Bio-based Edible Food Packaging: A Review

Khadeeja Tul Kubra 1, Dilawaiz 1, Nimra Aslam 1, Mah Muqaddas 1, Maryam Asrar1, Rabia Imtiaz 1, Hifza Tariq 1,
Muhammad Sabeeh Gohar, Muhammad Atif 1

1
Chemistry Department, University of Education Lahore (Vehari Campus), Punjab, Pakistan

Abstract
Globally increasing concerns regarding environmental sources depletion, the negative impacts of
food packaging waste, and plastic waste pollution have intensified the need for alternative eco-
friendly sustainable food packaging. This comprehensive review article offers an extensive
overview of bio-based edible food packaging, its materials and properties, applications, and
challenges. Innovations in the food industry have become vital as mostly non-biodegradable food
packaging is being utilized and is detrimental to human health as well as to the environment.
These problems have increased the quest for bio-based packaging. Edible food packaging is a
sustainable alternative to synthetic packaging, providing benefits to the environment. Various
types of edible food packaging materials are reviewed in this paper including polysaccharides,
lipids, and proteins. These packagings ensure food quality, safety, and storage. Different
formulations of bio-based materials, applications, and their properties such as antimicrobial,
antioxidant, mechanical, moisture, gas, and oxygen barriers are highlighted in this review. this
paper identifies the functions of edible packaging to prevent food spoilage, improve shelf life,
and meet customer requirements. Finally, this review outlines the latest data of recent years and
the recent innovations in the food packaging industry i.e. edible food packaging, and their
potential for sustainability of the environment.

Key Words: Bio-based materials; Sustainable packaging; Edible food packaging; Biodegradable


Dr. Muhammad Atif, Associate Professor, Department of Chemistry,
University of Education Lahore (Vehari Campus), Punjab, Pakistan.
Contact: 0092-3024757979; 0092-3320947978
Email: muhammad.atif@ue.edu.pk; chemistatif@yahoo.com
1 Introduction
Food packaging is referred to as wrapping or covering of either natural or processed food in an
enclosed container or package to preserve and store food for later future consumption. It prevents
food contact with the surrounding atmosphere, thus preserving adequate quality, sensory
attributes, and nutritional value [1]. Efficient packaging ensures food safety from microbial,
physical, and chemical damage [2, 3] such as caused by moisture, gas or light exposure,
vibration or shock, and action of insects or pathogens [4-6] while extending shelf life [7, 8],
maintaining food quality [9], freshness and appearance [10]. The packaging of food products is
undergoing significant transformation in today's world, propelled by the evolving demands of
consumers [9, 11-13]. Driven by rising customer expectations, food packaging is changing
radically as companies seek to fulfill new preferences around sustainability, health, and
convenience [7, 14]. It is an integral part of food chain supply [15, 16] and the food industry [17,
18]. Food packaging, constituting about 70% of the total packaging products industry [19],
enables better and safer handling and transportation [20] of food items all over the food supply
[5, 18]. Thus the function of food packaging is also called PCCC which stands for protection and
preservation, containment, communication, and convenience [21, 22]. This review summarizes
the recent trends in edible food packaging its functions, chemistry, and applications.
2 Food Packaging Demand
Food safety has become a worldwide problem, especially in developing nations as about 1.3
billion metric tons of produced food is wasted during cultivation and utilization every year [23,
24], describing the inappropriate food supply [25]. More food is required for the growing
population. Globalization and urbanization have resulted in boosting the significance of food
safety and its needs [26]. Food packaging declines food waste production [27] therefore, it is a
vital step in all food production processes as it safeguards food quality [28] throughout the
process of packaging to consumption [29].
3 Packaging Waste as an Environmental Hazard
Environmental issues [30] regarding the increased fabrication and utilization of non-
biodegradable materials for packaging, as well as garbage disposal issues have got attention
toward developing bio-based and biodegradable packaging materials [31]. Thus, it is very
important to replace the packaging made of non-renewable petrochemicals with bio-based edible
packaging [18, 32, 33]. The wide consumption of petroleum-based plastics in food packaging,
also known as white pollution [34], has unintentionally led to the destruction of the
environment[35] such as oceans and landfills where plastics accumulate and do not decompose
i.e. non-biodegradable and may produce dangerous chemicals [23, 36]. As reported by the
European Commission, plastic constitutes more than 80% of ocean waste. They are the true killer
of biodiversity in oceans [37].
4 Types of Packaging
4.1 Petroleum-Based Packaging
Plastic packaging contains bisphenol A, phthalates, and polybrominated diphenyl ethers that
enter into the food product and cause harmful effects on human health [38]. According to a
report by Plastic Europe (2020), packaging material production all over the world in 2019
reached 368 million tonnes, and 40.5% of the total plastic synthesized is employed in food
packaging whereas just over 1% of the materials used in packaging are biodegradable [39]. It has
been estimated that by 2050, the total amount of plastic manufacturing worldwide will reach 34
billion tonnes and according to the present consumption of plastic, nearly 12 billion tonnes of
that will end up as waste in dumps or natural environment [40, 41]. These packaging are used
due to their good mechanical strength, barrier properties, and low cost [42] but their recycling is
very difficult economically. All these environmental issues can be resolved by using edible and
biodegradable packaging. Regarding economic sustainability and food safety, the use of edible
films is an exceptionally effective choice [43].
4.2 Bio-based Packaging
During the last few years, a significant increase in interest has been observed in manufacturing
environment-friendly biopolymers from natural resources to deal with environmental
sustainability issues. Enzymatic catalysis is employed by microbes (e.g. fungi and bacteria) to
break down polymers that are biodegradable and found in environments that are bioactive e.g.
landfills. Polymeric chains can also be broken down by non-enzymatic processes for example
chemical hydrolysis. The degraded polymers have resulting products like carbon dioxide, water,
biomass, methane, and other natural products that are beneficial in mitigating the emission of
gases from the greenhouse. Hence manufacturing renewable environmentally friendly packaging
from edible or biodegradable materials, nanocomposites or plant extracts might reduce the
adverse effects of synthetic packaging on the environment [44].
5 Edible Food packaging
Edible food packaging is a significant element of food and it can be taken in along with food
[45]. It can also be defined as a layer or wrapping on food products to enhance shelf life and can
be eaten along with food, without removal [46]. These packaging are biodegradable and can be
in the form of sheets, pouches, edible films, or coatings. Edible films and coatings differ in their
preparatory processes and application. Edible films are dried thin sheets about 50-250µm in
thickness. These films are used for wrapping food items or between food layers. Edible coatings
are thin coverings of edible ingredients that can be applied as liquids of different viscosities
within layers or surfaces of food through dipping, spraying, brushing, and drying on products to
do their particular actions [47]. These packaging control microbial, mechanical, chemical, and
biological contamination as well as moisture and gas barriers [48, 49]. Edible films have attained
significance in food packing, storage, handling, and transportation. Edible food packaging has
become a subject of research because of its bio-degradable and renewable nature, low cost, safe,
non-toxic eco-friendly properties [50].
Edible food packaging may be active or intelligent packaging. In active food packaging, active
ingredients such as antibacterials, antioxidants, or nanoparticles are added to the film matrix
while in intelligent food packaging food quality and freshness are assessed or evaluated based on
signal detection variations such as variation in color, etc. caused by prompted by packaging
conditions [51].
6 History of Edible Packaging
Edible packaging looks like a recent innovation but it is a very old process of preserving food for
centuries. It began in the 12th and 13th centuries in China for coating lemons and oranges with a
wax coating to minimize water loss during preservation and transportation. This process was
known as larding. In the early 15 th century, the first edible films also called Yuba films were
manufactured in Japan by boiling and air-drying soy milk protein in pans. In the 16 th century, to
reduce moisture just like waxing, larding of vegetables, meats, fish, and fruits was used in
England. In the 19th century gelatin film was developed in the United States for meat products
preservation. Edible films were also used as gas barriers. To reduce dehydration lipid coating and
waxing were employed. Phenol formaldehyde resin was applied first in 1903. During the last
century, edible film fabrication went through substantial development and was mainly applied to
mitigate water loss and improve physical appearance. As consumer demands are increasing for
freshness, quality, reliability, and sustainability, commercial edible food packaging is becoming
more prevalent [27, 52].
7 Applications of Edible Packaging
Packaging material demand is increasing annually by 8% to meet the total need [7, 53-56]. This
enhances the consumer's interest in ecological or sustainable packaging leading to the application
of bio-based materials for food packaging to extend the shelf life of various food products [54,
57]. Edible films are being examined in different kinds of foods, with unique characteristics in
boosting their shelf life. Following are some applications of edible films in dairy products, meat
and its products, fruits and vegetables, poultry, and seafood [7, 53].
