e e nt i re
a s ra . S how th a t
a re a of t h e c i rc ul ar figu re m a y b e fou n d by

s ubt rac t i n g t h e a re a of t h e t ri a n gl e f r o m tw i c e

t h e a re a of t h e s ec to r W h a t i s t h e n u m b er . F IG . 4 92

of degrees i n t h e angle of t h e sec to r ? Fi n d t h e a re a if A B = 8

. figu re shown i n Fi g 4 93 IS a form
3 0 Th e .

fre qu ently u sed i n c hu rc h w i ndow d es ig ns S how .

how i t i s c onst ru ct e d a n d fin d i t s area if A B 6 ft .

3 1 Fi n d t h e
. of t h e ri n g between two c o n
a rea

c en t r i c c i r c l es i f t h e ra d i i of t h e c i r c l es a re 5 i n a n d .

3 i n re s p ec t i vely
. . F ro 4 93 .

3 2 Fi n d a fo rm ul a f o r t h e area of t h e ri n g b etw een c on

.

c ent ri c c i r c l es i f t h e ra d i i a re R a n d 7 re sp ec
t i v ely .

33 . Fi g .hows two c o ncent ri c c i rc l es

4 94 s .

S how how to find t h e s e g m en t A B s o th a t t h e

c i r c l e c o n st r u c t e d o n A B as d i a m et er s h a ll h a v e
'

t h e s am e a r e a a s t h e r i n g . Fm . 4 94

34 . u mferen c es of two c onc ent ri c c i rc l es d iff er b y 6 i n

Th e c i rc .

Co m pute t h e w i dth of t h e r i n g betw een t h e two c i rc l e s c o rrec t to

i n —
th ree s g i fi c a n t figu re s Coll eg e E nt ra n c e E x am i n at i on B o a rd ,

Pl a ne G e o m e try E x a m i n a t i o n 1909 ,
.

35 . C o m p are t h e a rea of a c irc e l w ith the of a s qu a re i f

a rea

the p eri m et er of t h e squ a re e qu a l s th e c i rc u m f ere n c e of t h e c i r c l e .

 MEASU REMEN T O F T H E C I RC L E

36 . S how how F i g 4 95 i s
. fo rm ed a nd find t h e
a rea of H K L MF E H and of H K L MF GH i f o ne s i de
of th e s qu a re A B CD i s 6 i n .

37 . If of t h e radu of two g i ven c i rc l es

th e s um

i s e qu a l to t h e r a d i u s of a th i r d c ir c l e p r ov e th a t ,
F IG . 4 95
t h e c i r c u m fe re n c e of t h e th i r d c i rc l e i s e qu a l to t h e F ro m a n O ld
R om an
s u m of t h e c i rc u m fe re n c es of t h e two g i v e n c i rc l e s .
pa vem en t

38 . C o n st r u c t a c i rc e l whose c i rc u mfere nce i s

equ a l to t h e d i fferenc e b etwe en t h e c i rc u m feren c e s
of two g i v en c i rc l es .

3 9 S how. how Fi g 4 96 i s fo rm ed. a nd fin d i ts

area if a s i d e of t h e h e x a go n i s 5 ft . F ro . 4 96

4 0 In Fi g 4 97 t h e
. d i a m eter of t h e c i rc le was
.

d i v i de d i nto th ree equ al p a rt s S how how t h e arc s .

show n a re d ra w n a n d p rov e th a t th e y d i v i d e t h e

c ir c l e i n to th ree e qu a l p a rt s .

FIG . 4 97

4 1 S how. how Fig . 4 98 i s form ed . Fi n d t h e

area of OA B CD if O B = 5 ft .

4 2 S how. how to d i vi de a c i rc l e i n to fou r e qu al

p art s by t h e a rc s of c i rc les o nly Can th i s p rob .

lem b e solv ed i n m o re th an o ne w ay ? F IG . 4 98

N O TE . s a i d to b e a p roble m whi c h N a p ole on onc e p ro

Ex 42 is
.

posed to h i s sta f f T h e figu re form ed by di vidi ng t h e c i rc l e i n to two

.

e qu a l p a rts ( Fi g 4 98 ) i s t h e t rad e m a r k o f o n e o f t h e we ste rn ra il ro a ds

. .

43 .In Fi g 499, C i s t h e m id p o i n t of ra d i u s A O
.
-
of GO . CX
i s p erp en d i c ul ar to A O a t C Pr ove th a t t h e c i rc l e .

w i th O as t
c e n er a n d OX as ra d i us h as h alf th e
a rea of th e c i rc e l w i th ra di us AO .

44 . S how h o w
to d i v i de a c i rc e l i nto th ree equ al
p a rt s b y c o n ce nt r i c c i rc l es . Fm , 4 99
282 PLAN E GE O ME T RY

45 . It
d e s i red to c on st ru c t a h a lf m ile t ra c k T h e s t a rt
is -
.

a n d fin i s h a re to b e s t ra i ghtw a y s i nt ers e c t i n g a t r i ght an gl e s at

t h e go a l Th e rest of t h e t ra c k i s to b e a n a rc of a c i rc l e t a ng en t
.

to t h e two st ra ightw a ys Fi n d t h e ra d i u s of t h e arc an d t h e l ength

.

of t h e a re i n fee t ; al s o t h e area i n c lo se d by t h e t ra c k i n a c res .

i —
( Re s ult s to b e c o rrec t to two d ec m al s ) C ollege E nt ran ce E xa m i .

n a t i o n B o a rd Pl a n e G e o m et r y E x a m i n a t i o n 19 14
, ,
.

APP R O XI MA TI O N CO N S TRU CTI O N S

3 10 . W e h a ve s e e n t h a t n um b ers c a n b e fo u n d wh i c h
m o re o r l e ss c l o se l y a p p r o x i m a t e t h e v a l u e o f 7r a lt h o ugh ,

a n u m b e r c a n n o t b e f o u n d wh i c h i s e x a c tl y e qu a l t o 7r .

S i m i l ar l y s e gm e n t s c a n b e c o n s t r u c t e d wh o s e l e n g t h s m o re
,

o r l e s s c l o s e l y a p p r o x i m a t e t h e v al u e o f 7r a lt h o ugh n o ,

s e gm e n t c a n b e c o n s t ru c t e d w i t h ru l er a n d c o m p a s se s wh o se

l en gth e xa c tl y r e p r e s en t s t h e v a l u e o f 7r Th e f o ll o wi n g .

e x er c i s e s g i v e s o m e o f t h es e c o n s t ru c t i o n s Th ey a r e u s ed .

b y d ra ft sm en m o b t a i n i n g t h e d e v e l o p m en t o f c y l i n d er s ,

b y c ar p en t ers i n o b t a i n i n g t h e d i m e n si o n s o f v en eers f o r
s e m i c i rc u l a r h e a d s o f d o o r s a n d W i n d o w s a n d b y m e c h an i ,

c a l t r a d es m e n g e n e ra ll y T h e c o m p ut a t i o n s f o r t h e t ru e
.

l en g t h s o f t h e s egm en t s o ft en i n v o l v e c o n si d er a b l e geo m e
t ry a n d a re n e c ess ar y i n o r d er t o a sc er t a i n t h e d e gr ee o f
,

a p p r o x i m a t i o n o b t ai n e d .

Ex 1 .
g . In Fi l . w i th
5 00, A CB i s a se m i c ir c e

A B i t s d i a m et er A A B B i s e qu i l a teral w i th A B
.
,

as o ne s i d e E F i s a t a n g en t to th e se m i c i rc l e
.

p ara ll e l to A B D A a n d D B a re e xt en d e d to m ee t
'
.

t h e t an gen t E F a t F a n d E res p ec t i v e ly Us i n g .

A B = 6 fin d t h e d i ff ere n c e b etw een t h e l ength of

,
F ‘G 5 00
EF a n d of t h e s e m i c i rc l e A CB Fi n d t h e ra t i o of .

th is d if ference to t h e l e ngth of A CB .

Ex 2 . In Fi g 5 01, A CB i s a sem i c i rc l e w i th A B
. .

it s d i a m eter CO J b se c tor of
i A B
. A OC D =
.
30
°
.
.

Fi n d t h ed i ff eren c e b etw een t h e l ength of A D a n d of

t h e a r c A C u s i n g A B = 5 ,
F i n d t h e r at i o of th i s .

F“ 501
d ifleren c e to t h e l en gth of t h e a rc A C .
 C H A PTE R X IV

MA X I MA AND MI N I MA
IN TRO DU CT O RY
3 12 . Of g e o m e t ri c a l m a gni t ude s t h a t fulfi l l a gi v en
a ll

r e qu i r em en t th a t wh i c h i s t h e g rea t e s t i s c a ll e d t h e
,

mum ; t h a t wh i c h i s t h e l e as t i s c a ll e d t h e m i ni m um .

TRIAN GLE S
AREA S O F TRIAN G LE S W ITH TW O S ID E S G I VE N

3 13 . T H E O R E M 14 2 O f all tri an gle s h avin g tw o gi ve n

.

s i d e s , th at i n wh i c h th e s e s i d es are p erp e n d i c u l ar t o e a c h

o th e r h a s th e gr e ate s t ar ea .

FIG . 5 03

H y p o th es i s : In A A B C and ABD si de AB com m on

an d A =
C AD . A CA B = 1 r t A . .

A re a A B C > a rea A B D .

A n a ly si s a nd co ns tr uc t o n i :
I . T o p r o v e a r e a A B C > area A B D p ro v e a lt i tud e ,
of

A A B C > a lt i t u de o f A A B D .

II . D E f ro m D _L A B a n d p r o ve D E < A C .

III . T o p r o v e D E < A C, p r o v e D E < A D .

Th e p roof is l ef t to th e pupi l .
 MAX I MA AN D MI N I MA 285

Ex 1 . . Of a ll p a ra ll elog rams h av i ng g i ven si d es ,

th e t gle
rec a n

h as t h e g reatest a rea .

Ex 2 . . Of a ll p a rallelogr am s h a v i ng g iven d i ago na l s wh i c h ,

h as t h e g reat est a re a ?

Ex 3 . . Of a ll t ri an gl es h a v i n g a gi ven b a s e and a g i ve n
med i an to th e b as e wh i ch h as t h e g rea t es t a re a ?
,

M IN I MUM PERIME ERS T

3 14 . TH E O R E M 14 3 . Of all tri an g l es h avi n g th e s am e
b as e and th e sam e ar ea , th e i s o s c ele s tri an gle h a s th e le as t
p e ri m e er t .

FIG . 5 04

H y poth es i s : In A AB C A A B D t h e b ase A B i s
an d c om

mon a n d ar e a A B C = a rea ABD A A B C i s i s o sc e les

. .

Con c lus i on : Pe ri m et er A B C < p eri m e t er A B D .

