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2020

Employee Engagement in Antigua and Barbuda Broadcasting

Services
Jrucilla Bernice Samuel
Walden University

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 Walden University

College of Management and Technology

This is to certify that the doctoral study by

Jrucilla B. Samuel

has been found to be complete and satisfactory in all respects,

and that any and all revisions required by
the review committee have been made.

Review Committee
Dr. Frank Bearden, Committee Chairperson, Doctor of Business Administration Faculty

Dr. Janet Booker, Committee Member, Doctor of Business Administration Faculty

Dr. Judith Blando, University Reviewer, Doctor of Business Administration Faculty

Chief Academic Officer and Provost

Sue Subocz, Ph.D.

Walden University
2020
 Abstract

Employee Engagement in Antigua and Barbuda Broadcasting Services

by

Jrucilla B. Samuel

MBA, University of Wales, 2013

BA, University of the West Indies, 2001

Doctoral Study Submitted in Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Degree of

Doctor of Business Administration

Walden University

March 2020
 Abstract

Employee engagement is a direct threat to business survival. The strategic development

of sustainable engagement initiatives results in employee well-being and also mitigates

against organizational collapse. Grounded in the conceptual frameworks of employee

engagement theory, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, Deci and Ryan’s self-determination

theory, and Kahn’s theory of personal engagement, the purpose of this qualitative single

case study was to explore the motivational strategies some media leaders use to keep

employees engaged. The participants comprised 5 media leaders in Antigua and Barbuda

with at least 2 years’ experience in successful employee engagement. Data were collected

in person via semistructured interviews and documents from the media entity were

reviewed. During the analysis of the data, 3 themes emerged: flexible leadership,

organizational training, and recognition and appreciation. A key recommendation

includes prioritizing comprehensive training for all employees to build engagement. The

implications for positive social change include the potential for business leaders to

enhance the general welfare of employees and increase human capital, as well as

implement corporate social responsibility initiatives for the wider community.

Employee Engagement in Antigua and Barbuda Broadcasting Services

by

Jrucilla B. Samuel

MBA, University of Wales, 2013

BA, University of the West Indies, 2001

Doctoral Study Submitted in Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Degree of

Doctor of Business Administration

Walden University

March 2020
 Dedication

This doctoral study is dedicated to my ever-supporting mother and daughter.

 Acknowledgments

I would like to thank the Almighty God for giving me the strength to persevere. I would

also like to thank all the members of my family, particularly my daughter Corzette and

my mother Juanita, who encouraged me tremendously during this challenging DBA

journey. Your support and love will forever be remembered. I would also like to thank

my chair, Dr. Frank Bearden, for his patience and valuable assistance. Thank you for

answering the plethora of questions in the discussion forums. Many thanks also to my

2nd committee member, Dr. Janet Booker, for her sound advice and encouraging words

and my URR, Dr. Judith Blando, for her eagle eye. It was a privilege to have benefited

from your service. And thank you Walden for offering your service to developing

countries like Antigua & Barbuda and for letting possibilities become realizations.
 Table of Contents

Section 1: Foundation of the Study......................................................................................1

Background of the Problem ...........................................................................................1

Problem Statement .........................................................................................................2

Purpose Statement ..........................................................................................................2

Nature of the Study ........................................................................................................3

Research Question .........................................................................................................5

Interview Questions .......................................................................................................5

Conceptual Framework ..................................................................................................6

Operational Definitions ..................................................................................................7

Assumptions, Limitations, and Delimitations ................................................................8

Assumptions............................................................................................................ 8

Limitations .............................................................................................................. 9

Delimitations ........................................................................................................... 9

Significance of the Study .............................................................................................10

Contribution to Business Practice ......................................................................... 10

Implications for Social Change ............................................................................. 11

A Review of the Professional and Academic Literature ..............................................12

Definitions of Employee Engagement .................................................................. 13

Theories of Motivation ......................................................................................... 16

Kahn’s (1990) Employee Engagement ................................................................. 16

Maslow’s (1943) Hiearchy of Needs .................................................................... 18

i
 Deci and Ryan’s (1985) Self-Determination Theory (SDT)................................. 20

Driving Forces of Employee Engagement ...................................................................22

Organizational Culture .................................................................................................22

Hiearchy Culture ................................................................................................... 22

Clan Culture .......................................................................................................... 23

Market Culture ...................................................................................................... 23

Adhocracy Culture ................................................................................................ 24

Styles of Leadership .....................................................................................................25

Transformational Leadership .......................................................................................25

Ethics…................................................................................................................. 26

Corporate Social Responsibility ........................................................................... 26

Interpersonal Relationship .................................................................................... 28

Cultural Transformation........................................................................................ 29

Communication ..................................................................................................... 30

Intellectual Stimulation ......................................................................................... 30

Situational Leadership .................................................................................................31

Autocratic Leadership ........................................................................................... 32

Democratic Leadership ......................................................................................... 33

Laissez-Faire Leadership ...................................................................................... 33

Training and Development ..........................................................................................35

Knowledge and Skills ........................................................................................... 35

Multifaceted Process ............................................................................................. 36

ii
 Cultural Competence ............................................................................................ 36

Work Empowerment ............................................................................................. 37

Transition .....................................................................................................................38

Section 2: The Project ........................................................................................................40

Purpose Statement ........................................................................................................40

Role of the Researcher .................................................................................................40

Participants ...................................................................................................................42

Research Method and Design ......................................................................................44

Research Method .................................................................................................. 44

Research Design.................................................................................................... 45

Population and Sampling .............................................................................................48

Ethical Research...........................................................................................................50

Data Collection Instruments ........................................................................................52

Data Collection Technique ..........................................................................................53

Data Organization Technique ......................................................................................56

Data Analysis ...............................................................................................................57

Reliability and Validity ................................................................................................58

Reliability.............................................................................................................. 58

Validity ................................................................................................................. 60

Transition and Summary ..............................................................................................63

Section 3: Application to Professional Practice and Implications for Change ..................64

Introduction ..................................................................................................................64

iii
 Presentation of the Findings.........................................................................................64

Theme 1: Flexible Leadership .............................................................................. 65

Theme 2: Organizational Training ........................................................................ 69

Theme 3: Recognition and Appreciation .............................................................. 72

Applications to Professional Practice ..........................................................................76

Implications for Social Change ....................................................................................78

Recommendations for Action ......................................................................................79

Recommendations for Further Research ......................................................................82

Reflections ...................................................................................................................82

Conclusion ...................................................................................................................84

References ..........................................................................................................................85

Appendix A: Interview Questions ...................................................................................140

Appendix B: Interview Protocol ......................................................................................141

iv
 1
Section 1: Foundation of the Study

Background of the Problem

Despite a substantial body of literature on improving employee motivation,

productivity, and welfare (Da Costa & Loureiro, 2019; Shaik & Makhecha, 2019; Sun,

2019; Tanwar, 2017), employee engagement remains elusive worldwide. Statistics from

the Gallup Institute highlighted that 85% of the global workforce are neither engaged nor

actively engaged (Motyka, 2018). Disengagement is still a major challenge for the

corporate sector, but engagement is a vital counteractive and strategic tool that attracts,

motivates, and retains employees for superior business results (Gupta & Sharma, 2016).

Employee engagement is indicative of business success (Rekha & Sasmita, 2019).

Effective leaders are aware that business growth and survival result from

committed and innovative employees (Prathiba, 2016). Human resources and their

management are significant factors that can secure an organization’s competitive

advantage and sustain that edge in competitive environments (O’Bryan & Casey, 2017).

Business leaders prefer engaged employees because they display organizational

citizenship behavior and their output exceeds that of their disengaged counterparts

(Rekha & Sasmita, 2019). Leaders should invest in their human resources practices and

ongoing performance assessments to improve a firm’s products and services and prevent

the risk of organizational decline (Cesário & Chambel, 2017). Social progress is evident

among companies with engaged employees who exhibit high morale, emphasize

teamwork, and maintain a positive work attitude (Ullah, Khattak, & Rahman, 2018). The

impetus behind employee engagement remains varied, but the soft approach to employee
 2
engagement, which entails leaders who trust, reward, recognize employees’ efforts, and

exemplify organizational integrity, bolstered job commitment and satisfaction (Jenkins &

Delbridge, 2013). Employee engagement is too important to be left unattended and

leaders who remain unconcerned will risk losing their competitive edge.

Problem Statement

Employee disengagement is a direct threat to business survival because the

universal issue coincides with lowered productivity, increased organizational conflict,

and potential financial losses (Allam, 2017). Disengaged employees cost organizations

between $450 and $550 billion annually (Rastogi, Pati, Krishnan, & Krishnan, 2018).

