DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

Fundamnental of Data Communications

1. Introduction

Data Communication is a system consisting of carries and

related devices used to transport data from one point to another.
Communication means to convey a message, an idea, a picture or
speech that is received and understood clearly and correctly by the
person for whom it is conveyed.

Ancient Methods of Communication and Their Demerits – Message

were sent in olden times either through horse riders or by using
pigeons. There was no surety that the messenger will be able to
convey the message exactly in the same form as told to him verbally.

Electronic Methods of Communication -

With the invention of
telephone instrument and the communication satellites, the means of
electronic communication has become very popular in India even
though the cost of installation and maintenance of telephones is still
very high and beyond the means of a common man.

Limitations of Telephonic Communication:

(a) Both the sender and the receiver of the message should be
available at the same time.
(b) Telephone communication is not a secured means of
communication, because anyone can overhear the message.
(c)It is not suitable to send picture or any other type of message
except a spoken message (online).
(a) It is affected by the electrical interference or by the people
digging roads etc.
(e) It is still quite costly to make a telephone call outside the
city or the country.

Computerized Communication - Since the time computers have

started playing an important role in the field of communications. The
main reason for this is that computers can send data extremely fast.
They can even transmit pictures and sound in a much secured
manner. Further, PCs can send information on the existing telephone
line.

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Advantageof Computerized Communication -

(a) Telephonic calls, using Internet, can be made to any part of

the world with the same expenses as a local telephone call made
within the city.
(b) Pictures, sound and written matter can be sent within
minutes and a confirmation about it reaching at the destination
can be obtained immediately.
(c)Message can be sent in coded form so that they are not
understood by anybody else except the person who is sending
and the person who is receiving them.
(d) Message can be sent in any language from any place of
world to any place.
(e) Users need not take highly specialized training for sending
or receiving message.
2.
Communication Systems: A Communication system is the
combination of hardware, software and data transfer links that
make up a communication facility for transferring data in a cost
effective and efficient manner. A communication system itself can
be either analog or digital. The technique by which a digital signal
is converted to its analog form is known as Modulation. The
reverse process i.e. conversion of analog signal to digital signal is
known as Demodulation. These processes of conversions carried
out by a special device called Modem.

Advantage of Digital Transmission over Analog Transmission:

(a) The voice data, music and images can be interspersed to
make more efficient use of the same circuits and equipment.
(b) Much higher transmission rates are possible using
telephone lines.
(c)Digital transmission is much cheaper than analog transmission.
(d) Maintenance ofa digital system is easier than maintenance
of analog system.
(e) A digital signal can pass through an arbitrary number of
regenerators in with no loss in signal and thus travel long

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distances with no information loss. In contrast, analog signal

always suffer some information loss when amplified, and this
loss is cumulative.
3.
Signal And Data

Data in a communication system can be either digital data or

analog data.
Digital Data - On the hockey playground, the referee blows a whistle
and all the players in the field understand the message
instantaneously. The whistle blown in short bursts of high pitched
sound like PEE, PE or it may have a long burst PEEEEEEE. The
first one is indication to the players to start the game and the second
long whistle is to stop the match immediately. The message conveyed
by the sound energy in short pulses is very clear to all the players.
This is an example of Digital Data Transmission.
-
Analog Data When we sit in a concert hall where many musical
instrument being played by different players. For example say one
player to playing sitar and other is playing Tabla. This is an analog
data communication. Both Sitar and Tabla are sending sound waves
in the same sequence and there is a rhythm and harmony between
the two. Any music system conveys the songs in the analog form.
Different Characteristics of Analog and Digital Data Communication:

Item Analog Transmission Digital Transmission

Form It is in the form of |It is in the form of|
continuous variable of discrete quantities
physical quantities and has binary digits
Cost of Low High
transmission
Efficiency Low High
Maintenance High Low
cost of
equipment

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|Effect of High |Low

noise
Attenuation High Low
Example TV transmission from Data transmission
DoorDarshan from hard disk to
memory
4. Channel Characteristics
A communication channel provides the medium to move
electromagnetic energy from a source to one or more destination
points. It is a pathway over which data are transferred between
remote devices.
Characteristics:
(a) It should be able to deliver maximum amount of
electromagnetic energy from the transmitter to the receiver with
minimum cost.
(b) It should not add much noise on the way so that the
receiver is able to understand the message correctly.
(c)There should not be any restriction on the distances between the
transmitter where the sender is located and the receiver where
the signal is received.
-
Types of Communication Channels:
There are two types of communication channel used in data
communication. These are:
(a) A public telephone system
(b) A
commercial radio station
Both these channels are used for transfer of voice in analog form. The
other type of channel is used for the transmission of the data between
a PC and a printer. This carries digital data and transmits square
waves. The digital signal between a PC and printer also gets
attenuated if the distance of the printer is long.
Channel Capacity:
Digital
The capacity of a digital channel is the number of data bits a
channel conveys in one second. The measurement is in bits per
second (bps). It is also known as bit rate of channel. The bit rate of
networking ranges from kilobits per second or Kbps to millions of bits
per second. The duration of a binary digit determines the bit rate.

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The shorter duration of bit is the cause of the greater the bps rating
of the signal.
Relationship between bit time and bit rate per second:
Bit time Bit rate per Bit time Bit rate per
(milli sec) second(bps) (milli sec) second(bps)
3.3 300 .833 1200
.416 2400 .104 9600
.052 19200
Baud and Bit Rate: Baud is a measure of the digital signaling rate
in a channel. Bit rate is a measure of the digital bit values the
channel conveys with each baud.
The only way to increase the digital bit rate is to decrease the
bit time of the signal. But electrical characteristics of the material
used for conveying the bits limit the reduction in the size of the bit
time and thus fixing the maximum bit- rate per second.
Maximum Data Rate of a Channel: The maximum data rate of a
noisy channel whose bandwidth isin Hertz (Hz), and whose signal-to
noise ratio, shown as S/N in decibels, is given by:
Maximum number of bits/sec = H1092 (1 + S/N)
6.
Transmission Modes
There are three modes of data transmission. These are:
(a) Simplex- Simplex communication imply a simple method
of communication. In simplex communications mode, there is a
one way communication transmission. Television transmission
is a very good example of this type of communication. The
example of the simplex communication is keyboard attached to
the computer system because the keyboard can only send data to
the computer and does not expect any acknowledgement.
Trensmitter Recever

6) Half-duplex In halfduplex mode, both units communicate

over the same medium, but only one unit can send at a time.
While one is in send mode, the other unit is in receiving mode. It
is like two polite people talking to each other-one talks, the
other listens, but neither one talks at the samne time. The simple
example of the half duplex transmission is two person

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communicate on the telephone one is on speaking mode then

another is on listing mode but one can speak at a timne.
Trensatter Trensleter
Recever Receiver

(Full-duplex In a halfduplex system, the line must be "turned

around" each time the direction is reversed. This involves a
special switching circuit and requires a small amount of time
(approximately 150 milliseconds). With high speed capabilities
of the computer, this turnaround time is unacceptable in many
instances. Also, some applications require simultaneous
transmission in both directions. In such cases, a full-duplex
system is used that allows information to flow simultaneously in
both directions on the transmission path. Use of a full·duplex
line improves efficiency as the line turn around time required in
a halfduplex arrangement is eliminated. It requires four wires.

Transmtter Trensmitter

Rocelver Receiver

6.
Asynchronous and Synchronous Transmission
Asynchronous Mode: Asynchronous mode refers to a series of events
that take place which are not synchronized one after the other.
Asynchronous Transmission: Asynchronous transmission is often
referred to as start stop transmission because of its nature, That is
the sender can send a character at any time convenient and the
receiver will accept it. Asynchronous communication lines remain in
an idle state until the hardware on the line is ready to transmit.
Since the line is idle, a series of bits have to be sent to the receiving
node to notify it that there is more data coming. When data is
finished, the node has to be notified that the transmission is complete
and to go back to an idle state, hence the STOP bits are to be sent.

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This pattern continues for the duration of the time the link is
operative. This is the characteristic of many terminals when on a
terminal: the time spent between successive keystrokes would vary.
Thus, in asynchronous transmission, data is transmitted character
by character at irregular intervals.
Synchronous Transmission: - Synchronous devices need not use Start
and Stop bitsi so coordination between the two nodes, i.e. the sender
and the receiver, is handled differently. In synchronous
-
communications, there are two "channels" one for data and another
for link Synchronization. The channel for synchronization uses the
integral clock in the hardware for link synchronization between the
two nodes when one of the nodes is ready to transmit data, a unique
combination of bits called a Sync Character is sent to the receiver.
Since the first character will probably get trashed, a second one
usually follows to ensure that synchronization is complete.
Comparison between Asynchronousand Synchronous Transmission:
> Synchronous communications tend to be more expensive than
asynchronous ones as the hardware involved is more costly due to
integral clocking mechanism that have to be used as well as more
sophisticated engineering efforts.
> Synchronous transmission 1S well suited to remote
a
communication between computer and such devices as buffered
card readers and printers. It is also used for computer to
computer communications.
> The primary advantage of synchronous transmission is its
efficiency. Not only does it eliminate the need for individual start
stop bits on each character, but much higher data rates can be
used than with asynchronous transmission.
> Asynchronous transmission is well suited to many keyboard type
terminals. The advantage of this method is that it does not
require any local storage at the terminal or the computer as
transmission takes place character by character. Hence it is
cheaper to implement.
Efficiency of Data Transmission in Synchronous and Asynchronous
Modes: - Asynchronous data incorporates the use of extra framing
bits to establish the start and ending (stop) of a data character word.
A receiver responds to the data stream when it detects a start bit. A

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data character is decoded and defined after the stop bit is received
and confirmed. Asynchronous data are easier to detect and
synchronize, but the efficiency of data transmission is reduced by the
addition of framing bits as overhead (no message data) bits.
A comparison of a single character using the two data types is as
follows. For this purpose, the ASCII code of the letter E (1000101) is
used. The order of transmission is to send the Least Significant Bit
(LSB) first. The number of framing bits used for asynchronous data
varies depending on the stations in the communication link. For
example, suppose we use 1 start and 2 stop bits. This adds 3 more
bits to the character 'word. Hence total 10 bits are required to send
the letter E using asynchronous data. However, in' the case of
synchronous transmission, only 7 bits are required for transmission
of the character E.
The efficiency of transmission is defined as the ratio of the number of
message bits to the total number of transmitted bits:
Or % efficiency = databits
totalbits
x 100
Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC): - In synchronous communications,
CRCis used to verify the integrity of the entire packet or block of
data. Integrity of the packet means whether the complete packet of
data is received in its correct form as it was sent at the sending end.
In synchronous communications, parity checking is sufficient to
ensure data integrity. In high speed asynchronous communications,
single bit corrections are not enough. As each packet is created, a
CRC check is placed somewhere in the packet and is verified at the
receiving end.
CRC is a calculation method used to check the accuracy of a
digital transmission over a communication link. The sending
computer uses one of several formulas to calculate a value from the
information contained in the data, and this value is appended to the
message block before it is sent. The receiving computer performs the
same calculation on the same data and should derive the same num
ber. If the two CRCs do not match, indicating that a transmission
error has occurred, the receiving computer asks the sending
computer to retransmit the data.
This procedure is known as a redundancy check because each
transmission includes extra or redundant error checking values as

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well as the data itself. A CRC is generated by dividing the total

number of bits in the block of data being sent by a predetermined
binary number. The remainder is then added to the packet and the
packet is transmitted. On the receiving end, the reverse
mathematical operation is performed toverify the packet contents. If
the computation is successful, the packet is passed to the next step. If
it fails, the issuing node is notified and the entire packet is
retransmitted.
Common CRC patterns are 12-bit (CRC12), 16-bit (CRC-16 and
CRC-CCITT), and 32-bit (CRC
Transmission Media

Introduction - Transmission media is the general term used to

describe the data path that forms the physical channel between
sender and the receiver. Media can be of twisted - pair wire, co- axial
cable, fiber optics and wireless transmission.
1. Guided Media - The Guided Media refer to the media in which the
signals are guided through a solid medium, such as copper wire,
optical fiber etc. Examples of guided media are the following:
(a) Twisted-pair Wire - A twisted-pair cable consists of two
insulated copper wires, typically about 1 mm thick, here the
wire are twisted together in a helical manner.
Characteristics:
> Twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires.
> The thickness of coils is about 1 mm.
> The wires are twisted together.
> Twisted pair is commonly used in local telephone
communication.
> For digital transmission over short distances up to 1 km.
Advantage:
> Trained men power is available to repair and service the
media.
> In a telephone system signals can travel several kilometers
without amplification, when twisted pair wires are used.
> It is used for both i.e. analog transmission as well as digital
transmission.

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> It is least expensive.

> If a portion of a twisted pair cable is damaged the network
is not effected very badly.
Disadvantage:
This cable has poor protection layer that's why easily pick
up noise.
It is likely to break easily.
(b) Co-axial Cable - A Co-axial cable consists of a stiff copper
wire as the core, surrounded by an insulating material.
Characteristics:
> Co-axial cable consists of a copper wire as the core
surrounded by an insulating material.
> It is available in two forms i.e. 50-ohm and 75-ohm.
> 50ohm cable is used for digital transmission.
> 75-ohm cable is used for analog
transmission.
Advantage: Central
PvC Insulation Copper wire
> Co-axial cable is used to span Copper mesh

the network to long distance at Outer PVC Shicld A coaxial cable

higher data rate (bit/s).
> It is used for both digital and analog transmission.
> It has higher Band-width.
> It is inexpensive as compare to fiber optics.
Disadvantage:
> In respect to twisted pair, it is expensive.
> Failure of portion, may affect
Jacket
the whole network. (Sheath)

> Network cannot be extended Fiber

Core
Clasting
above 1 km.
> Bandwidth is not constant,
varies according to length
(Distance covers).
-
(©Fiber Optics Fiber optics is the
Fiber-optic cables with tight and loose sheaths

newest form of guided media. This media is superior in data

handling and security characteristics. The Fiber Optic transmits
light signals rather than electrical signal. Each Fiber has
inner core of glass or plastic and additional resources required

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at both side i.e. source and destination to convert electrical

signal intolight signal and vice versa.
In Optical fiber the outer jacket is made up of either
polyvinyl chloride PVC) or teblon. Inside the jacket, Kevlar
which is a strong material used in the fabrication of bullet proof
vests. Below the Kevlar another plastic coating to protect the
fiber is at the centre of the cable and it consists of cladding and
Core.
Characteristics:
> Cost: Fiber Optic cable is more expensive than any other
cables.
> Installation: Installation of this cable is difficult than any
other cables.
Bandwidth: Through fiber optics light signal is passed
that's why chances of attenuation will be lesser.
> Fiber Optics cable provides higher Bandwidth than any
other cables.
> Maximum connecting points/node capacity: -If fiber optic is
used as communication channel with Ethernet then up to
75 nodes can be easily connected/installed.
> Mode of Transmission: Fiber Optic supports half duplex
mode of transmission. In half duplex mode of transmission,
transmission is possible in both direction, but only one
direction at a time.
Advantage:
This media is superior than any other media use to connect
network resources physically.
> The Bandwidth of this media is higher than any other
media.
> This cable cannot be easily getting noisy.
> This media is lighter than any other media.
Signal cannot be leakage.
>
Greater immunity to tapping.
Disadvantage:
> Fiber Optics required high skilled people to use.
> It doesn't support two ways communication at a time.
> Cost of this cable is much higher than any other cable.

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Unidirectional light propagation.

> Installation and maintenance is typical.
2. Unguided Media - The media in which signal are not guided
through a solid medium is called Unguided Media. For example
Air is the media through which electromagnetic energy ca flow
easily.
There are several methods which are used to send
electromagnetic energy through air:
(a) Radio Waves- Electromagnetic waves ranging in frequency
between 3 KHz and 1 GHz are called radio waves.
Radio waves are omni-directional. When an antenna
transmits radio waves, hey are propagated in all directional.
This means that the sending and receiving antenna do not have
tobe aligned. Omni directional properly has a disadvantage that
radio waves transmitted by one antenna are susceptible
interference by another antenna that may send signal using the
same frequency or band.
Radio waves are those wave that propagate in the sky mode
can travel long distance broadcasting.
Characteristics:
Have frequency between 10 KHz to 1GHz.
Radio waves are easy to generate.
Radio waves are omni directional.
> They can travel long distances.
> They can penetrate buildings easily.
Advantage:
Due to low and medium frequency it can penetrates walls,
means AM radio can receive a signals inside a building.
Disadvantage:
> Due to low & medium frequency these can't isolate a
communication to just inside or outside a building.
Application of radio waves:
Due to omni-directional characteristics of radio wave, it is
se in AM and FM radio, TV, Maritime radio, Codeless
phone and paging.
(6) Microwaves- Electromagnetic waves having frequency
between 1 GHz to 3 GHz are called microwaves.

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Microwaves are unidirectional when an antenna transmits

microwaves, they can be narrowly focused. This means that the
sending and receiving antenna need to be aligned. Microwave
propagation is line of sight propagation.
There are two types of antenna used for microwave
communication:
-
) Parabolic dish antenna It is based on the geometry of
parabolic in which every line is parallel to the line of symmetry
or line of sight and reflects off the curve at angles such that on
the lines intersect at a common point called the focus.
The parabolic dish works as a funnel, catching a wide range
of waves and directing them to a common point. In this way,
more of the signal is recovered than would be possible with a
single-point receiver.
(i) Horn antenna - It looks like a gigantic scoop. Outgoing
transmissions are broadcast up a stem and deflected outward in
a series of narrow parallel beams by the curved head. Received
transmission is collected by the scooped shape of the horn and is
deflected down into the same.
Characteristics:
> Frequencies above 100 MHz.
> Microwaves travel in straight line.
Microwaves are in expansive as compare to fiber optics
>

system.
> Microwaves communication is widely used for telephones,
television redistribution etc.
> Microwave system permit data transmission rate above
about 16 GHz /sec.
> Repeaters are used to extend the coverage area.
Advantage:
>A pair of antennas can be aligned without interfering with
another pair of aligned antennas.
Disadvantage:
> Very high frequency microwaves can't penetrate walls, if
receivers are inside the building.
> Uses of certain portions of band in microwaves require
permission from authorities.