A n a ly si s a nd co ns tr ucti on :
I . T o p ro ve p er . A B C < p er . A B D , p ro v e

t
ex en d A C m aki n g CE = CB
, . Jo i n D E and DC
A E < A D + DE
and
.

p ro ve
D E = DB .

III . T o p r o ve D E = DB , p ro v e A GD E m
A CD B .

m
IV . T o p r o v e A CB B A CD B , p r o v e A 1 A2 .

V . T o p ro ve A 1 4 2, p r o v e CD AB .

V I T o p ro v e CD H
. A B d ra w , a p er p en d i c u l ar fro m D to
A B a nd p ro v e t h e figu re f o rm e d a p ar a ll e l o g r am .

Th e p roof i s le f t to th e pup i l .
286 P L A N E GE O ME T RY

M AXI MU M AREA S

3 15 T H E O R E M 14 4 O f all tri an g l e s h avi n g th e s am e

. .

b as e a n d e qu a l p eri m e te r s , th e i s o s c e l e s tri an g l e h a s th e
gre ate s t ar e a .

F IG . 5 05

H y p o th es i s : In A ABC and A AB D th e b a se AB is
c om m o n , and p e r i m e e r t A B C = pe ri m e t er A D B . A AB C
i s i s o s c e l es .

Co n c lus i o n : A r e a A B C >a r ea A B D .

A n a ly s i s a nd co n s tru c ti o n

I . T o p r o v e a r e a A B C > a r ea A B D p ro v e t h e , a lti t ud e
o f A A B C > t h e a lt i t ud e o f A A B D .

II . d ra w CX a n d D Y L A B fr o m C a n d D r es p ec ti ve l y
_

dra w D E H A B f r o m D i n t e r s e c t i n g CX a t E a n d , ,

p ro v e t h a t E l i e s b e t w ee n C a n d X t h a t i s p ro v e ,

CX EX .

III T o p r o v e CX > E X
.
,
j oin EA a nd EB and p ro ve
AC> A E .

IV . T o p r o v e A C > A E p ro v e ,

V T o p ro ve p ro ve
‘

A D + D B > A B + EB .

VI T O p r o v e
.
‘

p ro ve a re a A EB
a r e a A DB .

Th e p roo f i s l e f t to th e pupi l .

S u gges ti o n . S ho w th a t A EB is an is o s c e le s t i a n g le
r . S in ce a rea

A E B = a re a A DB , A D + D B > A E + E B .
288 PLA N E G EO MET RY

TE S T FO R MAXI MUM AREA S

3 17 . TH E O RE M 14 6 . Of a ll p o ly g o n s
th at h ave th e i r
s i d es e q ua l r es p e c ti ve l y t o g i v e n s e gm e nt s tak en i n o rd e r
,

th at wh i c h c an b e i n s c ri b e d i n a c i rc le h as th e gre ate st are a .

F IG . 5 07

H y p o th es i s : T h e p o l y g o n A B CD E i s i n sc r i b e d i n a c i r c l e
a n d p o l y go n c a n n o t b e i n s cr i b e d i n a c i r c l e .

etc .

Co n c lus i on : A rea A B CD E a rea

A n a ly s i s an d cons tructi on
To p ro v e a r ea A B CD E > a rea

D ra w d i am e t er A X .

J o i n CX a n d D X .

Co n s t ru c t
Co m p a r e a re a A B CX wi t h a r ea and

a re a A E DX wi t h a re a

S ubt ra c t ar e a DX C fr o m a re a A B CX DE an d
’ ’
D X C f ro m a r e a
'
a rea

The p roo f is l ef t to the pupi l .

D i s c uss i o n . Mi ght o ne p ar t of A B CD E h a ve th e s am e
’ ’
a re a a s th e c o rr e s p o n d i n g p ar t o f A B CD E
' '
Co u l d bo th
p ar sto f A B CD E h a v e t h e s am e a r ea a s th e c o rres p o n d i n g

p ar sto f Wh y ?
 MA XI MA AN D MI N I MA 289

TH E MAXIMUM AREA W I TH G I VEN P ERI METER

3 18 T H E O R E M 14 7 O f all p o ly go n s wi th a g i ven p eri m e

. .

t er an d a gi ve n nu m b e r o f s i d e s , t h a t wi th th e m a xi m u m
ar a i s re gu l ar
e .

F IG 508 .

S ugges t i o n p ove
. To r P ul a r p ro v e tha t i t c a n b i n s c ribe d i n a
re g , e

c i r l e a n d i s e qu i l a te ra l
c . To p rove A C = CB p rove A A B C a m a xi ,

m um by i ndi re c t p roo f -

TH E MIN I MUM P ERI METER WITH V

G I E N ARE A

3 19 T H E O R E M 14 8 O f all p o l yg ons wi th th e s am e ar e a
. .

an d th e s am e n um b e r o f s i d e s , th e re gular p o l y g o n h as th e

l eas t p eri m e te r .

FIG . 5 09

A n a ly s i s a nd c on s tructi o n

I . T o p ro v e p er P < p er P . .
'
, c o m p are P a nd P
'
wi t h a

thi r d p o l y go n .

II . t u c t t h e re gu l ar p o l y g o n Q wi t h t h e s am e
c ons r
’
n um b e r o f si d es an d s a m e p e ri m e t er as P and

p ro v e p er P < p e r Q. . .

II I . T o p ro v e p e r P < p er . .
Q , p r o ve are a P < area Q .

’
IV . T o p rov e a re a P < area Q , p ro ve are a P < ar e a Q .

Th e p roof is left to th e pupi l .

 PLA N E G E O ME T RY

REG UL AR P O LY GO N S
TH E MAXI MUM ARE A W I TH G IV E N P E RIMETER

3 20 T H E O R E M 14 9 O f all r e gu l ar p o ly g on s wi th a gi ve n
. .

p eri m e ter , th e o n e w i th th e m axi m um are a h a s th e gr e ate s t

n um b er o f s i d e s .

FIG . 5 10

A n a ly s i s a n d co n s tru c ti o n :
’
I . T o p ro v e are a P > ar e a P c o m p are P a nd P
'
wi t h a

t h i r d p o l y go n .

II . j oin E , a ny p o i n t i n A B wi t h C a n d c o n s t r u c t
,

’=
A CD E A A CE an d p ro v e ( 1) a re a P
N
a r ea

B CD E ; ( 2) area P > are a B CD E .

I II . T o p ro v e a r ea P > are a B CD E , p ro ve p er . P = p er .

B CD E .

D i s c us si o n a nd c o n clu s i o n : In th e s am e m ann er i t c an

b e p r o ve d th a t a r e gu l ar p o l y g o n o f fiv e s i des h a s a gr ea t er
a r e a t h a n a s qu a r e o f s a m e p e ri m et e r a n d t h a t a r e gu l a r

h ex a g o n h a s a gr e a t er are a t h a n a r e gu l a r p en t a go n o f s am e
p e r i m e e r , t an d s o o n .

3 21 . Si nce t h e area of a .
c i rc e l
b e e n d efi n e d a s t h e
h as
li m i t of th e a r ea s o f a s eri e s o f r e gu l a r i n s c ri b e d p o l y g o n s

as th e n um b er of s i d e s i s i n c r e as e d i n d e fi n i t e l y w e h a v e : ,

A s 67 . . Th e a r ea o f a c i rc e l is gr e a t er t h a n th e ar e a o f

any p o l y go n of e qu a l p eri m e t er .

In h i gh er m a t h em a t i c s w e p rove

A S 68 . . Of a llfi g ur es h a vi n g th e s am e p er i m e e r t
, th e

ci r cl e h as t h e m a x i m u m a r ea .
 N O TE S O N ARI TH MET I C AN D AL G EB RA

F RACTI O N S

3 24 . f o ll o wi n g fu nd am en t a l law o f fr a ct i o n s u n der
Th e
l i e s a ll o p er a ti o n s th a t i n vo l ve fra ct i o n s .

Mu l ti plyi ng o r d i vi di ng num erator and d enomi nator of

a f rac ti o n b y th e s am e num b er d o e s no t alt er th e v alu e of

th e f rac ti o n .

A Th e s um o r difierence of tw o o r m ore f ra c ti o n s th a t
.

h a ve a c o m m o n d en o m i n a t o r i s t h e sum o r d i ff eren c e o f t h e
n um era t o rs d i vi de d b y th e c omm on d en o m i n a t o r .

Two frac t i o n s th a t h a ve n o t a c o m m o n d en o m i
or m o re
n a t o r m u s t b e r e du c e d t o a c o m mo n d e n o m i n a t o r b e f o r e
,

a dd i n g o r s ubt r a c t i n g T o r e du ce fr a c ti o n s t o a c o m m o n
.

d en o m i na t o r a p p l y t h e fu n d am en t a l law g i ven a b o v e
, .

Add and s ubt ra c t the followi n g

a b a
t 4x 2

3 . 5 . 4

a b c x 1
t
a
'

x +l x —l

BTh e p rod u c t o f tw o f ra c ti o n s i s t h e p r o du c t o f th e
.

n um era t o r s d i v i d e d b y t h e p r o du c t o f t h e d en o m i n a t o r s .

W h ere p o ss i b l e d i vi d e n u m era t o r
, ,
and d en o m i n a t o r b y co m

m o n fac t o r s .

Mult i p ly the follow i n g

l)
i i
2
x -
)

x x
16 15 a — b x— l
 N O T E S O N AR I T H ME T I C A N D A L G E B RA 293

C . Th e quo ti ent of one f rac ti on di vi d e d b y c

a s e o nd is
t h e p ro du c t of th e fi r s t m u l ti p l i e d b y th e r e ci p r o c a l o f th e
sec o n d .

Di vi de t h e follow i ng
a z —a b a — b
1 3
20 25 16 a b 2
2a

RO O T S

325 . Th e r ule f or s qua re r oo t b a se d o n t h e a l ge b ra i c

is
f o rm ula N o t i ce th a t a 2 —
2a b b m a y
2-

be w ri tt en Th e m e t h o d i s i llu s t ra t e d b e l o w '

Illustra ti on 1 . F i nd 694 5 63
694 [
26 3
4
40 294
46 276
5 20 18 5 6
5 23 156 9
287

In t h e i ll u s tra ti o n b o ve n o ti c e : a ,

( 1) T h e n um b er w a s di vi d e d i n t o p eri o d s o f t w o figu re s
ea c h c o u n t i n g t o t h e l eft a n d t o t h e r i ght fr o m t h e d e c i m a l
,

p oint .

( )
2 T h e l a r g e s t s qu a r e u n d e r 6 i s 4 T h e 4 w as s u b .

tra c t ed fro m 6 a n d t h e n ex t p eri o d a nn e xe d Th i s g a ve a .

r e m a i n d er o f 294 T h e s qu ar e r o o t o f 4 o r 2 w a s wri tt en
.
, ,

a s t h e fi rs t figu re i n t h e r o o t .