The general business problem was that disengaged employees undermine organizational

profitability and employers lack specific skills that will keep employees engaged. The

specific business problem was that some media leaders lack motivational strategies to

keep employees engaged.

Purpose Statement

The purpose of this qualitative single case study was to explore the motivational

strategies some media leaders use to keep employees engaged. The participants were five

leaders with at least 2 years’ experience in successful employee engagement. The leaders

worked at a media station in the Caribbean island of Antigua and Barbuda. The five

leaders were interviewed about the motivational strategies they implement within the

organization to increase and maintain employee engagement. The results of this study

may contribute to an understanding of the significance of employee engagement, which is

important to organizational success (Bedarkar & Pandita, 2014). Bolstering engagement

 3
may lead to positive social change not only for employees and general institutions, but

also for the wider community.

Nature of the Study

The qualitative method was most appropriate to explore the motivational

strategies media leaders implement to sustain employee engagement. Qualitative

researchers focus on the unquantifiable aspects of reality that provide an explanation of

social relations dynamics (Queirós, Faria, & Almeida, 2017). Quantitative methods

involve generating statistics, but qualitative researchers aim to understand the how and

why behind the phenomenon (Sutton & Austin, 2015). The snapshots of statistics cannot

suffice for depth that is needed to comprehend and address some business problems.

Qualitative data involves analysis conducted via the use of conceptualization,

which enables the researcher to meaningfully analyze words and images (Saunders,

Lewis, & Thornhill, 2015). Qualitative research is not based on testing a hypothesis.

Instead, qualitative researchers embrace the inductive approach which gives the

investigator more freedom to capture true reality. Researcher bias is likely to exist in

qualitative research, but Trochim, Donnelly, and Arora (2016) lauded the potential of the

qualitative approach that can result in meaningful conclusions and a greater

understanding of the subject matter. Although Onwuegbuzie and Leech (2005)

discouraged the divide between quantitative and qualitative paradigms and advocated the

mixed method approach, the qualitative method remains appropriate for this kind of study

that requires a single researcher. Because of its duplicity, the mixed method, which

requires more resources, is time-consuming, and can produce contradictory results.

 4
The qualitative case study was much more advantageous for this investigation

than other research designs because it enabled me to provide a holistic perspective after a

close examination of leaders in a unit of the media entity. Neuman (2011) summarized

conceptual validity, heuristic impact, causal mechanisms identification, calibration,

holistic elaboration, and the ability to capture complexity as six major strengths of case

study research. I made holistic connections between abstract ideas and concrete

examples, which may provide problem-solving opportunities regardless of the case’s

complexities. I also used the qualitative case study to explore alignment with theoretical

proposition in an authentic setting. Yin (2018) noted that the researcher gets the

opportunity to confirm, challenge, or extend theory and pave the way for future research.

Ethnography, which was developed originally by anthropologists, would not be

suitable for this research study. Ethnography is a qualitative field research that involves

an in-depth study of a society, culture, or group and participant observation is the most

popular ethnographic approach (Trochim et al., 2016). Despite the rich, detailed

description that emerges as a result of the ethnographic design (Neuman, 2011), my focus

was not on a group’s culture, but on the motivational strategies media leaders use to keep

employees engaged. Participant observation was not needed. Similarly, the

phenomenological design would be inappropriate because this school of thought is a

qualitative analysis of narrative data that centers on the personal meanings of

participants’ experiences with, and interpretations of, a particular phenomenon.

 5
Research Question

The overarching research question was: What motivational strategies do some

media leaders use to keep employees engaged?

Interview Questions

The interview questions were as follows:

1. What motivational strategies do you use to keep employees engaged?

2. How do motivational strategies help to maintain employee engagement at

your organization?

3. Based upon your organization’s experience, what motivational strategies have

been the most effective to keep employees engaged?

4. How do employees respond to the motivational strategies you use to keep

them engaged?

5. Based upon your organization’s experience, what motivational strategies were

least effective to keep employees engaged?

6. What fundamental difficulties did your organization encounter as you

implemented motivational strategies to bolster employee engagement?

7. How did your organization address the fundamental challenges to

implementing its strategies for employee engagement?

8. Based upon your experience, how have the motivational strategies you use to

keep employees engaged increased your organization’s performance?

 6
9. What other information can you share about the motivational strategies your

organization implemented to enhance employee engagement that we’ve not

already covered?

Conceptual Framework

The conceptual framework was employee engagement theory. Employee

engagement theory posits that the psychological immersion of employees into their work

results in employees who are willing to exceed the duties stipulated in their job

description (Gustomo & Gustomo, 2015). Employee engagement theory is akin to the

self-determination theory (SDT) that is entrenched in the macro theory of human

motivation, which examines the nature and drivers of motivation (Deci, Olafsen, & Ryan,

2017). Employee engagement theory is synonymous with the concept of personal

engagement, which Kahn (1990) used to explain employees’ physical, cognitive, and

emotional attachment to their work. Kahn’s theory is based on the premise that once the

working environment is physically, socially, and psychologically supportive, engagement

will thrive and so too will productivity.

Employee engagement theory has three underlying concepts. The first is

psychological meaningfulness. This concept aligns with Maslow’s (1943) hierarchy of

needs theory, which indicated that the onus is on leaders to establish a work environment

that meets both lower-level and higher-level needs of employees to propel them to an

appropriate level of self-actualization. Second, the psychological safety, indicates that

engagement necessitates trusting, flexible relationships, and a management style that

makes the working climate a second home (Kaliannan & Adjovu, 2015). The last
 7
construct, psychological availability, is the sense of having the necessary physical,

emotional, and psychological resources that empower employees to excel within the

organization (Osborne & Hammoud, 2017). Employee engagement theory is the lens for

viewing my study’s results because I explored various motivational strategies media

leaders use to keep their employees engaged. This conceptual framework was important

because I compared and contrasted the various themes and motivational strategies that

emerged during the stage of data analysis to the themes and strategies proposed by

Maslow (1943), Deci and Ryan (1985), and Kahn (1990). Through the findings of this

study, I substantiated the theory of engagement by past researchers and added to the body

of knowledge on employee engagement.

Operational Definitions

Corporate social responsibility: Corporate social responsibility is a voluntary

organizational strategy aimed at socioeconomic and environmental development (Godos-

Díez, Cabeza-García, & Fernández-González, 2018).

Employee disengagement: Employee disengagement refers to the negative attitude

of employees that causes physical, cognitive, and emotional detachment during role

performance (Kahn, 1990).

Employee engagement: Employee engagement is the psychological state in which

employees’ positive organizational attitude enables them to exceed job requirements

(Gustomo & Gustomo, 2015).

 8
Employee identification. Employee identification is a psychological state in which

an employee considers himself or herself a significant element who can determine

organizational success or failure (Kumar & Pansari, 2016).

Organizational culture: Organizational culture is the shared beliefs, philosophies,

and norms that drive peak performance (Idowu, 2017).

Organizational development: Organizational development is a systematic,

multifaceted process aimed at propelling employee and company advancement (Banutu-

Gomez & Banutu-Gomez, 2016).

Self-determination theory: Self-determination theory is a theory of human

motivation that underlines the psychological importance of autonomy, competence, and

relatedness as fundamental factors that promote human development (Turner, 2019).

Situational leadership: Situational leadership refers to a leadership theory that

develops employee productivity through directive and supportive strategies (Shaikh &

Shaikh, 2019).

Strategic leadership: Strategic leadership is creating integrated technical and

social systems that address the needs of employees and customers (Westcott, 2014).

Transformation leadership: A style of leadership that inspires followers to

achieve personal and organizational goals in an enabling environment (Li et al., 2019).

Assumptions, Limitations, and Delimitations

In professional academic research, assumptions are indispensable, acceptable

truths (Yin, 2016). Although these statements cannot be verified or tested, they are still

considered accurate (Zhuge, Chen, Anil, & Manica, 2016). I assumed that the sample was
 9
representative of the population and that media leaders possessed the experience and

expertise to strengthen employee engagement. I also assumed that participants were given

sufficient time to answer each question. Another assumption is that the participants gave

honest responses and provided adequate information on the motivational methods they

implemented to augment employee engagement.

