Sociolinguistics

Sukasih Ratna Widayanti, S.S., M.Hum.

Language Varieties

Diglossia
 Diglossia
• Ferguson (1972): a case “where two
varieties of a language exist side by side
throughout the community, with each
having a definite role to play”
• Wardhaugh (2006): diglossia refers to the
societies with two distinctive codes of
speech which are employed in different
situations.
 Diglossia
• Diglossia is the existence of two language
variations in one speech community.
• One is considered high variety (H) and the other
is considered low variety (L).
• E.g. in Indonesia, especially in Java, people are
tend to use Javanese and Indonesian
languages; Indonesian as a national language
(high language variety) and Javanese as a
vernacular (low language variety).
 Features of Diglossia
Holmes (2008) stated 3 crucial features of
diglossia:
• Two distinctive varieties of the same
language: high/standard (H) and
low/vernacular (L)
• Unique function of the varieties: H and L
complement each other
• Not using H variety in everyday
conversations
 Varieties of Diglossia
• High variety (H)
Regarded as the standard variety and people
use it as formal or official situations such as
government, conference event, formal letters,
broadcasts, religious service, teaching, and etc.
• Low variety (L)
Regarded as the non-standard variety and
people use it as informal situation such as family
member, neighbors, local markets, and talking
between friends.
 Diglossia

High Low

Formal Informal

Official Professional
Slang, Friendly, Vulgar
 Characteristics of Diglossia
• Function: the functional differentiation of
discrepant varieties in a diglossia is
fundamental, thus distinguishing it from
bilingualism: H and L are used for different
purposes
• Prestige: H was more highly valued (had
greater prestige) than was L
• Literary heritage: the literature is all in H
variety; no written uses of L exist, except for
“dialect” poetry, advertising
 Characteristics of Diglossia
• Acquisition: the main difference between high
and low varieties is the way of acquiring each
one.
• Standardization:
H is strictly standardized; grammars,
dictionaries, canonical texts, etc. exist for it,
written by native grammarians.
L is rarely standardized in the traditional sense,
or if grammars exist, they are written by
outsiders.
 Characteristics of Diglossia
• Stability: diglossia is generally stable, persisting
for centuries or even millennia. Occasionally L
varieties gain domains and displace the H
variety, but H only displaces L if H is the mother
tongue of elite, usually in a neighboring polity.
• Grammar: the grammars of H are more complex
than the grammars of the L variety. They have
more complex tense systems, gender systems,
agreement, and syntax than the L variety.
 Characteristics of Diglossia
• Lexicon: lexicon is often somewhat
shared, but generally there is
differentiation; H has vocabulary that L
lacks, and vice versa
• Phonology: two kinds of systems are
discerned. One is where H and L share
the same phonological elements, but H
have more complicated morphophonemic.
 Morphophonemic
• An investigation of the phonological
variations within morphemes
• It usually marks different grammatical
functions
• E.g.
- The vowel changes in ‘sleep’ and ‘slept’,
‘bind’ and ‘bound’
- The consonant alternations in ‘knife’ and
‘knives’, ‘loaf’ and ‘loaves’
 Function of Diglossia
High Variety Low Variety
Sermon in church or mosque Instruction to servants,
waiters
Speech in parliament, political Personal letter
speech
Conversation with family,
University lectures
friends, children
News broadcast, newspaper Radio, TV, soap opera
editorials
Literature, editorial, caption in Folk literature
picture
 Example of Diglossia
Region/Country High Variety (H) Low Variety (L)
Local Swiss German
Switzerland Standard German
dialects
Local Arabic dialects (Iraqi,
Middle East Classical Arabic
Moroccan, Egyptian, etc.)
Greece Katharévusa Dhimotiki
Haiti French Haitian Creole
Bahasa Indonesia with
Standard Bahasa
Jakarta dialek (bahasa
Indonesia
Betawi)
Indonesia ‘kalau sampai
‘kalo waktu gue dah
waktuku, ku tak mau
nyampe, gue gak mau loe
seorang kan merayu’
atau nyang laen ngerayu’
BILINGUALISM AND
MULTILINGUALISM
Bilingualism (Kedwibahasaan)
• The using of two languages by a speaker in
interaction with others in turn.
• To be able to use two languages, the speaker
must master it or have the ability in using
mother tongue or first language (L1), and the
second language or foreign language (L2).
• People who can use both languages are called
bilingual people.
 Bilingualism
Haugen (1968: 10)