( )
3 A z e r o w a s p l ac e d a ft e r t h e 2 m a ki n g 20 T h e 2 0 ,
.

w a s d o ub l e d m aki n g 4 0 , Th e 4 0 i s u s e d a s a t ri a l d i vi s o r
.

f o r t h e rem ai n d er 294 Th e n e xt figu re o f t h e r o o t i s ei th er

.

6 or 7 Th e 6 i s a dd e d t o t h e 4 0 m a k i n g 4 6
. Th e 4 6 i s , .

m u lt i p l i ed b y 6 gi vi n g 276 , T h e 276 i s s ubtra c t e d f r o m

.

294 l ea vi n g 18
, T h e n e x t p eri o d i s a nn exe d g i vi n g 185 6
.
,
.

(4 ) T h e p ro c es s a b o ve i s rep ea t e d a t ea c h s tep o f t h e
wo rk ; t hus a z er o i s p l a c ed a ft er 26 a nd t h e resu l t d o ub l ed
, ,

gi vi ng t h e 5 20 Th e wo rk i s th e n c o n t i nue d as a b o ve
. .

20
294 PLAN E GEO METRY

In g enera l w e m a y s a y :A n n e x a zero t o t h e p a r t o f t h e
r o o t a l re a d y f o u n d a n d d o ub l e t h e r e su lt T o th i s r e su lt .

a dd t h e n e x t figu r e o f t h e ro o t Mu l ti p l y t h e resul t b y t h e .

l as t figu re o f t h e r o o t fo u n d .

Sh o w th a t th i s s t a t em en t m a y b e re gard e d as a trans
l ati o n ——
o f b ( 2a l b ) i n t h e f o rm u l a

Fi n d t h e s qu are root of t h e followi n g

1 . 13 69 4 . 106 276 7 . 6
2 . 3 744 5 . 3 8 . 15
3 . 2304 6 . 5 9 . 7

B e c a us e fre qu en t
of th e o cc urre n c e of th e s qu a r e ro o ts
o f 2 a n d 3 i n ge o m e t r y w o rk ,
th e ap p li c a ti o n of th e fo ll o wi n g
law s h o ul d b e n o t e d :

3 26 . Th e s qu are ro o t of a p o
r du c t i s th e p ro du c t of th e
sq u ar e r oo s o f
t th e f a c to r s .

Illu s tr a ti o n 2 . V36 = V4 >

< V9

Th i s law i s u se d m o s t con veni en tl y f o r i n ex a c t s qu a r e

ro o t s wh en o n e f a c t o r i s a p e r f ec t s qu ar e .

Illus tra ti o n 3 . VI8 = V9 X V2 = 3 V2

N o ti c e th a t V2 occ ur s wh en t h e si de of a s qu a r e an d a

di a g o n a l of th e s qu a r e are u s e d i n th e s am e e x e rc i se .

Illus tr a ti o n 4 . V12 = V4 >< V3 =2 V3

N o ti c e t h a t V3 o c c u r s wh e n t h e s i d e o f an e qu i l a t e r a l t ri

a n g l e a n d i t s a lt i t ud e o c c u r i n t h e s a m e e x e rc i s e .

Illus tra ti o n 5 . V20 = V4 V5 = 2 V5

T h e V5 o c c u rs in c o nnec t i o n wi th th e re gu l a r d e c a g o n an d

p e n a g t
o n .

Fin d t h e v a lu e of t h e follow i n g c o rre c t to th ree d e c i m a l

p l a c es . A pply t h e la w g i ve n a bove .

1 . V8 4 . VIO8 7 . V128 10 . VI5 0 13 . V5 4

VI8 V3 2 V75 VI25 V4 5
'

2 . 5 8 . 11 . 14 .

V27 V80 V3 20 V98 15 VI8O

'

3 . 6 . 9 . 12 . .
296 P L A N E G E O ME T R Y

E Q UA TI O N S
3 28 . Th e m e th o d of s o lvi n g l i ne ar e qu ati o n s i s i ll u s t r a t e d
belo w :
Illus tra ti o n 1 . S olve f o r x

Mult i p ly both s i des b y th e L . C h4 . . of the

d en om i n ato rs 3 ( 3 x + 1)
Pe rfo rm i n g m ult i p l i c a t i o ns . 9x + 3 — 24 = 4 8 — 4 x —4
Co m b i n i n g t e rm s 9x —4 x
Add + 21 a n d + 4 x to e ac h s i d e 13 x = 6 5
D i v i d e b oth s i d es b y 13 x =5

S olve t h e follow i ng equ at i o ns

x
— 2 x
— 4 3
1
.

3 5 x -
5 2x + 7
—
2 2x 7
. 3 + 2x 3 —4x —
5 2x
7 8 3

329 . If an e qu ati o n c ontai n s b oth th e fi rst and th e s e c o n d

p o w er s of th e unk no wn , t w o m eth o d s o f s o l ut i o n ar e
s uggest ed .

A . Th e e qu a t i o n m a y be so l ve d by f ac to ri n g .

Illus tra ti on 2 . S olve f o r x x

2 —x = 20
2
x x 20 0
( —5) (x + 4 )
a
c 0
x 5 0 x +4 0
x =5 x= 4

N o ti c e tha t to so l ve a n e qu a ti o n b y fa c t o ri n g , o ne m em b er
of th e qu a ti o n m u st b e z er o
e .

B Th e e qu a t i o n m a y b e s o l v e d b y c o m p l eti n g
. th e s qu are .

2—
Illustra ti on 3 S olve f o r x
. 3x 5x = 7 ( 1)

;
1
5x
D i v i de b oth si d es by 3 ( 2)
3
Add t h e s qu are of 96) to e ac h
si de
3 3 36
 N O T E S O N A R I T H ME T I C A N D A LG E BRA 297

T a ke th e square roo t of ea ch si de

of t h e e qu a t i on :56 VIO9
:
1 (4 )

6 (5 )
5
x=
__

6 6 6 6

6 6
2 57+ . 90+

N o ti ce i n dd e d t o t h e l e ft s i de t o m a ke t h e
( hi is a

l e f t si de a p erfe c t s qu a re I t i s a dde d t o t h e ri gh t s i d e t o
.

p reser ve t h e b a l a n c e o f t h e e qu a t i o n ( 52 or is
.

o b t a i n e d b y s qu a ri n g h a lf t h e c o e ff i c i e n t o f x N o t i c e th a t .

i n s t ep ( 2) t h e e qu a t i o n i s d i vi d e d b y 3 t o m a k e t h e fi rs t
t erm x ' 2
whi c h i s a p erfec t s qu are
, .

So lve t h e follow in g e qu at i ons

1.
+ x 2
3x = 18 3 . 3x ’— 11x = 2
2 2x2 —x = 15
. 4 . 2x + 5 x = 17
2

33 0 . lve a sy s tem of e quati ons c o n si s ti n g o f t w o

To so

e qu a t i o n s c o n t a i ni n g t w o u n k n o w n s e l im i na t e o ne o f t h e ,

un kn o wn s a n d s o l ve t h e res u lti n g e qua t i o n f o r t h e o t h er .

A Wh en b o t h e qu a t i o n s a r e o f t h e fir s t d egre e e l i m i n a t e
.
,

b y a ddi t i o n o r s ub t ra c t i o n .

Illus tra ti on 4

5x
.

—4 y = 6 5
S olve f o r

.
x and y :
l ( 1)
7x + 5 y = 3 8 25 .
( 2)
— 28 = 45 5
3 5x y .
( 1) X7
3 5 x + 25 y = ( 2) X5
— 53
y S ubt ra c t t h e th i rd
y
=2 . qu a t i o n fr o m t h e
75 e sec o n d

N o ti c e t h a t i t m a y b e fo u n d b y m u lt i p l y i n g e qu a t i o n ( 1)
b y 5 a n d e qu a t i o n ( 2) b y 4 a n d a dd i n g t h e resu l t s o r b y
s ub s t i t u t i n g f o r y i n ei th e r e q u a ti o n ( 1) o r ( 2) a n d
s o l vi n g t h e r es ult f o r x .
298 P L A N E G E O ME T RY

B . W h en o ne o f th e e qu a t i o n s is of th e fi r s t d e gre e and

o ne o f th e s ec o n d , so l ve t h e fir s t d e gr e e e qu a t i o n f o r o n e o f
-

th e u n kn o wn s i n t erm s o f th e o t h e r u n k n o w n a n d s ub s t i t u t e

in t h e o th er e qu a t i o n .

x +y = 8
Illus tra ti on 5 S olve f o r x an d y =
.

x 2
+y 34
2

S olve ( 1) f or x. y
S ubst i tut e 8 y f or x i n ( 2) (8 +y y) 34
2 2

64 — 16y + 2y 2=
34
2— —
2y 16y l
y
2
8y + 15 = 0
—
(y 5 ) ( y
=5 and =3
y y
T o fin d x, subst i tut e the v a lu es of y in (3 )
=5 =3
y y
=8— x =8—5
x y
8 5 —8 3
3 5
x =3 f =5
Th e solut i o ns are
=5 =3
y [ y

S olv e t h e follow in g syst e m s for x and y

l . 2x + 3 y = 16 —
2 5 x 2y = 14
. 3 . 2x2 + y2 = 5 7
5 x — 2y = 2 1 xy = 20 x — =1
y

TAB LE S
33 1 . T AB LE O F S Q U ARE RO O T S

O l 000 1 4 14 1 7 3 2
. . .

o
o

m
n

o 4 77
.

3 24 6 4 03 6 4 8 0 6 78 2 6 8 5 5
s

c .

u 07 1
. 7 2 11 7 2 8 0
q 74 5
.

o
o 366
. 8 8 3 1 8 8 88
o
c 944
.

o
c
3 00 P L A N E G E O M E T RY

333 . Uni ts of L ength

E N G LI S H
(i n ) 1 f o o t ( f t )
12 i n c h e s . .

3 fee t = 1 y a r d (y d ) .

5 } y ar d s = 1 r o d (rd )
7 .

3 20 r o d s o r 5 280 f t 1 m i l e (m i ) .

ME T R I C
10 c e n ti m e t er s
( ) cmd e c
. i m e t e 1
r ( dm ) .

10 d ec i m e t er s = 1 m et er (m ) .

1000 m e t er s 1 ki l o m et er (km ) .

1 m et er in .

1 ki l o m et er = 6 2 o f a m i l e .

1 fo o t c e n t i m e t er s

1 mi le = k i l o m e t er s

3 34 . Uni ts of S urf ac e

EN GLI S H
s qu are i n c h es ( s q i n ) 1 s qu are f o o t (s q ft )
. . . .

9 s quar e f ee t 1 s qu ar e y a r d (s q y d ) . .

3 0%s qu are y ar d s = 1 s qu a re r o d (s q r d ) . .

16 0 s qu ar e ro d s = 1 a c r e (A ) .

4 840 s qu are y ard s 1 ac r e (A ) .

6 4 0 a c res = 1 s qu a r e m i l e ( s q m i ) . .