This doctoral research was not without limitations. As the word indicates,

limitations highlight weaknesses or restrictions in the study (Uri, 2015). While the data

that I collected may be richly informative, a key limitation was my sole focus on one

organization. The focus on a single organization can hinder generalization although case

study generalization is possible for theoretical propositions in spite of population

differences (Yin, 2018). Another limitation was the use of purposive sampling. Purposive

sampling entails pinpointing and choosing proficient individuals who are knowledgeable

and experienced about the area that is under research (Etikan, Musa, & Alkassim, 2016).

The assumption was that the target population is adept and most suitable for assisting

with this doctoral study.

Delimitations are the boundaries researchers establish to control or narrow the

scope of the study (Qiu & Gullett, 2017). Five media leaders who had successful

experiences with employee engagement participated in this study. Because I had worked

at several media houses in Antigua, this media entity was one of the few major media

organizations where I was never employed. As a result, I eliminated the issue of

familiarity bias, which may negatively affect the accuracy of the findings.
 10
Significance of the Study

Employee engagement is a vital issue that continues to captivate individuals in the

field of business because of its direct influence on organizational profitability and

survival. Employee engagement is connected to other positive concepts such as job

commitment, satisfaction, happiness, and organizational citizenship behavior (Rekha &

Sasmita, 2019). Engaged employees are not only more productive than their disengaged

counterparts, but their presence, along with effective engagement strategies, also improve

organizational climate exponentially and make work meaningful (Van Wingerden & Van

der Stoep, 2018).

Contribution to Business Practice

This doctoral study entailed valuable insights for business managers and leaders

who have the power to improve the physical, social, psychological, and financial

conditions of the workplace environment. The real catalysts behind competitive and

viable firms are employees (Kaliannan & Adjovu, 2015). Workers must continue to be

challenged, inspired, and appreciated for their discretionary effort (Ghasabeh &

Provitera, 2017). The responsibilities of management include arming workers with the

requisite knowledge and resources for effective job performance in an enabling climate

that boosts employee confidence, morale, and productivity (Iqbal, 2011). The findings of

this study may underscore various drivers of engagement, ranging from building personal

relationships to sharing power (Schultz, 2014). The findings could also verify the

importance of identifying and satisfying employees’ worth, basic needs, and human

rights, especially since managers’ behavior or pressure tactics have been identified as the
 11
primary reason for employee turnover (Reina, Rogers, Peterson, Byron, & Hom, 2018).

The findings and conclusions included recommendations and insights into employee

engagement that can benefit leaders and followers worldwide who can collaborate for the

common good.

Implications for Social Change

The implications for positive social change for leaders may include insight into

various motivational strategies that bolster a sense of organizational belonging and self-

esteem. Belonging and self-esteem can improve job performance and correlate with

happiness, life-satisfaction, and well-being of employees (Kumar, 2017). This study may

result in the positive behavioral change among leaders and employees. Once leaders

prioritize employee engagement, they are likely to witness significant transformations in

workers’ vigor, dedication, and absorption (Dewing & McCormack, 2015).

Motivational strategies may help develop human capital and enhance

organizational capacity (Casey & Sieber, 2016). By improving the sociopsychological

landscape of businesses, where workers spend a significant part of their day, employee

competence and productivity may increase (Ahlowalia, Tiwary, & Jha, 2014). Engaged

employees may find work meaningful in an environment where their efforts are

appreciated (Asiwe, Rothmann, Jorgensen, & Hill, 2017). Heightened productivity also

coincides with better working conditions, wages, and salaries, coupled with increased

profits and a competitive edge (Hanaysha, 2016). Content workers also tend to deliver

better products and services, which can ensure customer loyalty (MacGillavry & Sinyan,

2016). The findings from this study may highlight the wider implications of employee
 12
engagement. Owners of productive and profitable firms tend to invest in philanthropic

deeds or corporate social responsibility (CSR) initiatives (Gupta & Sharma, 2016), which

empowers employees, families, and members of the community.

A Review of the Professional and Academic Literature

The objective of this review of the literature was to explore the motivational

strategies media leaders use to bolster engagement. This review comprises a

comprehensive analysis of the much-talked-about concept of employee engagement,

motivational strategies that exert discretionary effort, as well as the managerial

implications for business success. I commenced with past and contemporary definitions

of employee engagement that highlighted its positive side, as well as several concepts

that are synonymous with and antithetical to engagement. Despite the influx of meanings

surrounding the benefits of employee engagement, I extended the definition of

engagement to include burnout, a negative or darker side of engagement that is

underexplored in the literature.

The review also encompasses a discussion of three transcendental theories of

motivation and employee engagement that transcend time: Kahn’s engagement theory

(1990), Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (1943), and Deci and Ryan’s SDT (1985). I

discussed different themes that can be found in the theories of motivation and employee

engagement and may rematerialize during the collection and analyzation of data and

reporting of the findings. Because leadership matters and employees are essential to

business success, I found it necessary to revisit human motivational theories centered on

those universal truths. The majority of the literature review comprises the driving forces
 13
of employee engagement, which include organizational culture, transformational and

situational styles of leadership, and training and development. Based on empirical

research, these drivers correlate with organizational productivity, profitability, and

advancement.

The sources of this review, which were mostly written within the last 5 years,

were peer-reviewed articles. Many of the articles were accessed online via Walden

University’s library or Google Scholar. The databases I used were: Sage, ResearchGate,

Elsevier Journal Finder, and Emeraldinsight. I also perused reports and seminal books

that were written by prominent business researchers, leaders, and entrepreneurs. A

substantial amount of these resources was published within the last 5 years, and they

included significant contributions to the field of business. Through a combination of all

resources, I provided a highly analytical and holistic review of employee engagement and

other related terms such as productivity, employee performance, motivation,

empowerment, strategic leadership, and training and development.

Definitions of Employee Engagement

The construct of employee engagement was developed in Kahn’s (1990) seminal

work, which highlighted that engaged employees exhibit their preferred self on the job

where they are physically, cognitively, and emotionally immersed into their work roles.

Chandani, Mehta, Mall, and Khokhar (2016) expounded on the theory of engagement and

explained that the intellectual aspect of engagement is tantamount to job dedication,

while affective engagement refers to self-fulfillment, and social engagement is the

relational aspect that improves performance. Indicating that engagement is varied,

 14
Ruslan, Islam, and Noor (2014) identified three levels: engaged, not engaged, and

disengaged. Engaged employees are thriving, motivated, and devoted workers who

commit to superior performance standards (Bulkapuram, Wundavalli, Avula, & Reddy,

2015). While engaged employees are passionately productive about attaining

organizational goals, not engaged employees work without passion and experience

emotional and organizational disconnect (Chandani et al., 2016; Govindarajo, Kumar, &

Ramulu, 2014). They do precisely what is required and are not interested in taking an

extra mile (Kavya & Padmavathy, 2017).

After a decade of dormancy from 1990 to 2000, Kahn’s engagement theory

stimulated an influx of research that extended the definition of employee engagement as a

fulfilling state of vigor, dedication, and absorption (Schaufeli, Salanova, González-Romá,

& Bakker, 2002). According to Khalaf, Hmoud, and Obeidat (2019), vigor refers to

employees’ high energy, mental resilience, and willingness; dedication denotes active and

enthusiastic involvement, while absorption means work immersion. Employee

engagement is also synonymous with operational excellence (Zainol, Hussin, & Othman,

2016), organizational citizenship behaviors (Barbuto & Story, 2011; Jena, Pradhan, &

Basu, 2017; Sridhar & Thiruvenkadam, 2014), job engagement (Chhetri, 2017), work

engagement (Hanaysha, 2016), employee commitment (Irefin & Mechanic, 2014), and

job enrichment (Nzewi, Chiekezie, Ekene, Raphael, & Ebuka, 2017).

Identifying employee engagement as a binary state of attitude and behavior,

Iddagoda, Opatha, and Gunawardan (2015) preferred the label employee to job,

organizational, and work engagement, because the focus is on a living entity in a job and
 15
organization. Kahn (1990), like many researchers that followed, including Bhavani

(2015), contrasted engagement with its seemingly antithetical concept, disengagement,

which involves employees’ physical, cognitive, and emotional detachment from their

work. Whereas engaged employees are enthusiastic, willing, and actively involved (Sun

& Bunchapattanasakda, 2019), disengaged employees are unhappy (Chandani et al.,

2016), unresponsive, and detached holistically (Allam, 2017).