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Application:
> Microwaves are used for unicast communication such as
cellular telephones satellite networks and wireless LANs.
Types of Microwave communication svstem:
There are two types of microwave communication system:
1. Terrestrial:
> Such system used directional parabolic antennas to send
and receives signals.
> The signals are highly focused and the physical part must
be line to sight.
> Relay towards are used to extend the signals.
Frequency range between 21 to23 GHz and 4 to 6 GHZ.
>
Cost: Short distance system can be inexpensive but long
distance systems can be expensive.
> Installation: In Terrestrial microwave system line of sight
maintain line of sight requirement can make installation
difficult. Because antennas must be carefully aligned.
> Bandwidth capacity: Data rates are from 1 to 10 m bit/sec.
2. Satellite:
Satellite microwave system transmits signals between
directional parabolic antennas.
> Such as also maintain line of sight.
> One antenna is on a satellite in geosynchronous orbit (The
orbit where the speed of the satellite matches the
rotation speed), about 36000 kms above the equator.
This allows a ground station to aim its antenna at a fixed
point in the sky.
> In satellite communication microwave communication at 6
GHz are transmitted from a transmitter on earth to a
satellite position in space.
The signal reaches the satellite and it become weak due to
the distance of 36,000 km traveled. The transponder in a
satellite amplifies the weak signal and sends them back to
the earth at a frequency of 4 GHz. These signals are
received at a receiving station on the earth.
Characteristics:
Frequency - Range: 4 GHz-6 GHz and 11 GHz - 14 GHz

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> Cost - Building and launching such system is extremely

expensive.
> Installation - Extremely difficult and technical.
Bandwidth - High and it also depends on the frequency
use.
Advantage:
> Satellite communication is a single broadcast or relay
station visible from any point of a very large area on the
earth.
> Satellites used for national transmission are visible from
all ports of the country.
> Transmission and receiving costs are independent from the
distance between these stations.
> It makes high quality communication.
> Maintenance cost is less.
Disadvantage:
Initial setup cost is very high.
>

Kepler's Law: It defines the period as a function of the distance

of the satellite from the centre of the earth i.e.
According to Kepler's Law,
Period = C(distance)3/2
Where 'C is a constant approximately equal to
1/100.
Period' has a unit second.
(c)Infrared and Millimetre Wave - In electromagnetic waves
ranging in frequency between 3 GHz to 400 THz called
infrared.
The infrared data association (IRDA) an association of
sponsoring the use of infrared waves has established standards
for communication between devices such as keyboards, mousse,
PCs and printers. The recent standard defines a data rate of 4
MB/sec.
Infrared waves are those waves that propagate in the line
of sight mode.
Characteristics:
> Used for short range communication.

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> The remote controls used on television and VCRS, DVDS

use infrared communication.
> They are relatively directional, cheap, and easy tobuild but
do not pass through solid object.
> No government license is needed to operate on infrared
system like radio system.
> Infrared communication is used fro indoor wireless LAN.
> Portable computers with infrared capability can be on the
local LAN without having too physically connected to it.
Advantage:
> Due to high frequency and short range communication, it
prevents interference betwveen one system and another.
Disadvantage:
> High frequency infrared can't penetrate walls, if receivers
are inside the building.
> It can't be used outside the building because the sun's
contains infrared waves that can be interfering with
communication.
Application:
> It can be used for short range communication in a closed
area using line of sight propagation.
(a) Light Wave: A modern application is to connect the LANS
in two buildings via lasers mounted on their roof tops. Coherent
optical signaling using lasers is inherently unidirectional: so
each building needs its own laser and its own photo detector.
Advantage:
> The bandwidth is very high at very low cost.
> It is relatively easy to install.
> It does not require any license.
Disadvantage:
> Laser beams cannot penetrate rain or thick fog, but they
normally work well on sunny days.
> Heat from the sun during the daytime causes convection
currents to rise up from the roof of the building.
Fiber Optics Communication: - The huge capacity and digital
efficiency of optical fibers have made them most appropriate for
computer communication. Optical fibers are used to connect work

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stations with central processor in a LAN. Main purposes of using

optical fibers are to provide safe mechanism with high data rate.
Components: A
fiber optics system has three components:
> Light source
> Transmission medium (channel)
Detector
> Light source - The two commonly use optical sources are Light
Emitting Diodes (LEDs) and Injection Laser Diodes. The LEDs
emit a lower level of light (15 dbm power level) but concentrate
it into a tighter cone pattern. The laser diodes emit light at -6
dbm. The pattern of light is shown below:
Transmission medium (channel) – The transmission medium is
an ultra-thin fiber of glass.
> Detector – The detector generates an electrical pulse when light
falls on it. By attaching a light source to one end of an optical
fiber and a detector to the other, we have a unidirectional data
transmission system that accepts an electrical signal, converts
and transmits it as light pulses, and then reconverts the output
to electrical signals art the receiving end.
Categorization into bands of electromagnetic spectrum of Radio wave
&
Microwave:
() Very Low Frequency (VLF) – VLF have range between 3 to 30
Hz and we ground propagation method. Application of VLF is
called long range radio navigation.
(i) Low Frequency (LF) – LF has range between 30 Hz to 300
KHz and use ground propagation method. LF is used in radio
beacons and navigational locators.
(ii) Middle Frequency (MF) - MF has range between 300 KHz
to 3 MHz and use sky propagation method. MF is used in AM
(Amplitude Modulator).
(iv) High Frequency (HF)– HF has range between 3 MHz to 30
MHz and use ground sky propagation method. HF is used in
citizens band (CB), ship/aircraft communication.
(v) Very High Frequency (VHF) – It has range between 30
MHz to 300 MHz and used both sky and line of sight
propagation. VHF is used in VHF TV and FM radio.

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(vi) Ultra High Frequency (UHF) – UHF has range between

300 MHz to 3 GHz and use line of sight propagation method.
UHF is used in UHF TV, cellular phones, paging, satellite.
(vii) Super High Frequency (SHF) – SHF has has range between 3
GHzto 30GHz and use line of sight propagation method. SHF is
used in satellite communication.
(vii) Extremely High Frequency (EHF) - EHF has range
between 30 GHz to 300 GHz and use line of sight propagation
method. It is used in satellite and radar.
Chapter-3
DATA MODEMS
Modulation: Modification of one or more characteristic of a carrier
wave by an information bearing signal is called 'Modulation'.
Categorization of Modulation:
1. Amplitude Modulation – In Amplitude Modulation transmission,
the carrier signal is modulated so that its amplitude varies with
the changing amplitude of
modulating signal. The frequency teedtato stgmat
and phase of the carrier remains the
same. Only the amplitude changes
to follow the variation in
information.
Modulation creates a band
width i.e. the twice the bandwidth
of modulating signal and covers a range centered in a carrier
frequency. However the signal components above and below the
carrier frequency carry the exactly the same information. For this
reason some implementation discarded one half of the signal and
cut the bandwidth in half.
The total bandwidth required for amplitude modulation can
be determined from the bandwidth of audio signal.
BAM = 2B
Where B– Bandwidth of Audiosignal
BAM – Bandwidth of AM
The federal communication commission (FCC) allows 10 KHz
for each amplitude modulation station (AM). AM stations allowed
carrier frequency between 530 KHz to 1700 KHz.

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Advantage: 10 KHz
> Easy to implement
> Used for both digital and analog
> In the case of digital signal, two 530 KHz 1700 KH:

different voltage levels are used i.e. 0 or 1.

Disadvantage:
> It is affected by the noise signal. That may add up with the
information signal.
> As the strength of the signal decreases in a channel with
distance traveled it reaches a minimum level. Before signal
strength goes down, it must be amplified.
2. Frequency Modulation - In Frequency Modulation transmission,
the frequency of of carrier -
signal is modulated to follow Modulation Signal

the changing voltage level of

modulating signal. The peak
amplitude and phase Carrier Signal
carrier signal remains
constant but as the -FM Signal
amplitude of information
system changes, the
frequency of carrier changes
corresponding.
The actual bandwidth is difficult to determine exactly but it
can be solved shown that it is several lines that of analog signal.
BEM = 2(1+ 8)B
Here B is a factor depends upon modulation technique.
The bandwidth of an audio signal broadcast in stereo is
almost 15 KHz. The Fc allows 200 KHz for each station, FM
stations are allowed carrier frequency anywhere between 88 MHz
to 108 MHz.
Advantage:
> Frequency modulated is least affected by the noise.
Disadvantage:
> Needs much higher
bandwidth than amplitude
modulation.
Phase siycl.

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 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

Use:
> FM technique is used to convert digital signal into FM
signals.
3. Phase Modulation – In phase modulation transmission the phase
of carrier signal is modulated to follow the changing voltage level
of modulating signal. The peak of amplitude and frequency of
carrier signal remains constant but the amplitude of information
signal changes the phase of carrier signal. In frequency modulation
the instantaneous change in carrier frequency is proportional to
the amplitude of modulating signal while in phase modulation; the
instantaneous change in carrier frequency is proportional to the
derivative of amplitude of modulating signal.
The actual bandwidth is difficult to determine exactly but it
can be shown empirically that it is several times that of analog or
modulating signal. Although the formula of same bandwidth for
frequency modulation and phase modulation. The value of '®' is
lower in the case of phase modulation around 1 narrow band and 3
for wide band.
Advantage:
> It provides the signal modulation that allows computers to
communicate at higher data rates through telephone system.
Disadvantage:
>
Phase modulation requires two signals with a phase
difference between them.
Use:
> This technique is used to convert colour information in colour
television broadcast.
> This technique is used to convert digital signals into phase
modulated (PM) signal.
Analog to Digital Conversion:
1. Pulse Code Modulation (PCM): - The
common technique in which analog signal
changes to digital data (Digitization) is
called PCM. A PCM encoder has three
procedures: Cuanliged sigpal
(a) Analog signal is sampled
(b) Sampled signalis quantized

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 DATACOMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

(c)Quantized values are encountered as streams of bits.

(a) Sampling – The analog signal sampled every Ts second
where T, second is the sample interval or period. The inverse of
the sampling interval is called the sampling rate or sampling
frequency and denoted by fa, where f, = 1/T.

Aalg sgnal
ata PAH Sgna

According to the Nyquist theorem, the sampling rate must

be at least 2 times the higher frequency contained in the signal.
For elaborating Nyquist theorem we remember some
points:
Sample a signal only & signal is band-limited.
Sampling rate must be at least 2 times the highest
frequency, not the bandwidth.
If the analog signal is lowpass, the bandwidth & the
highest frequency are the same value.
Amplitude
Nyquist rate 2xfmax
Low pass signal
+Frequeney
fmin fmax
If the analog signal is band pass, the bandwidth value is
lower than the value of the maximum frequency.
Amplitude
Nyquist rate 2xfmax
Band Pass Signal
+Frequency
fmin fmax
(b) Quantization The result of sampling is a series of pulse
with amplitude values between
NGemmlied Amhlitude.
the maximum to minimum
amplitudes of the signal. The
set of amplitude can be infinite
with nonintegral values b/w
the two limits. These values TIme

44

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 DATACOMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

can't be used in the encoding process.

Steps in Quantization:
> We assume that the original analog signal has instantaneous
amplitude between Vmin & Vmax.
> We divide the range into 1 zones, each of height A (delta)
Vmkm
i.e. 2
> We assign quantized values of 0 to 1·10 to the mid-point of
each zone.
> We approximate the value of the sample amplitude to the
quantized values.
For quantization & encoding, we take a sampled signal and
the sample amplitude are between 20 v and + 20 v.
We decided to have eight levels. This means that A =SV

() Encoding – After each sample is quantized & no. of bits per

sample is decided, each sample can be changed to an nbit
codeword i.e. no. of bits nn = log2L, where L = Quantization level
& Bit rate = Sampling rate x no. of bits per sample = fs X nn
In PCM decoder, we first use circuitry to convert the code
words into a Amlitude
pulse that holds -
Time
the amplitude.
After the
staircase signal
is completed, it Dgital datä Tim
passes through a low pass 4mplid
filter to smooth the staircase
signal into an analog signal.
The filter has the same cut off
frequency as the original signal
at the sender. If the signal has eneatd
been sampled at or greater a bet

than the Nyquist sampling rate & if there are enough

quantization level, the original signal will be recreated. The
maximum and minimum values of the original signal can be
achieved by using amplification.

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 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

3. Delta Modulation (DM) -DM finds the change from previous

sample. There are no code words; bits are sent one after another.
Modulator – The Modulator is used at the sender site tocreate a
stream of bits from an
analog signal. The
process records the onataat. L100
small positive or Delay
tunl-ftataue maket Diqitnl datn

negative changes,
called Delta. If the
delta is positive, the process recordsa 1. if it is negative the
process records a 0. However the process needs a base against
which the analog signal is compared. The modulator builds a
second signal that resembles a staircase. Finding the change I then
reduced to comparing the input signal with the gradually made
staircase signal.
Demodulator – The
Digdal data
Demodulator takes the
digital data & using the unil
Aalg cgnal
staircase maker & the
delay unit, creates the
analog signal. The created analog signal needs to pass through a
low pass filter for smoothing. -
Digital to analog Conversion: Digital to analog conversion is the
process of changing one of the characteristics of an analog signal
based on the information in digital data. This is also called Shift
Keying.
Relationship between Data rate signal rate – Data or bit rate is the
&

no. of bits per second. Signal or baud rate is the no. of signal
elements per second.
In the analog transmission of digital data, the baud rate is less
than or equal to the bit rate.
S= signal rate, N= data rate, r no. of
=
S=Nx l/r baud, where
data elements carried in one signal = logl where 1 is the type of
signal element.
Shift Keying: -
> Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) – In amplitude shift keying the
amplitude of the carrier signal is varied to create signal

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 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

elements. Both frequency & phase remain constant while the

amplitude changes.
-
Levels of ASK:
(a) Level o - This is also called Binary ASK or onoff keying &
peak amplitude of one Amhlitudi
signal level is 0 & the
other is the same as the
amplitude of the carrier
frequency.
Bandwidth for ASK, B = (1 + ) XS
Where d= value between0 &1
S= Signal rate
The formula shows that the required bandwidth has
minimum value of s & a maximum –-
value of 25.
(e) Multilevel ASK (MASK) Multilevel ASK is that in which
more than two levels. We can use 4, 8, 16 or more different
amplitude for the signal & modulate the data using 2, 3, 4 or
more bits at a time.
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) – In FSK, the frequency of the
carrier signal is varied to represent data. The frequency of the
modulated signal is constant for the duration of one signal
element, but changes for the next signal element if the data
element changes. Both peak element if the data element
changes. Both peak amplitude & phase remain constant for all
signal elements.
(a) Binary FSK (BFSK) - Binary FSK is considering two
frequencies f1 & 2. TAþtittdr
We use the first
carrier if the data
AAAAMA
element is 0; we use
the second if the data element is 1.
The middle of one bandwidth is fi & the other is f2.
Both f1 & f2 are Af apart from the midpoint between thetwo
bands,so the difference between the two frequencies is 2Af.
Bandwidth for FSK, B = (1+ d) X 3 + 2Af
(b) Multilevel FSK (MFSK) – Multilevel FSK is that in which
more than two frequencies used. To send 2 bits at a time, we

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 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

can use four frequencies and so on. Bandwidth for FSK for
multilevel,
B=(1+ d) xS+ (L- 1) 2 Af
> Phase Shift Keying (PSK) – In PSK, the phase of the carrier
varied to represent two or more different signal elements. Both
peak amplitude & frequency remain constant as the phase
changes. Today, PSK is more common than ASK & FSK.
(a) Binary PSK (BPSK) The T.
simplest PSK is binary PSK, in
which we have only two signal
elements, one with a phase of 0° and the other with a phase of
180°.
Bandwidth of PSK, B= (1+ d) S
(b) Quadrature PSK (QPSK) – The simplicity of BPSK enticed
designers to use 2 bits at a time in each signal element,
thereby decreasing the baud rate & eventually the required
bandwidth. The scheme is called quadrature PSK because it
uses two separate means out of phase. The incoming bits are
first passed through a serial to parallel conversion that sends
bit to one modulator and the next bit to the other modulator.
If the duration of each bit in the incoming signal is T, the
duration of each bit sent to the corresponding BPSK signal is
2T. This means that the bit to each BPSK signal has one half
the frequency of the signal.
> DPSK–
Encoding Technique and CODEC: -
MODEMS: It is a device converts digital signal generated by
computer into an analog signal to be carried by public access
telephone line. It is also the device converts the analog signals
received over a telephone line into digital signal usable by the
computer. A modem derives its meaning from modulation and
demodulation i.e. a signal modulator and signal demodulator. A
modulator converts digital signals into analog and demodulator
converts analog signal into digital signal. Modems are classified into
many categories. Modem speed range from 300bps to 56kbps. The
tasks which modem can perform are:

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 DATACOMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

> Automatically dial another modemn using touch tone or pulse

dialing.
> Auto answer.
Disconnect a telephone connection when data transfer has
completed.
> Automatically speed negotiation between two modems.
> Converts bits into the form suitable for the LAN.
> Transfer data reliable.
> Converts received signal back into bits.
Modem Commands - When a computer wants to make a connection
using telephone no. as parameter using tone dialing. The modem
then replies with an ok response i.e. it tries to make connection with
remote modem if it is not able to make connection it sends message
in the form of code.
3- for no carrier
7- for busy
G- for no dial tone, etc.
If it gets connected then it returns a connect code as it sends
+t+ and then wait for a command from host computer. In this case
command is hang up the connection (ATH). The modem will then
return an OK message when it has successfully created a connection.
-
Classification of Modems Modem can be of the following types:
1. Landline Modems - Landline modems are those modems which
connect to the public switched telephone network (PSTN). To
connect to PSTN, this modem has a jack known as RJ-11 jack or
regular phone jack.
Landline modem can be of following types:
(a) -
Internal Modems Internal modems are installed within
the computer as interface cards.
(b) External Modems – External Modems are installed as a
separate hardware device, outside the computer. They are more
expensive than the internal modems.
(c) PCMCIA Modems PCMCIA Modems are credit-card sized
modems used in laptop computers. PCMCIA stands for Personal
Computer Memory Card International Association.