• Bilingualism is known two languages. If it is
described in more general terms is the use of
two languages alternately either productive or
receptive by an individual or by society.
Lado in Chaer and Agustina (2010: 86)
• Bilingualism is an ability of using two languages
well or almost well which technically refers to the
knowledge of two languages.
 Types of Bilingualism
• Compound Bilingualism
• Coordinate Bilingualism
• Subordinate Bilingualism
 Compound Bilingualism
• A compound bilingual is an individual who learns
two languages in the same environment so that
he/she acquires one notion with two verbal
expressions.
• Sometimes known as additive bilingualism, an
example of this would be when a child is raised by
bilingual parents and both languages are used in the
home.
• In the individual’s mind, the languages are not
separate and can be switched between at will, even
while speaking.
 Coordinate Bilingualism
• Also known in some quarters as subtractive bilingualism, in
this type the individual learns the languages separately, in
separate environments, and maintains this separation after
mastering both.
• A coordinate bilingual acquires the two languages in different
contexts (e.g., home and school), so the words of the two
languages belong to separate and independent systems.
• For example, a student who speaks one language at home,
acquired via his parents and the home environment, and then
learns a second language at school.
• He only speaks the second language at school, in a
classroom environment, and the languages remain separate
in his mind.
 Subordinate Bilingualism
• In a sub-coordinate bilingual, one language
dominates.
• As illustration, language development is examined in
case studies of the following Italian/English bilingual
children in Italy:
(1) two sisters aged five and nine whose parents are
Italian but who have always attended English-
language schools; and
(2) two Italian teenage boys whose mother has
always spoken English to them and who have
always attended English-language schools
 Multilingualism
• Multilingualism is the ability of an
individual speaker or a community of
speakers to communicate effectively in
three or more languages.
• A person who can speak multiple
languages is known as a polyglot or
a multilingual.
 Multilingualism
• According to Guadalupe Valdes, multilingualism is the
act of using, or promoting the use of, multiple languages,
either by an individual speaker or by a community of
speakers.
• Multilingualism is becoming a social phenomenon
governed by the needs of globalization and cultural
openness.
Ex: the ease of access to information facilitated by the
internet, individuals' exposure to multiple languages is
getting more and more frequent, and triggering therefore
the need to acquire more and more languages.
 Form of Multilingualism
• Individual multilingualism relates to the personal
sphere and covers the acquisition and use of
several languages by an individual. It deals with
an individual’s ability to master, and
appropriately use more languages.
• Societal multilingualism refers to the contexts,
circumstances, order, manner and routines of
use of languages in different kinds
of communities, organizations, and groups.
 Whose people are potential of
being a bilingual or multilingual?
• Immigrants and their descendants. Although the heritage
language may be lost after one or two generations,
particularly if the replacing language has greater
opportunity.
• Children whose parents each speak a different language, in
multilingual communities.
• Children who have one or more parents who have learned
a second language, either formally (in classes) or by living
in the country.
• People who learn a different language for religious reasons.
• People who marry into families where their first language is
not commonly spoken
This is a multilingual sign at the Hong Kong-Macau Ferry
Pier in the Macau Special Administrative Region of China.
The two at the top are Portuguese and Chinese, which are
the official languages of the region.
The two at the bottom are Japanese and English, which are
common languages used by tourists (English is also one of
Hong Kong's two official languages).
Multilingual signage found at one of the exit doors of SM
Mall of Asia in Pasay City, Philippines.
It is written in three (or either four)
languages: Japanese/Chinese (either "deguchi" or
"chukou"), English ("exit") and Korean ("chulgu").
Sign like this are posted in public places like malls due to
the growing number of Koreans and other foreign
population in the Philippines.
The benefit of being bilingual or multilingual