7.1 Meat and meat products
The nutrient-rich environment of meat, comprising of moisture (42-80%), proteins (12-20%),
carbohydrates (0-6%) and fat (3-45%), [52] favors the development of microbes leading to the
spoilage of fresh meat [58]. Edible films help preserve meat [59] by developing gas and moisture
barriers, mechanical properties, and sensory perception of its products [53]. Lipid oxidation and
microbial contamination are the major challenges that are faced during meat product
preservation[59] which decreases the nutritional value and also affects the flavor, sensory, color,
and texture of fresh meat. Due to these factors shelf life of fresh meat has also been reduced to 3-
5 days (4°C) [60]. The application of whey protein (WP) films effectively declines microbial
growth and lipid oxidation in meat products [52, 61]. Essential oils with good antioxidant and
antimicrobial activity also enhance shelf along with the decrease in lipid oxidation [27]. The
shelf life of turkey meat improves when coated with gelatin chitosan films incorporated with
Ferulago Angulate Essential Oil [52]. Whey protein isolated films along with essential oils
extracted from oregano, laurel, clove, sage, rosemary, tea tree, and mastic thyme inhibit
microbial activity of Listeria innocua, S. enteritidis, Pseudomonas fragi, and S. aureus when
applied to fresh skinless chicken breast while the potent inhibition is exhibited by oregano oil
[52, 61]. For meat (beef, sausages, steak) packaging, collagen films are also used for meat
freshness and reduce effects on taste and color.
7.2 Eggs
Egg quality or freshness gets lost rapidly during storing due to alterations in albumin, pH, yolk,
and weight loss which is mainly due to mass transfer of CO 2 and moisture through pores present
in eggshells. The shelf life of the quality of fresh eggs has been increased by applying WP films
at room temperature. WP-enclosed eggs stored for four weeks at room temperature had a weight
loss (2.38-2.46%) less in contrast with control (5.66%). These eggs also have lower pH control
[52]. The application of whey protein-based coating on eggshells prolonged their shelf life.
Cross-linking of pectin and protein by TGase in films when applied, decreased the egg weight
loss and penetration of bacteria after washing [62, 63]. Bacteria present in the environment can
easily contaminate eggshells [58]. So their shelf life can be improved by controlling these
microbes[64].
7.3 Seafood
Autolysis by oxidation, microbes' metabolic activity, and intrinsic enzymes are considered the
shelf-life determining factors in seafood [65]. Raw fish is a very tasty food due to its neutral pH,
great water-holding capacity, and microbial contamination. Preservation of fish by freezing is an
effective technique but unfavorable changes like weight loss, protein denaturation, and lipid
oxidation may take place. Butylated hydroxytoluene and butylated hydroxyanisole are applied to
improve shelf life and prevent lipid oxidation while phosphates are employed to increase water-
holding capacity [61]. Red grape pomace extract incorporated in cassava starch films inhibits
lipid oxidation in salmon patties. Growth of spoilage bacteria in shrimps was prevented by
chitosan films along with clove oil which also prolonged its shelf life [66].
7.4 Dairy products
Dairy products are prepared by milk processing and may also contain additives or chemical
components. In developing countries, the consumption of milk has increased due to rising
populations and alterations in eating habits. Milk products supply vital nutrients for the health
and growth of adults and children [45]. Cheese enclosed in antimicrobial films has their shelf life
increased. Saloio cheese shelf life was increased to 7 days by applying chitosan films. Edible
alginate calcium films enclosing paneer improved their quality during preservation up to 13 days
[52]. Whey protein isolated films along with mint essential oil covering Lor cheese, decreased
moisture loss to 4% as compared to control films [61].
7.5 Fruits and vegetables
Customers usually demand fresh vegetables and fruits which leads to the consistent discovery of
innovative methods to safeguard the quality and shelf life of these items [54]. When food doesn’t
meet the quality standards, it is considered as a waste. These food wastes or losses cause a
reduction in the quantity or quality of food. These food losses may be due to contamination or
other factors [67]. During post-harvesting of fruits and vegetables, the damage is caused by
microbes, insects, transpiration, and respiration. These postharvest losses are a significant
problem because of their rapid deterioration during transportation, handling, and storage. So
appropriate methods should be employed. Edible packaging strengthens their natural protective
covering. Natural polymers such as starch, proteins, lipids, alginate, etc. can be utilized to
improve shelf life [53].
Aloe vera gel, a natural biopolymer containing polysaccharide, works as a barrier or
semipermeable membrane for water and oxygen passage along with reducing respiration rate, the
weight of the food item is retained in edible coatings. This coating delays the aging and ripening
process of fruits and vegetables thus extending their shelf life and declining food spoilage [68].
Edible coatings based on proteins also act as gas or moisture barrier. Whey protein (WP) coating
on potato and apple slices inhibits or delays their browning activity. The rehydration ratio of
strawberry slices in milk, that are freeze-dried, decreases with WP isolate coatings [61].
7.6 Nuts
Unsaturated fatty acids and oil-rich contents of peanuts render oxidative rancidity at high
temperatures during roasting. Auto-oxidation leads to oxidative rancidity. Peanut deterioration is
caused primarily by lipid oxidation. In peanuts, whey protein isolate films along with ascorbic
acid inhibited lipid oxidation at 23, 35, and 50 °C. Heat-denatured and native whey protein
isolate films prevented oxidation and improved peanuts' shelf life at 40, 50, and 60 °C up to 31
days [61].
7.7 Bakery food products
To minimize plastic waste and environmental pollution, biodegradable packaging gives an eco-
friendly solution for the bakery products industry. Edible packaging acts as a barrier to gas
exchange and moisture in bakery products thus maintaining the quality. Essential oil-enriched
coatings of chitosan controlled fungal growth, water loss, and enhanced sensory properties [66,
69]. Gluten-free bread quality was maintained for 5 days during storage by applying mentha
piperita containing chitosan films with antioxidant and antifungal properties. This also decreased
hardness. Thus edible films with biodegradable materials along with antimicrobial agents
improve the quality, shelf life, and safety of bakery products [66].
8 Chemistry of edible films and coatings
Different researchers utilized a variety of different bio-based materials to develop novel edible
films and coatings to improve the quality and other attributes of food products in the food
industry. Based on bio-based materials, edible films and coatings can be further categorized into
different classes i.e. polysaccharides, lipids, and proteins, and composite edible films and
coatings.
8.1 Polysaccharide-based edible films and coatings
8.1.1 Starch-based films and coatings
Karolina et. al., (2022) [37] analyzed the UV barrier/mechanical properties and microstructure of
psyllium husk (PH) modified thermoplastic starch (TPS) films for food. Thermal treatment of
1% (w/w) PH, 4.3% (w/w) potato starch, and distilled water at 80 °C resulted in a PH-modified
TPS film solution. After cooling at 40°C, 1.3% (w/w) glycerol was added and the homogenized
mixture was dried at 35% for 20h in acrylic glass molds. Films were cooled at 22 °C and 40%
relative humidity (RH). Analysis showed a rise in starch gelatinization by adding PH. Failure
stress increased by 48% and failure strain decreased by 86%. PH also increased hydrophilic
groups which decreased contact angle by 27.4% as compared to neat 12.8%. The opacity of these
films was 43% at 600nm while water vapour permeability increased by 35%. So PH-modified
TPS films with lower transmittance and enhanced UV barrier properties act as lipid oxidizing
agents in the food packaging industry.
For antioxidant properties, rice starch-based films were analyzed [70]. Saliva et. al., (2022) [71].
synthesized starch-based bioactive films from white, red, and black rice for food applications.
First starches were extracted using the wet extraction method and rice starch films were
formulated by casting technique. Starch, plasticizer, and distilled water were thermally treated at
85 °C. Filmogenic samples (30ml) were dried at 18 °C for 30 h. Film characterization was done
by opacity, color, thickness, water vapor permeability, water solubility, and bioactive properties.
ABTS [2,2-azinobis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid)] and DPPH (1,1-definil-2-picril-
hydrazil) methods showed films containing 5% starch and 30% sorbitol has phenolic compounds
and antioxidant properties so these can be used as bio-active packaging for food materials.
Starch-based films were also synthesized and analyzed to prolong the shelf life and maintain
food quality during the preservation or storage of food [72]. Todhanakesam et. al., (2022) [73]
developed an active thermoplastic starch film composed of polyvinyl alcohol (PVC), corn starch
(ST), glycerol, and watermelon rind extract (WMRE). The film was prepared by casting method.