The meaning of engagement intertwines with other constructs like employee well-

being (Haddon, 2018), self-determination (Nawrin, 2016), and job satisfaction (Khalaf et

al., 2019; Lu, Lu, Gursoy, & Neale, 2016). Critics insisted that no clear definition

exists (Dewing & McCormack, 2015; Sun & Bunchapattanasakda, 2019), but Law,

Wong, and Mobley (1998) and Rekha and Sasmita (2019) narrowed down engagement to

a multidimensional concept. Employee engagement entails a passionate devotion to work

(Bedarkar & Pandita, 2014; Joo & Lee, 2017; Sarangi & Nayak, 2016) and exertion of

discretionary effort on the job, which increases organizational brand and value (Burawat,

Kuntonbutr, & Panisa, 2014; Shahid, 2013).

Despite the significant correlation between employee engagement and positive

work ethics, Anthony-McMann, Ellinger, Astakhova, and Halbesleben (2016) found

significant relationships between workplace stress and intellectual and social

engagement, and between workplace stress and burnout, but they insisted that placing

engagement on the same continuum as burnout would limit the definition. Maslach and

Leiter (1997) asserted that burnout results when engagement is eroded, while Rothmann
 16
(2003) emphasized that the initial meaningful and challenging work loses its significance

in the world of exhausted employees.

Theories of Motivation and Employee Engagement

Kahn’s (1990) Employee Engagement

Regardless of the popularity of the top-down approach, workplace conditions

affect employees’ behaviors and three conditions under which employee engagement

thrives are: psychological meaningfulness, psychological safety, and psychological

availability (Kahn, 1990). Employee engagement is an intentional pursuit of work that

contributes to organizational success (Janik & Rothmann, 2015; Joo & Lee, 2017). Kahn

did not explain specifically how to address employee engagement, but the level of

employee engagement centers on the answers given to three pertinent questions: a) How

meaningful is it for me to immerse myself into this performance? b) How safe is it to do

so? c) How available am I to do so? (Ruslan et al., 2014). Individuals should clearly see

the importance of their work to make it worthwhile, and vision development will enable

them to see the big picture of their work (Serrano & Reichard, 2011).

Meaningful work propels not only an understanding of self and the world in

which individuals live, but also encapsulates greater good motivations to positively

influence the world (Fouché, Rothmann, & Van der Vyver, 2017). The pursuit of

meaningfulness is critical because the psychological state is an intrinsic need for

individuality, which can be fulfilled once employees become engaged (Nawrin, 2016).

The nature of the job, such as tasks and interactions, makes work meaningful for

employees (Sun & Bunchapattanasakda, 2019). Engagement is a catalyst for employee

 17
effectiveness; workers feel contented that they contribute to the economic development

of organizations (Shahid & Azhar, 2013). The benefits of employee engagement also

include greater productivity, increased retention, enhanced client trust, and higher

profitability (Bhavani, 2015). This type of meaningfulness is equated to employees’

return on investment into their work (Ruslan et al., 2014), unlike meaningless work,

which often results in a lack of employee interest and indifference to work (Thomas &

Velthouse, 1990).

The second condition that propels engagement is psychological safety, which is

the true expression of the self without fear or damage to employees’ self-concept, self-

esteem, or interpersonal costs (Asiwe et al., 2017; Saks & Gruman, 2014). Psychological

safety can also be described as the byproduct of organizational social procedure, which is

the consistent supportive conversation among employees (Iqbal, Shabbir, Zameer, Khan,

& Sandhu, 2017). Psychological safety makes learning from mistakes effective

(Edmondson, 2004) and the level of psychological safety in any organization is mainly

dependent on the social environment (Sun & Bunchapattanasakda, 2019). Negative

psychological climates, characterized by a lack of support and organizational

contribution, and exploitation result in negative employee emotions (Shuck & Reio,

2014).

Parallels between Kahn’s psychosocial and Erikson’s engagement theories

solidify an understanding of psychological availability, especially because Erikson first

addressed personality development from early adolescence to adulthood (Karkouti,

2014). For Erikson (1963), the first stage of basic trust versus mistrust (0-1 year) is
 18
determined when warm parental/caregiver relationships produce a sense of trust, security,

and reciprocity among children, but a disruption in this pattern has the opposite effect.

The crisis can set the stage for the development of an unhealthy personality (Erikson,

1963). Similarly, Kahn (1990) insisted that a deficiency of psychological availability

(physical, emotional, and psychological resources) triggers insecurity and frustration and

creates impressions that hide employees’ real identity.

Disengagement is associated with a lack of organizational identification, mistrust,

unfulfilled ambitions, and stress (Govindarajo et al., 2014). Psychological resources are

prerequisites for employees to be willing to bring their full selves into the role (Vila-

Vázquez, Castro-Casal, Álvarez-Pérez, & Río-Araújo, 2018). Availability is a ready

state of engagement in which the physical, psychological, and emotional resources are

present for employees to perform their roles effectively (Saks & Gruman, 2014).

Individuals who have sufficient emotional resources will make themselves available

psychologically for work engagement (Asiwe et al., 2017), but where deficiency in

resources exists, individuals tend to withdraw (Sun & Bunchapattanasakda, 2019).

Maslow’s (1943) Hierarchy of Needs

Although employee engagement is increasingly associated with Kahn’s work,

engagement, Dagher, Chapa, and Junaid (2015) highlighted that characteristics of

employee engagement were implied in the literature long before Kahn’s ethnographic

research on psychological workplace conditions. Kavya and Padmavathy (2017) posited

that Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is one of the earliest and prevalent theories of

engagement that influenced future engagement programs. In his timeless theory of human
 19
motivation, Maslow (1943) identified physiological, safety, love/belonging, esteem, and

self-actualization as five fundamental needs of mankind, which reverberated in Kahn’s

qualitative study.

Maslow’s physiological needs are basic necessities, while safety involves security

and stability (Shahrawat & Shahrawat, 2017). Physiological needs are foundational

because the other needs in Maslow’s hierarchy only materialize once the basic needs are

fulfilled (Maslow, 1943). The American psychologist noted, individuals who are

deficient in food, safety, love, and esteem are likely to choose food above all the other

needs because of its physiological importance (Maslow, 1954). Because of their

necessity, physiological needs are intricately linked to human survival and considered the

most urgent for fulfillment ((Lestari, Waluyo, & Wardani, 2019).

The second level, safety needs, is vital because it highlights the significance of

maintaining order, which promotes engagement (Aruma & Hanachor, 2017). Among the

list of safety needs are job security, safe working conditions, physical health, and well-

being (Maslow, 1943, 1954). Increased productivity, retention, and profitability are

highest among engaged employees who tend to be loyal because they believe that their

employer cares about their health and wellbeing (Bhavani, 2015).

Love or belongingness, which entails intimate relationships and comprises the last

component of Maslow’s deficiency needs stages, is also critical to employee engagement

(King-Hill, 2015). The need for love and belongingness arises after the need for security

has been adequately met (Lestari, et al., 2019). This aspect of love and belongingness is

analogous to the social identity theory that incorporates organizational identity and
 20
highlights that employees’ sense of belonging in the workplace coincides with

enhanced job commitment and engagement (Dai & Qin, 2016). Engaged employees are

fulfilled, satisfied, and loyal workers who feel a sense of belongingness (Bhavani, 2015).

Whereas respect, dignity, and autonomy aptly describe the next level, esteem

needs, growth, self-fulfillment, and fullest potential ideally define Maslow’s pinnacle of

self-actualization needs (Soelistya, Mashud, & Suryanto, 2016). During this stage, highly

engaged employees become influential leaders who positively shape organizational

culture and the workforce (Kavya & Padmavathy, 2017). Unlike the SDT, management

must first address the deficiency needs in order to activate higher order needs, which can

increase employee motivation and loyalty (Jerome, 2013).

Deci and Ryan’s (1985) Self-Determination Theory

Characterized by apparent humanistic principles, the SDT is a macro framework

on motivation, personality, and wellness (DeRobertis & Bland, 2018; Turner, 2019). The

SDT framework entails an explanation of why people are inherently inclined to move

towards self-actualization once their psychological needs are fulfilled (Koole, Schlinkert,

Maldei, & Baumann, 2018). Individuals learn not only about the importance of

engagement via the SDT, but also the psychological repercussions of its absence (Meyer

& Gagnè, 2008). SDT is based on three universal psychological needs: competence,

autonomy, and psychological relatedness (Deci & Ryan, 1985).

Competence is the feeling of effectiveness and mastery of doing a job, while

autonomy signifies a level of independence or the employees’ ability to control their

actions (Rasskazova, Ivanova, & Sheldon, 2016). Employees’ behavioral state can
 21
influence organizational productivity and the more engaged workers are, the more likely

they will exhibit professionalism (Osborne & Hammoud, 2017). Like Maslow’s social

needs and Kahn’s psychological meaningfulness, psychological relatedness involves

group identification or that innate desire to be accepted, form intimate relationships, and

feel loved (Deci & Ryan, 1985), which are critical for psychological growth and the

employees’ well-being (Van den Broeck, Ferris, & Chang, 2016).