1. Increase brain power.

Learning a language is a great way to keep your
brain healthy and sharp.
Being bilingual/multilingual can improve a
person’s multitasking skills, attention control,
problem solving and creativity as it promotes
outside-the-box thinking.
It can also help improve your memory – handy
when shopping and remembering people’s
names.
The benefit of being bilingual or multilingual

2. It can give student an academic advantage.

The effects of bilingualism can help improve a student’s
educational development, cognitive functions, social skills,
literacy, and emotional skills that have positive effects for
many years to come.
3. Increase awareness of other cultures.
Being bilingual/multilingual exposes an individual to
diverse customs, ideas, and perspectives from different
cultures. Of course, you can still learn about other cultures
without knowing a second language, but language
learning really allows for a more immersive experience.
The benefit of being bilingual or multilingual

4. Make travel easier and more enjoyable.

Traveling is way more fun and easier when there isn’t a
language barrier; you can have a more immersive and
authentic experience. You’ll be able to talk directly with
the locals and make more friends along the way.
5. Improve social life.
Speaking a second language opens up a whole new
range of social opportunities and can enhance your social
skills and confidence. As you use your language skills to
connect with a wider range people, you’ll give a boost to
your confidence in social situations more generally.
The benefit of being bilingual or multilingual

6. Improve competitiveness in the job market.

Speaking a second language can provide more job
opportunities, depending on which languages you speak.
Communication in the workplace is important, and more
companies, especially those with international offices, are
considering bilingualism a high priority.
7. Stay mentally stronger for longer.
Recent studies reveal that bilingual/multilingual people’s
brains age more slowly and therefore they live longer and
more satisfying lives. It is now widely recognized that
being bilingual can delay neurological diseases like
dementia and Alzheimer’s.
 CODE CHOICE, CODE
SWITHCING, AND CODE MIXING
 Code Choice
• According to Jendra (2012: 70-73), in bilingual or
multilingual society, it is normal for the people to be in
a situation where a choice between two or more codes
has to be made.
• In the situation the bilinguals may want to consider for
example, who speaks to them, in which language or
variety, and when or where the conversation takes
place.
• Code is a system or a variation used to communicate.
• Wardhaugh (1986:83) also states that code is a
particular type of system or language used by two or
more people to communicate.
 Code Switching
• Hymes (1974) defines code-switching as “a
common term for alternative use of two or more
languages, varieties of a language or even
speech styles.
• Code-switching is a term in linguistics referring
to use more than one language or variety in
conversation.
• Code-switching can occur between sentences
(inter sentential) or within a single sentence
(intra sentential).
 Four Major Types of Code
Switching
• Tag switching
• Intra-sentential switching
• Inter-sentential switching
• Intra-word switching
 Tag Switching
In which tags and certain set phrases in one language
are inserted into an utterance otherwise in another.
For example:
Teacher: “benar, that’s a good answer”!
The words “that’s a good answer” can be considered a
tag.
Sometimes, emblematic code-switching or tag switching
can take the form of intra sentential switching where
categorical equivalence exists between the two
languages involved.
 Intra-sentential switching
Intra-sentential switching which switches occur
within a clause or sentence boundary.
For example:
Open your matrik book and kerjakan halaman
10!
Can you please tell me kalimat apa ini?
I’ll give you a gift kalau kalian bisa jawab
 Inter-sentential switching
Inter-sentential switching which a change of language
occurs at sentence levels, where each clause or
sentence is in one language or the other.
For example:
T : “Have you done your homework, Aul”?
S : Sudah, Ms!
T : look at the picture and fill the blanks.
S : yang mana Ms?
T : On page 30
 Intra-word switching
Intra-word switching which a change occurs
within a word boundary.
For example:
• ujian hari ini open book!
• Listeningnya pake speaker
• Lesson Plan kamu sudah siap belum?
• Scoring system Unwidha seperti itu 50% final
test, 30% mid test, dan 20% daily
performances
 Code Mixing
• Kachru in Nusjam (2004) defines code
mixing as the term refers to the use of one
or more languages for consistent transfer
of linguistic units from one language into
another, and by such a language mixture
developing a new restricted or not so
restricted code of linguistic interaction.
 Code Mixing
For example:
T : “have you done your homework Hasan?”
S : “Yes Miss, saya sudah kerja my homework.”
“Excuse me mom, kemarin I was sick”.
From example above, the student use the piece of
English word to answer the teacher’s question, it
because the student does not know how to say in
English. But grammatically the sentence of
students is also suitable for grammar in English.
 The Different Concept between
Code Switching and Code Mixing
• Thelander quoted by Chaer and Leony
(2004:115) tried to differ between code switching
and code mixing.
• He said that code switching is speech event is
became there is a switched from one clause of
language to clause of other language.
• While, when speech event become, the clauses
or phrases is consist of hybrid clauses and
hybrid phrases and all of them are not support
each other is called as code mixing.
 The Different Concept between
Code Switching and Code Mixing
• Code mixing occurs when speakers
mix/insert foreign words (other code) in
their dominant language used, include the
use of foreign that appear intellect.
• While code switching, speakers change
the language used to code the others
(including diversity) for consideration.
Style, Context, and Register
 Style
• Style usually varies from informal to formal
according to the type of situation, the person or
persons addressed, the location, the topic
discussed (Richards & Schmidt, 2002:522).
• Style is language variation which reflects changes
in situational factors, such as addressee, setting,
task or topic (Holmes, 2001).
• Language style is quite similarly, as variation in
the speech of individual speakers (Wolfram and
Schilling-Estes, 1998:214).
 Style
• Style is the range of variation within the speech
of an individual speaker (Bell,1997:240).
• In conclusion, style can be defined as different
variants or forms of language used for the same
purpose based on certain situations.
• Language variations are caused by the
existence of social interaction activities carried
out by very diverse communities/groups and due
to the non-homogeneous narratives.
 When we talk to peers in daily life
People tend to use more relaxed and
informal style to communicate, below are the
examples.
• “Hey... How to do this assignment?”
• “Guys, besok ada PR tidak ya?”
• “Tugase bu Ratna wes rampung rung?”
 When we talk to the older people
People tend to use formal style and orderly
language to communicate, below are the
examples.
• “I am sorry ma’am, I am late. May I come
in?”
• “Terimakasih banyak bu, karna sudah
membantu saya?”
• “Ibu badhe tindak pundi?”
When we talk to the younger people