ME T R I C
100 s qu a r e c en ti m e t ers 1 qu ar e d ec i m e t er
s

100 s qu ar e d ec i m et e rs 1 s qu a r e m e t er
 O U TL IN E S UMMARY

P ARALLE L S AN D P E RP EN D I CUL ARS

Te s ts f o r p ar all els :
Two stra i ght l i ne s i n t h e s a m e pla ne a re p a ra llel i f
1 T h e a lt i n t a n g le s a re e qu a l
. . .

2 Th e c o rre spo ndi ng a ngle s a re e q u a l

.

3 T h e i n t a n g l e s o n t h e sa m e s i d e o f t h e t ra n sv e rs a l
. .

a re sup .

4 The y a re p e r p e n d i c ul a r to t h e s a m e l i ne
.

5 Th e y a re p a a ll e l to t h e s a m e li ne
. r

A l i ne i s p a ra ll e l to o ne s i d e o f a t ri a ngl e i f
6 I t p a ss s th rough t h e m id po i n ts o f t h e oth e r two
. e -

s i de s § 114 Th 4 8 , .

7 I t d i v i d s t h e oth e r two s i d e s p ropo rti o na lly

. e

§ 205 Th 100 a n d Co r , . .

A l i ne i s p a ra ll e l to t h e b a se s o f a t ra p e zoid i f :
8 I t p a ss e s th rough t h e m i d po i n ts of t h e l eg s
.
-

Co n str u c t i on o f p arall e ls
Te s t s f or p erp e ndi c ular s
1 I f a ra y sta rts f ro m a poi nt i n a st ra i ght l i ne
.
§ 18
2 A li ne p e rpe n di c u l a r to o n e o f two p a ra ll els
.
§ 70 T h 17 ,
.

3 A li ne ta nge n t to a c i rc l e i s p e p e n di c ula
. r § 14 5 Th 6 9
r ,
.

4 I f a n y two c i rc l e s i n t e s c t t h e li ne o f c e n te rs
. r e § 15 1 Th 73 .
,
.

5 I f two e q u a l c i rc l e s i n te rs e c t t h e li ne o f c e n te r s a n d
.

t h e c o m m o n c ho d r § 15 2 Th 74 Co r ,
. .

6 A n a ngl e i n s c ib ed i n a s m i c i rc l e
. r e § 16 2 Co r 11 ,
.

Co n str u c ti on o f a p er p en di c ular
1 To a l i n e f o m a poi n t i n t h e li n e § 4 3 P rob 3 ; § 16 7 P rob 9
. r .
,
.
,
.

2 To a l i n e f rom a poi nt n o t i n t h e li n e
.

§ 4 4 P rob 4 ; § 16 7 P rob 10
,
.
,
.

3 To a s eg m e n t b i s e c ti ng t h e s e g m e nt
.
§ 4 5 P ob 5 ,
r .

CO N G RUEN CE
T e s ts f or tri angl e s :
c ongru e n t

A ny two t ri a ngl e s a re c o ng ru e n t i f
1 Two sid s a n d t h e i n c luded a n g l
. e
e

2 Two a ngl e s a n d t h e i n c lu d ed sid e

.

3 Th ree
.
302 P LA N E G E O ME T RY

Two ri g ht t ri a ng l es a re c ong rue nt i f

4 T h e hypote n us e a n d a n a c ute
. an gle
5 T h e hypote nus e a n d a s i d e
.

T e s t f or c ongru ent p ar alle logram s

Two pa ra ll elog ra m s a re c ong ru en t if two sid s e a nd the
i n c lud e d a ngle .
§ 98 ,
Th . 35

G e n eral t e s t f o r c o ngr u ent fig ur e s

A ny two figu re s a re c ong rue nt i f they ca n b e m a de to c oi nci de
T e s t s f or e q u al angl e s
T w o a ngl e s a re e qu a l i f they a re
1 S u m s di ff e re n c e s e qu a l m ulti pl e s o r e qu a l p a rts of
.
, , ,

e qu a l a ngl e s . 47
2 R i g ht a ng l s o r st ra i ght a ngl e s
. e 29
3 S uppl e m e nts o r c o m pl e m e n ts o f e qu a l a n gl e s
. 25 29 .
,

4 V e rti c a l
. 29
5 Co r re spo ndi ng a ngl e s o f c o ng ru e n t t ri a n gl e s
.
§3 8
6 B a s e a ngl e s o f a n i sos c el es t ri a ngl e
.
§ 3 7 Th 3
.
,
.

7 A lt i n t a ngl e s o f p a ra ll e l l i n e s
. . . .
§ 6 8 Th 14 ,
.

8 Co rre spo ndi ng angl e s o f p a ra ll e l l i n e s

.
§ 6 9 Th 15.
, .

9 Th e th i rd a ngl e s o f two t ri a ngl e s th a t h a v e two

.

a ngl e s o f o n e e qu a l Co r I I .

10 A ngle s wi th th e i r S i d e s p a ra ll el r igh ts i d e to rig

. htsi de § 73 E x 3 .
, .

11 A ngl e s with th e i r side s p e rp e nd i c ul a r

.
§86 E s 3 8 3 9 ,
x .
,

12 O ppos i te a ngl e s o f a p a ra ll e log ra m

.
§ 95 Th 3 2
.
,
.

13 Ce ntra l a ngl e s subte n de d by e qu a l a r c s

.
§ 13 5 A s 5 0 , .

14 C e n tra l a ngl e s subte nd ed by e q u a l c ho rds

.
§ 13 6 Th 6 1 ,
.

15 A ngl e s m ea su re d by e qu a l a rc s
. .
§ 173 I I ,

16 Co r re spo nd i n g a ngl e s o f s i m il a r figu re s

. 25 6
17 A ngle s o f a r egul a r polygo n
. 270

Co n structi on o f e q ual angl e s § 4 0 P rob 1 ; § 4 1 P ro b 2 ,

.
, .

T e s t s f or e q u al s egm e nt s :
T w o s egm en ts a re e qu al i f the y a re
1 S u m s d i ff e e n ce s e qu a l m ulti pl e s o r e qu a l p a rts o f
.
,
r
, ,

e qu a l s e g m e n ts .

R a d i i o f t h e s a m e o r e qu a l c i rc l e s

t
1

1
0
-
S i d e s o f a n i sos c e l e s tri a ng l e
Co rre spo n d i ng sid e s o f c o n g ru e n t t i a ng l e s
O pposi t e sid e s o f a p a ra ll e log a m r .
r

0 Pa ra l le l o r p e rp e n di c ul a r s e g m e n ts b e twe e n p a r
3

a ll els . § 104 Ths 3 9 4 0 ,

.
,
 3 04 P LA N E GE O ME T RY

T e s t s f or si m il ar p olygon s
T w o pol y gon s a e si m i la r i fr

1 T h e a n gl e s o f o ne a re e qu a l re sp e c ti ve ly to t h e
.

a ngl e s o f t h e oth e r a n d t h e c o rre spo n d i ng s i de s a re

p roporti ona l
2 D i a go na ls f rom c o rre spo nd i ng ve r t i c e s d i vid e t h e
.

polygon s i nto tri a ngl e s that a re S i m i la r a n d si m i

§ 26 1 ,
Th . 121
3 . The y a re re gula r polygon s of th e sam e nu m ber of
si de s § 287 ,
Th . 13 4

Prop erti es o f s i mi lar figure s

1 . The corre spondi ng a ngl e s a re e qu al
2 . C o rre spo n d i n g S i de s h a e e qu a l ra ti os
v

3 . D i a g o nal s f rom c o rre spon d i ng v e rti c e s d i vid e t h e

polygon s i nto t ri a ngl e s th a t a re s i m il a r a nd S i m i
la rly pl a c e d . Th . 122
4 . Th e ra ti o o f c o rre spo nd i n g s e g m e n ts e qu a ls t h e
ra ti o o f s i m i l i tud e Ths 123 .
,
125
5 . T h e ra t i o of t h e a rea s e qu a ls t h e squ a re o f t h e
ra ti o o f s i m i l i tude Th 126 ; § 26 7 Th
.
, . 127

Eq u al r a ti o s an d c i rcl e s

1 The . ra ti o o f
u fe ence s of a ny two c i rcle s
t h e c i rc m r

e qua ls t h e ra tio o f t h e d i a m e te r s o r o f t h e a dii § 3 07 Th 14 0

r .
, .

2 T h e ra ti o o f t h e a rea s o f a n y two c i rc l e s qu a ls t h e
. e

ra ti o o f t h e squ a r s o f t h e d i a m e ters o r o f t h e ra di i
e

§ 3 07 Th 14 1 , .

T e s ts f or e q ual rati o s o r e q ual pro duc t s § 211

Two a ti os o r two p rodu c ts a e e qua l when
r r

1 Pa ra lle ls o u t two t ra n sv e r s a ls
.

§ 203 Th 98 ; § 204 Th 99 a nd Co r
,
.
,
. .

2 P olygon s a re s i m i l a r
. .
§ 210
3 Two ra ti os a re e qua l to a thi rd ra i o § 199 A s 5 7
.

t , .

Co n s tr u c ti on of t s e gm e n t s
pro p or i on al
1 . T h e di vi si on o f a se gm e n t i n t o p a rts p ropo rt i o na l
to a n y nu m be r of gi ve n se g m e n ts § 206 ,
Pr ob . 15
2 . T h e f ou rth p r opo r ti o na l to th re e g i ve n seg m e n ts § 207 ,
Prob . 16
3 . T h e m ea n p ropo rti o na l to two g i v e n se g m e n ts P rob . 17

Im port ant u al rati o s oc cur wh en

c a se s o f e q

1 . Two c hords i nte rsec t wi thi n a c i rc l e .

2 . Two sec a nts i nte rse c t wi thout a c i rc le

 OUT LI N E S UMMARY 3 05

3 . s ec a nt a n d a ta nge n t i nte rs ec t wi thout a c i rc le § 216 Th 105

A .
,
.

4 A li ne bise c ts a n a ngl e o f a t i a ng le
. r § 2l 7 Th 106
.
,
.

5 A l i ne bis c ts a n xte io r a ngl of a t ri a n gl e

. e e r e § 2 18 Th 107 ,
.

6 A pe r p e ndi c ul a r i s d ra w n f ro m t h e v e te x o f t h e
. r

ri gh t a ngl e o f a ri ght t i a ngl e to t h e hypo t e n us e

r

§ 220 Ths 108 109 , .

,

E Q U IV AL E N CE
Te sts f o r e q ui valenc e § 24 6 Ths 116 117 ,
.
,

Two p a ra lle logra m s o r two t ri angle s a re e qui va len t o r a

t ri a ngle i s h a lf o f a pa ral le log ra m i f :
1 Th e y h a ve t h e s a m e ba se a n d t h e s a m e a ltitud
. e .

2 Th e p rodu c t o f t h e b a s e a n d a lti tude o f o n e e t c

.
, .