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 DATACOMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

() Voice/data/fax Modems – Voice/data/fax Modems which are

use for transferring files, sending and receiving faxes and voice
mail using associated software.
2. Wireless Modems - Wireless modem are based on webs. Using
wireless modem, one can connect to a network while being mobile.
Like Landline Modems wireless modems do not plug into jack.
There are very few manufacturers of wireless modem.
3. LAN Modems - LAN Modems allows share remote access to LAN
resources. LAN modems are of various types. Depending upon the
number of parts, network architecture, memory requirements,
security, etc.
Modem Standard–There are two modem standards:
1. Bell Modems - The first commercially available modems were
developed by Bell Telephone Company. In the early 70's they
defined the development of the technology and provided the
standards. Some major Bell modems include the 103/113 series,
202 series, 212 series, 201series, 208 series and 209 series.
2. ITU-T Modems Many of today's modems are based on the
standard published by ITU T. V.21, V.22, V.23, V.22bis, V.32,
V.32bis, V.33 and V.34 modems are ITU-T modems.
Modem Protocols
1. X.25 Protocol- X.25 is an end to end protocol. It acts as an
interface between data terminal equipment (DTE) and data
cuit-terminating equipment (DCE).
X.25 is a packet-switching protocol that defines the interface
between a synchronous packetswitching host computer and analog
dedicated circuits or dial-up switched virtual circuits in the voice
grade public data network.
X.25 allows a variety of devices that are designated as data
terminal equipment (DTE) to talk to the public data network
(PDN).
2. Triple-X Protocol - X.3, X.28 and X.29 protocols are collectively
known as Triple-X protocols. Triple-X protocols are used to connect
a dumb terminal to an X.25 network. A dumb terminal is any
terminal that does not understand X.25 protocol. X.3 defines a
packet assembler/disassembler (PAD). X.28 defines the rules for

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 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

communication between a dumb terminal andaPAD. X.29 defines

relationship between a PAD and a remote terminal.
Protocol Used by Modem for Transferring Files - Some of the
protocols used by modem for transferring files are described in the
following sub sections:
> XMODEM XMODEM is a file transfer protocol used in
telephone-line communication between PCs. XMODEM protocol
requires that one terminal or computer be set up as the sender and
other be set up as the receiver. A block of data sent under
XMODEM protocol will have the follow ing format:
Start of Block l's 128 Data Checksum
Header Number Complement of Characters bits
Block Number
Characteristics:
It is easy to implement with a small computer.
• It requires manual setup for each file to be transferred.
• The error detection technique is unsophisticated and unable to

detect reliably the most common type of transmission error,

which is noise burst that can last of the order of 10 millisecon ds.
• It is a halfduplex protocol.
> YMODEM – It is similar to XMODEM, but with some differences.
These differences are the following:
• A data unit is of 1024 bytes.
• Two CANs are sent to abort a transmission.
ITU-T CRC- 16 is used for error checking.
Multiple files can be sent simultaneously.
ZMODEM - It combines the features of both XMODEM and
YMODEM.
> Kermit – It is an also a file transfer protocol like XMODEM. It
allows the transmission of control characters as text.
Establishing a Connection -Connection can be of the following three
types:
> Direct Connection between PCs – One PC can call another PC.
Modems at both ends of the connection talk to one another.
> Connection to a Mainframe Computer -
A PC connects a
mainframe computer.

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 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

> Connection to an on-line service – On-line service consist of one

or more central computers linked by telephone lines to other
small computers spread across the country or world.
Chapter-4
Multichannel Data communication
Multiplexing:- Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows the
simultaneous transmission of multiple signals across a single data
link.
Format of multiplexed svstem:
Multiplexer is that which combines n inbutling
transmission stream into a single
stream i.e. many to one method. n authut
lins
Demultiplexer is that which J
lis nchannst.
separates the stream back into its
component transmission i.e. one-tomany method & directs them to
their corresponding lines. Link refers to the physical path channel
refers to the portion of a link that carries a transmission between a
given pair of lines. One link can have many channels.
Categories / techniques of Dnfut
multiplexing tin harnaI
chonnetL alhatlinu
rhanDe3
(a) Frequency division
mutiplexing: FDM is an
analog technique that can dulato
be applied when the band Cattít
width of a link is greater
than the combined band
widths of the signals to be
transmitted. In FDM,
signals generated by each sending device modulate. Different
carrier frequencies. These modulated signals are then combined
intoa single composite signal that can be transported by the link.
Carrier firequencies are separated by sufficient bandwidth to
Lccommodate the modulated signal. These bandwidth ranges are
the channels through which the various signals travel, channels
can be separated by strips of unused bandwidth, guard bands to
prevent signals from overlapping.

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 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

Application of FDM:
> FDM is used in AM & FM radio broadcasting with band from
530 to 1700 KHz & 88 to 108 MHz respectively.
FDM is used in television broadcasting
> FDM is used in first generation cellular telephones.
(b) Wavelength division multiplexing: - WDM is an analog
technique that is designed to use the high datarate capability of
fiber opticcable. The optical-fiber data rate is higher than the data
of metallic transmission cable. Using a fiver optic cable fox
one single line wastes the available bandwidth. Multiplexing
allows us to combine several lines into one. In WDM, the
multiplexing & demultiplexing involve optical signals transmitted
through fiber optic channels.
In WDM
technology, we want to M

OEMDXA
combine multiple sources A
light into one single light at
the multiplexer & do the reverse at the demultiplexer. The
combining & splitting of light source are easily handled by a prism.
A prism bends a beam of light based on the angle of incidence &
the frequency. Using this technique, a multiplexer can be made to
combine several input beams of light, each containing a narrow
band of frequencies into one output beam of a wider band of
frequencies. A demultiplexer can also be made to reverse the
process.
Dense WDM can
multiplex a very large
number of channels by Gibel- obtic-cabu

spacing channels very close 9 Maltere

to one another. It achieves
even greater efficiency.
Application of WDM:
> WDM is used in SONET
network in which multiple Data bbw
optical fiber lines are 32T3hj
multiplexed &
demultiplexed.

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 DATACOMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

(c)Time-division multiplexing:- TDM is a digital multiplexing

technique for combining several low rate channels into one high
rate one. -
Two schemes for TDM:
1. Synchronous TDM: In synchronous TDM, the data flow of each
input connection is divided into units, where each input occupies
one input time slot. A unit can be 1 bit, lcharecter of 1 block of
data. Each input unit
becomes one output unit & M
occupies one output time
slot. However the duration Eath fkane atime slti
Ench y
clot utation ja r/, s
of an output time slot is n 4t
times shorter. Than the enh linztsty TS
duration of an input time
slot. If an input time slot is Ts, the output time slot is T/n &
where n is the no. of connections. In other wards, a unit in the
output connection has a shorter duration; it travels faster.
In synchronous TDM, the data rate of the link is n times
slots are grouped into frames. A frame consists of one complete
cycle of time slots, with one slot dedicated to each sending
device. In a system with n input lines each flame has n slot, with
each slot allocated to carrying data from a specific input line.
2. Statistical TDM: In statistical TDM, slot are dynamically
allocated to improve M

bandwidth efficiency. Only

when a input line has a slot's
worth of data to send is it
given a slot in the output frame. In statistical TDM, the no. of
slots in each frame is less than the no of input lines. The
multiplexer checkS each input line in round robin fashion: it
allocates a slot for an input line if the line has data to send
otherwise it skips the line & checks the next line. In statistical
TDM, no solt is left empty as long as there are data to be sent by
any input line.
Difference between synchronous &statistical TDM:

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 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

> An output slot in synchronous TDM is totally occupied by data

where as in statistical TDM, a slot need to carry data as well as
address of the destination.
> In statistical TDM, a block of data is usually many bytes while
the address is just a few bytes where as in synchronous TDM,
there is no such situation.
The frame in statistical TDM need not be synchronized
there is no need of synchronization bits where as in synchronous
TDM must be synchronized.
> In statistical TDM, the
capacity of the link is
normally less than the sum
of the capacity of cache
channel where as in
synchronous TDM, the capacity of the link is equal to the sum of
the capacity of channel.
Access technique: Access technique is basically divided into three
groups.
(a) Random Access: In random access of contention methods, no
station is superior to another station & name is assigned the
control over the another. No station permits of does not permit,
another station to send.
Method of random access technique:
> ALHO
> CSMA (carrier sense multiple access)
> CSMA/CD (Carrier sense multiple Access with collision
detection)
> CSMA/CA ( Carrier sense multiple access with collision
Avoidance)
(b) Controlled Accesg: - In controlled access, the stations consult one
another to find which station has the right to send. A station can't
send unless it has been authorized by other stations.
Method of controlled access technique:
reservation
> polling
> token passing

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 DATACOMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

(c)Channelization: Channelization is a multiple access method in

which the available bandwidth of a link is shared in time,
frequency,or through code, between different stations.
-
Method of channelization:
(a) Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA): - In FDMA,
the available bandwidth is divided into frequency bands. Each
station is allocated a band to send its data in other wards, each
band is reserved for a specific station, & it belongs to the station
all the time. Each station also uses a band pass filter to confine
the transmitter frequencies to prevent station interferences, the
allocated bands are separated from one another by small guare
bands.
FDMA specifies a predetermined frequency band for
the enter period of communication. The means that stream
data can easily be used with FDMA.
FDMA is an access method in the data link layer. In
each station tells its physical layer to make a band pall
signal from the data passed to it. The signals must be
created in the allocated band there is no physical
multiplexer at the physical layer. The signals created at
each station are automatically band pass filtered. They are
mixed when they are sent to the common channel.
(b) Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA): - In TDMA, the
station share the bandwidth of the channel in time. Each station
is allocated to a time slot during which it can send data. Each
station transmits its data, in is assigned time slot.
TDMA lies in achieving synchronization between the
different stations. Cache station needs to know the beginning of
its slot & the location of its slot this may be difficult because of
propagation delays introduced in the system if the station are
spread over a large area. To compensate for the delays, inserting
guard times synchronization is accomplished by having some
synchronization bits at the beginning of each slot.
TDMA is an access method in the data link. The data link
layer in each station tells its physical layer to user the allocated
time slot there is no physical multiplexer at the physical layer.

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 DATACOMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

(c) Code Division Multiple Access (COMA): In CDMA, onechannel

carries all transmission simultaneously but having no
timesharing.
CDMA imply means communication with different codes.
If a station needs to send a 0 bit, it encodes it as 1; if it needs to
send a 1 bit, it encodes it as +1 & when a station is idles, it
senda no signal which is interpreted as a 0.
Properties of orthogonal sequence:
> Each sequence is made of N elements, where N isthe no.
of stations.
> If we multiply a sequence by a no; every element in the
sequence is multiplied by that element. This is called
multiplication of a sequence by a scalar. i.e. [ +1+1-1·1
]=[+2+2-2-2 ]
> If we multiply two equal sequence element by element
add the results, we get N, where N is the no. of elements
in the each sequence. This is called the inner product of
two equal sequences. i.e. I+1+1-11]. +1+1-1-1] =
1+1+1+1=4.
> If we multiply two different sequence, element by
element & add the results. We get 0. This is called inner
product of two different sequences. i.e.: +1+1·1·1J.
(+1+1+1+1]= 1+1-1-1 0 =

> Adding two sequences means adding the corresponding

elements. The result is another sequence. i.e. +1+1-1-1]
+ [+1+1+1+1]= (+2+200].
Spread Spectrum: Spread spectrum combines signals from different
sources to bit into a latger bandwidth. It is designed to be used in
wireless communication (LANs & WANS).
To achieve bandwidth efficiency, spread spectrum techniques
add redundancy; they spread the original spectrum needed for each
station. If the required bandwidth for each station is B, spread
spectrum expands it to Bss, such that Bss>>B. The expanded
bandwidth allows the source to corp. its message, in a protective
envelope for a mare secure transmission.
Two principles for achieving goals of spread spectrum:

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 DATACOMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

The bandwidth allocated to each station needs to be. By for

larger than what is needed. This allows redundancy.
The expanding of the original bandwidth B tothe bandwidth Bss
must be done by a process that is independent of the original
signal. In other worked. The spreading process occurs after the
signal is created by the source.
Two techniques to spread the bandwidth:
(a) Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS): The FHSS
technique uses M different carrier frequencies that are modulated
by the source signal. At one moment, the signal modulates one
carrier, frequency, at the next moment, the signal modulates
another carrier frequency, although the modulation is done using
one carrier frequency at a time, M frequencies are used in the long
sun. The bandwidth occupied by a source after spreading is BrHSS
>> B.
Layout for FHSS:
Pseudorandom AAqinsl.agnal Hogulala
code generator,
FAequeny
called Pseudo |Rsajolbarncyniheelu
random noise (PN), HeFegtteht
creates K-bit
pattern for every
happing period Th. f.equny tnbe
He frequency table
uses the pattern to find the frequency to be used for this hopping
period & passes it to the frequency synthesizes. The frequency
synthesizer creates a carrier signal of that frequency & the source
signal modulates the carrier signal.
(b) Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS): - The DSSS
technique expands the
a Hedula lnt
bandwidth of the original signal inal
tttnttnat
in DSSS. We replace each data. lehis getntt
Bit with n bits is assigned a
code of n bits, called chips, where the chip sale is n times that of
the data bit.
Layout of DSSS:

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Digital Hierarchy: Telephone companies implement TDM

through a hierarchy of digital signal, called digital signal service
of Digital Hierarchy.
United States, ANSI standard & Europe IIUI standard is
called the synchronous optical network (SONET) &
Synchronous. Digital Hierarchy (SDH) respectively. SONET/
SDH are a synchronous n/w using synchronous TDM
multiplexing. All clocks in the system are locked to a master
clock.
Architecture of SONET/STD:
(a) Signals: SONET defines a hierarchy of electrical signaling
levels called synchronous transport signals (STSD) each STS levels
(STS-1 to STS-192) supports a certain data rate, specified in
megabits per sec. the corresponding optical signals are called
optical carriers (OCS). SOH Specifies a similar system called a
synchronous transport module (STM). STM is intended to be
compatible with existing European hierarchies such as E-lines &
with STS levels.
-
SONET/SDH rates:
STS 0C Rate (Mbps) STM
STS 1– OC-1
–
S1 840
STS –3 OC-3 155.520 STM - 1
STS – 9 OC–9 466.560 STM - 3
STS - 12 0C- 12 G22.080 STM -4
STS- 18 0C- 18 933.120 STM-6
STS-24 0C- 24 1244.160 STM –8
STS - 36 0C- 36 1866.230 STM - 12
STS – 48 OC– 48 2488.320 STM - 16
STS– 96 OC- 96 4976.640 STM – 32
STS- 192 OC- 192 9983.280 STM - 64
(b) Devices: - Basic devices for SONET transmission:
() STS Multiplexer/Demultiplexer: They mark the beginning
points & end points of a SONET link. They provide the interface
between an electrical tributary network & the optical network.
An STS Multiplexer multiplexes signals from multiple electrical
sources & creates the corresponding 0C signal. An STS

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 DATACOMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

Demultiplexer demultiplexes an optical signal into

corresponding electrical signals.
(ii) Regenerator: It extends the length of the links. A
regenerator is a repeater that takes a received optical signal,
demodulates it into the corresponding electrical signal,
regenerates the electric signal & finally modulates the electric
signal into its correspondent optical signal. A SONET
regenerator replaces some of the existing information with new
information.
(iii) Add/Drop Multiplexer: It allows insertion and extraction of
signal.
(iv) Terminals: It is a device that uses the services of a SONET
network.
(c)Connections: The devices are connected using section lines &
paths.
() Sectiong: section is the optical link connecting two neighbour
A

devices like Multiplexer to Multiplexer, multiplexer to

regenerator or regenerator to regenerator.
(ii) Lines: A line is the portion of the network between two
Multiplexer like STS Multiplexer to Add/Drop Multiplexer, two
adddrop Multiplexer, or two STS Multiplexer.
(ii) Path: A path is the end to end portion of the network
between STS Multiplexers.
Network using SONET equipment:
synchanos Lianstai tsgtal
mulhHtt
T
ars
STS
.

i:temnat
tectibn L:feyanašnto!

Chapter-5
Network fundamentals
AN OVERVIEW OF NETWORKING
A network is a group of computers connected in some fashion in
order to share resources. A group of computers in a network provide

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 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

greater storage capacity and processing power than that by stand

alone independent machines. In addition to computers, a network
also consists of peripheral devices with carriers and data
communication devices used for the purpose of exchanging data and
information.
By using computer networks, the cost of data transfer can be
made cheaper than other conventional means like telegrams ete. as
computers can send data at a very fast speed. Thus, computers
enable us to reduce both cost and time in transferring data. In a
network, computers of different make can be connected together and
users can work together in a group. Software packages have been
developed for group working in Data Base Management (DBMS) and
graphical artworks. Also, data from different departments located at
distant places can be transferred to and stored on a central computer.
This data can then be accessed by the computers located in different
departments. The data at the central computer is updated and
accessed by all users. This prevents any bottlenecks in the smooth
functioning of the organization because all the users will get the
latest information (for example, inventory) stored in the central
computer.
Communication Switching Techniques: In a WAN two devices are
not connected directly but a network of switching nodes provides a
transfer path between the two devices. The process of transferring
data block from one node to another is called data switching. There
are following types of switching techniques:
> Circuit Switching – In Circuit Switching, there is a dedicated
Telephone Physical connection,
setup when call is made

Telephone

Switching Office
Block Diagran of Circuit Switehing

communication path between the sending and receiving devices.