The style of speech that people tend to use

is easy, understandable, simple, and
grammatical structure, below are the
examples.
• “What is your name?”
• “Adik kelas berapa?”
• “Adek mau maem?”
Kinds of Language Style: Frozen Style

• It is the most formal style used in formal

situations and ceremonies such as in palace,
church, speech of state ceremony, and some
other occasions.
• This style is more elaborated than the other
styles.
• The sequences of the sentence are
complicatedly related this style requires high skill
and almost used exclusively by specialist,
professional orators, lawyers, and preachers.
 Kinds of Language Style: Formal Style
• Formal style is defined as the style of language that used
for important or serious situation.
• It is also used in addressing audience usually that is too
large or permit effective interchange between speaker and
hearers.
• Through the forms are normally and not a polished as
those in oratorical style such in a typical classroom lecture
is often carry out is formal style.
Example:
• Mr. William, would you like to have a sit first before you
deliver your speech?
• Well, it is rather difficult to say at this point.
Kinds of Language Style: Consultative Style

• Consultative style is used in semiformal communication situation.

• It is one type of language which is required from every day
speaker.
• Consultative style is typically dialogue, though formal enough
that words are chosen with some business, translation, doctor-
patient conversation, a meeting with the school principal, or any
first meeting between strangers.
• The typically of consultative style speech is used between two
persons.
• While one speaking at intervals the others give short responses,
mostly drawn from a small inventory standard signals.
• There are basic part of the system, among them are “Yes, No,
Huh, Mmm, That’s right “.
 Kinds of Language Style: Casual Style

• Casual style is used for the conversation which is

relaxed or normal situation.
• It is appropriate to the conversation with our friends or
sometimes members of a family, such as outside the
classroom, when the students have a chat.
Example:
1. Don’t get up!
2. Anybody home?
3. Hello guys, are you okay?
4. Give me some
Kinds of Language Style: Intimate Style

• Intimate style is a completely private language

developed within families, lovers and close friends.
• The intimate labels are dear, darling, honey and
even Mom, Dad, and other nicknames might use in
this situation.
Example:
1. What is it, honey?
2. Hi darling
3. Good night, sweetheart.
4. Hai sayang, sudah makan belum?
 Context
• Context can be considered as the cause and
reason for a conversation/dialogue (Mulyana, 2005:
21).
• Everything related to the speech, whether it relates
to the meaning, purpose, or information, is very
dependent on the context behind the speech event.
• Context is a concept, a schematic structure that
exists in the mind of each human mind.
• Context can also be sourced from previous events
and formed psychologically for each individual.
 Knowledge Context
• Example: ‘thesis’
• The lecturer and student respond to the
conversation and their communication
process continues.
• Both have the context of ‘thesis’.
• So there is no miss understanding.
 Situation Context
Form of speech or call someone in a
conversation that is tailored to the social roles
or place settings.
• Kate has a mother who works as a lecturer at
her university.
• When her mother was at home, Kate called
her "mama”, but when she was at campus,
Kate called her mother “Mrs.”.
• Thus, Kate adjusts the language according to
her place or social roles.
 Register
• Register is a manner of speaking or writing specific
to a certain function, that is, characteristic of a
certain domain of communication, for example, the
language of religious sermons, of parents with their
child, or of an employee with his/her supervisor
(Bussman, 1996: 994).
• Registers are sets of language items associated
with discrete occupational or social groups.
Surgeons, airline pilots, bank managers, sales
clerks, jazz fans, and pimps employ different
registers (Wardhaugh, 2012)
 Register
• Register is the language used at any given moment and
depend on what do you do, by whom and by what means.
• Register indicates the type of social process is going on.
• Register can simply be described as variations of the
language according to its use, while the dialect as a language
variation based on users.
• Register on this concept is not only limited to the choice of
words but also includes the choice of the use of text structure
(grammar) and texture (phonology or graphology choice).
• Because the register covers all aspects of language or
linguistic choices, many linguists refer to register as a style or
a style of language.
 Register is used in two senses.
• A style which is associated with a particular
social occasion, e.g.: funeral, wedding, legal
register, academic and religious register. This
definition refers to variation according to the use
of language in specific situations.
• A speech variety used by a particular group of
people, usually having the same occupation:
lawyers, doctors, mechanics, or sharing the
same interests (e.g. stamp collectors, football
fans).
Types of Register: Formal Register
Formal register is a type of register that
incorporates Standard American English.
It is used by professionals or in situations where
people are not familiar with one another.
Example:
• Introduction between strangers
• Rhetorical statements and questions
• Speeches, pronouncements made by judges
• Announcements
 Types of Register: Informal Register
Informal register is a type of register used with more familiar
people in casual conversation.
In the informal style of register, contractions are used more
often, rules of negation and agreement may be altered, and
slang or colloquialisms may be used.
Informal register also permits certain abbreviations and
deletions, but they are rule governed.
Example:
• Deleting the word "you" subject and the auxiliary “are” often
shorten questions. Instead of asking, "Are you running in the
marathon," a person might ask, "Running the marathon?“
• Using the word ‘wanna’ to simplify ‘want to’
 Types of Register: Over Formal
Register
Over formal register is a type of register that can
be characterized by the use of a false high-pitched
nasal voice.
Example:
• A woman might approach another woman whom
she does not really like and ask her cordially in a
high-pitched voice, "what are you doing?”.
 There are five language registers