5g of PVC and 1g of ST dissolved in deionized water were homogenized at 70 °C for 4 h. After
adding 25% v/v glycerol and 10% v/v WMRE, mixture was dried in acrylic glass 45 ± 2 °C for 8
h. Analysis showed rise in tensile strength (19.44 ± 0.84 to 33.67 ± 4.38 MPa) and % elongation
at break (35.04 ± 0.96 to 35.16 ± 1.08%). DPPH scavenging activity technique showed a rise in
antioxidant capacity (29.21% ± 0.24 to 63.37% ± 4.27%). The minimum inhibitory concentration
of WMRE with 10% v/v was found optimal against B. cereus. Fresh-cut purple cabbage covered
with PVC/ST/WMRE film decreased the microbial load after 3 days as compared to
thermoplastic control film and commercial packaging. Thus WMRE films are promising for
upgrading food quality and shelf life.
To enhance the shelf life of strawberries Taha et. al., (2022) [74] evaluated the impact of starch-
silver nanoparticles (St-AgNPs) coatings on the postharvest quality parameters and shelf life of
strawberries. To obtain St-AgNPs coating solutions, 250 and 500 mg·L ˗1 St-AgNPs and 1.5% v/v
glycerol were blended at room temperature. The soaking method was used to coat samples.
Analysis showed that AgNPs size was 12.7 nm with a spherical structure. Sample
characterization showed that in contrast with the uncoated sample, the coated sample had lower
microbial activity, weight loss, and decay while anthocyanin content and total acidity at 6 ± 2
and 25 ± 3 °C were higher. The washing process eliminated silver particles at the rate of 98.86-
99.10%. Thus these novel coatings preserved fruit quality and elevated the shelf life of
strawberries from 8-16 days in cold storage and 2-6 days at room temperature thus promising for
future food packaging.
In another study, Silva et al., (2023) [75] analyzed the impact of ripe banana peel flour and corn
starch-based edible films and coatings, with and without loquat leaf extract, on sliced and cut
mozzarella cheese stored at 4 °C for 28 days. Banana peel flour 12 g, corn starch 4.2 g, and
distilled water 300mL were thermally treated at 90 °C for 30 min. 700g standard filmogenic
solution was obtained after glycerol 2.28 g addition. 14 g of loquat leaf extract was mixed with
the remaining 350 g to obtain a filmogenic solution with the extract. The casting technique was
used to obtain films after drying each solution in polypropylene trays at 40 °C for 24 h. Analysis
showed that edible coating with extract on cheese reduced the weight loss (0.13 to 0.45%) and
acidity (pH 5.58 to 5.82) yellow coloration was observed (chroma values 35.36 to 31.78). Cheese
with a standard film of banana peel flour showed a pH range from 5.60 to 5.95 and titratable
acidity (TA) from 2.34 to 1.73 % w/w. Cheese with films having leaf extract pH ranged from
5.65 to 5.93 and TA from 2.25 to 1.61 % w/w. The validity period was the same with
commercial film thus these films can be used as viable substitutes for synthetic packaging in the
food industry.
Starch-edible films for foods having short shelf life were also analyzed [76]. Charles et. al.,
(2022) [23] synthesized potato peel starch (PPS) based edible films (PPSF) with glycerol as a
plasticizer. PPS (2%, 4%, 6% (w/v)) and glycerol27% (w/v of PPS), thermally treated at 100 °C
for 15 min and cooled at 25 °C, were cast and dried in petri dishes at 50 °C for 4 h to obtain
films. In contrast control to carboxymethyl cellulose films (2% w/v) with 30% glycerol, the
analysis indicated that PPSF had a transparent and uniform surface with thermal stability at
>100%. Increase in thickness (0.040 mm to 0.119 mm), and decrease in moisture content
(11.53% to 12.98%), water solubility (18.86 to 31.06%), swelling power (450.32 to 304.29 %)
and elongation at break (15 to 22%) was observed with increase in PPS. Low starch PPSF
exhibited high transparency, good mechanical properties, and seawater and soil biodegradability
(meeting the standards 90%: 20 and 50 days respectively). Thus, PPS is favorable for use in
refrigerated and short-lived food packaging.
A comparison of corn and navy bean starches for edible packaging was done by Zhang et. al.,
(2021) [77]. He developed edible films based on navy beans and compared them with
commercial and laboratory-extracted corn starch-based edible films. 100 ml navy beans, corn
starch suspension (35 and 40 g L˗1) treated at 60 °C for 1 h, gelatinized at 85 °C stirred at 700
rpm f for 30 min, and mixed with 10 g L ˗1 of each sorbitol, glycerol, and sunflower oil,
homogenized at 10000 rpm and dried after cast on petri dish for 24 h. Analysis showed that all
films were transparent with a uniform surface. Increased tensile strength, thickness from 0.12 -
0.16 mm, and water vapor content from 0.117 – 0.156 to 0.068 – 0.095 × 10-10 g m Pa was
observed with starch and sunflower oil addition respectively. Navy bean films were less thick
with low moisture content and better film transparency ranging from 13.6 and 21.9 mm ˗1 than
corn starch-based films. Thus, navy bean films with 40 g L˗1 starch showed favorable edible film
properties for food packaging.
The potential of tef starch for the food packaging industry was analyzed by Tafa et. al., (2023)
[39] who fabricated tef starch-based edible films to analyze their mechanical properties. Solution
casting technique was used. Tef starch (3-5 g) dissolved in water, agar (0.3-0.5%), and glycerol
(0.3-0.5%) was added and heated the solution at 90 °C for 30 min and cooled after being cast on
Petri dish at 25 °C for 30 min and dried at 50 °C for 48 h. Analysis showed that films obtained
had elongation break 1.21–2.03%, puncture formation 9.59-14.95 mm, tensile strength 17.97-
24.25 MPa, elastic modulus 17.58-108.69 MPa, puncture force 2.55-15.02 N. Increase in
glycerol content in tef starch edible films decreased their tensile strength, puncture force and
elastic modulus but puncture deformation and elongation at break were improved. While agar
content increased the mechanical properties of the films. Films containing 5 g tef starch, 0.4 g
agar, and 0.3% glycerol showed the highest puncture force, tensile strength, and elastic modulus
with decreased puncture deformation and elongation at break. Thus, tef starch-based edible films
had the potential for food packaging material.
8.1.2 Chitosan-based films and coatings
To protect food physically i.e. to get antimicrobial and antioxidant effects on food, chitosan
films/coatings were developed [78]. Wang et. al., (2022) [79] devised bioactive
gelatin(GEL)/chitosan(CS)/curcumin(Cur) films using a photodynamic technique (PDI) to avoid
microbial activity in food. GEL/CS/Cur film-forming solutions (FFSs) were prepared. 1.5%, m/v
GEL FFSs and 1%, m/v CS FFSs were both attained by the dissolution of GEL in deionized
water and CS in 1% v/v acetic acid solution respectively at 55 °C. 0.01 mmol/mL Cur solutions
were prepared by adding Cur (0.025, 0.05, 0.1, 00.2 mmol/L) in 95% ethanol. Homogenized
mixtures of GEL FFSs and CS FFSs with 0.3%, m/v glycerol were dispensed in polystyrene Petri
dishes and dried at 40 °C for 24 - 36 h to develop films. Analysis showed that Cur (0.1 mM)
incorporated PDI inactivated >4.5 Log CFU/mL (>99.99) of Shewanella putrefaciens,
Escherichia coli, and Listeria monocytogenes when irradiated with blue LED (455 ± 5 nm) for
70 min while both later became fully inactivated at Cur conc. 0.2 mm when subjected to light for
70 min. Vibrio parahaemolyticus showed complete inactivation.
Chitosan also prevents food from oxygen so it can be used for food packaging [80]. Popescu et.
al., (2022) [81] evaluated the impact of three types of chitosan-based (CH) edible coatings on the
apple slices and organic strawberries stored at 4 °C and 8 °C. CS coating solutions were obtained
by adding high molecular weight chitosan (1% w/v) and medium molecular weight chitosan (2%
w/v) in acetic or ascorbic acid solutions at 80 °C. After cooling, 7.5% grape seed or sea
buckthorn essential oils were mixed in each solution and the sample was coated by dipping in it.
Analysis exhibited an even and opaque structure on apple slices coating while uniform, ruptured,
and porous structure on strawberries coatings. In contrast to control samples, coated sample
water activity (0.96-0.98) and microbial activity decreased. CS coatings on fruits maintained
antioxidant activity, ascorbic acid level, and total phenolic content. Thus, CS coatings will help
in the physical protection and preservation of fruit quality and shelf life during cold storage.
Famiglietti et. al., (2022) [82] also investigated the polyphenols yield and antioxidant capacity of
dried olive leaf extract (DOLE) and chitosan (CH) based edible films. Citric acid (CA) (3% w/v)
and CH (3% w/v) were used to prepare film-forming solutions (FFs). 10% w/w glycerol was
added after mixing varying amounts of DOLE (10-15-20-40% (v/v)) in each FFs. FFs were dried
at 25 °C and 45% RH after dispensing in polypropylene Petri dishes for 2 days. Analysis showed
that total phenolic content increased to 6.6 ± 0.1 g GAE/L after 24 h of extraction from pruning.