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 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

A circuit switched network is made of a set of switches

connected by physica? links in which each link is divided into n
channels.
Circuit switching takes place at the physical layer. In this,
data are continuous flow sent by the source station & received by
the destination station, although there may be periods of silence.
There is no addressing involved during data transfer.
Switching at the physical layer in the traditional telephone
network uses the circuit switching approach.
Workstation - It is a basically a PC or printer or other sharable
resources. Workstation is also called a terminal or data access
point of a network.
The dedicated path is a sequence of links between
switching nodes.
Circuit Switching involves three steps:
(a) Circuit Establishment
(b) Signal Transfer
(c) Circuit Transfer
Circuit Switching is mainly used for voice based network. It
is not effective for data communication.
Message Switching – In message switching, it is not necessary to
establish a dedicated path between a sending and receiving
devices. In message switching, the sending device spends
destination address to the message and passes to the network. The
message is then passes through the network from one node to
another until reaches to its destination. Each switching nodes
receives the message stored it and then transmit it to the next
node. Examples of message are email etc.
> Packet Switching – Packet Switching combines the advantage of
message and circuit switching but it is functionally similar to
message switching. There are two approaches to packet switching.
In data Office
Switchig
communication,
the message 1s Computer Packet queued for
jO D subsequence transmission
going to pass
through a packet
switched
Computer
Block Diagram of Packet Switehing

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 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

network & it needs to be divided into packets of fixed variable

size.
In packet switching, there is no resource allocation for a
packet. This means that there is no reserved bandwidth on the
links & there is no schedule processing time for each packet.
Resources are allocated on demand. The allocation is done one a
first come, first served basis.
In packet switched network, each packet is treated
independently of all others. Even if a packet is part of multipacket
transmission, the network treats it as though it existed alone.
Packet switching is normally done at the network layer.
[Node - Node is a service provides of a network to particular
region. The workstations are connected with the node.J
DATAGRAM
A datagram is a packet that is sent over a network using a
connectionless service, i.e. a network where the delivery of data does
not depend on the maintenance of connections between the
communicating computers. In the next Chapter, you will learn that a
protocol called User Datagram Protocol (UDP) handles such
connectionless services. These services do not guarantee that the
datagrams will be delivered without error, without duplication or loss
and in the same serial order in which they were sent. They only
guarantee a "best effort" delivery of datagram.
VIRTUAL CIRCUT
In a circuit switching network, making a connection actually
means a physical path is established from the source to the
destination through the network. In a virtual circuit network, when a
circuit is established, what really happens is that the route is chosen
from source todestination, and all the switches (that is routers) along
the way make table they can route any packets on that virtual
circuit. They also have the opportunity to reserve resource for the
new circuit.
When a packet comes along, the switch inspects the packet's
header to find out which virtual circuit it belongs to. Then it looks up
that virtual circuit in its table to determine which communication
line to send. They are also known as switched virtual circuit.

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 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

CONNECTIONLESS AND CONNECTION ORIENTED

COMMUNICATION
In a connection oriented service, a logical connection is
established between the two communicating computers. The TCP
protocol (discussed in a later Chapter) is used in such a
communication. It guarantees error free delivery of messages without
loss or duplication. The packets are received in the same serial order
in which they were sent. The connection is established by a three
way handshake: In this method, before the sending device can send
data to the receiving device, the former must determine the
availability of the latter and a network pathway must be discovered
on which the data can be sent. This is known as connection
establishment. It normally involves the following steps:
> The sender sends a connection request packet to the receiver.
The receiver, if available, returns a confirmation packet
(acknowledgement) to the sender.
> The sender then returns an acknowledgement of this
confirmation packet.
Once the connection is established, the packets are sent in order,
and their acknowledgements from the receiving device are also
received in that same order. After the communicating computers
finish off with the sending and receiving, the connection is
terminated. Connection termination also involves full confirmation
between both the communicating devices, as in connection
establishment.
In a connectionless communication, there is no maintenance of
connection between the two devices. Each data packet (preferably
called as 'datagram) takes its own path and reaches the destination.
There is also no guarantee that datagrams will be received error-free
and in the same order in which they are being sent. Also no
connection establishment and termination are required.
CELL SWITCHING (ATM)
Many of the problems associated with packet switching are
solved by adopting a concept A4 AJ A2 AI
B4 A4 B3 A3 B2 A2 BI AI
called Cell Switching. A cell is B4 BJ B2 BI
a small data unit of fixed size
oD0 MUX

Cells

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 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

unlike packets which have variable sizes.

1. Cell Network A network that uses a cell as the basic unit of data
exchange is called a cell network. When packets of different sizes
and formats reach a cell network, they are split into small data
units of equal length and loaded into cells. The cells are then
multiplexed (given in Figure) with other cells and routed through
the cell network.
2. Cell Switching ATM uses switches to route cells from source to
destination. It normally uses the following types of switches:
> VP switch A virtual path (VP) switch routes the cell using only
the Virtual Path Identifier (VPI) for identification.
> VPCswitch VPCswitch routes the cell using both VPIand
A

VCI.
3. Segmentation and 16 cbAKB 0-24 16

Reassembly of Cells
CPI Btag User dataN
In order to address BASize
ATMAALI/4 Pcket kormat with
Piqure &12 slze in bits
field
Pad 0 Etag Len

the issue of 40 10 352 (44 bytes) 6 10

segmentation and
reassembly, a protocol ATM Hcaker Type SEQ MID load Pay
Length CRC-10
layer was added in rgure s ATMcel femat AAL3/4 with beld
kor
in bit sizre

between the ATM and packet protocols such as IP (Internet

Protocol). This layer is known as ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL).
The AAL header contains the necessary information to reassemble
the cells into the original packet.
The packet that passes down to the AAL is encapsulated by
adding a header and a trailer. The resulting encapsulated packet is
then fragmented into cells.
Packet header consists of the following fields:
>8 bit Common Part Indicator (CPI) It determines which version
of the packet format is being used. Currently only value 0 is
defined.
>
8 bit Beginning tag (Btag) The Beginning tag must match with
the End tag (Etag) of the trailer for a given packet. This helps in
the reassembly of the cells into packet. It prevents the situation
in which the loss of the last cell of one packet and the first cell of
another packet causes the two packets to be joined into a single
packet.

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 DATACOMMUNICATION AND NETWwORKING

> 16 bit Buffer Allocation Size (BASize) It represents as to how

much space to allocate for the reassembly.
Packet trailer consists of the following fields:
> Pad field Pad field is used to pad the user data to a multiple of
3 bytes. This ensures that the trailer, along with the 8 bit 0
filled field, is aligned on a 32-bit boundary (4 byte), making it of
constant size for efficient processing.
>8 bit End tag (Etag) It contains a value equal to the value in
the Btag field.
> 16 bit Len - It contains the length of the packet.
NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
Topology is the method in which networks are physically
connected together. Topology determines the complexity of
connecting computer, the strategy for physically expanding the
network, in future. There are three type of topology is used:
) Bus Topology: Bus topology is a network geometric arrangement
in which a single connecting line is shared by a number of nodes.
In linear bus topology, all computers are
connected by a single length of cable with a
terminator at each end.. Each node is
connected to two others except the
machines at either end of the cable, which
are connected only to one other node.
Examples of Bus Topology are Ethernet,
Local Talk etc.
Advantage of Bus Topology:
(a) This topology is simple, reliable,
and easy to use and understand in
small sized LANs.
(b) This topology requires least amount of cable to connect the
computers together.
(c)This type of topology is easy to extend.
(d) This topology is less expensive than other cabling
arrangements.
Disadvantage of Bus Topology:
(a) There is possibility of collision, thus in this case data
packets may be lost.

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 DATACOMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

(b) Heavy network traffic can slow down a bus considerably.

(c)lt is difficult to troubleshoot a bus.
Examples of Bus Topology:
> Ethernet Ethernet, invented in 1973 by Bob Metcalfe (who later
formed a new company called 3 Com, one of the most successful
networking companies), was a way to circumvent the limitations of
earlier net works. It was based on IEEE (Institute of Electronic
and Electric Engineers) standard called 802.3 CSMA/CD, and it
provided for ways to manage the crazy situation that occurred
when many computers tried to transmit on one wire
simultaneously.
>
LocalTalk LocalTalk is a data link protocol built into the Mac
intosh RS-449/RS-422 serial interface. It forms a part of the
AppleTalk protocol suite. Appletallk is a suite of networking
protocols that work together to provide file and print sharing
services to Macintosh networks. AppleTalk enables users to share
folders and printers for access by other network users.
(ii) Ring Topology: Physical layout of Ring Topology based LAN
is circular. Means that each workstation is connected with it
neighbors. Transmission can be done in only one direction, either
clockwise or anticlockwise. It is decided at the time of network
design.
Token Passing: It is a mechanism i.e. used with Ring Topology
based LAN to make transmission possible between two or more
work stations.
Token is nothing but a small program.
When network is on, this program starts moving
from one node to another in specific direction.
If a work station has to access the service
of network, then it has to wait for token. Once
token becomes available to the node, it grabs the
token make its transmission Iwork, after
completion of transmission, it has to release the
token.
Advantage of Ring Topology:
(a) Installation cost of Ring Topology may cheaper.
(b) No one computer can monopolize the network.

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 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

(c)The fair sharing of the network allows the network to degrade

gracefully as more users can added.
Disadvantage of Ring Topology:
(a) Failure of a node may interrupt the system.
(b) It is difficult to troubleshoot a ring network.
(c)Adding or removing computers disrupts the network.
Example of Ring Topology:
>
IBM Token Ring Ethernet CSMA/CD networks provide a
relatively simple way of passing data. However, CSMA/CD breaks
down under the pressure exerted by many computers on a network
segment. In order to overcome this problem, IBM and the IEEE
created another networkingg standard called IEEE 802.5. 802.5 is
more commonly known as Token Ring network topology.
> FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface) FDDI (Fiber Distributed
Data Interface) is another
ring-based network. FDDI Token bus

networks run on optical

O Bridge
fiber cables instead of
copper cabling. It uses FDDI ring
Ethernet
Bridge
fiber optic cables to O
Computer

implement very fast; Tolen ning

reliable networks. FDDI o Ethernet

also uses the 802.5 method Flgure 5.19 AN FOOI ing being used es e backbone io connect LANs and computer
of operation.
FDDI is a high performance fiber optic token ring LAN
running at 100 Mbps over distances up to 200 km with up to 1000
stations connected.
It can be used in the same way as any of the other LANs, but
with its high bandwidth, another common use is as a backbone to
connect copper LANs.
How FDDI Works? FDDI (ike Token Ring) uses token-passing
schemes to control network access. But, unlike Token Ring, several
FDDIdevices can transmit data simultaneously. Like Token Ring,
a token is passed around the ring, and the possessor of the token is
allowed to transmit FDDI frames. Unlike Token Ring, a FDDI
network may have several frames simultaneously circulating on
the network. This is possible because the possessor of the token

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 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

send multiple frames, without waiting for the first frame

circulate all the way around the ring before sending the next
frame.
(ii) Star Topology based LAN based on an electronic
Star Topologv:
device namely Hub. All terminals including server are connected
with central Hub. A Hub receives the signal from source and sends
it to the destination. Example of Star Network is ATM -
(Asynchronous transmission Mode). There are two types of Hub:
(a) Active Hub: The active hub regenerates the electrical
signal and sends it to all connected computers.
(b) Passive Hub: Passive hub doesn't generate electrical
signal but acts as a connecting point.
Advantage of Star Topology:
(a) It is easier to modify i.e. easy to add new terminal and easy
to remove a particular terminal from a network. It doesn't
disturb/affect the network.
(b) It is easy to troubleshoot.
(c)Failure of a single terminal doesn't interrupt the whole
network.
(d) To install this network several types of cables can be used.
Disadvantage of Star Topology:
(a) Failure of central
hub interrupts the PBX
whole network. Circuit

(b) It is considered as Streams

FEP
expensive network. SNA

(c)Additional resources LAN

Frames
Packet
are required in case of
broadcast
implementation. Cells

Example of Star Network - ATM

ATM (Asynchronous
ATM support of various traffic types
Transmission Mode) ATM
networking is the newest topology available at this time. Unlike
others, it can carry both voice and data over network wire or fiber.
ATM transmits all packets as 53-byte cells, that have a variety of
identifiers on them to determine such things as Quality of Service.

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 DATACOMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

ATM is capable of extremely high speed routing. At the lowest,

it runs at 25 megabits per seconds. At the fastest, it can run up to
622 megabits per second. In addition to its speed, ATM is more
complex than either Ethernet or Token Ring. Presently, Fore Sys
tems and IBM have both invested very heavy amount in ATM-to-the
desktop technology. That means, they use ATM to link servers and
workstations and are banking on the need for multimedia networks
over the next several years.
How ATM Works? ATM communicates with cells rather than
transmitting frames. Instead of specifying the source and destination
addresses of the stations communicating, an ATM cell indicates the
path the data will flow through. Small cells all of the same size is
used to make it easy for devices to process a cell, so intermediate
devices (called switches) can maintain a very high data rate.
On an ATM network, every station is always transmitting.
However, most of the cells transmitted are empty cells that can be
discarded at the switch. When a cell that is not empty enters the
switch, the addresses are read to determine where the cell will go
next. The cell is then sent out in the next available slot, according to
the type of cell it is.
Role of ATM in Internetworks ATM has emerged as one of the
technologies for integrating LANs and WANs. ATM can support any
traffic type in separate or mixed streams, delay-sensitive traffic, and
non delay-sensitive traffics as shown in Figure. ATM can als0 scale
from low to high speeds. It has been adopted by all the industry's
equipment vendors, from LAN to private branch exchange (PBX).
With ATM, network designers can integrate LANs and WANs to
support emerging applications with economy in the enterprise.
Network designers are deploying ATM technology to migrate
from Time Division Multiplexing 1TDM) networks for the following
reasons:
> Toincrease WAN bandwidth
To improve performance
> To reduce down time
Chapter -6
OSI model and TCP/IP suite

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 DATACOMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

Network Architecture: Network Architecture deals with the

physical connection, i.e. topologies, access methods and connection
protocols. Some examples of network architectures are:
> Ethernet
> Token ring
> AppleTalk
> ARCNET
> ATM etc.
Need for Layered Solutions: Layered approach provides the
following advantages:
> Each layer needs to know and worry only about the functions in
its domain. Functioning of other layers is hidden from it.
> Each layer performs a function independent
of the other layers. This enables software Application Laver
developer to a
develop software component
for a particular layer. Presentation Laver
>A layer can be modified, if needed, without Session Laver
affecting other layers.
> Software packages confirming to the Transport Laver
a
standards of particular layer are able to
use the software at other layer t Network Laver
communicate with each other.
Open System Interconnection (OSI) Model: Data Link Laver

Main objectives OSIModels are:

of
Phvsical Laver
> Allow to interconnected two systems OSI STACK
through standard interface.
> Each layer performs a well-defined function.
> The function of each layer should be chosen according to
international standard protocols.
Each lower level protocol provides its services to higher-level
protocol.
> The seven layers of OSI reference Model are:
1. Physical Layer: All electrical and mechanical devices, these are
used to connect two terminals, two nodes, medium etc. considered
as the devices of physical layer.

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 DATACOMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

In other words mostly hardware is categorized into physical

layer. These are involved in interconnecting two points of a
network as well as carry bit stream.
2. Data Link Layer: The Data Link Layer is the second layer of OSI
Model. The Data Link Layer together with physical layer and the
interconnectivity medium provide a data link connection between
source station and destination station for reliable transfer of
database.
Services provide by Data Link Layer:
> Flow Control - Flow Control deals with how to keep the fast
sender from over flowing a slow receiver by buffer at the receiver
sides and acknowledgement.
Retransmission Strategies
(ix) Stop and Wait - the sender allows one message to be
transmitted checked for errors and an appropriate (ack-positive
or Nak - negative acknowledgement) returned to the sending
station. No other message can be transmitted by the sender
until receiving station–sends back a reply.
(i) Sliding Window The sender (sending station) maintains a
sending window that maintains number of frames (packages),
it is permitted to send to the receiving station and the
receiving station (Receiver) maintains a receiving window
that performs some necessary check up. There are two sliding
window techniques:
(a) Go Back N- This is a sliding window technique. It
allows data and control message to be transmitted
continuously without for its acknowledgement from the
receiver. In the case of error detection at the receiving slide,
the message with error retransmitted, as well as all other
frames were transmitted after the erroneous message.
(b) Selective Repeat - this approach is considered as
refined approach in contrast to the Go back N. the only
message retransmitted is those for which NAK is received.
Selective Repeat Mechanism produces greater through put
than the Go Back N.

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 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

> Framing – Some control bits are added to the data packets these
are received from network layer. The bits are associated with
start and end frames.
-
Error Detection and Correction Course Various methods are
use for such purpose. Some popular methods are parity bit,
checksum etc.
3. Network Layer: The Network Layer provides services to the
transport layer. It can be based on ether virtual circuits or data
grams. In both cases its main job is routing packets from source to
destination. In case of virtual circuit subnet, a routing decision is
made when virtual circuit is setup.
In case of datagram subnet, routing decision is made on every
incoming package.
Many Routing algorithms are used in computer Network. All
algorithms are categorized into two categories:
-
) Static Routing Algorithm Static Routing algorithm dies not
decide there routing decision on measurement of current traffic
and topology. Where as dynamic routing algorithm changes
their routing decisions on current traffic and topology.
The function of Network Layer is routing packets from
source machine to destination machine. In most subnets packets
will require multiple hops to reach the destination.
Network Layer also manages congestion. To control
congestion several algorithms are provided.
When to0-many packets are present in the subnet the
performance degrades. This situation is called Congestion.
Subnet can be become congested increasing the delay and
lowering the through put for packets. Network designers
attempt to avoid congestion by proper design. If congestion
occurs it must be dealt.
Congestion can be bought about by several factors:
> If all of a sudden, streams of packets begin arriving from
three for four lines and all need the same output line,
queue is build up. If there is insufficient memory to hold of
them, packets will be lost.
> Slow processor can also caused congestion. If the routers
are slow at performing routing decision.

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 DATACOMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

> Low bandwidth lines can also cause congestion.