• Static-Frozen: printed, unchanging language, formal, almost

scripted phrases that do not vary.
• Formal-Regulated: it is a one way communication; no
interruptions are used in impersonal and formal settings.
• Consultative-Professional: it is a kind of two way participation
and professional setting, and background information is provided,
interruptions and feedback fillers are allowed such as “I see”.
• Casual-Group: it is a very informal language, and ellipsis and
slang are common. “Group” language must be a member to use,
and interruptions are common.
• Personal-Intimate: this kind is non-public, and intonation is as
important as wording and grammar, and often a private
vocabulary are used.
Regional and Social Dialect
 Language, Dialect, Accent
• Language: group of linguistics norms and
dialect with special grammar,
pronunciation, and vocabulary
• Dialect: a variety of language, spoken in
one part of a country or by people
belonging to a particular social class
• Accent: a variety of pronunciation of the
same word
 Regional and Social Dialect
• Regional Dialect
A regional dialect is a dialect
which is spoken in certain area or
place
• Social Dialect
A social dialect is a dialect which
is spoken by certain group
 Regional Dialect
Very distinctive local varieties → regional dialect
1. It is reflected in the differences in pronunciation,
in the choice and forms of words, and in syntax.
2. There is a dialect continuum.
3. Various pressures-political, social, cultural, and
educational- serve to harden current national
boundaries and to make the linguistic differences
among states.
4. Dialect geography → term → used to describe
attempts made to map the distributions of various
linguistic features.
68
 Social Dialects

Factors such as occupation, place of residence,

education, income, racial or ethnic origin, cultural
background, caste, religion related to the way people
speak.

Social dialect originate from social groups and depend

on a variety of factors; social class, religion, and
ethnicity.

69
 Social dialects: examples
1. Caste in India often determines which variety
of a language a speaker use.
2. Christian, Muslim and Jewish in Baghdad
speak different variety of Arabic.
3. Ethnic group in America, e.g. Labov’s work
in New York.
4. Speakers of Jewish and Italian ethnicity
differentiated from the standard variety or
Black English.
70
Language and Gender
 Sex and Gender
• Mayerhoff (2006: 202) states that
Sex is a biological category
Gender is a social and cultural category
• Wardhaugh (2006) describes that
Sex is to a very large extent biologically determined
Gender is a social construct
• We can conclude that
Sex describes the biological differences between men and
women, which are universal and determined at birth.
Gender refers to the roles and responsibilities of men and
women that are created in our families, our societies and our
cultures.
 The Differences Language
between Men and Women
PHONOLOGY
Ex: In Scotland, most of women use
consonants /t/ in the words got, not, water,
and so on. Meanwhile, men often change
consonants /t/ with glottal consonants not
aspiring.
• Women have palatalized velar stops
• Men have palatalized dental stops;
 The Differences Language
between Men and Women
MORPHOLOGY
Lakoff states that women often use words
for color, such as mauve, beige,
aquamarine, and lavender which are rarely
used by men.
In addition, women also often use adjectives
such as adorable, charming, divine, lovely,
and sweet.
 The Differences Language
between Men and Women
DICTION
Women have a certain vocabulary to show
or emphasize certain effects on them.
Words and expressions like so good,
adorable, darling, and fantastic.
 The Differences Language
between Men and Women
INTONATION PATTERNS
Intonation patterns of men and women is
vary, women using certain patterns
associated with surprise and politeness
more often than men.
 Changing topic of conversation
This difference may well be at the root of the
conception that women chatter and talk too
much, and may still sparker the same
thinking in some males.
• Women’s topic: gossip, men, shopping,
child-rearing, personal relationship
• Men’s topic: firm, sport, women, politic, car
 Self-disclosure
Self-disclosure is the process was originally
defined as telling others about their self.
• Women: women share their problems and
experiences with others, often to offer sympathy,
they usually asked their friend about their
problems
• Men: male tendencies to non-self-disclosure and
professing advice or offering a solution when
confronted with another’s problems, because
man usually solve their problem by themselves
 The Differences Emotional and
Intellectual Between Men and Women
Men (Masculine) Women (Feminism)
• Very aggressive • No too aggressive
• Not emotional • More emotional
• Independent • Difficult to hide emotions
• Can hide emotions • More practical
• More objective • Easily affected
• Not easily affected • More passive
• More active • Easy shaky from the crisis
• More global • Home oriented
• More ambition • Lacking frankness
• Rarely cry • Cry more often
• Be frank • Lack of ambition
The differences of sexist language
expression: domination problems
The difference between male and female
languages is very close has to do with the
issue of power.
Ex:
Men tend to have more power compared to
women in terms of physical, financial, and
hierarchical in place work.
The differences of sexist language
expression: problems of difference
This problem of difference arises because of
the dominance of one party towards other
parties which then gave birth to the stigma that
women are helpless victims, while men are
seen as parties demeaning women.
There are two things that are considered to
contribute to the formation of these differences,
namely:
1. Social relation problems
2. Biological factors and socialization
The differences of sexist language
expression: problems of difference
1. Social Relations Problems
Ex: Heroes and playing habits similar in childhood
and then continues to adult friendship will give
birth to groups of men and women who have sub-
cultures own.
2. Biological Factors and Socialization
Ex: Boys are prohibited from playing with flowers
because of flowers symbolizing a soft, gentle,
woman is.
The Characteristic of Women’s Language