Transparent and yellowish films were obtained. Antioxidant and antimicrobial activity of films
having 15% and 20% DOLE increased as compared to control films. Thus, these novel films can
be used as active bioplastic for wrapping meat hamburgers instead of baking paper to avoid
microbial growth.
8.1.3 Alginate
Li et. al., (2022) [83] developed edible and biodegradable food packaging films of sodium
alginate (SA) and tannic acid (TA). A casting technique was used. SA and TA powders dissolved
in deionized water were mixed to obtain film-forming solutions. 20% glycerol based on SA
amount was mixed and solutions were dried in acrylic glass plates at 40 °C for 12 h. Analysis
showed that the main interaction between SA and TA is due to hydrogen bonding. With an
increase in TA content in films, an increase in DPPH activity (0.008% to 89.02%) and a decrease
in water vapor permeability (1.24 × 10 ˗6 to 0.54 × 10˗6 g / m / h / Pa). TA addition in films
clogged UV light and increased antimicrobial activity against E. coli while decreasing light
transmittance as compared to SA films. Thus TA has potential for application in diversified food
packaging.
Bhatia et. al., (2023) [84] fabricated composite hydrogel-based edible films of sodium alginate
(SA) and acacia gum (AG) incorporated with cinnamon essential oil (CEO). 0.5% w/v of AG
and 1.5 % w/v of SA solutions were prepared, mixed with 1 % glycerol addition, and equally
divided as AC-1, AC-2, AC-3, AC-4. 15, 20, 30 µL CEO and 30, 40, and 80 µL of Tween 80
were added to AC-2, AC-3, and AC-4 respectively, and the film solution was in petri plates at
room temperature for 48 h. Analysis revealed that CEO addition increased thickness (0.065-0.11
mm), elongation at break (7.57-18.41%), ABTS activity (79.06%), DPPH activity (53.36%)
while decreased tensile strength (9.82-3.49 Mpa), moisture content (18.52-17.03%), water vapor
permeability (0.424-0.353 g mm/ m 2 h kPa), transparency (79-21%), lightness (96.05-91.64%).
Thus these films had potential for future food packaging.
8.1.4 Carrageenan
Bhatia et. al., (2024) [85] enhanced the properties of kappa carrageenan films by adding
grapefruit essential oil (GFO) in it. The casting method was used. The solution was formed by
adding 2% (w/v) carrageenan in distilled water (100 ml). The mixture was agitated for 20 min at
800 rpm and 60 °C with the help of a stirrer. 0.5% v/v glycerol was added and stirred solution for
10 min at 1100 rpm. Labeled it as CEO1 TO CEO4 in 4 beakers. GFO added in various amounts
in each except CEO1 (control). Stirred solution at 1100 rpm (30 min). air dried it in a petri dish
at 25 °C (24 h). cooled them at 25 °C for 48 h. Analysis revealed that compact, uniform films
were obtained. The rise in GFO amount resulted in an increment in moisture content (13.62 –
17.59%) and tensile strength (65.20 ± 4.71 – 98.21 ± 6.35 MPa) whereas a decrease in
elongation at break (11.02 ± 1.03 – 5.73 ± 1.78%) and swelling ratio (804.5 – 635.0%) was
observed. Thus these films can be applied as food packaging.
8.1.5 Agar
Roxana et. al., (2019) [43] analyzed renewable bio-based materials as edible films for powdered
food. The casting method was used to prepare films of plasticizer, biopolymer, and inulin in
different proportions. Edible films having no agar and max inulin (3.00g) composition provide
high elasticity (149.40%) and medium roughness (158.25nm) and were suitable for pulverulent
products while packaging with high agar and medium inulin with low transmittance value
(56.75%) were suitable for ready to eat products and sliced fruits. Analysis showed that films
obtained with high strength, elasticity, and low roughness have composition: 0.4971g, alginate =
1.018g glycerol = 1.797g, and inulin = 2.352g.
8.1.6 Cellulose
Cellulose edible films and coatings have a good moisture barrier [86] so Freitas et. al., (2022)
[87] formulated an edible film composed of bacterial cellulose (BC), tomato puree, and palm
olein to act as a moisture barrier between guacamole and nachos. For film-forming solutions
having 25 g of solids in 250 mL, a 5:1 mixture of BC and carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) was
added in distilled water at 2 wt% and then homogenized after adding palm oil, tomato puree 17
wt% and glycerol 45 wt% (on dry weight of BC + CMC). The solution was dried after being cast
on polyester glass plates at 50 °C for 24 h. Films characterization showed that films having
tomato puree, polysaccharides (BC + CMC 5:1weight ratio), and palm oil at a 5:3:2 weight ratio
had the least water vapor permeability and decreased moisture transfer from guacamole to
nachos thus maintaining nachos crispiness. Films with higher palm oil content (20%) showed a
good moisture barrier to snacks in contrast to snacks without film. Therefore, these novel films
are promising as moisture barriers in multi-component foods.
In another study, cellulose films were also analyzed for antioxidant properties [88]. Li et. al.,
(2022) [89] investigated the packaging capability of carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) and
mucilage polysaccharide (OLP) based edible films obtained from okra plant waste. The solvent
casting method was used to develop films. CMC and PLC were dissolved in distilled water at 80
°C for 30 min to prepare CMC/OLP film-forming solutions (FFs). Cinnamon essential oil (0.02
% (w/w) based on FFs) and glycerol (30% (w/w) total solid weight) were mixed in it. FFs (100
ml) were dispensed onto a mold and dried at 40 °C for 18 h. Analysis showed variation in flow
consistency (1.731-9.154) and rheological behavior (0.478-0.743) with the rise in OLP content 5-
30% (w/w) of CMC. OLP/CMC films with 10% OLP improved surface hydrophobicity by 24%
and decreased water vapor permeability by 32%. Thermal stability and antioxidant properties
also increased. Films coating on cherry tomatoes reduced quality loss and enhanced
marketability limits after 14 days of storage in contrast to uncoated cherry tomatoes whose
quality degraded by 74.62% firmness loss, 22% weight loss, and discoloration (22.26 E). Thus
OLP/CMC films are favourable for future food packaging.
Li et. al., (2022) [90] developed cassia gum (CG) and ethyl cellulose (EC) based edible films to
increase moisture barrier properties in dried vegetable packaging. 2.7 g glycerol and 6 g CG
powder were dissolved in distilled water 670 ml. Subsequently, varying amounts of EC powder
1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, and 6% (based on CG) powder was mixed in CG solution using 25 mL of
75% ethanol and the solution was dried at 60 °C for 36 h in plates. Mechanical analysis showed
that CG-5%EC films had a higher tensile strength of 38.77 ± 0.57 MPa. While EC addition in
CG films reduced transmittance, water vapor permeability (1.40 × 10 ˗10 g m˗1 s˗1 Pa˗1) and
improved haze. Application of CG-5%EC film to dried carrot cube packaging enhanced the
water inhibition rate (43.33% after 12 h) and lowered the mass growth in 53% relative humidity
however dissolution rate after 5 min boiling in water was 80% (less than CG-0%EC films). Thus
these films are favourable for dried food packaging
8.1.7 Pectin
Ntzimani et. al., (2023) [91] studied the kinetic modeling of modified atmosphere packaging
(MAP) and active coating of pectin with antimicrobial agents on the decay process and shelf life
of chicken cuts. Broiler chicken thighs processed with an edible coating of pectin (2% w/w
aqueous solution, 0.5% glucono-δ-lactone (g-δ-1) or 1% citrus bioflavonoids extract were
aerobically stored at 0, 5, 10 °C. Unprocessed thighs were also stored in MAP (42.7% O 2, 18.5%
CO2). Analysis showed that gluocon-δ-lactone based edible coated chicken thighs had a shelf life
increased up to 2 days while MAP and active citrus extract-based edible coatings also showed
the same impact on shelf life and quality degradation of chicken cuts. Based on microbial
growth, the shelf life of control, MAP, EC-glu and EC-flav samples was 6-7, 11, and 13 days at
5 °C (limit of acceptability= 107 cfu / g for the total viable count). Microbial growth was also
associated with sensory deterioration (Ea = 80-100 kJ / mol). Thus these coatings can enhance the
commercial rate of chicken cuts.
Asfaw et. al., (2023) [18] fabricated citron peel pectin edible films and optimized glycerol and
pectin content effect using response surface methodology. The solution casting method was used
for film formation. Pectin (3-5 g) dissolved in water (100 ml), treated at 70 °C, mixed after 20
min with glycerol 15-25%, heated for 10 min then conditioned at 25 °C and dried after cast on a
Petri plate at 40 °C for 48 h. Analysis exhibited that an increase in pectin content increased
elongation at break (22.21-29.5%), and tensile strength (4-7.001 MPa), but reduced elastic
modulus (607.01-690.12 kg cm˗1). Opacity (6.03-14.09 A mm˗1) decreased with glycerol content
and pectin also harmed it. An increase in glycerol conc decreased tensile strength (7.001-4 MPa).