A n y two polygo n s a re e qui va l e nt i f th e y a re

S u m s d i ff e re nces o r e qua l p a rts o f e qui va l e n t figu r s
, ,
e .

Co n str ucti on o f e q ui val ent fig ur e s

1 To t ra n s fo rm a p a ra lle log ra m i n to a re c ta ngle o n a
.

g i ve n b a s e § 248 P rob 18 , .

2 To t ra ns f o rm a p a rall e log ra m i nto a squ a re

.
§24 8 P ob 19 ,
r .

3 To t ra n s fo m a polygon i n to a t ri a n gl e
. r §24 9 P robs 20 2 1 .
,
.
,

4 To c o nst ru c t a squ a re e qu a l to t h e s um o f two

.

squa res §251 P rob 22 ,

.

5 T 0 c o nst ru c t a squa re e qua l to t h e d iff e re nc e

.

be twee n two squ a re s § 25 1 P o b 23 ,

r .

MEAS URE MEN T

Meas ur em ent l s o f an g e

1 Of c e nt ra l a ngle s
.
§ 15 7 A s 5 3 ,
.

2 O f i n s c ribe d a ngl e s
. .
§ 16 1 Th 7 7 ,
.

3 O f a n a ngl e f o rm ed by a c ho rd a n d a ta nge n t
. Th 8 1 . .

4 O f a n a n gle f o rm e d by two c ho rds th a t i nte rse c t § 16 4 Th 7 8

. .
,
.

5 Of a n a ngl e f o r m ed by two s e c a n ts two ta nge n ts

.
, ,

o r a se ca n t a n d a t a n ge n t Th 7 9 ; § 172 Ths 83 8 4 .
, .
,

6 B y t rigo no m e t i c ra ti s
. r o § 225
An g l e su m s
-

T h e s um of
1 A d j a ngl es o n o ne sid e o f a st l i ne h av i ng a
. . .

c o m m o n v e rte x i s 2 r t A .

2 A dj a ngl e s a bout a p o i n t i s 4 r t A
. . .

3 In t a ngl es o n o n e S id e o f a t ra n sv e r sal wh e n t w o
. .

p a ra llels a re c ut by a thi rd st l i n i s 2 rt A . e .

4 T h e i n te ri o r a ngl e s o f a t ri a ngl e i s 2 r t A
. .
3 06 PLA N E G E O ME T R Y

The s um o f

5 . Two a ngle s of a t ri a ng le is e qu a l to t h e O pposi te

e xte ri o r a ngl e § 76 Th 19 , .

6 . T h e a c ute a ngl e s o f a ri ght t i a n g l e i s 1 r t A § 75 C o r I I I

r .
,
.

7 . T h e i n te i o r a n gl e s o f a polyg o n o f n sid e s i s
r

2 ( n —2) rt . A
8 . xteri or a ngl es of a ny polygon i s 4
Th e e rt . A

M e a s ur em ent o f p olygo n s
1 T h e a re a o f a re c t a ngl e i s a b
.
§ 239 , A s 63 .

2 T h e a rea o f a p a ra ll log ra m i s a b
. e § 24 2 Th 113
,
.

3 T h e a rea o f a t ri a ngl e i s
. ab § 24 3 Th 114
,

bc Sin A § 25 3 E x 4 1
,
.

V( — a ) (
s ss — Ii) ( s 25 3 , E x 4 4 .

4 . The of a t ra pe zoi d i s
a re a § 24 4 , Th . 115
5 T h e a re a o f a re gul a r p o ly g o n i s
.
p er .
X
a poth e m . .
§ 286 ,
Th . 13 3
6 F o r t h e a rea o f i r regula r polygo n s s ee
.
§ 24 5
M ea sur em en t o f c i rcl e s an d s ecto r s
1 T h e c i rc u m f e n c e o f a c i c le i s 2 7rr
. re r

2 T h e a rea o f a c i rc l e i s fi
. r
?

mm
T h e a r a of a s e c t or i s
e
3 60

E E ME N
L TARY F I GURE S
P r o p e r ti e s tri angl e s :
of

1 T h e s u m o f t h e a n gle s o f a t ri a ngle i s 2 r t A
.
§ 74 Th 18 . . .
,
.

2 T h e a ngl e oppo s i te t h e g rea te r s i d e o f a t r i a n gle § 129 Th 5 5

’

. . .
,

3 T h e s i de oppos i te t h e g re a te r a ngl e o f a t ri a n gl e
.
§ 128 Th 5 4 .
,
.

4 Th e m e d i a n s a re c on c u rre n t
.
§ 115 Th 4 9
.
,
.

5 T h e p e rp e nd i c ula r b i se c to rs o f t h e s i d e s a re c o n
.

c u rre n t § 18 4 Th 8 7 ,
.

6 T h e a l t i t ude s a re c o n c u rre n t
.
§ 18 4 Th 88 ,
.

7 T h e b i se c to rs o f t h e a ngle s a re c o n c u rre n t
.
§ 18 5 Th 89 ,
.

Co n s tru c ti o n o f tri angl e s

Two s i de s a n d a n a ngle oppos i te o ne §55 E x 4 ,
.

Pr o p e rti e s o f i s o s c el e s t ri a ngl e s
1 Two si de s a re e qu a l
.

0 1 T h e b a se a ngl s a re e qu a l e

B ise c to r o f v e rte x a n gl e t h e a lti tude a n d t h e

9
6 , ,

m e d i a n to t h e b a s e c i n c id e o

§ 5 0 Th 6 ; § 5 1 Th 7 ; §8 4 Th 25
,
.
, . ,
.
308 PLAN E G EO ME T RY

INE Q UAL ITI E S

Te s ts f or u n e q u a l s eg m e n t s
1 . T h e s um of two S i de s o f a le e t c
t ri a n g , § 126 A ss , . 3 7, 38
2 . I f o ne a ngle of a tri a ng le is g ea ter tha n
r an othe r ,

§ 128 , Th . 54
The p erp endi c ula r i s t h e sho rte st d i s t a n c e e t c § 13 0 Th 56
I f f roma poi nt i n a p e rp e n di c ul a r to a l i ne obl i qu e
.
, , .

s eg m ents a re d ra wn c utti ng o ff u nequ al dista nces ,

etc § 130 ,
Th . 57
I f f ro m a poi n t i n a p e rpendi c ul a r to a l i n e two
u nequ al obli qu e segm ents a re d ra wn e t c , § 13 0 Th , . 58
I f t w o t ri a ngl e s h a ve two s i d e s o f o n e e qu a l to two
S i d e s o f t h e oth e r but t h e i n c lud e d a n gl e s e t c
, Th
. . . 59
7 . I f f om a po i n t w i th i n a t ri an gl e s eg m e nts a re
r

d ra w n to t h e e xtrem i ti e s o f o n e s i de § 127 Th , . 53

Test s f or un e q u al angl e s
1 . T h e e xte ri o r a n gl e o f a tri a ngle e t c
, § 58 , Th . 8
2 . I f o ne s i d e o f a t ri a ngl e i s g re a te r th a n an other ,

et c § 129 ,
Th . 55
3 . I f two t ri a ngl e s h a ve two s i d e s o f o ne e q u a l to two
side s o f th e othe r but t h e thi rd side of o ne ,
et c .
§ 13 2 ,
Th . 60
 IN DEX
R
[ e f e r e n c es a re t o p a ge n u m b e rs ]

A bb evi at i o n s
r form e d by r ota ti on 6
A c ute a ngl e i nc lud ed . 22

A dd iti o n o r c o m posi ti o n . i n s c ri b e d i n a n a r e 12 8

A dd i t i o n :o f a ngl e s i n s c r i b e d i n a c i rc le 12 6 .

o f polygo n s m ea su r e m en t o f I I 13 7 ,

Ad j a c e n t a ngl e s obtuse 0 0 0 0 0
9
A lge b ra i c a n a lys i s o f eleva t i on 196

Alg eb ra i c e qu a ti o n s i n d i c a t i ng of s i xty d eg ree s 60

c on str u c t i o n s 1 9 7 ; 2 2 7 E x 5 , . of r egular polygon 262

A lg eb ra i c n ota ti o n i n p r oo f s 51 re e n t ra n t
-
63
Ah m e s 2 83 ri ght
.
9
lterna te exte ri or a n gl es r i g ht a n d l e f t S i d e s o f
A .
49 58
A lte r n a t e i n te ri o r a n gl e s .
49 s id es o f 6
A lte na t i o n :
r e xtre m e 16 6 s i ze of 6
m ea n .
16 6 stra i ght 9 16 ,

A lti tud e :length o f , in e qui suppl em en t o f 12 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

la tera l t ri a ngl e tri s ec ti on of 32

o f pa ra llelogra m v e rte x o f 6
o f t ra p ezoi d v erte x o f i sosc el e s t ri a ngle 2 0
, .

o f t ri an gle . A ngl e s : a dd i t i o n o f 7
A lti tu d e s o f t ri a n gl e c o n c u r
, a dj a c en t .
7
ren t . 1 50 a lter n a t e e xt er i or 49
ti o o f 2 44 a lt e rn a t e i n t er i or
ra 49 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

A na lys i s to m a k e a n
,
25 c o m pl e m e n t a r y 12

A ngl e . 6 c on g ru en t 0 0 0 0
7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

ac ut e 9 c on s e c u t i v e o f pa ra ll elo
6 g ra m .

b i s ec tor of 8 31 , c on stru c ti on o f e qua l

c e n t ra l i n c ir c l e
,
10 8 1 2 4 , c o rr e spo n d i n g o f c o n gr u ,

ce n tr a l of regul a r poly
, e n t figur e s

go n . c orr e spo n d i n g o f li n e s c ut ,

c o m pl e men t o f 12 by a t ran sv e sa l r .

d eg ree o f I I e qu a l , d efini ti on o f ( S ee
d e s ig na t i o n o f 6 E qua l a ngl e s )
d i vi sio n o f 31 e xte ri o r o f l i n es c ut by a
,

e xter i o of t r ia ngle
r, tra n sversa l
3 10 I N D EX

A ng l e s (c o n ti n ued)
‘

A rc s: c o n gr u e n t .

i n t er i or n o n a dj a c en t - e qu a l ( S ee E qu a l a rc s )

in teri or o f l i n e s c ut by a
,
A r ea .

t r a n sv er s a l a ssum pt i on s c on c ern i ng
m a d e by p a ra ll els a n d
t ra n sv er s a ls m a xi m u m . 2 8 4 , 2 90

O ppos i t e A r ea :f
.
o c i rc e l . 2 75 , 2 7 7
O ppos i t e o f p a r a llelo o f i rr egula r polygon s
, 2 19 .

g ra m 79 8 0 , of k i te . 2 2 9 E x 16 ,
.

subtra c ti on of 8 of para ll elogra m 2 16

su m o f i n polygo n 64
, o f rec t a ngl e 2 11 . O O O O O O O O O O O O

s um of i n t i a n gl e
, r 59 o f regula r polygon 262 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

supplem en tary 12 .
o f rhom bus 22 8 Ex 5 , .

sym m etri c 75 o f sec t 0r o f c i r c le 2 75

v ert i c a l . 15 of s egm en t o f c i rc l e 2 76
A n gle s a n d p ara ll e ls 5 4 57 , o f t ra p ezo i d 2 18 .