-
Comparison of virtualcircuit and Datagram Subnet:
Virtual circuits allow packets to contents circuit numbers
only, where as datagram allow packets to content full
destination address.
> Using virtual circuits requires a setup phase, which takes
time, where as with datagram such process is not required.
> Virtual circuits have some advantages in avoiding
congestion with the subnet because resources can be
reserved in advance at the time of connection
establishment, where as congestion is a potential problem
with datagrams.
> Virtual circuits have a problem, if a router crashes and
loses its memory, all the virtual circuits passing through it
will have to aborted, where as such type of problem will not
arise with datagrams.
> Virtual circuits and datagrams both allow the router to
balance the traffic.
4. Transport Layer: This Layer is responsible provide reliable cost
effective data transport from source machine to destination
machine. Transport Layer also provides some additional services
associated with data transportation. Two protocols are used with
transport layer to provide such services. These are:
> TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) – This protocol provides a
highly reliable connection oriented end to end transport service
associated with the layer no four of OSI-Model. During
transportation TCP adds some additional information to the
data packet i.e. associated with transportation service, called
TCP header.
Source Port no. Destination Port no.
Sequence No.
Acknowledgement No.
Space
TCP U A P R E F
Head R C S Y
Window
er Free K H T N N
Size
Leng
th

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 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

Checksum Urgent
pointer
Data
Fig:- TCP Segment
Source and Destination Port - Values of this field identifies the
local port no.
Sequence no. - Sequence no. identifies the current sequence no.
of data segment.
DataOffset - Values of this field identifies the start of data.
Flags – Shows individual status:
(a) URG (Urgent Flag) - Value of this field identifies the
urgent pointer. It is considered as Urgent Flag.
(b) ACK (Acknowledgement Flag) – Value of this field
sociated with acknowledgement of the packet.
(c)PSH(Push Flag)- Push Flag performs push function.
(a) RST (Reset Flag) -
(e) SYN (Sequence Synchronization Flag) – The value of
this field associated with sequence synchronization.
(O FIN (Final Flag)- Endof Transmission Flag.
Windowv Size -This field contains the values associated with
strength of destination station, How many byte (data block) the
receiving host can accept at a time.
Checksum - Checksum for data end header.
-
Urgent Pointer The value of this field identifies specific type of
data area.
> UDP (User DataProtocol) - The protocol supports
connectionless transportation with internet protocol. The
Protocol encapsulates all the necessary information with data
packet to transport them from source to destination, without
having to establish a connection.
UDP Segment (the packet i.e. segmented by UDP) consist of
header followed by the data in UDP header source code no. and
destination port no. are also available like TCP header, which
contains address of source machine and address of destination
machine. UDP length field contains the value which includes
header length + data length. The UDP Checksum field contains
the value i.e. helpful in checking the errors at destination

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 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

station. It functions like checksum of TCP header. Some options

fields are also available with UDP header.
5. Session Layer: Main functionality of this layer is to establish and
release the session. The session layer allows users on different
machines to establish session between them. Session can allow
going both directions. One of the services of the session layer is to
manage dialog control.
6. Presentation Layer: Presentation Layer mainly manages the
formats of information.
7. Application Layer: Several protocols are available under this
layer. Large number of terminals are connected with the system
and requires verify of services.
() DNS – Domain Name System is a mechanism which high
level name and converts it into machine understandable form.
Domain Name System is helpful in assigning the high level
name for several machines. Domain Name System maintains
the domains in hierarchical order. This mechanism is
implemented with TCP/IP internets. Domain Name categorized
into mainly two categorized:
(a) Geographic - Example of this is .in, .ch, jp, .us
(b) NonGeographic – Example of this is .com, .org, .edu, .net,
etc.
(ii) Email - Email is a popular service provided by the largest
network internet. It is basically a program which enables us to
send and receive message to and from world wide.
Email is popular because it provides fast, convenient
method of transferring information. The major characteristics of
Email are:
> Store and forward
> Delivery time ranging from few sec. to hours
> Supports multimedia service
> Secure mailing
>Auto processing
(ii) FTP (File Transfer Protocol) – This protocol provides method of
transferring files over internet. FTP transfer files to and from a
remote network sites. FTP provides several commands to

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 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

transfer differents formats of files from one host to another. It

also supports transferring of compressed files.
(iv) World Wide Web (WWW) - Basically WWW is a system for
Basically WwW
linking hypertext document. Each document is a web page
written in Hypertext Markup language and link between
documents is called hyperlink. A browser can display the page
by establish a TCP connection to its server. Browser asking for
document to the server and closing the connection. In easily
days gopher is used in place of www.Gopher provides all the
implementation in the form of menus. So user has to access the
service using such menu items.
-
Characteristics of WWW:
> Fastest growing discovery and retrieval system.
>
Considered as navigational system based on hyperlink.
> State-less interaction between client and server confirming
tohttp (Hyper Text Transfer Protoco).
() Telnet - Telnet is a program that allows us to establish a
virtual terminal connection between two machines using
TCP/IP. For this we must have its internet address or host name
of computer.
TCPIP Suite (TCPIP Protocol): TCP reference model is
implemented with or suitable form thosecomputer network
architecture that allow communication across multiple divers
network. TCPIP network architecture consists of four layers:
TCP Reference Model
Application Layer
Presentation Layer |Application Layer +DNS, E-mail, SMTP
Session Layer

|Transport Layer Transport Layer TCP, UDP

Network Layer Internet Layer IP, ICMP, IGMP, ARP, RARP

Data Link Layer Network Interface Layer Device driver

Physical Layer
Application Layer: The Application Layer provides services that can
be used by other applications for example protocols have been
developed for remote login, for email, for file transfer etc. The
application layer program run directly over the transport layer.
Transport Layer: Two basic services are provided by this layer: :

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 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETwORKING

The first service consists of reliable connection oriented transfer

of byte stream, which isprovided by TCP. The second service consists
of connectionless transfer of individual package i.e. provided by UDP.
UDP is used for applications that require quick but reliable delivers.
The TCPIP Model doesn't require strict layering. In other words
the application layer has the option of by passing intermediate layer.
Internet Laver: The Internet layer handles the transfer of
information access multiple networks through the use of gateways or
routers. It has similar function as network layer of OSI Model. A key
aspect of the Internet layer is the definition of global unique address
for the nmachines that are attached with the Internet. The Internet
layer provides a single service namely best effort connectionless
packet transfer. For this packets are also called data grams. The
connectionless approach makes the system robust i.e. if failures occur
in the network the packets are routed around the point of failure.
There is no need to setup the connection.
Network Interface Layer Network Interface Layer is concern with
the network specific aspects of the transfer of packets. It must deal
with port of network layer and data link layer. The network interface
layer is particularly concern with the protocols that access the
intermediate networks.
TCPIP Services and Application Protocols:
> Client Server Model In this model, transaction responsibilities
are divided into two parts: client and server. Clients rely on
servers for services such as file storage, printing, and processing
power. Client is a PC running front-end software that knows how
to communicate with the server. This model improves
performances.
> Telnet – Previously Described.
> File Transfer Protocol (FTP) - Previously described.
> Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) – This protocol is nofrills,
unauthenticated protocol used to transfer files. TFTP depends on
UDP and often is used to boot diskless workstations.
> Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) – This protocol is a TCPIP
protocol that specifies how computers exchange electronic mail. It
works post office protocol, and is one of the reasons that Internet
E-mail functions so well.

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 DATACOMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

> Network File System (NFS) – This is a distributed file system

protocol suite developed by Sun Microsystems that allow to remote
file access across a network. It allows all network users to access
shared files stored on computers of different types.
> Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) – This is a network
management protocol for TCP/IP networks. SNMP provides a
means to monitor and control network devices, and to manage
configurations, statistics collection, performance, and security. It
specifies how nodes are managed on a network, using agents to
monitor network traffic and maintain a management information
base.
> Domain Name System (DNS) Previously described.
>
Internet Control Message Protocol (1CMP)- This is an integral
part of the IP that handles error and control message. Specially
routers and hosts use ICMP to send reports of problemn about
datagram, back to the original source that sends to the datagram.
> Internet Group Management Protocol (1GMP) – This protocol is
mainly used with multicast network to group the members, used
by host.
> Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) – This protocol is used as a
device driver which accepts packets from internet layer and
converts the packet into Ethernet format.
> Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP) -
This protocol
performs the same function as ARP does but in reverse, that is
given an IP address, it determines the corresponding physical
address.
Data Transmission By TCP and Ethernet: Ethernet and TCP/IP
works together well. Ethernet provides the physical cabling (layers 1
and 2 of OSI model) and TOCP/IP the communications protocol (layers
3 and 4 of OSI model).
TCP/IP uses 32-bit IP addresses to identify a node and the
network to which it is attached to. IP addresses are unique, 4 byte
addresses that must be assigned to every addressable device or node
on the internetwork.
TCP receives the stream of bytes from the upper Application
layer and assembles them into TCP segments, or packets. In the

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 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

process of assembling, header information is attached at the front of

data.
Header information includes a checksum as well as a packet
sequence number (if there is more than one segment in the entire
message).
A connection (Virtual circuit) is established between the sending
and receiving machines. The sending TCP software issues a request
for a TOP connection with the receiving machine. The receiving TCP
software adds its own unique socket number to the request message
and sends it back to the original machine. A connection is thus
established between the two machines.
If the message is more than one TCP segment long, the
receiving TCP software reassembles the message using the sequence
numbers contained in each segment's TCP header. If a segment is
missing or corrupt (which can be determined from the checksum),
TCP returns a message wvith the faulty sequence number in the body.
The originating TCP software Can then resend the bad
segment.
Data
(46 to 1500 bytes)
7 Bytes 1 Byte 6Bytes
6 Bytes 2 Bytes 0-46 Bytes 4 Bytes

Preamble Destination address Source address Pad Checksum

Start of frame Length of data

indicator field
Ethernet Frame Forrmat

The address resolution protocol (ARP) associates an IP address

with the physical address. On a typical
physical network, such, as a LAN, each Applet
device on a link is identified by a physical or
Message frorm
station address usually imprinted on the Application program
network interface card (NIC). ARP TCP data
maintains tables of name-toaddress Message from
TCP
mappings. header|Application program
RARP (Reverse Address Resolution IP data
Protocol) performs the same function as ARP IP
TCP segment
does but in reverse, that is given an IP header
Frame data
Frame
|header IP datagram
Data encapsulate and decapsulate

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 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

address, it determines the corresponding physical address.

Data Encapsulation: The data from the application program is
encapsulated into the TCP segment. This means that the data in a
TCP segment is the data from the application program. The IP
datagram encapsulates this TCP segment. Thus, means the TCP
segment forms the data part of the IP datagram. The IP datagram is
sent along the physical wire, encapsulated in the Ethernet frame (or
any other LAN frame). That is, IP datagram is transported as the
data of the frame. This process is known as data encapsulation. The
same process gets reversed at the receiver side. This is known as
data decapsulation.
-
Data Routing: The IP protocol in the TCP/IP suite is responsible for
routing the data packets to its destination. Routing means finding
the route (next hop) for a data gram. If the destination node is on the
same network as the source node, the delivery is direct. In direct
delivery, the sender can compare the destination address with the
addresses of the computers to which it is connected to. If a match is
found, the packet is delivered to the same.
If the destination host is not in the same network as the sender,
the delivery is indirect. Dn the indirect delivery, the packet goes from
router to router until it reaches the network of the destination host.
In indirect delivery, the sender uses the IP address of the destination
computer and a routing table. The routing table is used to find the IP
address of the router to which the-
packet should be sent to.
Error Reporting Mechanism Internet Control Message Protocol
(ICMP): This is an integral part of the IP that handles error and
-

control message. Specially routers and hosts use ICMP to send

reports of problem about datagram, back to the original source that
sends to the datagram.
ICMP detects error conditions such as internet work congestion
and downed links and notifies IP and upper-layer protocols so
packets can be routed avoiding problem areas.
ICMP does not correct errors but simply reports them. ICMP are
encapsulated inside IP datagram before they are sent over the
network. Five types of errors are reported by ICMP. These are:
(a) Destination Unreachable
(b) Source Quench (Destination overwhelmed with datagrams)

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 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

(c)Timeout exceeded
(a) Parameter problems
(e) Redirection
Internet Architecture: Internet is an interconnection of multiple
networks. The word internet (lowercase i) is
Application Service
different from Internet (uppercase 1). While
internet means network of networks, Internet is the Service Provider Protocol
term used to refer to a specific worldwide network, Internetworking
www (World Wide Web).
Internetwork (internet) consists of multiple Subnetworks
networks in which LANs are attached to other Internet Architecture
LANS, other communications networks, remote
sites, individual stations- and -Wide Area Networks (WANS). It
permits data to move freely 'among large numbers of networks and
populations.
All internetworks, including the Internet, have a layered
architecture. Internet has four layers. These are as follows:
(a) Subnetwork Layer All the machines connected together in a local
area network (LAN) reside in this layer.
(b) Internetwork Layer This layer provides the functionality for
communications between networks through gateways. Each sub
network uses gateways to connect to the other sub networks in the
internetwork. The internetwork layer is where data gets transferred
from gateway to gateway until it reaches its destination and then
passes intothe sub network layer. The internetwork layer runs the
Internet Protocol (IP).
(c) Service Provider Protocol Layer This layer is responsible for the
overall end-toend communications of the network. This is the layer
that runs the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and other
protocols.It handles the data traffic flow itself and ensures reliability
for the message transfer.
(d) Application Services Layer This layer supports the interfaces to
the user applications. This layer interfaces to electronic mail, remote
file transfers, and remote access.
Chapter -7
Data link protocol
PROTOCOL

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 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

In sending data from one place to other place, communication

requires at least two devices working together, one to send and one to
receive. Such a basic arrangement requires coordination for an
intelligible exchange to occur. cur. For example, in half duplex
transmission, it is essential that only one device transmits at a time.
If both devices at the two ends of the link put signals on the line
simultaneously, they collide. The coordination of halfduplex
transmission is part of a procedure called line discipline. This line
discipline is one of the functions included in the data link layer of
OSI model.
Besides line discipline, the other important functions in the data
link layer are flow control and error control. These three functions
together are known as data link control.
TRANSMISSION CONTROL PROCEDURE
Transmission control is a set of procedures used to control
transmission and reception of data between two communicating
devices. This can be divided into two subgroups, namely:
) Synchronous Protocols Synchronous protocols take the whole bit
stream and chop it intocharacters of equal size. Protocols governing
synchronous transmission can be divided into two classes.
> Character oriented protocols Character oriented protocols, also
called byte oriented protocols, interpret a transmission frame or
packet as a succession of characters, each composed of one byte
(eight bits). All control information is in the form of an existing
character encoding system such as ASCIIcoding method.
Character-oriented protocols are not as efficient as bit
oriented protocols and therefore are now seldom used.
>
Bitoriented protocols Bitoriented protoc
Bit oriented protocols interpret a
transmission frame or packet as a succession of individual bits,
made meaningful by their placement in the frame and by their
neighboring bits. Control information is in the form of one or more
bits.
(i) Asynchronous Protocol Asynchronous protocol treats each
character in a bit stream independently.. Today, these protocols are
employed mainly in modems. A variety of asynchronous protocols
developed are:

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 DATACOMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

> XMODEM · XMODEM protocol has an error checking technique

that can be used between microcomputers. It requires that one
terminal or computer be set up as the sender and other be set up
as the receiver. After the protocol is started, the transmitter waits
for the receiver to send a Negative Acknowledge (NAK) character.
The receiver meanwhile is set to send NAKs every 10 seconds.
When the transmitter detects the first NAK, it begins sending
messages as blocks of 128 data characters, surrounded by some
protocolcontrol characters. The beginning of each block is signaled
by a Start Of Header (SOH) character. This is followed by a block
number character in ASCII, followed by the same block number
with each bit inverted. The bit inversion, known as the 1's
complement, results in the block number being followed by the
same block number with each bit inverted. A 128-character piece of
the file is sent, followed by a checksum that is the remainder of the
sum of all the 128 bytes in the message divided by 255.
Mathematically, the XMODEM checksum can be represented as:
12*
CHECKSUM = RIsCIVa|
255

in which the remainder of the division process. The receiver

R is
checks each part of the received block to confirm the following:
Was first character a Start Of Header (SOH)?
> Was the block number exactly one more than the previous
block received?
> Were exactly 128 characters of data received?
Was the locally computed checksum identical to the last
character received in the block?
If the receiver is satisfied, it sends an Acknowledge (ACK)
back to the transmitter, and the transmitter sends the next block.
If not, an NAK is sent, and the transmitter resents the block found
in error. This process is continued, block by block, until the entire
file is sent and verified. At the end of the data, the transmitter
sends an End Of Text character. The receiver replies with an ACK,
and the session is terminated.
Limitations of XMODEM Protocol There are several points to
consider about the XMODEM protocol.

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 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

> It is easy to implement with a small computer, but it does

require a computer at each end.
> It requires manual setup for each file to be transferred.
> The error detection technique (ordinary sum of the data
characters) is unsophisticated and unable to detect reliably the
most common type of transmission error, which is a noise burst
that can last of the order of 10 milliseconds (the duration of
about 12 bits at l200 bps).
> It is a half duplex protocol; that is, information is sent, and then
the sender waits for a reply before sending the next message.
Because operation of the XMODEM protocol generally assumes
a full duplex line, it is inefficient in use of the transmission
facility.
-
Support for XMODEM Protocol In spite of the previously
mentioned limitations, the XMODEM protocol and several
derivatives are supported by most asynchronous communication pro
irams designed for operation on PCs. The rationale for the
widespread support of these protocols is dated to the initial
placement of the XMODEM protocol into the public domain.
Most of the asynchronous communications programs developed
during the early 1980s eventually included XMODEM support. In the
late 1980s, several derivatives of the XMODEM protocol gained
acceptance due to the increased level of functionality they provided.
Some new versions of the XMODEM protocol added CRC error
checking. Other versions provided a full-duplex transmission
capability with CRC error detection, thus increasing the efficiency of
the protocol. Today, almost all communication programs designed for
use on PCs support XMODEM and several of its derivatives.
> YMODEM YMODEM Protocol is similar to XMODEM, with the
following differences:
The data unit is 1024 bytes.
Multiple files can be sent simultaneously.
ITU-T, CRC-16 is used for error checking.
> ZMODEM ZMODEM is a newer protocol combining features of
both XMODEM and YMODEM.
> BLAST (Blocked asynchronous transmission) BLAST (Blocked
asynchronous transmission) is more powerful than XMODEM. It is

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 DATACOMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

a full·duplex operation with sliding window flow control. It allows

the transfer of data and binary files.
CHARACTER ORIENTED PROTOCOLSs (COP)
There is one type of COP called Binary Synchronous Protocol
(Bisync or BSC). BSC stands for Binary Synchronous Communication
protocol. It was developed by IBM in the year 1964. It supports half
duplex transmission, using stop and wait/ARQ (Acknowledgement
Request) flow control and error detection. It does not support full
duplex or sliding window protocol transmission.
BIT ORIENTED PROTOCOLS(BOP)
SDLC (Synchronous Data Link Control Protocol) and HDLG
(High Level Data Link Control Protocol) is the two bit oriented
protocols. SDLC was developed by IBM. HDLC is one of the ISO
designed protocols and has become the basis for all bit oriented
protocols in use.
Synchronous Data Link Control Protocol (SDLC)
SDLC is a data-link layer protocol developed in the 1970s by
IBM for its Systems Network Architecture (SNA) networking
environment. It is primarily used in wide area networks (WANs) that
use leased lines to connect Mainframe SNA hosts and remote
terminals.
In a serial SDLC link, data is sent as a synchronous bit stream
divided intoframes that contain addressing and control information
in addition to the pay load of data.
SDLC uses a master/slave architecture in which one station is
designated as primary (master) and the remaining stations are
secondary (slaves). The primary station establishes and tears down
SDLC connections, manages these connections, and polls each
secondary station in a specific order to determine whether any
secondary station wants to transmit data.
SDLCcan be used in a variety of connection topologies such as
the following
>
Direct point-to-point connections between a primary and a
secondary station
> Multipoint connections between a primary and a group of
secondary stations.
High Level Data Link Control Protocol (HDLC

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 DATACOMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

This is a protocol to prevent aliasing error. It determines where

true message
block begins and Begining Serial Transmission End

ends and what

part of the
FI
FAC FCS F24 Each information
frame is divided
message is to be Bits 8 8 8 Multiple of 8 16 8 into six ficlds

included in the •
F
Flag to indicate Begining of Frame (0110)
CRC (Cyclic -
A Address
Redundancy C
-
Control
Check). It uses -
Information
bit-stuffing for FCS Fame Check Scquence
-
data F2 Flag to indicate End of Frame (01 1Il10)
HDLC format
transparency.
In HDLC, all
information is carried by frames that can be of the following types:
> Information Frames (1-frames)
Supervisory control sequences (S-frames), or unnumbered
command/ responses (U-firames).
Figure shows one information frame as a angular block divided into
six fields. These fields are:
>A beginning Flag (F1) field.
> An address (A) field. It is used to identify ME the terminals. It is
of 8 bits.
A control (C) field. It is used for sequence numbers and
acknowledgements. It is of 8 bits.
> An information field () or data field contain information.
>Aframe check sequence (FCS) field. It is situ to CRC.
>A final flag (F2) field.
There are three kinds of controls. Control field Information ([
Frame), Control field for Supervisory (S-Frame) and control field for
Unnumbered frame). The contents are shown in Figure. S-frames
and U-frames have the same fields except that the I field is left out.
The P/F bits stand for Poll/Final. It is used when a computer
polling a group of terminals. When used as P, the computer
inviting the term send data. All the frames sent by the terminal,
except the final one, have the P/F bit set to P. The final one is set to
F.