Women have words and phrases which the

men never use, or they would be laughed to
scorn.
Thus, it happens that in their conversations
it often seems as if the women had another
language than the men.
Lakoff (as cited in Holmes, 2003) suggested
ten language features such as the following
characterized women’s speech:
The Characteristic of Women’s Language

1. Lexical Hedges or Fillers

Lakoff (1975) presented a collection of
hedges and tag questions which are
considered language features that express
indirectness and uncertainty. She also
stated fillers as a word or sound filling a
pause in an utterance or conversation. For
example: well, you see, um, and ah.
The Characteristic of Women’s Language

2. Rising Intonation on Declaratives

Bi (2010) stated women like modulating the
intonation, speed, and volume when they
speak. In some specific situations, women
like to use rising tone to answer the
interrogative sentences, even at the end of
declarative sentences. For example, it's
really good?
The Characteristic of Women’s Language

3. Precise Color Terms

Bi (2010) stated women are sensitive in
color. They are good at using some color
words by describing colors. For example:
chartreuse, beige, mauve, lavender, azure,
and so on.
The Characteristic of Women’s Language

4. Intensifiers
Lakoff (1975) found that female use more
intensifiers than male, such as:
- so
- awfully
- pretty
- terribly
- quite
The Characteristic of Women’s Language

5. ‘Empty’ Adjectives
Bi (2010) stated women also used empty adjective
to express when they like that things. For example:
- adorable
- charming
- cute
- quite
- awfully
- perfectly
The Characteristic of Women’s Language

6. ‘Hypercorrect’ Grammar
Bi (2010) stated women usually use following
grammar structures, such as tag questions,
embedded imperatives, and euphemism. They
used a pronunciation, word form, or
grammatical construction produced by
mistaken analogy with standard usage out of a
desire to be correct. For example, “Would you
lend me your dictionary, please”.
The Characteristic of Women’s Language

7. Tag Questions
It is the kind of sentence pattern has a
strong meaning of appeal as well as inquiry,
which function as polite and implicit
expressions.
For example: she's very nice, isn't she?
The Characteristic of Women’s Language

8. Superpolite
Bi (2010) stated women use kind of polite
sentence pattern to ask others to do a favor. In
the conversations, women prefer to use it to
express their opinions. Women tend to use
hypercorrect grammar structure, so they seldom
use nonstandard multi-negative structure. They
did not use “ain’t” or “go in”. The example of
sentence for this feature is “Will you please open
the window?”.
The Characteristic of Women’s Language

9. Avoidance of Strong Swear Words

Bi (2010) stated women are more implicative,
cautious, gentle and polite than men, so their
language is more elegant. “Even when they are
disgruntled or unpleasant, they usually do not
use coarse words but euphemism, such as,
damn, shit, fuck, etc.”
When they express surprise, they often use oh,
dear, dear me, good heavens, my God.
The Characteristic of Women’s Language

10. Emphatic Stress

Bi (2010) stated emphatic stress is
expressing something forcibly and clearly
with bearing stress of a word or syllable.
 The Characteristic of Men Language

The man have a great many

expressions peculiar to them, which the
women understand but never
pronounce themselves.
Coates (2004) gave language feature
that used by men:
 The Characteristic of Men Language

1. Minimal responses
This is also known as back channel. These
include term such as mhm, yeah, and right.
Men tend to use these terms to assert
dominance.
2. Command and Directives
Men tend to use explicit commands especially
when they were in the same-sex groups, for
example: gimme, gonna, and gotta.
 The Characteristic of Men Language

3. Swearing and Taboo Language

There is a widespread belief that men used
more taboo forms than women.
Research showed that men and men
conversation used substantially more taboo
words than women and women conversation,
while mixed conversations tend to
accommodate both sides.
For example, damn, fuck, suck, shit, etc.
 The Characteristic of Men Language

4. Compliments
Research show that men tend to compliment
each other based on skill and possessions.
For example, it's cool, good boy, good job.
5. Theme
Men and men or in the same-sex group
conversation sometime talk about current
affairs, travel, and sports.
 The Characteristic of Men Language