An g le su m s -
I6 30 5 , o f tri a n gle 2 17 2 2 8 .
,

A n t ec e de n t 16 3
A r ea s ra ti o o f
A poth em
,
2 60
:4 6
’

2 3 7» EX 34 2 2 4 7. 2 6 3 . 2 76
A poth e m s ra t i o o f
.
2 63
A ssu m pt i o n
,

A pp r oxi m a te c o n str u c ti o n s 2 82 .
35
A pp r oxi m a t e m ea su r e :o f A ssum pt i ons c on c ern i n g
len gth 1 6 1 16 2 a n gle s .
16 , 1 7
,

a n gle s um s
o f surfa c e Of r ec tan gl e 2 1 2 2 1 4 .
,
-
I6

o f h ei ghts a n d d i st a n c es 1 96 .
a re a 2 11, 2 75 , 2 90

A pp r oxi m a t e v a lu e o f 7r 2 72 2 83 . .
,
c i rc e l s 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 16 , 1 09 , 1 1 8 ,

A ra b .
98
Arc .
5
2 75 . 2 90 . 2 9 I

d e gr e e o f 12 3 c o n gr u e n c e 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 20

i n t er c e pt ed of c en tra l e qu a l a n gl e s 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 16
,

e qu i va len c e
a n gl e . .
O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 2 10

i n t er c e pt ed o f i n s c ri be d i n equ a l i ty 4 8 99 , , 1 00
,

a n gl e 12 6 lo c a ti o n o f l i n e s r a ys a n d , ,

m a j or . 10 8 s egm ents
m ea sur e m e n t o f 10 8 1 2 3 . . 13 7 loca ti o n o f poi nts .

, ,

m i n or 10 8 m a xi m u m a rea 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Arc h i m ed e s 22 0 2 83 m i ni m u m p eri m et er
,

A r c h i t e c tu re e xe rc i s e s fr o m
,
pa ra ll els 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

gable ( S ee Ca r pen t ry ; p eri m eter s 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

r a t i os
Churc h wi n dows ; G oth i c 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

ar c h Mould i n gs Ra f t e r s s ec tor s 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

R oo f truss es ; S t ee l s egm en ts . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

b ea m s) stra i ght a ngles

 12 I N DE X
I

C i rc le s (co nti nued) s

C o ri c u rr e n t li n e 91
i n ter se c ti n g exe r c i s e s i n volvi n g 1 55

lo c i o f c en ter s of spec i a l c a s es of 1 1 5 . .
, 14 8 , 1 5 0

tan ge n t C o ng ru en c e 2 0, 30 1
t a n g en ts to . Co ngr u en t a ngl e s 7
C i r c le s a n d e qu l r a t i os a

C i r c l e s a n d sym m e t ry c i rc el s
figu r e s
Ci r c ular s egm en ts 2 76 pa ra l lelogra m s
u
Ci rc m f ere n c e 2 6 9 , 2 74 s eg m en ts
f or m ul a f o r 2 74 t r i a n gl e s
ra t i o o f to d i a m e t e r
,
. 2 76 Co n s e c u t i ve a n gl es 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

C i rc um fe re n c e s ra ti o o f ,
. 2 76 Co n s ec uti ve s i d e s 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

C ir c u m s c r i b e d c i rc le 12 0 C o n s e que n t
c o n st ru c t i on o f . 15 1 C o n stru c t i o n li n e s
o f r egul a r polyg o n s 2 59 C o n s t r u c t i o n :o f e q u a l
Ci rc u m s c r i b e d polygo n 12 0 a n gl e s 7 30 ,

C o i n c i d en t ra ys of b i s ec tor o f a n a n gl e 8 31
'

5 ,

C o lli n ea r r ays .
5 o f c i rc l e s 1 5 1 1 54 1 56 , ,

C om m en sura bl e s eg m en ts . 16 4 o f c i r c u m s cri b ed c i rc l e 15 1

C o m m o n c ho r d I 17 o f d ec a gon r egula r , 2 56 .

a s b i s ec to r I 1 19 of e qua l s egm en ts 88 .

b i s e c t ed . 1 18 of equi valen t figure s

C om p a ss e s : 19 1 2 10 , 2 2 2 —2 2 4, 227

u s e of 6 , 32 o f e s c ri b ed c i rc l e . 15 1

C o m pl em en t . 12 of extr em e a n d m ean ra ti o . 2 56

C o m pl em en ta r y a n g l e s 12 of fourth p roporti ona l 1 73

C o m pos i t i o n o r a dd i ti on . 16 7 of hexa gon r egul ar , 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

‘

2 54

C o m pou n d c u r v e s . 1 57 of i n s c i bed c i c l e
r r . 15 1

C o m pu t a t i o n s :o f a r ea s o f m ea n proport i on a l 1 87

2 14 , 2 2 8 , 2 7 7 of oc tagon r egul ar , 2 53

by t ri gonom etri c ra ti os o f pa a ll els

r . O O O O O O O O O O O O O
53
1 94 , 1 96 , 2 0 2 o f p e n ta d ec a gon r egul ar , 2 58

m ea s ur em en t of re gula r of pent agon r egul ar , 2 58

polygon s of p erpendi c ula r s

o f p erim et e s o f r egular r 9
‘
10 i 3 3 3 51
‘

13 3

i n scri b e d polyg o n s 2 70 . .
,
2 72 of proporti on a l s egm en ts . 1 72

C o n c a v e polygon 63 o f r eg ula r polygon s 2 52 . .

- 2
5 8
C on c en tri c c i rc l es . 1 17 of s i m ila r polygon s 24 3

C o n c lus i o n 36 of square . 2 53

C on c re t e r e pres en ta t i on :o f of t a ngents 1 1 5 13 4 .
, , 13 7

poi nts . of tri a n gle s

o f s t ra i ght l i n e s . 2 1, Ex 4 ;
. 24, Ex .
; 4 7, E x 4 .
 I N DEX

t o n s t ru c t i o n s :by g b ra i c
al e D i rec t p roof .
51
a nalysis D i sta n c e : b tween two poi nts
e 4
i n d i c a te d by e qua tion s f ro m a poi n t to a li n e 10 4

197 ; 2 2 7, Ex 5 . D i v i sio n o r subtra c ti on 16 7

o ntact , po i nt o f . I 14 D i vi sio n o f a n gl es 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
31
o n e rs e th eo r e m s
v 56 D i visio n o f s e g m e nts : e xt e r

o n e x polygo n
v . . 63 n a l a n d i n t ern a l

, o rr e s p o n d i n g a ngl es : o f co n h a m on i c
r .

g ru en t figu re s . 20 i n e xtre m e a n d m ea n ra t i o
o f li n e s c ut by a t ra n sve sa l r 49
o rr e s p o n d i n g s i d e s :of c o n in qua l pa r ts
e 88

g ru e n t figu r es . in pa rt s p opor tion a l to r

o f s i m i la r fi g u e s r . gi ve n seg m e n ts 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

of si m il a r tr i a ngl e s D r a fts m a n s m ethods

’
me ,

o r o lla r y c h a n i c a l d a wi n g r

osi n e o f a n a c ute a n g le .
9, 10 , 3 2 , 53 , 2 59 ! 2 8 2

ro ss s e c t i o n s o f c olu m n s
-
. D uod e ca go n (S ee Regula r
u t g la ss d e s i g n s
-
duod e c a gon ) .

eca g o n ( S ee Regul ar d ec a E gypt ,

Eg ypti a n s
1, 6 9, 1 89 i 19 1 i 2 83

e fin i t e loc a t iO:Of i l s
n c rc e . E lem en ts , E uc l i d s ’
45
o f li ne s . E l e va tio n a n gl e o f
,
1 96

o f poi nts E n g i n e e ri n g p r obl m s f rom

, e

o f ra ys (S ee A r c h i t c t u r e ; S ur e

o f s eg men t s v ey i n g ; Ra i l roa di ng )
eg r e e : o f a n gl e 2 79 , 2 9 I

o f a rc E qua l l s
a ng e . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1I

es i g n t h e o r y a n d p ra c t i c e
, a ssu m pt i o n s c on c er n i n g 16

of .
7 1 79 1 5 7 2 3 1
.
, , , , 2 56 t e sts f o r 0 0 16 3 70 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
, , 302
e t e r m i n a t i o n o f po i n t s . 1 52 E qu a l a r c s 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 8

i a g o n a ls : o f pa ra lle logra m s h a v e e qu a l c en t a l a n g l e s r . 10 9

79 8 0
. h ave equa l chords . 1 10

o f polygon s 63 m ea sur e e qua l a n g l e s 13 7

of q ua dr i la tera ls 80 8 1 . .
,
m ea su r e d by e qua l a ngl e s . . 13 7

of squa e f o m ula f o r
r , r 1 90 . . t e sts f o r .
303
i a g ra m s f o r r e vi e w 43 E qu a l c en t ra l a n gl e s o f a
i a m t er o f c i rc l e
e
5 c i rc l e :ha ve e qua l a rc s
t e sts f o r 1 1 2 1 16 ,
h a ve e qua l c ho rds
i a m e t ers ra t i o o f
, 2 76 Equa l c ho rds : e qua lly d i sta n t

i ff e re n c e b etween two f rom c e nte r 1 13

a n gle s have e qu a l a rc s 1 10

b etween t w o polyg on s . ha ve e qua l c entra l a ngle s 1 10

 14 I N DEX

E qu a l p roduc ts :e xer c i s e s f o r m ea sur em n t o f c i r l e s e c

i n volvi n g 1 79 , 197 a n d s e c to r s 2 77 , 3 06
i m po r ta n t c a s e s o f 1 82 f o r m e a su rem e n t o f poly
t e sts f o r . 1 77 gon s . .

E qu a l ra t i os : a ppl i c a t i o n s o f . 19 1 f o r S i d e o f equ i l a t era l t i r

e xe c i s e s i n volvi n g
r a n gl e .