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 DATACOMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

Transmission Control Procedure Types: The following are the

different transmission control procedure types:
> Non procedure - Non procedure protocols are those which do not
have any laid down procedure for connecting two PCs together.
Examples include Ethernet, Token ring, Token bus, FDDI etc.
> Basic procedure- Basic Control Procedure protocols include LAPB
(Link Access Procedure, Balanced), LAPD (Link Access Procedure
for D channel) and LAPM (Link Access Procedure for Modems).
LAPB is used in balanced configuration of two devices, where
both devices are of combined type. Communication in LAPB is
always in asynchronous balanced mode. LAPB is used today in
ISDN on B channels.
LAPD is used for control signaling and it also uses
asynchronous balanced mode. It is used in ISDN for D channels.
LAPM is designed to do both synchronous and asynchronous
conversion, errordetection and retransmission. It was designed to
apply HDLC features to modems.
>
HDLC Procedure HDLC supports both half duplex and full
duplex communication systems. Systems that use HDLC can be
characterized by their station types, their configuration and by
their response modes.
Stations in HDLC are of the following three types:
Primary Station A primary station sends commands.
> Secondary StationAsecondary station sends responses.
>
Combined Station A combined station sends both commands
and responses.
HDLCsupports the following three modes of communication:
> Normal Response Mode (NRM), where secondary station needs
permission to transmit.
> Asynchronous Response Mode ARM), where secondary station
does not need permission to transmit.
> Asynchronous Balanced Mode (ABM), where all stations are
equal (i.e. all are combined stations) and any station can initiate
transmission.
Chapter -8
Local area network (lan)

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 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

Introduction: Local area network (LAN) is a group of computers

located in the same room, on the same floor, or in the same building
that are connected to form a single network. Local area networks
(LANS) allow users to share storage devices, printers, applications,
data, and other network resources. They are limited to a specific
geographical area, usually less than 2 kilometres in diameter.
Advantage of LAN -
> Local area networks allow sharing of expensive resources such
as laser printers and high capacity, high speed mass storage
devices among a number of users.
> Local area networks allow for high speed exchange of essential
information between key people in an organization.
LANS provide the catalyst to increase the range of potential
applications for the IBM PCs.
> LANS contribute to increased productivity. A LAN installation
should be studied closely in the context of its proposed
contribution to the long-range interests of the organization.
Disadvantage LAN
of

> The financial cost of local area networking is still high in

comparison with many other alternatives,
> Local area networking software requires memory space in each
of the computers used on the network.
> Users may have difficulty in learning the network commands.
The installation and management of a LAN requires far more
technical and administrative skills than installing and
managing several computers that are not networked.
Some control on the part of the user is lost. You may have to
share a printer with other users. You may face a situation like.
> Some type of security system must be implemented if it is
important to protect confidential data.
Many current application programs will not run in a network
environment. The program may require too much memory or
have other technical constrai
Characteristics of LANS –
>
LANs work in a restricted geographical area.

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 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

> LANs operate at relatively high speed when compared to the

typical
wide area
wwww
networks Bandeh

currently in
use. LAN -
Ehgtal signaling Anakog arme

data Baseband and broadband transmission, using single digital channel in baseband and several channels in
broadband communication system in bounded media
transfer
speeds may be as high as 80 million bits per second (80 Mbps),
or slightly less than 10 million characters per second (10 Meps).
Compare this to the maximum data transfer speed of 56 Kbps
(7000 Cps) for high-grade telephone company digital trunk lines,
or the 1200/2500 bps (120/250 Cps) transmission speed used by
most personal computer communications systems.
> LANs are private networks, not subject to tariffs or other
regulatory controls.
BASEBAND Vs BROADBAND
Bandwidth use refers to the ways of allocating the capacity of
transmission media. The total media capacity or bandwidth can be
divided into channels. A channel is simply a portion of the bandwidth
that can be used for transmitting data. The two ways of allocating
the capacity of bounded transmission media are the following:
1. Baseband These transmissions use the entire media bandwidth

for a single channel. Baseband is commonly used for digital

signaling, although it can also be used for analog signals. Most
Local Area Networksuse base band signaling.
2. Broadband These transmissions provide the ability to divide the
entire media bandwidth into multiple channels. Since each
channel can carry a different analog signal or digital signal,
broadband networks support multiple simultaneous conversations
over a single transmission medium.
MEDIA ACCESS CONTROL: -

The term Media refers to the cabling used for transmitting data
from one node to another. Examples of media in local area networks
include Coaxial cabling, Twisted-pair Cabling and Fiberoptic cab
ling.

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 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

MAC(Media Access Control) layer is one of the two sub-layers of

data link layer of the OSI model. The other sub-layer is the Logical
Link Control (LLC) layer. The MAC layer interfaces with the
physical layer below it and provides access to the network interface
card (NIC).
The main function of MAC layer is to determine which computer
on the network is allowed touse the media (transmission medium) at
any given moment.
Media Access Control methods are ways to allow computers to
transmit signals over network cabling, while ensuring that only one
computer transmits at a time. If two computers simultaneously place
signals on the wire, a collision can occur and data might be corrupted
unless a method is used to resolve the collision gracefully. Some main
media access control methods used in networking are:
> Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection
(CSMA/CD): used in Ethernet networking.
> Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance
(CSMA/CA): used in AppleTalk networking.
> Token passing: used in Token Ring andFiber Distributed Data
Interface (FDDI) networking.
-
LLAN HARDWARE:
Hardware required to implement a LAN, includes he following:
> One or more powerful, preferably multiprocessor LAN servers
and dumb and/or intelligent terminals.
>A transmission medium such as coaxial cabling, twisted-pair
cabling, fiber optic cabling, etc. and their associated equipment
such as connectors, patch panels, wall plates and splitters.
These days unguided transmission media technologies such as
infrared communication, wireless cellular networking, satellite
networking etc. are very much in use. In such cases, their
associated hardware is also required for establishing the LAN.
The physical connection of a computer to the LAN is made
through a Network Interface Card (NIC). This is sometimes also
known as Media Access Control (MAC) card. The MAC card is
installed in the computer just like a Video Graphics Adapter
(VGA) card or a CD-ROM controller card is installed. A laptop
computer can access a LAN with a PCMCIA LAN card.

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 DATACOMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

> LAN devices, such as repeaters, concentrators, bridges, hubs,

switches and multistation access units (MAUS) are also used.
Hubs, switches, bridges and repeaters are explained in a later
Section.
> Equipment for organizing, protecting, and troubleshooting LAN
hardware such as racks, cabinets, surge protectors, line
conditioners, uninterruptible power supplies (UPSs), KVM
switches and cable testers, are needed.
> Data storage technologies such as RAID, network attached
storage (NAS), and storage area networks (SANS), and the
technologies used to connect them, such as Small Computer
System Interface (SCSI) and Fibre Channel. RAID is a
technology used to implement fault tolerant storage systems by
using data redundancy.
> Technologies for securely interfacing private corporate networks
with unsecured public ones, such as firewalls, proxy servers, and
packet-filtering routers.
LAN OPERATING SYSTEMS: -
LAN operating systems are network aware operating systems
that support networking. Such an operating system provides support
for multi-user operations as well as administrative, security and
network management functions.
Jobs done by LAN Operating System
>A Network Operating System has to acknowledge and respond
to requests from many workstations.
It has to manage network access, resource allocation and
sharing, data protection as well as error control.
> It provides for printer, file-system, database and application
sharing.
NetWare NetWare is a LAN operating system designed by Novell
Inc. It can be used to connect different offices across a building or
across a country.
One major advantage of Novell NetWare is the capability to support
many users and services. It can support many different types of
operating systems such as DOS/Windows, Macintosh, UNIX etc. It is
ideal for both medium and large sized LANs.

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 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

The disadvantage of NetWare is that it is slightly difficult for

both the LAN administrators and users to become proficient in using
all its functionality. NetWare can be run over Token Ring, Ethernet,
ARCnet and FDDILANS.
Windows NT The most popular LAN operating system to appear on
the market is the Microsoft's Windows NT. It provides connectivity
like NetWare.
Advantages of Windows NT are the the following:
>It is very easy to learn.
> It is less expensive.
IMPLEMENTING LLAN: -
Computers in a LAN can be connected in a number of ways.
They can be connected via cables, phone lines or wireless media.
Different types of connections are suitable for different types of
businesses and budgets. Whatever connection you cho0se to
establish, a Network Interface Card (NIC) must be installed in each
computer in the network.
1. Implementation of LAN using Coaxial Cables Coaxial cable is the
most common network cable. A local area network whose nodes
reside within a reasonable distance of each other that is on the
same floor of a building or in adjacent floors may be implemented
using coaxial cables or twisted pair wires.
A special connector called T-connector is used to join work
stations in a ring topology. The Tconnector is attached to the NIC
of each workstation. Cables are attached to the open ends of the T
onnectors, to form a chain. The workstations at each end of the
chain will have only one cable attached. The open end of the T
connector, in these two workstations, must be capped using a
resistor plug. The resistor plug absorbs the signal and prevents
distortion.
In bus topology networks, a cable is connected to each NIC
and extended to the shared cable. Figure 8.7 illustrates the
relationship of the Ethernet hardware components required to
connect a workstation to a bus-based coaxial cable.
2. Implementation of LAN using Twisted Pair Twisted-pair cable is
less expensive than coaxial cable, but less durable. However, it is
more reliable in the sense that if a portion of a twisted-pair cable is

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damaged, the entire network is not shut down, as may be the case
with coaxial cable.
Twisted-pair wires use connectors called RJ-11 connectors.
The RJ connector is inserted into a socket on the NIC.
3. Implementation of LAN using Fiber Optic Cables Fiber optic
cables are becoming popular as a networking cable because of its
high transmission speed. Also, since light signal is not subject to
electrical disturbances, it is free from transmission errors. It can
transmit reliable signals as far as 10 km. However, it is more
expensive to buy, install and maintain fiber optic cables. It also
requires special equipments, called fiber line drivers,, to convert
electrical signal into light signals.
Fiber optic cable is tailormade and comes equipped with its
own connectors. If you wish to connect a workstation with
equipment that is not compatible with fiber optic cable, attach the
workstation to fiber-line driver.
4. Implementation of LAN using Wireless Technology Another
alternative for LAN implementation is through wireless
technology. The technology consists of hardware that manages the
connection using radio or infrared signaling devices. This
eliminates the need for cables all together. A wireless network can
make use of existing cellular telephony, satellite communication
system and paging systems. It may be necessary to implement the
LAN using wireless technology in areas where cabling is extremely
difficult or impossible. For example, when offices are located across
the river or hill side.
FAST LNS:
Fast LANs are LANs that are capable of carrying voice, data
and video at 100 Mbps, which is 10 times faster than traditional
LANS. They can be implemented using IEEE 100BaseFX or
100BaseT specifications. These standards can be implemented using
either copper twisted-pair wires or fiber optics.
100BaseFX is often used for wiring campus backbones.
100BaseFX networks are wired together in a star topology using
fiber-optic cabling and fiber optic hubs or Ethernet switches. Fiber
optic cabling uses either two strand multimode or three strand
single-mode optical fiber, with each strand carrying data in opposite

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directions. Repeaters can be used ,

to extend the length of cabling.
With multi-mode fiberoptic cabling, the maximum allowable
distance (using repeaters) is 2 kilometres and with single-mode fiber
optic cabling, maximum distance is 10 kilometres.
The other IEEE standard, 100BaseT, provides data
transmission speeds of 100 Mbps. Commonly known as Fast
Ethernet, it is used as departmental backbones and in establishing
connections to highspeed servers and workstations running
bandwidth-intensive applications such as CAD or multimedia
programs.
Fast Ethernet uses CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access
with Collision Detection) mechanism like other Ethernet
technologies. It is generally wired in a star topology using two pairs
of wires in category 5 cabling or four pairs of wires in category 3
cabling or a duplex multimode fiber optic cable.
NONSTANDARD LNS: -
Nonstandard LANs are LANs implemented without following
any LAN standards. One such implementation is the direct
connection of two computers using a serial cable known, as null
modem cable. Computers, so connected, can trasfer files by using
some supporting software such as Direct Cable Connection accessory
of Microsoft Windows 95 and 98, or Laplink software for Microsoft.
Generally null modem cable is based on the RS232 serial
transmission interface -
specifications.
EXTENDING LAN:
Using some specialized devices one can increase the operating
range of a LAN. Signals get attenuated with distance. This can be
overcome by arranging for a repeater in the path. Repeaters are
explained in Section 8.10.2. Similarly, one can extend the LAN to
several buildings in a campus by using devices such as bridges and
switches.
1. Fiber Optic Extension Repeaters can be used in extending fiber
optic cables in a LAN or Metropolitan Area Network (MAN). A
repeater is a networking component that extends a network by
boosting the signal so that it can travel farther along the cabling.
Repeaters are used in fiber optic networks to amplify and regen
erate light signals for long-distance cable runs.

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2. Repeaters All transmission media attenuate (weaken) the elec

tromagnetic waves that travel through the media. Attenuation
therefore limits the distance any medium can carry data. Adding a
device that amplifies the signal can allow it to travel farther,
increasing the size of the network. For example, if one is
connecting computers that are more than 100 metres apart using
Ethernet cable, one will need a device that amplifies signals to
ensure data transmission. Devices that amplify signals in this way
are called repeaters.
Repeaters fall into the following two categories:
Amplifiers Amplifiers simply amplify the entire incoming sig
nal, i.e both signal and the noise. These are able to improve
upon the analog type of signal only.
> Signal-regenerating devices (Repeaters) Signal regenerating
repeaters create an exact duplicate of the incoming digital data
by identifying it amidst the noise, reconstructing it and passing
only the desired information. In this manner, the original signal
is duplicated, boosted to its original strength and then sent.
Why Repeaters?

Repeaters extend the distance of a single network. So if you are

using an Ethernet LAN but need to go farther than you are usually
able to,you can then install a repeater toachieve the added distance.
When a repeater is installed, it creates a physical break in the cable.
The signal is received on one side of the repeater, regenerated and
passed on to the next section of cable.
-
3. Bridges: Bridges are mainly used to connect two similar local
area network. It is also considered are an device which connect two
similar segments in a network.
Purpose of bridges:"
> Bridges work under data link layer of OSI model.
> WorkS on MAC address. [c medium access control (MAC)]
Manages network traffic by filtering packets.
> Translator from one protocol to another. Protocol.
Type of bridgesi
1. Local bridges: - Local bridges are used where the network is
being locally segmented means that the two networks of
segments physically close together.