6. Question
Men ask the questions to gain information, it
has different pattern to women which
sometime use question tag to ask question.
They ask the question directly.
 Differences in men’s and women’s speech

1. Women talk more/less than men

Brizendine (1994) finds that women talk three times as
much as men. Cameron and Coates (1985) describes
that the amount we talk is influenced by who we are with
and what we are doing. They also add that if we
aggregate a large number of studies, it will be observed
that there is little difference between the amount men and
women talk.
2. Women break the ‘rules’ of turn-taking less than men
Dominance can be attributed to the fact that in mixed-sex
conversations, men are more likely to interrupt than
women.
 Six Contrasts of Male and Female
Language by Deborah Tannen
1. Status vs. Support
This claims that men grow up in a world in
which conversation is competitive - they
seek to achieve the upper hand or to
prevent others from dominating them.
 Six Contrasts of Male and Female
Language by Deborah Tannen
2. Independence vs. Intimacy
In general, women often think in terms of
closeness and support, and struggle to
preserve intimacy. Men, concerned with
status, tend to focus more on independence.
 Six Contrasts of Male and Female
Language by Deborah Tannen
3. Advice vs. Understanding
Deborah Tannen claims that, to many men a
complaint is a challenge to find a solution.
Invariably, she is disappointed with his
reaction. Like many men, he is focused on
what he can do, whereas she wants
sympathy.”
 Six Contrasts of Male and Female
Language by Deborah Tannen
4. Information vs. Feelings
Culturally and historically speaking, men's
concerns were seen as more important than
those of women, but today this situation may
be reversed so that the giving of information
and brevity of speech are considered of less
value than sharing of emotions and
elaboration
 Six Contrasts of Male and Female
Language by Deborah Tannen
5. Orders vs. Proposals
It is claimed that women often suggest that
people do things in indirect ways - “let's”,
“why don't we?” or “wouldn't it be good, if
we...?” Men may use, and prefer to hear, a
direct imperative.
 Six Contrasts of Male and Female
Language by Deborah Tannen
6. Conflict vs. Compromise
This situation can be clearly observed in
work-situations where a management
decision seems unattractive - men will often
resist it vocally, while women may appear to
accede, but complain subsequently.
Men are from Mars and
Women are from Venus
The proverb states clearly that
men and women are different.
Language and Change
 Language Change
• Language change is change in a language
which takes place over time. All living
languages have changed and continue to
change (Richard & Schmidt, 2002: 287).
• There are a change of language over time
(diachronic change). It makes languages,
which were used in the past and now, relate
to one another (Old English, Middle English,
Modern English, Jawa Kuna)
 Major Characteristics
• No language stays static for long. Languages
change more rapidly than human beings.
• A language change varies from language to
language.
• Any aspect of language is subject to change:
phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax,
semantics, pragmatics, lexicon (processes of
word formation)
 The Examples
• Phonological Change
(Irish English)
film [fɪlm] à [fɪ.ləm]
arm [arm] à [a.rəm])
• Morphological Change
Shoen was the plural of shoe
Quince was the plural of quin but it was later
reanalyzed and became quinces
The Examples of Semantic Change
• Pejoration/konotasi negatif
Notorious> ‘well-known, commonly known’
Slut> ‘a woman with untidy habits’ to ‘a
prostitute’
• Amelioration/konotasi positif
Pretty> ‘astute, skillful’, to ‘manly, gallant’
• Hyperbole/melebihkan; Terribly, Awfully
The Examples of Grammatical Change

Grammatical change is the less apparent

change because it spreads slowly and takes
a longer time than for lexical change.
Grammatical variation involves two sub-
types: morphology and syntax.
• Morphemes: {cat} ‘cat’ and {s} plural in
‘cats’
• Syntax: refers to the structure of larger
units like phrases and sentences.
 Factors which effect on
language change
• Social networks: interacting people
engaged in actions that could alter the
institutions in which they participated
• Social class: people of higher social status
in the community introduce changes from
other communities which are considered
prestigious (upper-class London), while
lower class people spread less-conscious
linguistic changes
 Factors which effect on
language change
• Gender: difference speech between men
and women can cause linguistic change,
women tend to introduce changes
associated with both prestigious and
vernacular forms, while men introduce
changes associated with vernacular forms
• Life mode updates: urban or rural life
modes
 Factors which effect on
language change
• The need of the speakers