4 g pectin and 20% glycerol exhibited transparent films with the highest tensile strength and
thermal properties. The thermo-gravimetric analyzer curve revealed that at 250-400 °C, max.
weight loss occurred while FTIR showed peaks at 1037 cm˗1 exhibiting C-O-C stretching of
saccharide present in glycerol and pectin.
Azizah et. al., (2023) [92] fabricated pectin and lemongrass essential oil (EO) incorporated fish
gelatin edible films to evaluate its effect on chicken breast. A casting technique was used. At 50
°C, 3% (w/v) powdered pectin and gelatin solely dissolved in water for 30 min, adding glycerol
25% w/w in each at 30 °C, mixing gelatin: pectin in ratios 100:0, 75:25, 50:50 (v/v), adding EO
(0; 0.5%) and dried solution for 30 h at 45°C in a pan. Analysis revealed that films increased
water content (18.63-23.57%), tensile strength (6.40-14.17 MPa), elongation at break (24.96-
86.13%), water contact angle (80.18 °) but reduced transparency (3.82-3.39), solubility (89.11-
48.23%) thickness transmittance antioxidant properties 6.36-24.20% RSA. Antibacterial analysis
exhibited that films with gelatin pectin (75:25, 50:50) showed inhibition for Salmonella. Films
(50:50 gelatin-pectin and 0.5% EO) had the highest thickness while 100% gelatin and 0.5% EO
films had the highest water content. Thus these films had the potential for packaging of
perishable food like chicken breast meat.
8.2 Protein-based edible films and coatings
8.2.1 Milk proteins
Protein-based films show excellent antioxidant properties [93]. Flores et. al., (2022) [94]
examined the edible films based on milk proteins by comparing their antioxidant, mechanical,
optical, and hydrodynamic properties. Films were developed by thermal treatment of a solution
of 5% milk proteins (casein and 2 types of whey protein isolate: WPI 1 and WP2) and distilled
water at 90 °C for 30 min. After conditioning, 5% glycerol was added. 10 ml samples of solution
were dried after being cast in polystyrene plates at 40 °C for 48 h. Analysis indicated that as
compared to whey protein isolates films, the casein films have higher moisture content (40.21%),
thickness (0.193 mm), antioxidant capability (32.64% of DPPH inhibition) and elongation at
break (49.67%) but water vapor transmission rate (15.28 g/m 2 ·day) was least. Color properties
were also distinctive. WPI1 and WPI2 film properties were almost the same thus film features are
milk protein dependent. So constituent characteristics should be considered to obtain edible films
for food preservation.
8.2.2 Gelatin
Ashrafi et. al., (2023) [95] explored the potential of a blend of cold water fish gelatin (FG) and
poultry gelatin (PG) from duck feet to develop a sachet for olive oil. A casting technique was
used to obtain FG-PG films. 25% glycerol was incorporated in FG-PG powder to form 8% (w/w)
100:0, 75:25, 50:50, 25:75 and 0:100 film mixture. 45 g of this mixture was poured into Perspex
plates and dried at 45 ± 5 relative humidity and 25 ± 2 °C. Rheological analysis showed an
increase in elastic modulus, loss modulus, and viscosity by 9.32, 18, and 9.5 times respectively
by PG addition. Rise in water vapor permeability (1.21 to 4.95 × 10 ˗11 g m˗1 Pa˗1 s˗1), oxygen
permeability (48 to 97 cm 3 mµ/m2 d kPa), and mechanical properties was detected but elongation
at break and heat seal strength decreased. The 50-50 films were found suitable as virgin oil
sachet because no decrease in peroxide and acidity value was observed during 14 days.
Therefore, FG-PG films will be beneficial for olive oil packaging.
Bhatia et. al., (2023) [96] evaluated the impact of gelatin-based edible films (EFs) with
spearmint essential oil (SEO) on porcine (Po) and bovine (Bo). The casting technique was used
for film formation, 2% w/v solution containing Po and Bo (2 g each) dissolved in water, stirred
at 60 °C, divided, and marked each part as Po1-Po4 and Bo1-Bo4 for Po and Bo-based EFs
respectively. Glycerol 0.3% and SEO (0.05%, 0.075%, 0.1%) with an equal amount of Tween
80. Films were dried after being cast in petri dishes for 48 hours. 0.1% SEO addition decreased
the opacity (2.03 - 0.78% of Po and 0.61 - 0.13% of Bo), water solubility (69.45 - 62.19% of Po
and 56.42 - 47.66% of Bo), moisture content (37.89 - 15.20% of Po and 35.06 - 16.13% of Bo),
elongation at break (197.5 – 43.54% of Po) and crystallinity while increased the water vapor
permeability, thickness (0.023 - 0.048 mm of Po and 0.052 - 0.1 mm of Bo). Tensile strength in
Po-based EFs increased (9.25 – 24.46 MPa) while in Bo-based EFs decreased (2.63 – 0.84 MPa).
Antioxidant properties also increased with SEO addition (p <0.05) in contrast with control films
(Po1 and Bo1) without SEO. Po-based EFs had better properties than Bo-based EFs. Thus SEO
has the potential to enhance antioxidant properties for the preservation of food.
8.3 Lipids-based edible films and coatings
Kanelaki et. al., (2022) [97] analyzed the potential of hydrogels, bagels, and oleogels as edible
coatings of sardine fillets and as a delivery system of rosemary extract (RE). Hydrogel was
obtained by hydrating and thermally treating 10% w/w gelatin at 80 °C. Oleogel was obtained by
mixing thermally treated sunflower oil with 15% w/w monoglycerides at 90-95 °C for 60 min.
Bigel was obtained by adding molten sunflower oil oleogel in hydrogel at 20:80 ratios at 70°C.
RE 2% was added to each gel and sardine fillets were dipped in them. During cold storage at 4
°C, various treatments showed that these gels delayed oxidation, and RE addition stopped lipid
oxidation without affecting the microorganisms. RE addition in the oleogel phase of bigel
coating showed a decreased value of total volatile basic nitrogen (TVB-N) in contrast with
control and bigel treatments. Thus these RE coatings have the potential for sustaining the storage
quality of sardine fillets during cold refrigeration.
Petraru et. al., (2022) [98] explored the capability of sunflower oil cake (SFOC) to develop novel
edible films. Films were prepared by the wet cast method. 0.1-0.5 g of SFOC and 0.5 g of
glycerol were added to a solution of 1g sodium alginate and 100 ml distilled water. Film solution
was dried in Petri dishes at 50 °C for 48 h. Analysis showed an increase in thickness (0.34 to
0.44 Mm), UV barrier properties and oil permeability (0.017 to 0.34 × mm × m ˗2 × day˗1) whereas
decrease in density (1.45 g/cm3 to 1.04g/cm3) water vapor permeability (1.98 × 10˗4 to 1.13 × 10˗4
g × mm/KPa × h × m2), solubility and oxygen and grease barrier was observed with SFOC
addition in films. As compared to control films. Thus micro-biologically stable SFOC films with
uneven but uniform structure are favorable for oil-rich food packaging.
8.4 Composite films
Composite edible films or coatings have two or more components of different bio-based
materials such as proteins, lipids, and polysaccharides [93].
8.4.1 Polysaccharide- protein composite films
Al-Hilifi et. al.,(2023) [99] prepared an edible film by incorporating chitosan/whey protein
hydrolysate (WPH) blend, enhancing their antioxidant properties. Varying amounts of WPH
(0.25%, 0.50%, 0.75%, 1.0% w/v) and 20 ml distilled water were added to a chitosan solution of
1g chitosan and 80 ml aqueous acetic acid. Films were formed after drop-casting mixtures in
petri dishes at 25°C for 48 h. Analysis showed an increase in tensile strength of 26.3 MPa at 1 wt
% of WPH in contrast to 10.9 MPa in control neat chitosan films at 0 wt% of WPH. Antioxidant
properties also increased to a maximum value of 83% DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl
radical) in chitosan/WPH (1 wt%) films. Thus these novel films can be used for future food
packaging applications.
Bioactive composite edible films were also characterized for antibacterial purposes[100, 101].