I 74 , I 79 , I 9 7 f o r S i de o f squ a re
i m por ta n t S p ec i a l ca es s of 1 82 Fou th propo t i o a l
r r n
.

se s of
ri e 2 45 c o n stru c t i o n o f 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

t sts f o r
e 1 77 , 3 04
E qua l s eg m e n ts 4 F u n d a m en ta l ssu m pti on :o f a
t e sts f o r .
302 m a sur em en t o f poly
e
E qu a t i o n s 2 96
gon s 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

E qu i l a t er a l t r i a n g l e r ega rd i n g p a r a ll e ls
20

a lt i tud e o f f o rm ul a 1 90
,
Fun da m enta l c hara c t e i sti c r
a n gl e s e qu a l .

of p a a ll elogr a m s
r
S i d e o f f o r m ul a f o r
,
o f ra ti os
v a lu e of e a c h a n g l e
Fu nda m enta l r el at i on b e
E quiv le n t polyg o n s
a
t w ee n a r c s a n d a n gl e s
a ssu m pt i o n s c o n c ern i n g
F un da m en ta l t est :f o r i n
.

c o n st ru c t i o n o f
e qu a l i ty
E x 3 2 ; 2 3 7,
2 10 , 2 2 0 , 2 3 6 ,
.

f o r p a a lle logr a m s
.

r
Ex 3 3 ; 2 5 1 , Ex 2 2 ; 3 0 5
f o r p a ra ll els
. .

e xer c i s e s i n volv i n g 2 2 4, 2 33
fO : sp ec i a l qu a dr i la t era l s
. .

'

t e sts f o r 2 10 2 2 0 305
F u n d a m e n t a l t h e or e m s o f
.
,
.
,

E s c ri b e d c i rc l e 15 1

E uc li d
pr oporti on
4 5 13 7 , ,
258
E xa c t m ea su r e 16 1
E xt e ri o r a n gl e o f t i a ng l e r .
48 G a bl e
E xt e i o r a n gl e s o f l i n e s c ut
r
\
G a uss
by t ra n sversa l G e n era l a ssu m pti on s
E xt er n a l d i v i s i o n G e n era ti o n o r f o m a t i on o f r
E xtr e m e a lt e n a t i on r
a n gl e s
E t m e a n d m ea n ra ti o
G e o m et ri c f orm s o c c urr en c e
x re .

E xtr m e s
,
e .

of 6 9 7 1 79 1 0 6 . . . .

1 58 ) 2 3 1 :2 36 , 2 54 ,
F i x ed li n e ra y , , or s eg m e n t .
58
2 6 5, 2 66 , 2 8 1, 291
F loo r d e s i g n s 6 9 , 7 9 , 9 7,
157, 2 0 4 , 2 3 0 , 2 3 5, 2 6 6 , 2 8 1
G eo m e tr i c a l p robl em ( S ee
C on str uc ti on )
F orm ul a : f o r lti tud e o f .
a

e qu i l a t e a l t r i a n gl e r G old e n s e c ti on O O O O O O O O O O O O O

f o r a n gl e su m s - G oth i c a r c h . O O O O O O O O O O O

f o r d i a go n a l o f squ a r e . G ra vi ty c en ter o f
,
O O
O
O O O O O O O
 I N DEX

Ma j or a n d m i n or a rc
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Ma xi m u m a n d m i n i m u m
Mea n a ltern a ti on .

Mea n p ropo rti on a l 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

con stru c ti on of
Leg s :
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

of a n i sos c ele s t ra p ezoi d 84 Mean ra t i o e xtrem e a n d ,

of a ri g ht tr i a n gl e 66 Me a n s
L en gt h :
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

of c i r c le 2 69 M ea su r e (m ea su rem en t) : ap
o f s eg m ent 4 , 16 1 pr oxi m at e
un i ts of 3 00 e xa c t
L e v e l i n g d ev i c e 41 of angl es Q

L i m i ti n g va lu es o f p eri m et er of a rc s
o f i n s c r i bed a n d c i rc u m of c i c l e s (S ee Ci rc le s )
r

s c r i bed r eg ul a r polygon s 2 74

L i m i ts e xer c i s e s i n volvi ng
, of poly gon s (S ee Polyg on s )
—
2 11 220 3 06
L in e :pa ra ll el to b a s e o f
,

of s eg m ents 16 1
t ri a n g l e . 8 9 90 .
, , 1 70
o f surfa c e s 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 208
stra i ght ( S ee S tra i ght li n e) pra c ti c a l 16 2 , 2 14
L i n e o f c en ter s Me a su r e n u m b er : o f a n gl e s . I 1
a s a x i s o f sy mm etry
o f a s eg m e n t 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 16 1
a s b i s e c tor
o f a su rfa c e 2 08
L i n e s :c o n crete rep res en ta Me c h a n i c a l d a wi n g r

ti on o f .

9 :I O ) 3 2 :5 3 , 2 59 ; 2 82
c o n c u rr e n t ( S ee C on c ur M ed i a n :
of rig ht t
ri a n g e l 92
re n t l i n es )
.
.
91 of a tri a ngl e 42 .

c o n str u c t i o n 57 o f a qua d ri lat era l 85

d fi n i te lo c a ti o n o f
e 15
Me di a n s o f a t ri a ngle c o n
p a a lle l ( S ee p a ra ll el li n es )
r .
50 c u re n tr
p erp e nd i c ula r ( S ee p er p en Mi d poi n t o f s eg m en t d et er
-
,

d i c ular l i n es ) m i n a t i on o f 4 35
.

sy mm etri c Mi ni m u m . 2 84 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

Loc a t i on d efin i te ( S ee D efi
, Mi n or a rc 10 8
n i t e lo ca t i o n ) Mi n ut e s . 1 1 12 3 ,

Loc i 14 3 Mod ern d i s c over i es i n g e om

c o m pl et e p r oo f s f o r 14 5 e t ry 2 5 8 , 2 74 , 2 8 3
fi n d i ng o f . 14 3 Mo ld i ngs I 57
i n t er s e c ti ng 1 52
.
, 15 4

m i s c ell a n eou s e xer c i s e s o n . 1 59 N a tu r e of th eorems an d

o f c en ter s of c i rc l es . 1 53 p oof s
r .

o f po i n ts . 14 6 N a v i g a tio n e xe rc i s e ,

o f v e rt i c e s o f t ri a n gl e s N u mb r s :
e i r ra ti o n a l
I S9 . Ex 4 . r a ti o o f .
 I N DE X 3 17

Ob t
'

us a ng l
e e Pen ta g o n (S ee Re g ula r p e n ta
O c t a go n ( S ee R egul a r o c ta go n ) . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 63

g o n ) Pe n tag ra m sta r 266

O ppos i t e gl e s an P eri go n 9
O ppos i te a n gle s o f a p a ra ll e lo P e ri m e ter 63
g ra m 79 8 0 , m i ni mum 2 8 5 2 89 .
, , 29 1

O pposite s i d e s o f a p a r a ll elo r a t i o o f to d i a m e t er 2 63

g ra m 79 8 0 , Pe i m e ter s :
r c o m put t i o n f o r a

O r i gi n o f r a y 5
O rthoc en t er 15 5 l engths o f 0 2 72 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

r a t i o of 2 45 2 63 ,

Pa ppus . P e p e nd i c ul a r
r b i s c to as e r

P a a ll el c ho r d a n d t a n g e n t
r . lo c us . 14 7

P a ra ll e l c ho rds c o n stru c t io n o f 10 3 5 ,

P a r a ll e l l i n e s P er p en d i c ula r bis e c to s n r eo

c o n str u c t i o n o f c u rre n t . 14 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

f unda m e n ta l a ssu m ptio n P erp en d i c ul a r li n e s 9

r eg a r d i n g o st u o
r ct i f —
c n n o 9 10 3 3 3 5 13 3 .
, , ,

t e sts f o r .
30 1
P a ra lle l r uler s P hys i c s ,
e xer c i s es f om r . 10 6 , 1 3 8

P a ra ll e l t o b a s e o f a t i a n gle r Pi 2 73

89 , 9o , 1 7o a pproxi m a te c o n str uc t i o n s
P a ra ll els a n d tran sve r sa ls : f or 2 82

a n gl e s f or m e d by 54 5 5 , app roxi m a t e va lue o f 2 73 ,

2 83

e qu a l s eg m e n ts f o m ed by r c o n st ru c t i o n o f 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 74

88 , 9 8 h i sto ry o f . 0 0 0 0 0 2 83
pr oporti on a l s eg m en ts i s i rra tio n a l . 0 0 0 0 0 . 16 4 , 2 74

f orm ed by 16 8 P oi n t : d e t erm i n a t i o n o f mid

P a ra ll e log ra m 79 8 5 , poi n t 4, 35
a lt i tu d e o f 85 o f c o n t a c t o f li n e and

a re a o f . 2 16 c i rc le .

ba se s of .
79 8 5 , of on ta c t o f t a n g e n t
c

c o n s e c ut i v e a n gl e s a nd c i rc e
‘ l s 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

side s of 79 of t angen c y 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

di ag on a ls of 6 3 79 8 0 8 1 , , , va i abl e r

opposi te a n g l es a n d s i d e s of 79 Po i n ts :c o n c re t e r e p e s e n t a r

P a ra ll e logra m s :c o n g ru e n c e tio n of
d efi n i t e lo c a ti o n o f
p rop erti es of det erm i n a ti o n of 0 0 0 0 0

t e st f o r lo c us o f O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

P e n c i l o f r a ys sym m etri c . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

P en ta d ec a go n ( S ee Reg ul a r
p en ta dec agon ) a r ea of
3 18 I N D EX

P oly g o n ( co nti n ued) di rec t synth ti c e

b i s e c ti o n o f i n di r ec t .

c i rc u m s c r i b ed Pr op e t i e s :
r of i sos c el e s t ra p e
c on c a v e
z o i ds 86
.

c on v e x .
of i sosc el es t ri an g l e s 30 6
d i a go n a l o f of ki te s . 86
i n s c r i b ed o f pa ra llelogra m s 30 7
p eri m eter of of r ec ta n gl es 86
r egular ( S ee Re gula r poly
of r egul a r polygo n s
30 7
go n ) 64
of rhom bus es . 87
s ides of . 63
o f r i ght t i a ngl e s
r
30 7
sta r (S ee S ta r polyg o n s) 1 4 1 , 268
o f squares 87
su th of a ngl e s of 64
of si m i lar polygon s 304
t i s ec ti o n o f
r . 2 09
of tra p ezoi ds 93
v erti c e s o f 63
of t ri a ngl es 3 06
P olygo n s : a dd i t i o n o f 2 09
16 5
c o ngr u en c e o f ( S ee C o n by a dd i ti on 16 7
figu re s ; C o n
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

g ru e n t
by a ltern at i on 16 6
pa ra ll e logra m s
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

gr uen t
by c om pos i ti on 16 7
C on g r u en t tr i a n gl e s )
.

by di vi s i on 16 7
d i ff e re n c e b etween
by i nversi on 166
e q u i v a l en c e o f ( S ee E q ui v a
by subtra c ti on 16 7
len c e ) 220 30 5
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

,
f un da m en ta l th eo rem s o f 16 5
m ea sur em en t o f
i n ve r s e 2 04
— 2 2 8,
2 11 2 1 9, 3 06
r ec i p ro c a l 2 04
na m e s of 63
Pr opo rt i o n a l c o m p a ss e s ( S ee
re gul a r (S ee Regul ar poly C om p a ss e s )
gon ) 2 52

s i m ila r ( S ee S i m i lar figur e s ) 2 40

P r opor ti o n a l :f ourth 1 73

star ( S ee S ta r polygo n s) m ea n 187

14 1 , 268 Pr oporti ona l s egm ents ( S e e

subtra c t i on of 2 09 E qu a l ra ti os )
s um of . 2 09 con stru c ti on o f . .

t ra n s form a ti on of 2 10 , 2 2 1 sp ec i a l c a s e s o f
P o ns a s i n o r um 46 Pr opo rt i o n a lly d i vi d ed
, .

t l m ea sure m n ts
P r a c i ca e 1 6 2 , 2 14
Pr opo rt i on s t ra n s fo r m a tion s
P r obl e m g e o m e t ri c a l
,

, ( S ee
Co n stru c ti o n )
otra c tor
.