• New technology

• New knowledge

• Age

• Language Attitude
Language Attitude
 Language Attitude
• Language attitudes are opinions, ideas,
and prejudices that speakers have with
respect to a language.
• People have attitudes/feelings/beliefs
about language in general, their language,
and the language of other people.
• Attitudes demonstrated through actual
behavior.
 Language Attitude
• Speakers’ attitude to the individual they
are talking to.
• Speakers’ attitude affect the way the talk.
• Speakers’ perception/attitude of their
interlocutors to be individual
representatives of a group.
 Attitudes to language are classified into

a. Identity (social identity) à A theory of

intergroup relations in which language is one
of many potent symbols that individuals can
strategically use when testing or maintaining
boundaries between groups
b. Accommodation à A bundle of principles
that are intended to characterize the
strategies speakers use to establish, contest
or maintain relationship through talk.
Language and Culture
 Language and Culture
• A language is a part of culture, and a culture is part of language,
the two are intricately in interwoven so that one cannot separate
the two without losing the significance of either language or
culture (Brown, 2000:177)
How language and culture bound together?
• Language expresses cultural reality à Words express facts,
ideas, or events that are communicable. Words reflect attitudes,
beliefs, and points of view.
• Language embodies cultural reality à It means that language as
a media to communicate the culture, it can be spoken, written,
and visual.
• Language symbolizes cultural reality à Language is viewed as a
symbol of social identity.
 Language and Culture
• Understanding of a culture, people can
enhance the knowledge about language.
• Learning a new language involves the
learning of a new culture.
• Culture and language establish one’s
identity and personality.
Three ways in which language and culture are
related:

• Through verbal communication members of

a society convey the cultural actuality
• Language embodies cultural reality, people
provide significance to their daily life
experiments through language
• Culture symbolizes cultural reality
(members of a community view their local
language as a symbol of their cultural
identity)
 The example of language
culture in diction
• Indonesian has many words to name ‘rice’,
such as padi, gabah, beras, and nasi
• Javanese also has different names of
‘rain’, such as tlethik, trenceng, kepyur,
gerimis, udan, deres.
• English has many dictions to name ‘horse’
in a horse racing, such as horse, colt,
stallion, pony, and mare
Solidarity and Politeness
 Solidarity
• Solidarity is an attitude possessed by humans which is
related to the expression of human feelings over a sense
of shared destiny and continuity towards other people or
groups.
• The sense of solidarity that grows in humans for the
continuity of their relationships with others can make
their sense of unity stronger.
• The implementation of solidarity in daily life are as follow.
- Mutual cooperation
- Support for other people
 Solidarity
• The principle of solidarity includes feel the
same fate, forms of reciprocity, and
disclosed in accordance with portion
People grow the solidarity by doing below.
• Empathy to others
• Connect with other people
• Try greeting to each other
• Giving and helping each other
 Politeness
• Politeness is a social
contract/communication/conversation using
variations/appropriate language codes and taking
into account the scale of the status and familiarity of
the speaker and the opponent or opponent talking
about the rights and speak of each individual with
their respective goals with the intent and purpose.
• Politeness is a system which is a series of items
(form of speech, context, participants, and effect of
speech) and it is interrelated with one another and
operate together.
How to be polite?
Level name: 3a krama inggil 1b ngoko sae
3 krama biasa 1a ngoko madya
2 krama madya 1 ngoko biasa
 Address Term
How do you address people?
By title?
By first name?
By last name?
By nickname?
By some combination of these?
 Address Term
• Addressing is used by people when they
want to show their power or solidarity to
other people (Chaika, 1982: 46)
• It is words used in interactive, face-to-face
situations to designate the person being
talked to.
 Ada beberapa cara mengucapkan terima
kasih kepada Prof. John Fitzgerald Smith
• "Thank you very much, Prof. Smith"
(sangat formal)
• "Thank you, Professor" (kurang formal dan
tidak friendly)
• "Thank you, sir" (pembicara tidak tahu
bahwa beliau seorang profesor, tahunya
cuma bahwa beliau seorang pria)
• "Many thanks, Prof" (tidak formal)
 Ada beberapa cara mengucapkan terima
kasih kepada Prof. John Fitzgerald Smith
• "Thanks" (sangat tidak formal)
• "Thank you, John" (teman akrab, tapi jika
ini diucapkan mahasiswi beliau, ini
menunjukkan sesuatu)
• “Thank you, Dad” (keluarga/anak)
• HINDARI mengatakan "Thank you Mister"
(Ini menunjukkan bahwa yg
mengucapkannya tidak berpendidikan)
 Prof. John Fitzgerald Smith, Ph.D.

• Prof. Smith (sebagai dosen disapa

mahasiswanya)
• John (disapa oleh saudara atau sahabat
karibnya)
• Johnny (disapa keluarganya:
bapak/ibu/nenek/kakek TAPI akan dipanggil
nama lengkap John Fitzgerald Smith ketika
memarahinya)
• Honey (disapa istri/kekasihnya)
 Prof. John Fitzgerald Smith, Ph.D.

• Sir (disapa orang yang tidak begitu kenal,

misal polisi)
• Smith (disapa atasannya di kantor)
• Mr. President (ketika beliau menjadi
presiden)
• Your Excellency atau His Excellency (H.E)
Prof. J.F. Smith (ketika beliau
menjadi/bertindak sebagai seorang menteri)