Wai et. al., (2022) [102] synthesized an edible chitosan (CS)/sodium caseinate (NaCas)
composite film with Lb. fermentum inclusion. 4% w/v NaCas and 2% w/v CS solutions were
prepared. 1% v/v glycerol and 1% v/v Lb. fermentum was added to a film-forming solution
containing 100 ml of both CS and NaCas solution in a ratio of 1:1. Film was obtained after
drying the 25 ml film solutions cast in petri dishes at 40°C for 48 h. Analysis of bacteria-
incorporated films showed opacity 8.69 A/mm, thickness 0.11mm, tensile strength 25 MPa,
moisture content 17.9%, water solubility 30.8%, and elongation at break 88.80% as compared to
CS/NaCas films. Evaluation of viability and antibacterial activity demonstrated that 6.65 log 10
CFU/g dried Lb. fermentum inhibition zone diameters of composite films for E. coli and S.
aureus were 0.67 mm and 0.80 mm respectively. Thus films with bacterial inclusion are valuable
for bioactive food packaging.
8.4.2 Protein-Polysaccharide-Lipid composite films
Composite films response well for barrier properties [103]. Bhatia et. al., (2022) [104] developed
casein (CA) and sodium alginate (SA) based edible films with orange essential oil (OEO)
inclusion. A casting technique was used. 3% (w/v) CA solution and 3% (w/v) SA solutions were
prepared by adding CA (3 g) and SA in distilled water respectively. 2.5% (w/v) glycerol was
added after mixing CA/SA solutions in 10:1 at 80 °C. OEO (1.5%, 2.0%, 2.5% v/v) was added
and the solution was dried at 25 °C for 48 h after being cast in plastic petri plates. Analysis
revealed that CA-SA containing OEO (1.5%) showed improved visual qualities, punctual force
value (6.71 N), thermal stability, and reduced puncture deformation (23.89%) in contrast to
control CA-SA films. All samples showed the same peak positions 21° at 2ϴ with varying
intensities according to XRD while FTIR showed film components peaks at comparable
positions. OEO-based films had better surfaces as compared to the uneven surface of CA-SA
films. Thus CA-SA-OEO (1.5%) films had better physiochemical and barrier properties.
Wang et. al., (2023) [34] in another study prepared honeysuckle leaf extract (HLE) and
carboxymethyl konjac glucomannan (CMKGM)/konjac glucomannan (KGM)/gelatin-based
composite films (CMKH). Thermally treated (55 °C) CMKGM, KGM, and gelatin dissolved in
100 ml water was mixed with HLE, and film solutions were dried in polytetrafluoroethylene
molds at 40 °C for 24 h. Analysis showed that in contrast to CMK films with no HLE, CMKH
transmittance was as low as zero in the UV region (200-400 nm), and water barrier properties
were also decreased while elongation at break was 1.39 ⁓ 1.5 times greater. The inhibition rate
of CMKH-Ⅰ and Ⅱ against Staphylococcus aureus was 96% and against Listeria monocytogenes
and Escherichia coli was 90%. CMKH-Ⅱ ABTS and DPPH scavenging activity was 90.93% and
85.75% respectively. Thus films having 25% (v/v) HLE are favourable for food packaging.
The effect of temperature on composite edible films was investigated by Al-Harrasi et. al.,
(2022) [38]. He examined the impact of drying temperatures (25 °C and 45 °C) on Gelatin (GE)-
sodium alginate (SA) edible films (EFs) loaded with ginger essential oil (GEO). For EFs
development, 8 g GE powder dissolved in water was thermally treated at 45 °C for 30 min and
then separated as F1-F6. 3% (w/v) of SA was added to F5 and F6. Based on the GE amount,
1.5% w/w of glycerol was mixed in each solution. 1% (w/v) Tween 80 and 1% (w/w) GEO was
added to F3-F6. Agitated the solution at 50 °C and cast it in polystyrene petri plates. F1, F3, and
F5 were dried at 25 °C while F2, F4, and F6 were dried at 45 °C for 5 h and then treated with
70% ethanol. Analysis showed that EFs dried at 25 °C such as F5 exhibited higher thermal
stability, water solubility, thickness (51.77 µm), moisture content (15.31%), swelling degree
(85%), water vapor permeability (1.1×10˗12 G cm/cm2 s Pa), tensile strength (68.11 MPa), optical
properties along with seven surfaces having lesser pores and cracks as compared to films dried at
45 °C. antioxidant properties were also comparable to butylated hydroxytoluene. Thus EFs
showed enhanced properties at lower temperatures and can be used as novel packaging.
Wang et. al., (2023) [19] developed gelatin (Gel) loaded hydroxypropyl methylcellulose
(HPMC) based composite edible films. HPMC and Gel were mixed in ratios 10:0, 8:2, 6:4, 5:5,
4:6, 2:8, and 0:10 respectively. Water was added to make a 10% mass fraction and stirred at 25
°C for 12 h. pH was maintained at 6.8. 10% glycerol was added at 85°C, cooled at 25°C to mix
HPMC, stirred at 100 rpm for 1 h and the solution was dried at room temperature. Films were
obtained by freeze-drying for 48 h at ˗50 °C after pouring in petri plates. Analysis revealed that
increase in Gel increased Tensile strength (26.08 ± 1.51-42.69 ± 1.36 MPa), water contact angle
(52.01 ± 0.63 °-101.23 ± 0.13 °) while decreased elongation at break (23.2 ± 2.1- 9.4 ± 2.1%).
Gel/HPMC films (5/5) exhibited the best properties with even surface, homogeneity, and better
crystallinity degree in contrast with other samples. Thus these films had the potential for better
food packaging industries due to their easy application and economical properties.
8.4.3 Polysachcharide-Polysaccharide composite film
For powdered food products, composite edible films showed good potential when PUSCASELU
et. al.,(2019) [105] developed a biopolymer edible film incorporated with STEVIA
REBAUDIANA for powdered food products. A casting technique was applied to obtain 30
samples using sodium alginate, agar, glycerol plasticizer, and 1,25% stevia (based on total
constituents). Analysis exhibited that the films formed were uniform, smooth transparent, elastic,
and odorless with a sweet taste. Thickness was decreased (S24 containing glycerol 0.75 g had a
thickness of 5200 µm). S2, S12, S26, and S27 were completely soluble exhibiting sodium
alginate ability to form soluble films compared to agar. While biopolymer films had the highest
solubility (96%). Moisture content increased with sodium alginate in S2, S3, and S19 up to
12.85% while in S10 (15.96%) increased with an equal proportion of agar, glycerol, and sodium
alginate. Microbial testing showed no microbes in the films. Thus these materials had the
potential for forming favourable biofilms for food.
8.4.4 Polysaccharide-Lipid composites films
Santos et. al., (2023) [106] evaluated edible films of pectin (PEC) combined with chitosan
nanoparticle (CSNP), garlic essential oil (GEO), and polysorbate 80 (T80). Four (100 g each)
films forming suspension (FFS) were prepared by casting method. For FFS having no CSNP,
PEC dissolved in water at 1500 rpm mechanical stirring with GEO or T80 for 12 h. For FFS with
CSNP, PEC with GEO and T80 were added to CSNP. Films were dried at 25 °C for 48 h.
analysis showed contact angle of PGEO, PGEO@T80, PGEO@CSNP, PGEO@T80@CSNP
was 65°, 43°, 78°, 64° respectively with variable hydrophilicity. GEO in PEC films enhanced
hydrophobicity, inhibited S.aureus, reduced water affinity and water vapor transmission
permeability (WVTR, 26.70 ± 0.70 g h ˗1 m˗2), permeance (9.59 ± 0.30 g kPa h ˗1 m˗2) while CSNP
increased WVTR (38.92 ± 1.86 g h˗1 m˗2), permeance (14.98 ± 0.86 g kPa ˗1 h˗1 m˗2) and
inhibited E.coli in T80 films. Films were slightly malleable and transparent.
Ekrami et. al., (2022) [107] developed salep mucilage and saffron anthocyanin (SA As) based pH
responsive edible films to observe fish fillet freshness in real time. A casting technique was used.
Mucilage (2% w/v) and glycerol (25% w/w) were mixed to form film-forming solutions after
homogenizing salep powder and distilled water. 0, 2.5, 5, 7.5, and 10% (v/v) SA As based on
solution volume was added. Solutions (pH 7) sonicated at 100 W for 5 min were dried in petri
dishes at 35 °C for 24 h and cooled at 53% relative humidity and 25 °C. Analysis indicated that
SAAs increased water solubility (63.71%), oxygen permeability (47.73 cm 3 µmm˗2 day˗1 kPa˗1),
thickness (199.03 µm), and moisture content (14.13%) of pH-sensitive edible films of salep
mucilage. 0% to 10% SAAs concentration reduced contact angle 54.02°, tensile strength 11.94
MPa, and transparency 14.27%. while films having 5% SAAs showed the least water vapor
permeability 1.39 g s˗1 m˗1 Pa˗1 ×10˗11 and the highest elongation break of 108%. Thus these films
are promising for food degradation monitoring.