Embedded in SDT are intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, critical factors that

influence an individual’s behavior (Browning, 2014). Intrinsic motivation is driven by

internal rewards and can only be harnessed once the socio-environmental conditions are

present (English, 2016). The nexus between engagement and intrinsic motivation is clear

because energized employees are passionate about their work and develop a sense of

fulfillment via task accomplishment (Riley, 2016). Intrinsic motivation enhances

performance and a sense of individual competence and extrinsic motivation (rewards or

avoidance of punishment) thrives on external forces, positive or negative reinforcement

(Can, 2015). Incentivizing workers financially and nonfinancially bolster engagement

because employees who are paid more and recognized for their work, are usually more

engaged in their work (Markos & Sridevi, 2010). The presentation of the intrinsic and

extrinsic motivation as an inside and outside the entity is problematic for researchers who

asserted that extrinsic motivation can be either based on the level of self-determination to

achieve goals (Locke & Schattke, 2018). SDT, like the expectancy-value theories

(EVTs), provides a rationale for diverse behaviors and is vital to understanding employee

engagement and the lack thereof (Savolainen, 2018).

 22
Driving Forces of Employee Engagement

Organizational Culture

Organizational culture is one construct in management research (Ahmed &

Shafiq, 2014), which involves a set of unspoken guidelines that influence employees’

behavior and interactions (Grewal & Levy, 2016). Organizational culture is the internal

environment of a company’s operations that drives employee engagement (Popescu &

Grigore, 2007) and organizational objectives, and capitalize on the maximum use of the

human resource (Rekha & Sasmita, 2019). Although the results of multiple studies on the

role of organizational culture are inconclusive (Joseph & Kibera, 2019), a good

understanding of the concept of organizational culture enables managers to better manage

organizational change (Alsoulami, Banjar, & Mahran, 2018).

Culture is everything, which encompasses habits, relationships, teamwork, and

organizational growth (Gordon, 2017). Because of the various types of organizational

cultures, managers need to be more cognizant of the work climate they foster; the climate

can either hinder or promote employee performance and functionality (Eldor, 2017).

Organization culture is also vital to adequately deal with complex changing occurrences

(Muzee, Bagire, & Ngoma, 2016). Preserving an effective organizational culture is all

part of good strategic leadership (Palladan, Abdulkadir, & Chong, 2016).

Hierarchy (control) culture is a bureaucratic type of culture that is based on

structure (Bingöl, Şener, & Çevik, 2013; Lee & Raschke, 2016). While this mechanical

culture is effective for the leaders of international companies like McDonald’s and Ford

Motor Co. who prioritize rules to maintain stability, they alienate and disempower
 23
employees, who find work meaningless (Acar & Acar, 2014). Alienation and

disempowerment were evident in a longitudinal study on private organizations, which

showed that the top-to-bottom culture made work less meaningful, although there was no

connection between a hierarchical culture and reduced work engagement (Lee, Idris, &

Delfabbro, 2017). The hierarchy culture is similar to power culture, where employees are

marginalized and results prioritized (Brenyah & Obuobisa-Darko, 2017).

Contrastingly, the clan culture is a friendly and team-oriented environment, where

the leader takes on a mentor or parental role to maintain cohesion and high morale

(Carvalho, Castro, Silva, & Carvalho, 2018; Chidambaranathan & Swarooprani, 2017;

Ohiorenoya & Eboreime, 2014). The clan culture epitomizes an enabling climate that

focuses on making employees happy in order to sustain high levels of commitment and

loyalty (Ergün & Tasgıt, 2013). A substantial amount of concern for customers’

sensitivity is also evident in this culture characterized by flexibility (Alsoulami et al.,

2018). Despite doubts about the feasibility of managing organizational culture,

transformational leaders exemplify qualities of clan culture, which result in employees’

discretionary efforts and psychological attachment to their jobs (Kim, 2013).

Whereas the control focus of the clan culture is internal and revolves around

teamwork, the market culture’s focus is external and emphasizes productivity and

achievement (Chidambaranathan, & Swarooprani, 2017; Nagy, Hurta, Dunay, & Illés,

2015). In their pursuit of the competitive advantage, organizational leaders adopt a

market culture in times of volatility or when customers’ expectations are high (Madhani,

2014). The degree to which all employees are engaged with customer value creation is
 24
what distinguishes market culture from other organizational cultures (Madhani, 2018).

The results oriented environment is extremely competitive because market share and

penetration define success (Ergün & Tasgıt, 2013). The demanding market culture acts as

a catalyst for employee engagement because workers are motivated to perform at an

optimum level (Owoyemi & Ekwoaba, 2014). Success driven employees are self-

centered, and their extraordinary level of individualism creates a nexus between higher

innovation and market culture, as well as another type of culture called adhocracy (Iya,

2015).

Adhocracy is a developmental organizational culture characterized by creativity,

innovation, and risk-taking (Carvalho et al., 2018; Joseph & Kibera, 2019). Adhocracy

culture is innovation driven and exhibits flexibility and value creating change. The

culture type is characterized by creativity, growth, and variety seeking. The aggressive

pursuit of differentiation in the flexible, externally oriented culture promotes employee

commitment, autonomy, and experimentation (Alsoulami et al., 2018; Ohiorenoya &

Eboreime, 2014). A study on Spanish organizations revealed that adhocracy and clan

cultures (unlike the hierarchy and market cultures) positively affected performance

(Naranjo-Valencia, Jiménez-Jiménez, & Sanz-Valle, 2016).

In another study of 358 faculty members at Islamic Azad University of Fars

province, researchers found a positive correlation between job satisfaction and adhocracy,

market, and clan culture, but not in the hierarchy culture, (Ashraf & Rezaie, 2015).

Culture is a critical source of competitive advantage (Brenyah & Obuobisa-Darko, 2017),

but ineffective management can make culture a liability (Owoyemi & Ekwoaba, 2014).
 25
Although the adhocracy culture is innovator-friendly, it requires a unique and relational

form of management that does not prioritize the optimization culture to the detriment of

innovation (Vojak, Price, & Griffin, 2012).

Styles of Leadership

Business success in the 21st century results not only from talented employees but

also from leadership that engages workers and looks beyond human resources

management to secure that coveted, competitive edge (Sadeli, 2015). Propelling

employees to Maslow’s self-actualization level necessitates a motivational style of

leadership that addresses workers’ diverse needs (Buble, Juras, & Matić, 2014). The

leader must resemble a man or woman for all seasons, a Sir Thomas More-like stature,

whose integrity and respect for ethics are not influenced by environmental factors, such

as time pressure, obedience to authority, and conformity bias (Prentice, 2014). This style

of leadership must be grounded in Mill’s utilitarianism, a rational theory that emphasizes

the long-term benefits of pursuing the common good (Gustafson, 2013) and sufficiently

strategic to get the job done. Strategic leadership, which is characterized by versatility,

entails managing resources effectively to accomplish organizational goals (Palladan et al.,

2016). Strategic leadership also includes multiple leadership perspectives and shares a

nexus with transformational leadership (Muzee, et al., 2016).

Transformational Leadership

Transformational leadership is one of the most widely featured leadership theories

in modern literature (Mujkić, Šehić, Rahimić, & Jusić, 2014; Othman, Hamzah, Abas, &

Zakuan, 2017). Transformational leadership is effective management that involves

 26
enabling employees to exert discretionary effort and attain organizational goals (Buila,

Martínez, & Matutec, 2018; Koesmono, 2019). Transformational leadership is a

reciprocal relationship of exceptional influence between leaders and followers, which

bolsters morality, active engagement, and self-actualization (Northouse, 2016; Tarsik,

Kassim, & Nasharudin, 2014). Transformational leadership comprises four dimensions:

idealized influence or charisma, individualized consideration, inspirational motivation,

and intellectual stimulation (Bass & Avolio, 1994).

Unlike pseudo transformational leaders, authentic transformational leaders are

more effective because the ethical leaders better appeal to, and influence their followers’

moral values (Copeland, 2016). The ethical exemplification of leaders enhances

employee engagement and combat counterproductive behavior (Hartog & Belschak,

2012). Because the ethical quality of leaders shapes employee conduct, transformational

leaders who have high standards, are most suitable to take the helm of organizations

(Banerji & Krishnan, 2000). The idealized influence of these leaders has a positive effect

on employees who perceive them as role models (Ahmad, Abbas, Latif, & Rasheed,

2014; Cetina & Kinikb, 2015).