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2. Remote bridges: Remote bridges are mainly used where the

network is remotely segmented. The segments are physically far
apart is different building, etc. such bridges required several
transmission medium to .connect two points.
Advantages of latest bridges:
> Suitable for CSMA/CD and token bus.
> Self learning: requires low manual configuration.
> No hardware changes required. No software changes required.
> Ready to install.
Disadvantages of transparent / latest bridges:
> Transparent bridges don't support loop path.
4. Switches: switch is a device, functionality is similar to bridges
means that switches are used to connect two devices of networks.
Switches operate of data link layer of OSI model. Switches filter
the request as will ascontrol floating of frames.
5. Hubs: It multiple incoming connections need to be connected with
multiple outgoing connections then a HUB is required. Is data
communication a HUB is used as a central point where data
arrives from one or more directions and is forwarded out one or
more other directions. HUBs are multi port repeaters. They
operate at the physical layer of OSI model. HUBs are used to
provide a physical star topology.
6. Routers: Routers are both hardware and software. The purpose of
a router is to connect nodes across and inter network. Routers
work under network layer of OSI model. A router contains routing
table as well as routing protocols. Router uses address i.e. the
combination of network numbers and node address. There are
several protocols available to use with routers. Some of there are:
) Routing Information Protocol (RIP) - This routing protocol is
use by several network operating systems for routing the
packets from source to destination. Each router maintains a
table of each destination and the file table is frequently updated
by routing information protocol broadcast message. They also
maintain the total number of hop in routing table to select the
shortest path to the destination.
(ii) Exterior Gateway Routing Protocol (ERGP) – This is the
enhance form of RIP. It also manages there problems. There are

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frequently arising with RIP, It works like default routing

protocol across the internet. It uses up to five conditions to select
the best route.
(iii) Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) – It might be possible that
there are several path exist between one router to another but
main responsibility of this protocol is to select shortest path they
use DISKSTRA'S Algorithm. According to that algorithm a
graph is build of the subnet. Router is represented as and each
of the line is represented communication line. Shortest path is
selected according to path length.
7. Gatewavs: Gateways is used to connect totally dissimilar
networks. They have capability to perform protocol conversion for
all seven layers of the OSI model. The common use of this device is
to connect a LAN and mainframe computer. Gateways changing
protocol, transmitting packet between two different systems.
X.25 Gateways - These gateways are becoming popular
because of thee evolution of enterprise networks and WAN. A PC
on the remote sites LAN function as a gateway and runs gateway
software. Remote LAN can also communicate vith mainframe.
X.25 was established as a recommendation of the ITU
(International Telecommunication Union), an organization that
ecommends standards for international telephone services. X.25
has been adopted by public data networks and became especially
popular in Europe.
In the X.25 view a network operates much like a telephone
system. X.25 network is assumed to consist of complex packet
switches that contain the intelligence needed to route packets.
Comparison between Routers and Gateways:
Routers and Gateways can manipulate the packets being
transmitted. In the case of a router, that manipulation may be simply
some determination of where the packet comes from and where the
packets are to go. But an intelligent decision is being made. In a
gateway, the decision may be a little more complex because a
gateway can perform more functions. It only not perform the router's
function but also converts the message from one packet format to
another. -
Virtual ILANS:

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Virtual LAN (VLAN) is a networking technology that allows

networks to be segmented logically without having to be physically
rewired.
Traditionally, each department in a building used to have its
own local area network (LAN).These LANs were created using hubs,
and these hubs were connected to a main Ethernet switch in the
main room of the building. However, broadcasts sent by any host
were received by all hosts on the network, even if all of the hosts do
not need to receive them.Also, if the organization of the departments
changes, the hubs must be rewired to reflect the new topology of the
network.
To overcome these problems, many Ethernet switches nowadays
support Virtual LAN (VLAN) technologies. AIl hubs are replaced by
VLAN switches. The network administrator creates virtual network
segments whose logical topology is independent of the physical
topology of the wiring. Each station is assigned a VLAN identification
number (ID), and stations with the same VLAN ID can act and
function as though they are all on the same physical network
segment.
Broadcasts sent by one host are received only by hosts with the
same VLAN ID. The assignment of VLAN IDs is done at the port
level on the switches themselves and can be managed remotely using
network management software. Moving a host from one department
to another department only requires the assignment of a different
VLAN ID to the port on the switch to which the host is connected. No
rewiring is needed.
The main advantage of using VLAN technologies is that users
can be grouped together according to their need for network
communication,regardless of their actual physical locations.
The only disadvantage is that additional configuration is
required to set up and establish the VLANs. VLAN techniques are
also typically used in Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) networks
to partition the network into smaller segments.
Chapter-9
Wide area network (wan)
Introduction: WAN (Wide Area Network) is a digital communication
system which interconnects different sites, computer installations

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and user terminals, and may als0 enable LANs to communicate with
each other. This type of network may be developed to operate
nationwide or worldwide. The transmission media used in WANs are
normally public systems such as telephone lines, microwave and
satellite links.
WAN is used to interconnect LANs which may be at opposite
sides of a country or located around the globe.
Wide area networks (WANs) combine the continuous error
detection and correction techniques included in synchronous
communications with robust network problem determination and
data routing to form powerful backbones that ensure high quality,
reliable service for end users.
Network Using Wan and Network Services:
Many wide area network services are emerging these days due
to the increasing demand of corporate business houses and public
and private sectors for these services at the lowest possible cost.
Users are demanding Wide area network accesses that offer
support for transmission of data, video, imaging, fax and voice. The
primary driving forces of increased capacity and sophistication for
wide area network services are:
() Host to terminal connection A terminal is an I/O device,
consisting of a keyboard and a monitor and the host is a backend
processing computer. Hosts and terminals may be located in
different locations. Hosts can be connected to the different
terminals through local area network connections or through
remote dial-up connections. User's commandsare typically entered
through a terminal. This information is transmitted to a host
computer (generally Mainframe computer) over an Ethernet or
Token Ring local area network connection. The mainfram
processes the input and sends the output over the network to the
terminal monitor. Thus, application runs in the host and the
terminal does user interfacing function.
Terminals can be of two types:
Local Terminals: directly connected to the host via a serial
or LAN connection.
> Remote Terminals: connected to the host via a phone line
with a modem at both the ends.

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(i) LAN to LAN connection Wide area networking may be used for
communicating with devices that reside beyond one's local LAN.
For the communication to take place, the two LANs must be in the
same WAN. Routers can be used to connect LANs that employ
similar protocols.
When two dissimilar LANs are to be connected, tunnels and
gateways are made use of.
A gateway is any device that is capable of interconnecting
networks with dissimilar routing protocols.
WAN links can be grouped into the following three main
categories:
> Circuit switched services -
A temporary switched circuit
established through the telecommunications system for the
duration of the communication session. When the connection is
terminated, the carrier's switches are freed up for other uses.
Examples are modems and dial-up Integrated Services Digital
Network (1SDN) connections.
> Leased lines - These are dedicated connections that establish
permanent switched circuit that is always ready to carry
network traffic.
Leased lines are very expensive because then are dedicated
to the customer even when they are not in use.
> Packet switched services These are dedicated or dial-up
connections to a public packet switching network such as X.25, a
public frame-relay network, or even a virtual private network
(VPN). Intermediary switches send data packets along the best
route possible by using the logical address of the destination
node, which is contained in the packet header.
(iii) Remote LAN connection Remote access to a LAN can be either
through dial-up connection using a modem or through a leased
line. Remote access to the office LAN gives the employees and/or
customers access to the following services:
> File and print services
> Client/Server applications such as database applications
> Applications for remote network administration
Programs such as PcAnywhere control the networkaccess
remotely. However, since remote connection is mainly made using

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 DATACOMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

a slow modem, networkaccess control is often slow and jerky. But

it provides high security, saves on hardware and licensing costs,
and is simple to implement on a network.
Remote LAN connection allows users to access file, print and
other services of the company from remote locations.
Router Concepts:
Routing is the function of the network layer of the OSI model.
Routing means finding route or the next hop for a packet. A device
called router does the routing function. It uses a table called routing
table to find the route to the packet's final destination. Routing
tables contain information about the potential paths that a data
packet should take to travel through the internet work and reach its
destination.
To view the internal routing table of a computer running
Microsoft Windows XP, Windows 2000 or Windows NT, type route
print at the command prompt.
Router has to read the header of each packet that arrives and
extract the destination address of the packet. The router then sends
the packet out on the appropriate transmission path based on a
calculation of the optimum route to that destination.
Routing involves two main functions. These are:
1. Forwarding Function When packets need to be sent to a host or
hosts on another network, they are forwarded to a router that is
connected to that particular local network. The router to which the
packet is forwarded willthen check its routing tables to determine
the path the packet should take. Packets are usually sent along
the path with the lowest cost value or metric. The routing metric
mainly includes the following:
> Hop Count: The number of intermediate routers between a
given network and the local router.
> Latency: The time delay in processing a packet through the
router or over a given route.
Congestion: The length of the packet queue at the incoming
port of the router.
> Load: The processor use at the router or the number of
packets per second that it is currently processing

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> Bandwidth: The available capacity of a route to support

network traffici decreases as network traffic increases
> M Reliability: The relative amount of downtime that a
particular router might experience because of malfunctions.
> Maximum Transmission Unit (MTU): The largest packet size
that the router can forward without needing to fragment the
packet.
2.Filtering Function Filtering is the process of controlling the flow
of packets based on attributes such as source Filtering is done to
protect the network from authorized traffic. Network
administrators can create rules for filtering out unwanted packets.
A packet that satisfies all the rules is allowed to be transmitted,
while a packet that violates any of the rules is dropped.
Packet filtering can be implemented in the following two
ways:
Static Filtering In Static Filtering, ports are configured as
either permanently open or permanently closed. For example, to
deny outside packets access the company's intranet server on
port 80, one can configure the router to block all incoming
packets directed towards port 80.
> Dynamic Filtering In Dynamic Filtering, selected ports can be
opened for authorized access and closed for others. These ports
areopened at the start of a legitimate session and then closed at
the end of the session to secure the port against unauthorized
attempts. One can configure rules in the router to read the
incoming packets, dynamically open the two ports to allow a
session to be started, monitor the flow of packets to ensure that
no attempt is made to hijack the session by an unauthorized
user and close the randomly assigned ports when the session
ends.
-
Routing Method: There are two routing method:
>
Static Routing In static routing method, routing tables are
manually configured by the network administrator. Static
routing is generally used in smaller networks that contain only
a smaller number of routers or where security is a major
concern. Routers that use static routing are called static routers.
Each static router must be configured and maintained

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separately because static routers do not exchange routing

information with each other.
The routing table must contain a route for every network in
the internet work. It is more immune to any hampering by
hackers since the network administrator controls the
configuration of the routing table.
>
Dynamic Routing Dynamic Routing is a routing mechanism
which is handled by a routing protocol, such as Routing
Information Protocol (RIP), Open Shortest Path First (0SPF)
Protocol etc. These protocols dynamically exchange routing
information among routers on an internet work. Routers that
use this method are called dynamic routers.
routing protocol is installed on each Dynamic Router. The
A

routers periodically exchange their routing information so that if

the internet work is reconfigured or a router goes down, the
routing tables of each router are modified accordingly.
Dynamic routers are less secure because routing tables can
be hampered by hackers. If the network is reconfigured or a
router goes down, it takes time for this information to propagate
between the various routers on the network. Routing protocols
also create- additional network traffic.
Local Routing:
Local routing is the routing of a packet within a particular
network. When a packet arrives at a router and the IP address
indicates that the packet belongs to this network, the router sends an
ARP message to find out the physical address of the destination node.
The process is explained in the following Section.
1. ARP Address Resolution Protocol) Table ARP is a network layer
protocol concerned with mapping node names to IP addresses. It
matches logical and physical device addresses.
On a typical physical network, such as a LAN, each device on
a link is identified by a physical or station address usually
imprinted on the network interface card (NIC). ARP maintains
tables of name to address mappings, known as ARP table, and can
send out packets for searching the address if a desired name or
address is not currently in its table. Physical addresses have local
jurisdiction and can be changed easily. For example, if the NIC on

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a particular machine fails, the physical address changes. The IP

addresses, on the other hand, have universal jurisdiction and
cannot be changed. ARP is used to find the physical address to the
node when its Internet address is known.
Any time a host, or a router, needs to find the physical
address of another host on its network, it formats an ARP query
packet that includes the IP address and broadcasts it over the
network.
Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP) RARP (Reverse
Address Resolution Protocol) performs the same function as ARP
does but in reverse, that is given a physical address, it determines
the IP address.
2. Distributed Routing In Distributed routing, each router
periodically exchanges its routing information with each of its
neighbors. For example, let us assume that the hop count is taken
as a metric-for routing in a certain network. Once every T milli
seconds, a router A sends to its neighbors a list of hop counts (to
each destination). It also receives a similar list from its neighbors.
Suppose a neighbor B has sent a routing table with Bi as the hop
count required to reach node i. If node A knows that the hop count
toreach node B is m, it knows that it can reach node ivia B in m t
Bihop counts. By performing similar calculation for all the routing
tables that arrive, a node can find out the best estimate and
correspondingly modify its routing table.
3. Hierarchical Routing In Hierarchical routing, a network is
divided into subnetworks, with the router in a sub-network
knowing only about the nodes within its subnetwork and being
ignorant about the nodes in other sub-networks. This firees the
routers from keeping information about all the nodes in a network,
which would have, as networks grow in size, required large
memory, enormous CPU time and huge bandwidth.
4. Distance-Vector Protocol A distance vector protocol periodically
broadcasts the complete routing tables across the internet work.
Routing tables are calculated on the basis of the number of hops
required to reach the destination network. Other routing metrics
such as traffic load, bandwidth available, latency or Maximum

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Transmission Unit (MTU) are not used in calculating routing

tables.
5. Link-State Protocol Link-State Protocol is more efficient in terms
of network overhead than the Distance-Vector Protocol. An
example of a protocol that uses Link-State algorithm is the 0SPF
(Open Shortest Path First) protocol.
OSPF-enabled routers, using any algorithm, compute the
shortest path between nodes on an internet work. They create a
map (or tree) called the link state database describing the topology
or structure of the specific network area. Network areas are groups
of networks connected using OSPF-enabled routers that all have
router interfaces for any of the networks included in the area.
Division of the complete network into network areas has the
advantage that each router need maintain only link state
information about its own area and other areas connected to it,
which improves the scalability of OSPF.
The link state database includes cost information in addition
to hop information. The link state database is updated if a router
goes down or if the structure of the network is reconfigured. Only
the updations are exchanged over the network. This is unlike
distancevector protocol which involved transmission of the
complete routing tables. Also, unlike RIPenabled routers, which
broadcast routing information every 30 seconds, OSPF broadcasts
changes only when they occur. These features substantially reduce
inter router network traffic compared to RIP and make OSPF a
more efficient protocol than RIP for large internet works.
Communication Protocols Over Wan:
The two commonly used communication protocols over WAN are
ATM and X.25.
1. ATM (Asynchronous Transmission Mode) ATM is a connection
oriented protocol that can work with either permanent virtual
circuits (PVCs) or switched virtual circuits (SVCs). ATM networks
use maximum bandwidth, while maintaining guaranteed quality of
service (QOS).
The two main benefits of ATM are:
> high transmission speed
> flexible bandwidth on demand capability

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ATM uses fixed-size cells for packaging information. Due to

the fixed size of cells, ATM connections are predictable and can be
easily managed.
ATM technology works primarily at data-link layer of the OSI
(Open Systems Interconnection) reference model.
ATM connects devices over a WAN using virtual channels
(VCs) and virtual paths (VPs). Virtual channels consist of one or
more physical ATM links connected in a series for transmitting
data between remote stations. All cells in a given ATM
transmission follow the same VC to ensure reliable data
transmission. A Virtual Channel exists only as long as data is
being transmitted on it.
A Virtual Path (VP) is a collection of VCs having the same
source and destination points. VP can be used to group all the
traffic to a given destination and send it over the VP.
ATM cells are of size 53 bytes (48 bytes of data payload and 5
bytes of control and routing information). The payload field
contains the data which can be either plain text, images voice or
video.
ATM dynamically allocates bandwidth. Bandwidth is
allocated only in required amounts. For example, when an ATM
link is idle, it utilizes no bandwidth, which in turn results in
considerable cost savings.
2. X.25 Protocol X.25 is a packetswitching protocol for wide area
network (WAN). The X.25 standard corresponds in functionality to
the first three layers of the Open Systems Interconnection (0SI)
reference model. X. 25 provides the following specifications:
> Network Layer: The network layer protocol of X.25 is known as
Packet Layer Protocol (PLP). It defines how to address and
deliver X.25 packets using permanent virtual circuits (PVCs) or
switched virtual circuits (SVCs). This layer is responsible for
call·setup and call-termination and for managing transfer of
packets.
Data-link Layer: Data-link layer protocol of X.25 is known as
Link Access Procedure Balanced (LAPB). It defines framing and
error-correction methods. LAPB is derived from the High-level
Data Link Control (HDLG) protocol.

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> Physical Layer: The physical layer interface of X.25 is called

X.2lbis and it is used to connect computers and terminals (DTE)
with data communications equipment (DCE) such as switches.
Chapter- 10
Data transmission networks
Telephone Networks: Telephone networks provide in addition to the
Plain Old Telephone Service (POTS) connection, high speed data
transmission services such as Integrated Services Digital Network
((SDN), Frame Relay, T1 lines and Asymmetric Digital Subscriber
Line (ADSL). The telephone networks connect the customer premises
equipment (CPE) with a similar equipment at the telephone
company's central office. This connection can then be used to support
the following:
> Dial-up remote access solutions using modems or ISDN.
> Highspeed dedicated leased-line access to the Internet for
corporate users.
> Packet switched services, such as X.25 services, for point-to
point or multipoint wide area network (WAN) connections with
other branches of the telephone company.
1. Dial-up Telephone Networks A Dial-up Telephone Network is a
network established using a modem over ordinary phone lines. The
phone lines (also known as dial-up lines), used primarily for voice
communication, are less expensive to use but they have less
available bandwidth.
Companies often use dial-up networking only for occasional,
low-bandwidth usage (such as remote access networking) or as a
backup for the more costly dedicated or leased lines.
Dial-up networks are shared with all subscribers in the Public
Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) domain.
2. Leased Line Leased line isa permanent direct connection usually
bought by corporate business houses for connecting two
geographically separate local area networks (LANs). Leased lines
are dedicated circuits that the telephone company reserves for the
exclusive use of the customer.
In a leased-line network, the customer's LAN is connected by
bridges, routers, modems and terminal adapters to the telephone
company's central office, which sets up dedicated switches to

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connect it to the destination LAN. One can also use a leased line to
connect to the Internet.
Leased lines are very expensive as compared to dial-up lines.
In return, they are always available, active and secure.
The fee for a leased line is dependent on bandwidth and
distance. The fee is usually charged monthly or quarterly.
3. X.25 X.25 was designed as a global standard for a packet
switching network. It was originally designed to connect remote
terminals with mainframe hosts. X.25 was designed when analog
telephone transmissions were done on copper wire. Therefore, it
has a large overhead of error correction information, resulting in
inefficient use of bandwidth.
Although newer WAN technologies such as Frame Relay,
Integrated Services Digital Network ([SDN) and T-carrier services
are preferred these days, X.25 networks are widely used in credit
card verification, automatic teller machine transactions and other
dedicated business and financial uses.
An X.25 network consists of a backbone of X. 25 switches that
are called packet switching exchanges (PSEs). These switches pro
vide packet switching services. PSEs connect DCEs at the local
facilities of X.25 carriers to the X.25 Public Data Network (PDN).
DTEs at customer premises connect to DCEs at X.25 carrier
facilities by using a device called a packet assembler/disassembles
(PAD).
One DTE (computer terminal) can initiate a communication
session with another by dialing its X.21 address and establishing
either permanent virtual circuit or switched virtual circuit.
Messages are transmitted in the form of packets. Maximum packet
sizes range from 64 to 4096 bytes, depending on the system.
Packets are routed through the X.25 backbone network by using
the ID number (a 12-bit number) of the virtual circuit established
for this particular communication session. This ID number is also
known as the Logical Channel Identifier (LCI).
Some important Networks and its characteristics:
1. Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) -
> Analog nature of transmission.
> It has restricted bandwidth.