Rizal et. al., (2023) [108] prepared bio-polymer edible films using coffee waste and red seaweed.
The solvent casting method was used. 10 g of cut red seaweed (1 cm) and 5 g of glycerol was
dissolved in 500 ml water. Coffee waste powder (0%, 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%) was added based on
seaweed dry weight (%). Thermally treated (90 °C) mixture was dried after being cast on the tray
for 12 h at 45 °C. with an increase in coffee content from 1 – 5 wt%, increase in water contact
angle (39.31° to 44.63°), thermal decomposition temperature (286°C) and functional properties
while a decrease in weight loss and wettability of films was observed. With an optimum tensile
strength of 35.47 MPa, tensile properties increased at 4 wt% coffee waste. Thus these
biopolymer films are valuable for food packaging.
Han et. al., (2023) [109] fabricated edible composite films of zein (Z) shallec (S) grafted with
curcumin (Cur) using the solution casting method. 2 g Z and S powders were mixed in 100 ml of
90% v/v ethanol solely and thermally treated for 30 min at 65°C and room temperature for 60
min respectively. Both solutions were mixed then heated and stirred (30 min) along with tributyl
citrate (30% w/w) at 70 °C. 25% w/w of oleic acid added during conditioning films then
homogenized (12000 rpm) for 2 min. Degassed solution for 30 min then cast and dried on
polystyrene petri dish for 5 h at 40 °C. Then curcumin was mixed and stirred solution for 1 h.
Analysis revealed that films had WVP and TS ranging from 0.380 - 0.396 g·mm·m-2·h-1 kPa and
0.809 – 0.688 MPa respectively while a decrease in WS (13.079 – 12.307%) and EB (0.557 –
0.386%) was observed. Curcumin-incorporated films had higher antioxidant properties as
compared to films without curcumin. Thus these films can be employed as food packaging films
in the food industry.
9 Conclusion
In this review, various bio-based materials for edible food packaging have been overviewed.
Different methods for formulations of edible films and coatings have been discussed. Research
progress of sustainable edible food packaging films and coatings in preserving food products and
maintaining their quality, improving shelf life, controlling oxygen and gas exchange, moisture
barrier, antimicrobial, and antioxidant properties presented in this paper. Bio-based edible food
packaging is a sustainable eco-friendly alternative to petroleum or plastic-based food packaging.
Bio-based materials are non-toxic, and biodegradable thus mitigating the environmental sources
degradation and adverse impacts of plastic pollution. Edible food packaging also meets the
consumer requirements of high quality, with prolonged shelf life. Hence, recent advances in
biodegradable edible food packaging are described in this paper which show a potential for use
in the food industry in near future.
Table 1: Chemistry of edible food packaging
Mechanical
Anti- Water
properties Appeara
oxidan vapor
% Thickne Solubilit nce and
Materials Method Reaction Condition Tensile t Opacity permeabil Applications Ref.
elongati ss (mm) y morpholo
Strengt Proper ity
on at gy
h (MPa) ties (g/m·s·Pa)
Break
Non-
Potato 0.65 ±
80 °C, cooling at 40 porous,
starch, Cast 0.04 4.55 × Food [3
°C / 22 °C, drying at N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R no
PH, method Au/m 10˗10 packaging 7]
35 °C, RH for 24 h cracks,
glycerol m
uniform
DPPH
W10 = 0.101 ± 20.09 ± %= 37.46 ±
N/R 3.2 × 10-8
N/R 0.004 0.98 7.31 ± 0.8% Homogen
White
0.09 ous,
rice, red
DPPH flexible,
rice, 85 °C (5 min), dried at
Cast R10 = 0.101 ± 20.66 ± %= 39.65 ± no Photosensitive
black 18 °C (30 h), cooled at N/R 9.4 × 10-8 [71]
method N/R 0.007 0.68 4.69 ± 0.30% ruptures, products
rice, 25 °C & 56% RH
0.23 and
glycerol,
DPPH fissure
sorbitol
B10 = 0.095 ± 23.53 ± %= 53.29 ± zone
N/R 6.0 × 10 -8
N/R 0.007 0.27 3.90 ± 0.75%
0.11
DPPH
WMRE, Homogenized (4 h) at
Casting 33.67 ± 35.16 ± 0.0059 ± %= Fresh-cut
ST, PVA, 70 °C, dried at 45 ± 2 N/R N/R 3.5 N/R [73]
method 4.38 1.08 0.0019 63.37 ± purple cabbage
glycerol °C for 8 h
4.27
Silver
nitrate, Stirred (15 min) at 25 DPPH
N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R strawberry [74]
maize °C. % = 59
starch
Banana
peel flour,
loquat 90 °C (30 min),
leaves, Casting homogenized (18000 Mozzarella
N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R [75]
corn method rpm) 5 min, heated 90 cheese
starch, °C (30 min)
mozzarell
a cheese
CMC, Casting 100 °C (15 min), 13.95 22.65 ± 0.092 ± 24.93 ± N/R 0.50 4.9 × 10-8 Smooth Food packaging [23]
PPS, technique cooled at 25 °C (5 ±4,14 8.72 0.0014 0.14 ±0.036 uniform
glycerol min), dried at 50 °C (4 A/mm surface,
 no
bubbles,
h), desiccated for 48 h
no starch
at 50% RH.
insoluble
particles
Navy (0.117- Homogen
50°/ 85°C (1 h), stirred
bean, 0.156 × 10- ous,
30 min (700 rpm), 10
corn Casting 0.12- )– surface
Dried at 21 °C for 24 h, ~7 ~50% N/R N/R N/R Edible films [77]
starch, method 0.16 (0.068- flexible,
cooled at 54% RH for
sunflower 0.095 × 10- transparen
48 h. 10
oil ) t
90 °C for 30 min added Porous,
glycerol, cooled at 25 homogeno
Tef starch Solution Packaging and
°C (30 min), dried for 17.97- 1.21- us surface,
glycerol, casting N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R coating in food [39]
48 h at 50 °C, 24.25 2.03 flexible
agar method industry
stabilized at 37 RH and transparen
25°C for 72 h. t films
55 °C Stirred (1 h) CS
FFS, stirred Cur
14.12±0. 53.19 ± 20.46 ± Regular
GEL, CS, Solution solution stirred (300 3.3 × 10-
57 - 1.27 – 4 1.53 – 10.94 – texture,
Cur, casting rpm), glycerol added, – 3.8 × N/R N/R Food packaging [79]
18.12 ± 65.26 ± 24.75 ± 11.7 slightly
glycerol method stirred (3 h), dried (24- 10-4
0.31 0.62 0.73 rough
36 h) at 40 °C, kept at
25 °C and 55% RH.
Chitosan,
tween 20,
Stirred (1h) at 80 °C,
grape
tween 20 mixed, stirred
seed Strawberries,
N/R (5 min), sea buckthorn N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R [81]
essential apple slices
or grape seed EO
oil,
added, stirred 15 min
essential
oil
CH, CA,
~1.35 ×
glycerol, dried for 2 days DPPH= Transpare
Casting ~70 – 10-1 – Meat
dried (25°C), RH 45%, ~9 - 2 N/R ~30 – N/R N/R nt, [82]
method 200 1.50 × hamburgers
olive leaf desiccated at RH 60% 90% yellowish,
10-1
extract
Stirred (6 h) TA and
Transpare
SA solution, added 29.0 ±
Solution DPPH nt, little
TA, SA, glycerol, degassed, 4.5 – 4.4 × 10-3 – Food
Casting N/R N/R N/R %= N/R yellowish [83]
glycerol, dried (12 h) at 40 °C, 36.0 ± 1.94 × 10-3 packaging
method 89.2 and
cooled (48 h) at 25 °C 1.9
reddish
(RH 50 ± 1)
 DPPH Uniform,
%= smooth,
SA, AG, 15.74 - homogeno
Stirred (1 h), CEO
CEO, 9.82 – 7.57 – 0.065 – 53.36 15.26 – us, no
N/R added, dried at 25 °C N/R N/R Food packaging [84]
glycerol, 3.49 18.41% 0.110 ABTS 12.70 cracks,
for 48 h.