Transformational leaders also understand the significance of corporate social

responsibility (CSR) and integrate it into their strategic plans (Prabhakar, Diab, &

Bhargavi, 2016). Despite the paucity of research on the effect of CSR practices on

employees’ behavior (Schaefer, Terlutter, & Sandra Diehl, 2019), research shows that

employee engagement is linked to employees’ positive perception of leaders who

implement CSR initiatives (Rupp et al., 2018). Leaders of CSR programs address ethical,
 27
social, and environmental concerns of stakeholders (Grewal & Levy, 2016). Many

individuals generally want to make a positive contribution to society, and CSR initiatives

are the means through which they can make a difference and experience psychological

meaningfulness (Asiwe et al., 2017). In a UK study on an energy company, CSR had

varying effects on employees: those who fully engage, others who value personal CSR

engagement outside the workplace, and those who perceive no value of CSR engagement

at an organizational level (Slack, Corlett, & Morris, 2015). Although results differ, CSR

is an important driver of employee engagement, which is needed for better performance

(Gupta & Sharma, 2016). Engagement heightens when management employs the

relational approach and shares a joint commitment to CSR with employees (Godkin,

2015).

Despite limited literature on transformational leadership’s connection to CSR,

there was a significant positive relationship between transformational leadership and a

firm’s strategic orientation to CSR, but there was no significant link between the ethical

integrity of leaders to the adoption of CSR practices in 50 Portuguese firms (Veríssimo &

Lacerda, 2015a). In another quantitative study, involving 170 senior managers from 50

organizations, integrity was found to be a predictor of transformational leadership

behavior; the behaviors of transformational leaders were linked to CSR practices, and

leaders rated with higher integrity were engaged in CSR because they exhibit more

transformational leadership behaviors (Veríssimo & Lacerda, 2015b). Employees are

likely to accomplish organizational goals because they admire these charismatic leaders

who epitomize altruistic and humanistic values (Alrowwad, Obeidat, Tarhini, & Aqqad,
 28
2017). Leaders must also exemplify the values and principles they want the staff to

embody because this encourages employees to become intrinsically motivated and

willing to imitate their behavior (Hartog & Belschak, 2012).

Additionally, company involvement in higher CSR interventions and reputations

are able to attract more committed employees who engage themselves in the

organization’s goal and objective (Gupta & Sharma, 2016). Other CSR advantages

include a higher rate of employee retention and morale (Hejjas, Miller, & Scarles, 2019).

Transformational leaders are not saints but are resilient individuals, or as Nelson Mandela

once described himself, a sinner who kept trying (Gormley, 2016). In a quantitative

study, the results showed that resilience and transformational leadership are positively

related to work engagement (Wang, Li, & Li, 2017).

Good interpersonal relationships, group dynamics, management style, and process

are also vital factors that foster engagement (Carter, 2016; Kahn, 1990; Kim, 2016). The

effectiveness of transformational leaders manifests itself in the relationships with their

followers, and through individualized consideration, transformational leaders assume a

mentor role to help followers maximize their potential (McCleskey, 2014; Prabhakar et

al., 2016). This enabling environment is purpose-driven; it reflects aspirations and

provides a sense of meaning and support that enhances employee development (Quinn &

Thakorjuly, 2018). As was evident with Bob Galvin’s Six Sigma program, the

transformational leader raised employees’ self-confidence to accomplish personal and

organizational goals and made Motorola a viable competitor (Westcott, 2014). This level

of support developed workers’ ego and self-esteem (Ali & Puah, 2018). Self-esteem is a
 29
feeling of self-worth and value, and in a psychological study of 600 Indian workers,

results showed that high self-esteem correlates with better performance and vice versa

(Kumar, 2017). The competence transformational leaders exhibit on the job provides

psychological stimulation for employees who perform better (Ali & Puah, 2018).

Providing psychological resources can combat insecurity or a heightened self-

consciousness that coincides with employee disengagement (Kahn, 1990).

Employee engagement means a culture change and transformational leaders are

ideal for changing an organization’s culture because they create a sense of purpose,

organizational identity, and engagement (Moldovan & Macarie, 2014). For instance, the

culture of one of Genetech’s largest divisions was transformed by then senior vice

president Jennifer Cook, whose team implemented her people-first-then-employee-

second philosophy (Chatman, 2014). Collaboration, trust, and learning are three

dimensions that comprise organizational culture (Ghasabeh & Provitera, 2017).

Transformational leaders understand the power positive relationships wield, so they

promote collaboration and teamwork and enable others to act (Cetina & Kinikb, 2015;

Olson & Simerson, 2015). They do not stereotype employees but view them as

individuals with specific needs, including the need to be future leaders (Rowold, 2008).

These agents of change pay special attention to the human elements by creating

permanent communication channels that pervade the organization and involve all classes

of workers in the planning and implementation stages of cultural transformation

(Moldovan & Macarie, 2014).

 30
Effective internal communication ensures employee engagement (Bedarkar &

Pandita, 2014), and communication, on a whole, builds meaningful relationships and

trust, which generates commitment (Gordon, 2017; Kahn, 1990; Osborne & Hammoud,

2017). Transformational leaders also recognize that a vision is powerless until they get

employees to buy-in so they clearly communicate their vision to every employee (Jyoti &

Dev, 2015). Transformational leaders also create alignment by setting direction, charting

the course, and talking the walk, and they become servant leaders by modeling and

nurturing bottom-up (Benson, 2015). These visionary leaders inspire followers

intellectually as employees transcend job description requirements to solve problems and

unleash creativity and innovation (Ghasabeh & Provitera, 2017).

Intellectual stimulation should be enhanced because it coincides with challenging

work, extends job tenure, and affects employee engagement the most (Blomme, Kodden,

& Beasley-Suffolk, 2015; Brenyah & Damoah, 2016). Although routine work builds

competence, challenging work fosters psychological meaningfulness and subsequently,

engagement (Kahn, 1990). Transformational leaders should use the McKinsey 7S Model

to institute organizational change because it can be aligned to tackle any issue (Singh,

2013). Alignment of fundamental elements of the 7S Model (strategy, structure, systems,

shared values, style, staff, and skills) can cultivate a culture of empowerment and

increase capacity for learning and agility (Peters, 2011). Despite the influence of

idealized influence and inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation and individual

consideration shape outcomes significantly (Orabi, 2016).

 31
Transformational leaders sustain their vision by creating a supportive

environment where intrinsically motivated employees put organization before self

(Jensen & Bro, 2018). In spite of its positive effect on employee engagement and

followers’ needs, transformational leadership is too vague and can be abused (Northouse,

2016). The transformational leadership model cannot adequately combat the challenges

contemporary leaders encounter; other styles of leadership, which are compatible with

employee engagement need to be examined (Latham, 2014). Based on the circumstances,

transformational and transactional leadership styles can be effective (Yasir, Imran,

Irshad, Mohamad, & Khan, 2016). In times of rapid organizational change, transactional

leadership is most suitable, but under stable circumstances, transformational leadership is

ideal (Castiglione, 2006).

Situational Leadership

As an apparent reaction to trait-based leadership, Hersey and Blanchard’s

situational leadership emerged on the premise that people are generally different and that

there exists no optimal profile of leaders (Ghazzawi, Shoughari, & Osta, 2017). Rather

than a charismatic and heroic conception of leadership, the theory of situational

leadership suggests that situations shape the behavior of leaders who can adapt to the

dynamics (Kaifi, Noor, Nguyen, Aslami, & Khanfar, 2014; Okoroji, Anyanwu, &

Ukpere, 2014; Vroom & Jago, 2007). Incorporating other leadership styles such as

autocratic, democratic, and laissez-faire, the behaviors of situational leaders are either

task-oriented or people-focused (McCleskey, 2014). According to Daft and Marcic

(2006), these styles exhibit a high concern for tasks and low concern for relationships
 32
(telling) and its antithesis (selling), as well as showing concern for people and tasks

(participating) and none for tasks and relationships (delegating). Before they adopt any

style, the directive and supportive dimensions of leaders should be based on their

knowledge of subordinates’ needs (Northouse, 2004). The right leadership can drive

employee engagement and organizational performance (Ganesan, Azli, & Fageeh, 2017;

O’Bryan & Casey, 2017). The right leaderships can cater for different employees: those

who lack competency and are unwilling to perform the task, lack competency and are

willing, competent but lacks self-confidence, and self-confident, willing, and capable

(Olson & Simerson, 2015).