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> Available at every place.

> Transmission rate is low.
> It is voice based communication i.e. Telephones.
> Modems are required when it is used for data communication.
2. Public Switched Data Network (PSDN) –
> Several technologies are used with PSDN.
> Highly reliable.
> Provides quality of connections.
>
It supports both low and high speed at reasonable cost.
> It is very popular for connecting public and private systems to
implement electronic mail services.
3. Value Added Network (VAN) - In value added services the
provider of such services must process store and manipulate the
data ie. carried on the network. The technique can be used in
specific type of business electronic data interchange is one area for
value added services in which two trading partners exchange
trading documents such as purchase orders, invoices etc
Integrated Services Digital Network (TSDN): ISDN is enhanced
digital Network which integrates voice, vide0 and data services using
digital transmission medium and combining both circuit and packet
switching technique. Users can use their digital connections to
telephone company for transmitting both voice and data over the
some medium.
It is an international communications standard for sending
voice, video and data over digital telephone line. This system allows
data to be transmitted simultaneously across the world using end to
end digital connectivity. There are two basic types of ISDN Servers:
() Basic Rate Interface (BRI) – BRI consists of two 64 kbps B
channels and one 16 kbps D-channel. It is most appropriate of
individual error and small business. To access a customer
should have within 5.5 km of the service provider central office.
If distance is extended from 5.5 km repeaters are required.
(ii) Primary Rate Interface (PRI)- PRI is intended for users with
greater capacity requirements. Typically the channel structure
is 23 Bchannel t one 64kbps channel. The higher capacity
service is central site solution for extending application to large
no. of remote users.

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With its BRI and PRI servers ISDN has the flexibility to meet
the bandwidth needs of home office or company head quarter small
office can use ISDN BRI to support al of its voice and data
communication requirement and users in a very large office can
benefits from ISN PRI's capacity.
Advantage ISDN:
of

Speed - Before ISDN modem was used to make computer

communications through public telephone network but it has
limited bandwidth to transmit data. Actually ISDN is
replacement for old telephone services. It is the fact that ISDN
services is provided by the some companies but the difference
that we can get much faster connection for voice data and video
through a single line.
Multiple Device - Before ISDN, it was necessary to have a
separate line for each device that has to be used simultaneously
but by the use of ISDN it became possible to combine several
digital data sources over a single line.
> Signaling – The signaling mechanism is also different form
telephone. It sends a digital packet through a separate channel
so connection establishment and called setup time is very fast.
Application of ISDN:
Internet access
> Telephoning
> Video conferencing (Synchronization)
> Education
-
NARROWBAND ISDN (N-ISDN): The original ISDN providing data
rates of 64 Kbps to 1.544 Mbps is known as Narrowband ISDN (N
ISDN). When ISDN was originally designed, this range of data rate
was sufficient to handle all existing transmission needs. As
applications using the telecommunications networks advanced, these
rates proved inadequate to support many applications.
BROADBAND ISDN (B-ISDN): Toprovide for the needs of the next
generation technology, an extension of ISDN, called Broadband ISDN
(B-ISDN), is under study. B-ISDN provides subscribers to the
network with data rates in the range of 600 Mbps, almost 400 times
faster than the PRI rate.

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Broadband ISDN Services Broadband ISDN provides two types of

services:
> Interactive Interactive services are those services which need
twoway transfers between either two subscribers or between a
subscriber and a service provider.
> Distributive Distributive services are of simplex
communication form which are sent from a service provider to
subscribers. The subscriber does not have to transmit a request
each time a service is desired. These services can be without or
with user control.
Physical Specifications of Broadband ISDN The Broadband ISDN
model is divided into layers which are closely tied to the design of
Asynchronous Transmission Mode.
However, the physical aspects of B-ISDN that are not related to
ATM include:
Access methods Broadband ISDN has the following three
access methods:
Symmetrical (155.520 Mbps)
Asymmetrical (155.520 Mbps/622.080 Mbps)
Functional equipment groupings The functional groupings of
equipment in the Broadband ISDN model are the same as those
for Narrowband ISDN. However, these equipments are called B
NT1, B-NT2, B-TE1, B-TE2 and B-TA.
>
Reference points Broadband ISDN also uses the reference
points similar to Narrowband ISDN (R, S, T and U).
Frame Relay: Frame relay is a service for people who want
connection oriented way to move bits from one station to another at
regionable speed and low cost. Frame relay can be used with virtual
leased line. The customer leases a permanent virtual circuit between
two points and can then send frames between them.
Congestion Control: Frame relay employs congestion-notification
mechanisms rather than flow control. Since frame relay i
implemented on a reliable network media flow control-function is left
to higherlayer
protocols.
Frame relay uses two congestionnotification mechanisms.
These are:

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() FECN (Forward Explicit Congestion Notification)- The FECN

mechanism is initiated when a sender device (DTE) sends frames
into the network. If the network is congested, switches (DCE) will set
the value of the FECN bit to 1. When the frames reach the
destination device, the set FECN bit indicates that the frame
experienced congestion in its path from source to destination. The
destination device will pass this information to higher-level protocols
for processing.
(ii) BECN (Backward-Explicit Congestion Notification) DCE devices
(such as switches) set the value of the BECN bit in those frames that
are travelling in the opposite direction of frames with their FECN bit
et. This informs the DTE that the particular path is congested. It
can then pass this information to higher-level protocols for
processing.
Frame Relay header also contains a Discard Eligibility (DE) bit.
This bit is set to 1 in lessimportant frames. Thus, in case of
congestion, these unimportant frames can be identified and dropped.
When the network becomes congested, DCE devices will discard
frames with the DE bit set. This reduces the chance of critical data
getting deleted during congestion periods.
Cell Relay: Cell relay uses fix sized packets called cell relay. The
basic idea behind ATM is to transmit all information in small, fixed
size packets called cell. ATM is both a technology and potentially a
service. Sometimes the service is called cell relay. The fixed size cell
reduces overhead.
ATM Technology: ATH layettcd Akchteciute.
> ATM is used
in many ATH Adupion Layet
networks V
including both
onvgnt cas Sejrunttrot t Reatztghig
public and suh Layt
private. trytt
> ATM LAFlacaluth Layet
technology AAL ATH Adplicn (ayt)
can be used in Snin tatron i
existing tayrt
twisted pair, ATA layet

Physual layed

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 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

coaxial cable, and fiber optics network for local area network as
well as WAN communication. In other words such technology
compatible with existing network.
> ATM technology is also compatible with wireless and satellite
communication.
ATM Layered Structure: The new wide area service is called B
ISDN. It will offer video on demand, Live television from many
es, full motion multimedia e mail, CD quality music, high speed
data transport and many other services. The underline technology
that makes B-ISDN possible is called ATM. Following are the
different layers of ATM:
) Physical Layer - The physical layers deals with physical
devices and medium.
(ii) ATM Layer - ATM Layer mainly deals with cell and cell
transport. It defines the layout of a cell and tells what the
header fields mean. The size of a cell is 53 bytes (5 bytes of
header and 48 bytes of data/payload). Because each cell is the
same size and small, delay and other problems with
multiplexing different sized packets are avoided. Congestion
control is also located here. Functionality of this layer is same as
the network layer of OSI Model.
(ii) ATM Adaptation Layer - ATM Adaptation Layer is divided in
two sub layers:
(a) Segmentation and Reassembly (SAR) - This is the lower
part of ATM Adaptation Layer. The SAR sub layer breaks
packets intocell on the transmission side and put them back
together again at the destination.
(b) CS - This layer is responsible for accepting messages from
the application and breaking them into 48 bytes for
transmission.
> How ATM Protocol works?
When a user sends data over the ATM network. The higher level
data unit is passed down to the CS, which prepares the data for the
ATM layers. The data is then passed down the SAR sub layer, which
divides the data into appropriately sized segment.
These segments are then passed on to the ATM layer, which
defines and appropriate cell header for each segment and

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encapsulate the header and payload into 53 byte cell. The cells are
then passed down to the physical layer, which streams the cell and
an appropriate place.
Benefits of ATM:
High bandwidth medium with low delay.
>
Meets the requirement of the telephone, cable television, radio
and data industries.
> Ability to transmit video without creating a glittering or loosing
the synchronization of sound and picture.
> ATM switches capable of transmitting 20 gigabits of data/second
and a shared switch can transmit up to 662 Gbits/sec.
> It isextremely fast and provides dynamic bandwidth.
>
ATMis designed for high performance multimedia networking.
Chapter - 11
Wireless communication
Introduction: Mobile devices such as laptop, palmtop, mobile,
phones etc. are now available at affordable prices. These devices,
based on the wireless communication techniques, help us to achieve
mobility. Mobility is the ability to access information and services
anyme and anywhere. Through wireless computing, one can access
information, on traffic, ticket booking, check account balance, e-mail
from one's home, cafeteria, or even from a grocery store.
Wireless communication makes use of spread, spectrum radio,
infrared, cellular radio and satellite communication technologies.
Since discussing each of them is out of the scope of this book, only the
Cellular radio and Satellite communication technologies are
discussed in the following sub-sections.
Cellular Radio: Cellular Radio means using a large number of low
power base stations for transmission, each having a limited coverage
area.
An area is divided into a number of smaller areas, called cells.
Each of these smaller areas is served by its own lowpower radio base
station. Frequency channels are allocated to these radio stations in
such a way that the channels (frequencies) used in one cell can be
reused in another cell some distance away.
Principle of Operation The principle behind cellular radio is this:
Instead of using one powerful transmitter,er, many lowpower

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transmitters are placed throughout a coverage area. For example, a

high power transmitter in a region can have twelve conversations
(channels).
The cellular radio equipment (base station) can communicate
with mobiles as long as they are within range. Radio energy weakens
over distance, hence, mobiles must remain within a frequency range
to be able to communicate, with each other.
Cells A cell is the basic geographic unit of a cellular system. The
term cellular comes from the honeycomb shape of the areas into
which a coverage area is divided. Cells can be sized according to the
population density in a given area. The splitting of cell into smaller
cells is known as cell splitting. A group of cells is called a cluster. No
frequency is reused within a cluster.
Frequency Reuse Since only a small number of radio channel
frequencies are available, there has to be a way to reuse the available
channels. The solution adopted was frequency reuse through the
cellular concept. Cells are assigned a group of channels that is
completely different from that of the neighboring cells. Infact, all the
cells in a cluster use diferent frequencies. The same group of
channels can be used in cells in some other cluster, provided that
they are far enough from each other, so that their frequencies do not
interfere.
Handoff When a mobile user travels from one cell to another, while
-

he is attending a call, he is moving out of range of one radio base

station and entering into the range of another base station. Since
adjacent cells do not use the same frequency channel, the call must
be either dropped or transferred from one radio channel to another
when a user crosses the line between adjacent cells. Dropping the call
is not a desirable solution. The second option must be adopted and it
is known as handoff.
Handoff occurs when a call is transferred from one radio channel
to another as a mobile equipment leaves one cell and enters another
one.
When a mobile user leaves a cell, the reception becomes weak.
At this point, the cell site in use requests a handoff. The Mobile
Telephone Network switches the call to a stronger frequency channel

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in the new cell. This is done without interrupting or alerting the

user. The user does not notice the handoff at all.
TELEPHONY (GSM): GSM stands for Global System for Mobile
Communication. Various systems had been developed for cellular
communication, but there was no standardization. This led to several
incompatibility problems. To overcome such problems, GSM standard
was adopted in 1982 for cellular communication.
GSM is a globally accepted standard for digital cellular
communication. It provides the specifications, that is the function
and interface requirements, but does not address the hardware. This
is done toallow buying equipments from different vendors.
GSM network is divided into the following three systems:
() Switching System (SS) Switching System is responsible for call
processing and subscriber related functions. It includes the following
functional units:
Home Location Register (HLR): It is a database storing
permanent information about subscribers such as the
subscriber's address, service profile and activity status.
> Visitor Location Register" (VLR): It is another database that
stores emporary information about subscribers This
information is needed by MSC (Mobile services Switching
Centre) to service the visiting subscribers.
> Mobile Services Switching Centre (MSC): It controls calls to and
from other telephone systems or data systems. It performs such
functions as tollticketing, network interfacing, common channel
signaling etc.
> Authentication Centre (AUC): It provides authentication
services like identifying authorized users and also ensures the
confidentiality of each call.
Equipment Identity Register (EIR): It is a database storing
information about the identity of mobile equipments. This
prevents calls from stolen, unauthorized or defective mobile
stations. Often EIR is integrated with the AUC (Authentication
Centre).
(ii) Base Switching System (BSS) All radio related functions are
performed by BSS. IC consists of Base Station Controllers (BSC) and
Base Transceiver Stations (BTS).

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> Base Station Controllers (BSC) - They provide all the control
functions and physical links between the BTS (Base Transceiver
Stations) and MSC (Mobile Services Switching Centre). They
control handoffs, radio frequency (RF), power levels in base
transceiver stations (BTS) etc.
Base Transceiver Stations (BTS) BTS is the radio equipment
(transceiver + antenna) needed to service a cell. They handle the
radio interface to the mobile stations. A group of BTSs is con
trolled by a single BSC(Base Station Controller).
(ii) Operation and Support System (OSS) OS is connected to all
the elements of Switching System (SS) and to the Base Station
Controller (BSC). It is the functional entity through which the
network operator monitors and controls the system. It offers cost
effective support for centralized, regional and local operational and
maintenance activities required for a GSM network.
GSM Specifications Following is the list of GSM specifications:
> Frequency Range: 1,850 to 1,990 MHz.
> Duplex Distance: Duplex distance is the distance between the
uplink and downlink frequencies. Duplex distance specified for
GSM is 80 MHz.
>
Channel Separation: For GSM, separation between-adjacent
carrier frequencies is 200 KHz.
> Modulation: Modulation in GSM is done through Gaussian
minimum shift keying (GMSK).
> Transmission rate: GSM has a data rate of 270 kbps.
> Access Method: GSM utilizes the Time Division Multiple Access
(TDMA concept.
> Coding: GSM uses Linear Predictive Coding (LPC). Speech is
encoded at 13 kbps.
VSAT (VERY SMALL APERTURE TERMINAL):
Very Small Aperture Terminals (VSATs) are tiny terminals that have
1·meter antennas and can put out about 1 watt of power. The uplink
is generally good for 19.2 kbps, but the downlink is more, often. 512
kbps. In many VSAT systems, the micro stations do not have enough
power to communicate directly with one another. Instead, a special
ground station, the hub, with a large high gain antenna is needed to
relay traffic between VSATs as shown in Figure 11.7.

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In this mode of operation, either the sender or the receiver has

large antenna and a powerful amplifier. The tradeoff is a longer
delay in return for having cheaper end-user stations. The delay time
or end-to end transit time is between 250 to 300 cosec (540 m. sec. for
a VSAT system with a hub).
Among the options available in the country, VSAT networks
have proved to be the most reliable and costreffective for a small·
sized network. Terrestrial based communication links available in
India are notoriously unreliable due to various reasons like lack of
foreign investment in infrastructure sector, absence of proper
planning, nonavailability of resources, delay in implementation of
liberalization policy etc. The major benefits of VSAT network are:
> very simple and easy to install
> channel availability to the tune of 99.5 per cent, thus leading to
> greater reliability
> high throughput and low bit error rate (BER) for data
applications and
> integration of data and voice in one communication medium
Chapter- 12
Security and privacy
Network Security: In a network several users are working together
-

and access for share the common resource that's why security must
be maintained among network users. Following are the major
consideration to maintain network security:
> Information that is stored in the system only accessed through
authorized users.
> Sharable resources should be available for only authorized
members.
> Unauthorized users should not be able to insert unnecessary
information.
> Unauthorized users should not be able to access the information
of the system.
Protection against Unauthorized use: To prevent the use of
information through outsiders, legal users are assigned an
identification in the form of User ID with Password.
-
Types ofATTACK: There are two types of ATTACK:

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i) Passive ATTACK - This is considered as monitoring of

transmission. Main purpose of such types of attack is to
obtain the information which is being transmitted. Such types
of ATTACK are difficult to detect but possible to prevent.
(i) Active ATTACK - It includes modification of messages,
capturing authentification, creation of false messages,
obtaining permissions associated with information etc. Active
attack cannot beeasily prevented, but it requires protection of
all facilities all the time.
Firewall: - When a small network (LAN) connects with internet, it
faces several dangerous security threads. To overcome such problem
Firewall is built. Firewalls are basically combination of hardwares
softwares that are built using routers, servers and a variety of
software. Firewall reduce the speed of a network but protect against
several security threads.
Benefits of using Firewall
> Protection against services
> Access to host
> To implement authentification procedure efficiency
> Policy inforcement
>
Proper use of login
Characteristics of good Firewall system – Firewall is mainly built to
protect our network. A Firewall system has following characteristics
to maintain security:
>A Firewall system should be able to deny authorized accession of
network services.
The Firewall should be flexible.
> The Firewall system most contains advance authentification
measures.
> The Firewall system should implement filtering mechanism.
Firewall Types - There are three types of Firewall:
-
) Proxy Firewall Such types of Firewall which is working as
intermediate between users request and a particular layer
(application layer or session layer or transport layer).
(ii) Packet Filtering Firewall - Such types of firewalls
checkslexamines all the incoming packets, then the system
forwards or drops its according to predefined rules.

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(ii) Stageful Inspection Firewall Such Firewalls system is

considered as a new technology based firewall system. Such
system provides functionality or awareness to application
layer without using any proxy.
Virtual Private Network (VPN): VPN is a private network of an
organization built over public connections, protocols and services
used in VPN are those of public networks, but it is so built that it
would function as a private corporate network.
In VPNs, users enjoy the same security and privacy
features as available in a real private network. It gives secure
remote access to the corporate network over the Internet.
VPNs use tunneling technologies to allow users to access
private network resources through the Internet or any other public
network.
Tunneling solutions are typically based on the Microsoft's
Point-toPoint Tunneling protocol (PPTP).

Finish

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