tween 80 %= non-
25.6 – porous,
79.06 yellowish
Homogen
ous, non- Sliced fruits,
Agar, SA, At 90 °C (30 min)
Cast porous, ready-to-eat and
inulin, stirred, dried at 23 ± 2 N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R [43]
method transparen pulverulent
glycerol °C (48 h)
t, glossy, products
odourless
BC,
Stirred at 16000 rpm Nachos and
CMC, Orange
Bench (30 min), homogenized guacamole,
tomato film with
casting/c (10 min), vacuum pizza (between
puree, N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R 11.66 discontinu [87]
ontinuou degassed (90 min) at topping and
palm ous rough
s casting 800 mbar, dried (24 h) crust), multi-
olein, surface
at 50 °C. component food
glycerol
After 7
80 °C (30 min),
ABTS= days,
glycerol and EO added,
OLP, 9.767 × 83.30 ± 11.11- fresh
homogenized (2 min)
CMC, Solvent 24.97 - 10-2 – 1.26– 29.10% 2.94 – 4.48 After 14 Cherry
at 15000 rpm, N/R N/R [89]
glycerol, casting 26.34 1.50 × 95.96 ± FRAP= × 10˗10 days, tomatoes
degassed, dried (18 h)
EO 10-1 1.04% 0.15- slightly
at 40 °C, cooled at 50
0.65% shrunk
% RH
tomatoes
Dried
CG, EC, Stirred (450 rpm) for 1 38.77 ± 14.73 ± 66.19 ± ~1.50 × 10- Uniform
N/R N/R N/R N/R 10- vegetables and [90]
glycerol h, dried (60°C) for 36 h 0.57 0.97 2.45 surface
cut carrot cubes
Pectin,
citrus Perishable food
Stored at 0, 5, 10 °C
bioflavon N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R e.g. poultry and [91]
and MAP
oid meat
extract
Citron Heated at 70 °C,
Solution 6.03 -
peel glycerol added, cooled 4.00 – 22.50 –
casting N/R N/R N/R 14.09 N/R N/R Food packaging [18]
pectin, at 25 °C, dried at 40 °C 7.001 29.11
method Amm-1
glycerol for 48 h.
Pectin, 30 min at 50°C stirred. 6.40 – 24.96 – ~1.2 × 48.23 – N/R N/R N/R Cracks Breast meat [92]
fish skin Casting added EO, 14.17 86.13 10-2 – 89.11 and oil fillet
gelatin, method homogenized at 4000 2.4 × 10- drop on
lemon
rpm (3 min), dried for
grass, 2
30 h at 45 °C and surface
essential
cooled at 25 ± 0.5 °C
oil
Casein = DPPH
49.67 ± 0.19 ± 34.71 ± 0.32 ±
0.70 ± %= N/R
5.51 0.01 2.01 0.03%
0.06 32.64
90 °C (30 min),
WPI1, conditioned at 25 °C, WPI1 = DPPH
11.57 ± 0.18 ± 36.46 ± 0.16 ±
WPI2, added glycerol, dried 2.32 ± %= N/R Fresh food
N/R 0.67 0.01 4.02 0.01% N/R [94]
casein, (48 h) at 40 °C, cooled 0.23 24.12
glycerol at RH 50% and at 25
°C WPI2 = DPPH
28.117 ± 0.17 ± 41.54 ± 0.16 ±
2.25 ± %= N/R
2.39 0.01 1.23 0.02%
0.13 19.72

Bovine Stirred at 25 °C for 30

gelatin, min, heated at 60 ± 2 Darker,
Casting 7.01 ± 62.22 ± 0.114 ± 2.68 ± 0.18
FG, PG, °C, conditioned at 45 N/R N/R N/R yellower, Virgin olive oil [95]
method 0.29 2.34 0.01 ×10-11
olive oil °C, dried at 25 ± 2 °C greener
glycerol and 45 ± 5 RH
Tween 80,
SEO, DPPH
60°C with stirring.
pure = ~30 –
glycerol and SEO
bovine Casting 24.46 – 43.54 – 0.023 – 47.66 - 56% 2.03 – 0.167 – Cracks on Food products
added, dried at 25 °C [96]
and method 0.84 226.79 0.1 69.45 ABTS 0.13% 0.771 surface preservation
for 48 h, kept at 50 RH
porcine = 18 –
for 24 h.
gelatin, 46%
glycerol
Gelatin,
Stirred at 10/15 min,
sunflower N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R Sardine fillets [97]
heated at 90-95°C
oil
Chitosan, Stirred at 800 rpm for 4 DPPH Rough but
Drop cast 26.27 ± 31.95 ± 28.31 ± Fruits and
Whey h, Dried at 25 °C for 48 9.57 %=82.8 N/R N/R uniform [99]
method 0.89 1.08 0.62 vegetables
protein h ± 1.95 surface
Stirred at room
temperature
(overnight). NaCas
CS, 8.7 ±
Casting (powdered) mixed in 20.94 ± 88.80 ± 0.11 ± 30.8 ± Perishable food [10
NaCas, N/R 0.9 N/R N/R
method water, stirred (4 h) at 2.48 9.12 0.01 3.02 items 2]
glycerol (A/mm)
room temperature,
Dried (48 h) at 40 °C,
stored (24 h)
OEO, SA, Casting Stirred, /heated (85 °C) 6.22 ± 19.22 ± 46.32 ± 32 ± 1.27 × 10- Smooth As biopolymer [10
N/R N/R 14
glycerol, method 10 min. Dried (48 h) at 0.01 1.37 1.7 1.56 surface film for food 4]
 with
25 °C, stored at 87%
particles,
CA RH, 25°C in desiccator packaging
no pores
(12 h)
or cracks
DPPH
CMKH-
%=
CMKH- Ⅰ=
CMKH- CMKH-Ⅰ CMKH CMKH-Ⅰ =
Stirred at 50 °C, Ⅰ= 12.75 ±
KGM, Ⅰ= = 113.5 -Ⅰ = 2.89 ± 0.04
centrifuged (6000 × g) 0.102± 0.73 Decreased
CMKGM 8.805 ± ±1.83 83.76± × 10-10
5 min, HLE mixed, left 0.005 Abs/mm roughness Food
, gelatin, N/R 0.44 CMKH- N/R 0.007, CMKH-Ⅱ [34]
for 2 h, dried at 40 °C CMKH- CMKH- , uniform preservation
glycerin, CMKH- Ⅱ= CMKH = 2.64 ±
(24 h), desiccated (RH Ⅱ= Ⅱ= surface
HLE Ⅱ =8.03 83.13 ± -Ⅱ = 0.12 × 10-
53%) at 25 °C 0.109 ± 11.06 ± 10
± 1.61 4.16 87.75 ±
0.005 0.14
0.14
Abs/mm
Uniform,
Gelatin Centrifugation at 500 DPPH=
compact,
powder, rpm, 45°C (30 min), 68.11 ± 88.24 ± 5.177 × 21.1 ± ~90%
N/R 1.1 × 10-18 homogeno Food packaging [38]
tween 80, cooled at 25 °C and 50 3.24 7.14 10-2 1.2 ABTS=
us films,
glycerol ± 4 RH for 72 h. ~80%
no cracks
Heated (2 h) at 85°C,
Gelatin, Graft Stirred (1 h) at 100
32.93 ± 16.9 ± Uniform
HPMC, copolym rpm, dried at at 25 °C N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R Food packaging [19]
1.37 2.3 films
glycerol erization and freeze-drying for
48 h at ˗50 °C.
6.50 ±
0.09 - Brownish,
SA sol. heated for 1 h 8.66 ± 0.029 ± 82.79 ± Powdered
SFOC, Wet 26.06 ± Rough,
at 50 °C, dried at 50 °C 0.77 – 0.01- 2.87 – products, sliced
SA, casting N/R N/R 0.01 7.12 – 4.06 and [98]
(48 h), cooled at 20 °C 27.11± 0.044 96.32 ± products such
glycerol method g·mm· uniform
and 50 % RH 1.97 ±0.003 0.11 as meat, cheese
m-2·day- surface
1

Centrifuged (10 min),

Saffron
Stirred (500 rpm), 25 ±
petals, 8.690 × 48.33± DPPH= Minute Meat products,
2 °C (1h), Sonicated 1.39 ×
Glycerol, Casting 19.1 – 10-2- 0.69 - 80.3% heterogen packed sea food [10
(100W) 5 min, film 41 -108 N/R 10˗11 -7.30
salep method 11.9 1.99 × 63.71 ± ABTS= eous products (fish 7]
dried at 35 °C (24h), × 10˗11
mucilage, 10-1 0.71 53.6% surface fillets)
cooled at 53% RH- 25
SA
°C
Coffee Solvent Heated at 90 °C with ~25 – 39 – N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R Uniform Food packaging [10
waste, casting stirring at 500 rpm, 35.47 34% films 8]
powder, method cooled at 25 °C (15
red min), cast, dried at 45
seaweed, °C (12 h), dried in
 desiccator for 48 h at
glycerol
50% RH.
DPPH=
26.57 –
Zein, Solution At 65 °C, stirred (30 0.809 –
0.557 – 13.079 – 80.46% 7.12 – 1.368 – [10
shellac, casting min/ 1h), homogenized 0.688 N/R N/R Food packaging
0.386%) 12.307% ABTS= 10.02% 1.425 9]
curcumin method at 12000 rpm (2 min) MPa
36.02-
69.67%
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