Autocratic or authoritarian leadership is an anti-empowerment style characterized

by the control of leaders and obedience of subordinates (Dyczkowska & Dyczkowska,

2018). Although the autocratic style induces turnover intentions and counterproductive

behaviors (Puni, Agyemang, & Asamoah, 2016), it useful for situations involving: new

untrained employees who must be guided, a short timeframe for risky short-term projects,

and industries where employees perform low skilled, routine jobs that do not require

much motivation (Cunningham, Salomone, & Wielgus, 2015; Puni, et al., 2016). The

autocratic style was positively and significantly associated with employee engagement,

despite employees’ dissatisfaction with the manipulations and threats of leaders (Puni et

al., 2016; Yao, Locke, & Jamal, 2018). In line with the SDT and autocratic tactics,

situational leaders enhance employee engagement and commitment significantly via

rewards, which motivate the staff to attain company goals (Zainol et al., 2016). The

theory of situational leadership suggests that where employee competence is low, leaders
 33
should be task-motivated and directive, but as competence builds, leaders should be

increasingly relationship-motivated and supportive (Ghazzawi et al., 2017). Situational

leaders who demonstrate this level of care and support for subordinates are likely to keep

employees engaged (Ghazzawi et al., 2017).

In a study of 262 employees in private companies in Abia, Nigeria, and

Ndubueze, individuals who work under democratic leaders were more likely to exhibit

organizational citizenship (Ndubueze & Akanni, 2015). Leaders who use the democratic

style increase job satisfaction by creating a flexible, progressive environment, listening

actively, and empathizing with employees (Nickels, McHugh, & McHugh, 2008; Yao et

al., 2018). If the relationship between the leaders and employees is good, effectiveness

will be high on the part of the employees who are completing highly structured tasks

(Nanjundeswaraswamy & Swamy, 2014). Identified as a critical factor for goal

accomplishment, employee motivation is essential to enhancing superior employee

performance and leadership effectiveness (Lumbasi, K’Aol, & Ouma, 2016). The

democratic style is also referred to as the shared style because these leaders share power

by actively involving the staff in the decision-making process (Fiaz, Su, Ikram, & Saqib,

2017; Igbaekemen & Odivwri, 2015). Leaders of this human relation approach recognize

that inclusion improves the quality of the decision and acknowledge that the real source

of power and authority emanates from the governed (Dotse & Asumeng, 2014).

Whereas democratic leaders play an integral role in employee engagement, Foster

(2002) asserted that laissez-faire leaders transplant all rights and power to make decisions

to employees. Because of absence or minimal interaction of laissez-faire leaders,

 34
employees do not trust their superiors (Yasir et al., 2016). Some employees cannot

manage too much authority and responsibility, especially if the task exceeds their

capabilities (Wong & Giessner, 2018). Although laissez-faire or delegative leaders do not

put emphasis on performance or people, the laissez-faire style of leadership can boost

productivity and morale (Fiaz et al., 2017). The hands-off approach is effective when

employees are highly skilled, experienced, educated, and have that intrinsic drive to work

successfully on their own (Khan et al., 2015).

Despite the limitations of the various leadership styles, situational leaders can

adopt the style that best matches the situation: laissez-faire for the highly qualified,

autocratic for the morally poor, and democratic for the willing, but not competent

workers (Khan et al., 2015). Contemporary organizations need leaders who can sustain

engagement and tackle other complexities of the dynamic business environment

(Nanjundeswaraswamy & Swamy, 2014). Because employees are not homogenous,

leaders must address their diverse needs to capitalize on employee engagement (Blomme

et al., 2015).

Tomorrow’s employees’ purpose for working will surpass a mere paycheck

because they expect that their needs for affiliation and growth, and purpose for working

will be fulfilled on the job (Khalaf et al., 2019; Shuck & Wollard, 2008). The future is

here; and empirical evidence has shown that a high level of employee engagement results

in increased retention, performance, customer loyalty, and stakeholder satisfaction (Sinha

& Trivedi, 2014). The conventional concept of leadership based on skills acquisition

suffices no longer in today’s volatile business climate that requires an immense level of
 35
emotional intelligence (O’Bryan & Casey, 2017). Leaders who possess emotional

intelligence, characterized by self-awareness and social expertise, as well as intellectual

intelligence, can make organizational goals a reality (Niţă, 2015).

Training and Development

As primary precursors to employee engagement, leaders invest in training and

development programs because they build knowledge, skills, and competencies that are

pivotal to organizational success (Ahmed, Phulpoto, Umrani, & Abbas, 2015; Ganesh &

Indradevi, 2015; Zahra, Iram, & Naeem, 2014). In the contemporary business, training as

a Human Resource Development (HRD) practice is critical to employee engagement

because it augments personal and technical skills and overall organizational capacity

(Aguinis & Kraiger, 2009). Similarly, development is synonymous with employee

growth via systematic processes that help to capitalize on employees’ capabilities (Hazra,

Ghosh, & Sengupta, 2017). Training is an empowering tool for employees, which helps

achieve organizational goals by building confidence and combating weakness

(Paynevandy, 2016; Zreen, Farooq, & Yasmin, 2018).

Training, which is continuous and multidimensional, is most effective when it

incorporates the objectives of the organization (Ganesh & Indradevi, 2015).

Organizational problems, such as absenteeism and uncommitted workforce, are

byproducts of little or no employee training; training staff boosts job motivation,

satisfaction, and enrichment (Beltrán-Martín & Bou-Llusar, 2018; Semwal & Dhyani,

2017; Zahra et al., 2014). Training coincides with job satisfaction because when

employees are competent at their jobs, they tend to be more productive unlike their
 36
dissatisfied colleagues (Hazra et al., 2017; Naqvi, Ishtiaq, Kanwal, & Ali, 2013). In a

study of 260 Korean companies, results showed that corporate expenditure for internal

training augments innovative performance (Sung & Choi, 2014).

Training is a multifaceted process that comprises elements like Need Assessment,

Training Design, Trainer and Delivery, and Post Training Evaluation (Buckley & Caple,

2009). Need Assessment is a vital pre-training phase where who needs to be trained,

problems, and appropriate antidotes are identified, while training design entails the

engaging, educational methods or the specific type of training (Ahmed et al., 2015;

Ejakait, 2016). Professionals should execute the training program because they possess

the experience and expertise that accompany successful training that can significantly

enhance post-training employee engagement (Ahmed et al., 2015). Post-training

evaluation, as the name indicates, occurs at the end of the training and involves planning

for future training that aligns with organizational goals (Hazra, et al., 2017).

In this era of diversity that requires a level of cultural competence to mitigate

against ethnocentrism and other forms of racism (Blackburn, 2015), training and

development should be continuous. Researchers compared organizations to cultural

mosaics and found that confusion prevails in the absence of cultural competence

(Costantini, et al., 2017). Leaders who possess diversity intelligence recognize that

adequate training and development play a large role in employee retention and the greater

the intellectual capital, the better the value creation (Ulrich, Brockbank, Younger, &

Ulrich, 2012). A sense of belongingness is critical to employee engagement (Maslow,

1943) and when managers and subordinates are trained, interpersonal skills strengthen,
 37
while stereotyping and mistrust diminish among staff and customers (Rekers & Rekers,

2004).

In a study on the nexus between work empowerment and work engagement,

researchers highlighted four dimensions of work empowerment that motivate employees

intrinsically on the job: autonomy, feedback, meaningfulness, and growth (Joo, Lim, &

Kim, 2016). Employee autonomy is associated with independence, substantial freedom,

and discretion that workers use on the job (Hackman & Oldham, 1976). In an enabling

environment, empowerment results from individuals who are well-trained and can

confidently make decisions without being second-guessed (Schultz, 2014). A good

training program also entails feedback and is integrally enveloped in learning, as well as

growth and development (Kouzes & Posner, 2016). Feedback should be reciprocal and

specific because it not only leads to professional growth, but also highlights the

effectiveness of the training or areas that need improvement (Hardavella, Aamli-Gaagnat,

Saad, Rousalova, & Sreter, 2017). Trainees’ learning satisfaction is based on the content

of the training (Kumar & Kumar, 2017). The manner of delivery is also a powerful

motivational force (Rangel et al., 2015).

A direct relationship between positive training experiences and attitudes and

proficiency was found in a study that focused on 237 employees from an academic

institution and three businesses in three American states (Truitt, 2011). Like work,

training must be meaningful; workers must see the training’s relevance to their

development, which align them for career growth and subsequently heighten their

motivation (Cheng & Ho, 2001). Training also makes employees transition willingly
 38
from old ways to more contemporary methods of working that will strengthen

organizational performance (Chaudhry, Jariko, Mushtaque, Mahesar, & Ghani, 2017).