Pr
P r od uc ts t e st f o r e qu a l
, ( S ee
E q ua l p rodu c ts ) Pyt ha gora s

P r o j ec ti o n P yth a go rea n t h e o re m
P oo f
r e x er c i s e s i n volv i n g

by sup erpos i ti on . .
1 8 9 , 1 99 , 2 3 8
3 20 I N DE X

Reg ul a r polygon s (co nti n ued) b i s ec ti o n o f 4 35 .

,

p eri m et er s of 2 70 -
2 72 d efi n i te l o c a t i on o f 4 15 ,

pr opert i e s of 2 59 2 6 0 2 6 5 .
, , , 30 7 d i v i s i on o f ( S ee D i vi s i on
m ea sur em en t o f 262 , 26 7 of seg m ents )
s i m i la r 262
fixed 58
t e sts f o r 30 7 l en gt h of 4 16 1
. .

,
.

Re p r e s en ta t i on o f po i n ts a n d m ea sur e o f 0 0 0 16 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

st a i ght li n es
r m i d poi n t o f
-
0 0
4 35
0 0 0 0
,

R ev i e w d i a gr a m s S eg m en ts : c o m m e n su ra b le 164
R ho m bus c on g ru e n t
4
a r ea o f e qu a l ( S ee E qu a l s e g m n ts )
4 e
pr op ert i e s of i n c o m m en su ra bl e 164
R i g i d figur e s p oporti on a l
r 0 1 78 3 0 4
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
,

Ri g ht a n gle s (S ee P e p e n r
r a ti o o f 16 4
d i c ulars ) 9 S e m i c i r c le 10 8
Ri ght t r i an gle 66
m ea sure o f a n gl e i n 12 8
hypot en us e o f
0 0 0 0 0 0 0

66
S er i e s o f e qu a l r a ti os 2 45
le g s o f 66
S ew e r s 2 79 2 9 1
pr op erti e s Of
.
,
30 7 Si d e i n c lud e d 23
s i xt y degr ee- 2 50 E x 9 ,
.

S i de : of e qui la tera l t i a n g l e 1 90 r
R oo f t r us se s e xe rc is e s ba s ed o n
.

,
of squ ar e 1 90

Sides : c o n s ec ut i v e 79
p a rts of
.

42 , Ex 15
c o rr e spo n d i n g ( S ee C o rr e
.

r i g i d i ty o f 4 1
s p o n di n g s i d e s )
.

R oot s r ul e s f o r 2 93 —2 9 5
,
of a n a ngl e 6
t a ble o f squ a r e
.

2 98
of a p a ra ll elog a m r 79
R os ett e s 14 2
.

o f a polyg on 63
R ul er s p a ra ll el 95
,
opposi t e . .
79
r i g ht a n d l e f t o f a n a n g le 58
t , .

S ec an
S i m i la r figure s o r polyg o n s
S ec a n t a n d t a n ge n t 13 6 ,
,

S eca n ts ,
i n t er s e c t i n g (S e e

I n t er s ec ti n g Se c a n t s ) c on stru c ti on of 2 43

c o rr e spon d i n g a n gl e s o f I 76
S ec ti o n G old en , 2 40
,

c o r re spo n d i n g s i d e s o f 1 76
S e c tor o f c i r c l es ,
14 0
—
pr op ert s of 4 4 2 4 7 2 4 8
i
a re a o f 304
e 2
2 75 , ,

te sts f o r 2 40 —2 4 3 2 4 8 3 0 3
.
,

S e g m en t j o i n i n g c e n t e r o f , , , 304
c i r c l e s a s b i s ec to r
S i m il ar r eg ul a r polygon s 2 6 2 .
, 2 64

b i s ec t ed ( S ee L i n e o f S i m i l a r t ri an gl e s 1 76

c orr e spo n d i n g s i d e s o f 1 78
c e n t er s )
t e sts f o r —
2 4 0 2 44 2 4 8
S e g m en t o f c i r c l e s . .
, , 3 03

a re a o f S i m i li tud e c en t er o f
,
. 2 49

S eg m ent stra i ght li n e

,
-
. ra t i o o f O O O O O O O O O O O O O 2 40
 I N DE X

S i ne of a n an gl e . y bols a n d a bbrevi a tio n s

S m
S i x ty d egr ee r i ght
- t ri a n gl e S ym m e t i c figur es
r

2 50 , Ex 9 . S ym m etri c po i n ts .

Si xty degr ees

-
. 60 oc c urr e nc e of
S i e o f a n a ng l e
z 6 S ymm etry : a xi a l .

S p ec i a l qu a dr i l a tera ls 84 c e n t ra l . . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

e xer c i s e s c o n c ern i n g 96 re l a t i on be tw ee n a xi a l a n d

S qu a r e 85 a n d c e n t ra l

c o n str u c t i o n of i n s c r i b ed . 2 53 S ym m etry a n d ci r c l e s
d i a go n a l o f f o rm ul a f o r
,
. 190

s i de of form ula f o r
,
. 1 90 y
S mme try a n d pa rall elogra m s 81
prop erti es o f . 87 S y n th eti c f o rm 36
S qua r e r oots ( S ee R oots )
S ta r p en ta gra m 2 66 Ta ble s :o f squ a re r o ots 2 98

S ta r polygo n s : f or m a ti o n o f . . 268 tri gon om etri c 2 99

oc c urre nc e o f 14 1 2 6 5 . . .
, ,
266 Ta n gen c y poi nt of
, 1 14

S tee l squar e car p en t er s

,
’
Ta n gen t a n d c hord pa ra lle l 13 6

3 1. 1 2 9 , I 7S m ea sure o f a ngl e o f .
. I3 S

S tra ight an gle 9 Ta n gen t a n d s ec a n t ( S ee

S tra i ghtedg e 32 I n ter s e c ti n g s ec a n t a n d
S tra i ght l i n e 1, 2 ta ng en t )
S trai ght li n e s e g m en t ( S ee
-
T a ng e n t c i r c l e s I 17

Segm e n t st ra i ght l i n e )
,
t e sts f o r 1 19

S ubtr a c ti on : o f a ngles Ta nge nt of a n a ngle 193

o f polygon s . Ta n gen t to a c i rc l e 1 14

S ubtra c ti on o r d i vi si on ,
c o n str u c ti o n o f 1 1 5 13 4 .
, , 13 7

S um o f a ngl es tests f o r . 1 14

o f a polygon Ta n g en ts t o two c i rc l es 0 0 0 0 0 13 8

of a tri a ngle Te sts : f o r c o ngru en c e 30 1 . .

, 302
e xt e ri or o f a polygo n
, f o r d i a m e t er s 1 120 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
,
1 16

i nt eri o r o f p a rall e l l i n e s . f o r equa l a ngl e s 30 2

S um o f polyg o n s f o r e qua l ar c s 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
30 3
S u ms a ngl e
,
. f o r e qu a l c ho rds 303
S upe rpositi o n . f o r e qua l p ro d u c ts 1 78 .
, 304
S uppl e m e n t f o r equa l r a t i os 1 77 .
. 304
S up pl e m en ta ry a d j ac ent f o r equi va lenc e 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
30 5
an gl e s . f o r i ne qua l i ty I 00

S u p pl e m en ta ry a n gl es f o r i sos c el e s t ri a ngl es 307

S ur fac e : m ea sure o f f o r p ara ll els 30 1
u ni ts of f o r p a ra l lelogr ams 30 7
Sur v eyi ng e xe rc i se s f ro m
, f o r pe rp e n di c ul ars 30 1
f or reg ula r polygo n 307
1 96 , 2 0 2 f o r i m i la r p olygo n s O O O O O O O
s 30 4
322 I N DEX

T e sts (co nti n ued) xter i or a n gle o f

e 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

f or si m i la r tri a ngl e s i n c e n t er o f
f o r sp ec i a l qu a d r i la tera ls . m ed i a n o f
f o r ta ng e n t c i r c l e s o rthoc en t er o f . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

f o r t a n g e n ts pr op erti e s of
f o r u n equ a l a n gl e s . S u m o f a n g le s o f

f o r u n e qua l s eg m en ts . Tri a n gl e : equ i l a t era l ( S ee

Tha l e s E qu i l a t e r a l t ri a n gl e )
T h e o re m s i sos c e l e s ( S ee I sos c e l e s t ri
c o n v er s e o f a ngl e )

p roo f o f . ri ght ( S ee Ri g ht tri a n gl e )

Pa ppus
’
. Tri a ngl es : c o n g r u e n t t e sts f o r ,

Pytha gorea n ( S ee P y t h a g o equ i v a l e n t t e sts f o r , .

r ea n th e o re m ) S i m i l a r t e sts f o r
,
.

T i le s ( S ee Flo o r Tr i gon om etri c r a t i os

T ra n s f or m a ti o n o f polyg o n s Tr i sec t i o n o f a n gl e s O O O O O O O O O
T ra n s formati o n o f p ropo r Un e qu a l a ngl e s t ests f o r ,
.
308
ti o n s
. .

U n e qua l s eg m e n ts t ests f o r ,
. .
308
T ra n sve r sa ls a nd p a ra llels U n its :o f length 3 00
( S ee P arall els ) of m ea sur e o f a ngl e s 11
T ra pezoi d of m ea su re of a rc s 10 8 ,
12 3
a lt i tud e o f
of surfa c e 3 00
a rea o f

ba s e s o f
p roperti e s of Va ri a bl e poi n t . 0 0 0 0 0 0

Tra p ezoi d i so sc el e s ( S ee
,
. V ert e x a ngl e of i sos c el e s t ri

a n g le
I sos c eles tr a p e zo i d ) .

T ri a ngl e V erte x o f a n a ngl e

a lti t ud e o f
o f i sos c el e s t r i angle .

a r ea o f
. V erti ca l a ngl es
c e n t e r o f g r a v i ty o f

c e n tr o i d o f
V er t i c e s ,
l0 0i Of

c i r c u m c en t er o f

c o n stru c ti o n o f W i dth of b o ard . 89

t
'

2 1, E
x »
.
4 ; 24 ; 4 7, E x 4
.
Wi nd w o d esi gn s 2 80