Despite the dearth of research on training and employee engagement, employee training

is likely to promote employee engagement and enhance workers’ psychological

wellbeing (Ahmed et al., 2015). Employee training is also an excellent tool to measure

employee performance (Alagaraja & Shuck, 2015).

Transition

Section 1 commenced with the background of the problem that highlighted the

magnitude of employee disengagement and the benefits of sustaining employee

engagement. I transitioned to an equally vital section, the problem statement, which

further highlighted the severity of the problem of employee engagement and the

economic repercussions of disengagement. The rationale for undertaking the study and

the study’s potential positive influence on social change in the purpose statement was

also discussed.

The other subsections are the nature of the study, which encompassed the research

methodology and case study design, research and interview questions, and the conceptual

framework that formed the backbone of the qualitative study. Ten operational definitions

of frequently used concepts, as well as the assumptions, limitations, and delimitations,

preceded the significance of the study that pinpointed the contribution it can make in the

world of business and its implications for social change. The final aspect of Section 1 was

a review of the professional and academic literature that comprised past and present

definitions of employee engagement, motivational theories, and 4 prominent drivers of

 39
employee engagement: organizational culture, transformational leadership, situational

leadership, and training and development.

Section 2 begins with a duplicate of the purpose statement and also includes the

critical role of the researcher during data collection, eligibility and relationship with

participants, and justification of the use of qualitative research method, case study design,

and purposeful sampling. Section 2 comprises ethical considerations before, during, and

after data collection, and the instrument and technique, which will be used to acquire the

data. Section 2 also includes the process of data analysis to be executed and the method I

undertook to identify emerging themes, improve data saturation, and strengthen reliability

and validity.

In section 3, I discuss the study’s findings, along with recommendations for

organizational improvement. I also examine the limitations and ways to address the

various limitations in future studies. Additionally, I suggest ways to enhance reliability

and validity and document my reflections of possible researcher biases and ideological

changes.
 40
Section 2: The Project

Purpose Statement

The purpose of this qualitative single case study was to explore the motivational

strategies some media leaders use to keep employees engaged. The participants were five

leaders with at least 2 years’ experience in successful employee engagement. The leaders

worked at a media station in the Caribbean island of Antigua and Barbuda. The five

leaders were interviewed about the motivational strategies they implement within the

organization to increase and maintain employee engagement. The results of this study

may contribute to an understanding of the significance of employee engagement, which is

important to organizational success (Bedarkar & Pandita, 2014). Bolstering engagement

may lead to positive social change not only for employees and general institutions, but

also for the wider community.

Role of the Researcher

Qualitative research is a vehicle through which the researcher transports and

bolsters an understanding of the thoughts, feelings, and experiences of participants

(Sutton & Austin, 2015). As the primary instrument of data collection, the researcher’s

role is extremely critical (Teherani, Martimianakis, Stenfors-Hayes, Wadhwa, & Varpio,

2015), because it involves tapping into the inner state of participants. In the

predata collection phase where media leaders were furnished with vital information, such

as the rationale for the study, the reasons why they were selected, and the study’s

potential implications, I promised the participants confidentiality. Confidentiality does

not involve revealing the names or identity of participants through the responses
 41
(Bullock, 2016). Participants signed and received a copy of an informed consent

document before they took part in the study. The researcher must not only inform the

participants about the purpose and nature of the research but must also ensure that they

actively volunteer to be a part of the study (Bullock, 2016). I also underscored the right of

the participants to withdraw from the study at any time. The withdrawal aspect of ethical

consideration is a right that participants still possess after they have consented (Saunders

et al., 2015). Other basic, universal principles that are stipulated in the Belmont Report

were also employed. They are respect for persons, beneficence, and justice (Miracle,

2016). I respected the opinions of each participant and treated all participants fairly.

Another role of the researcher is to ensure that the instrument used to collect data,

does so as accurately as possible (Bajpai & Bajpai, 2014). The researcher must also

ensure that data saturation is achieved and as much bias is eliminated (Fusch & Ness,

2015) during data collection. In line with the Belmont Report, interview questions were

prepared in advance and structured strategically to allow the participants to elaborate.

Following the interview, the participants got the opportunity to verify my interpretation

to avoid any misunderstanding. Researchers should not aim to deceive but should strive

to present participants’ perspectives truthfully (Trochim et al., 2016). The semistructured

and open ended interview questions were neither double-barreled nor misleading. My

probing and prompting propelled greater engagement and provided a significant amount

of data that generated various themes and several motivational strategies media leaders

used to bolster employee engagement.

 42
As a journalist and educator, who had long been interested in employee

engagement, I recognize that productivity is a serious issue plaguing various

organizations and decided to research work productivity among employees for my

Master’s and doctorate in Business Administration at a media agency in Antigua and

barbuda. The targets of this study were media leaders and while I knew the names and

faces of the leaders, I had no affiliation with the participants. Familiarity can result in

bias and an important duty of the researcher is to augment the credibility of the study by

eliminating as much bias as possible (Galdas, 2017). As the sole interviewer, I listened

actively to participants and did not assume or preempt their responses. When individuals

listen skillfully, they develop better comprehension (Purdy & Manning, 2014). Active

listening surpasses physical hearing and is the highest level of listening that occurs in an

unrushed environment barred of interruptions (Jahromi, Tabatabaee, Abdar, & Rajabi,

2016). With 15 years’ experience in journalism and 20 years in the education system, I

was able to talk less and strengthen the vital skill of active listening, which results in

powerful insights.

Participants

Participants are individuals who provide case study data or evidence primarily via

interviews (Yin, 2018). The role of participants in any study must not be undervalued

because the method of data collection and the responses of participants to various

questions influence the study significantly. The eligibility of participants was also vital,

especially in this case where experience and expertise matter. I targeted professional

media leaders at the media agency who possessed substantial knowledge of motivational
 43
strategies and had employed engagement initiatives successfully at the company for a

minimum of 2 years. All participants met the eligibility criteria.

Recruiting participants is not always an easy endeavor (Frandsen, Thow, &

Ferguson, 2016), but researchers can attain success by defining a sampling approach,

pinpointing, accessing, and screening participants, as well as obtaining informed consent

(Probyn, Howarth, & Maz, 2017). I gained access to participants by sending a formal

letter to the point person at the media station via email. Because that individual did not

know me, the minimum requirement of research was employed. The minimum

requirement involves seeking permission (Saunders et al., 2015). I requested permission

to conduct a study on the organization and outlined essential information such as the

purpose, targets, and positive implications of the study. I also informed the point person

that the company will be furnished with a copy of the study’s findings. Research is an

investigative process that builds public knowledge (Trochim et al., 2016). Once

published, I will share the findings with the media house because a major objective of the

study is to improve operations at all media entities.

A manager at the media agency gave me the contact information for five media

leaders. I phoned and emailed the potential participants and informed them about: the

reasons why they were selected, what the study entails, and the importance of their

participation, which is optional. I also guaranteed confidentiality. The Declaration of

Helsinki highlighted the significance of protecting the privacy of participants and keeping

their personal information confidential (Al Tajir, 2018). Participants were notified orally

and in writing via a consent form that they were free to withdraw from the study at any
 44
time. As a principal component of ethical rigor, the consent form indicates participants’

voluntary participation (Probyn et al., 2017). The consent form comprises simple

language, a summary of the study’s purpose and benefits, and who will have access to the

data (Al Tajir, 2018). Potential participants were not be contacted frequently before

signing the consent form. I did not pressure the potential participants whom I wanted to

sign without any coercion. All participants signed the consent form willingly several days

before I conducted interviews face-to-face.

I remained cognizant that, like with engaged employees, empowerment is critical

to participants. After I suggested a few appropriate places and times to conduct the

interview, all participants suggested that their workplace would be most conducive

between 8 a.m. and 4 p.m. It is important that the researcher maintain contact and build

trust with participants (Kondowe & Booyens, 2014). I used the incremental strategy with

participants. The incremental strategy is effective for observation (Saunders et al., 2015),

but can be transplanted to this study. I called each participant and ensured that

participants were well-informed about the interview procedure before data collection

started. I always exhibited professional courtesy to participants and expressed my

gratitude for their voluntary efforts.

Research Method and Design

Research Method

Qualitative research was selected because this nonstatistical methodology is

implemented to acquire extensive data on people’s experiences and capture multiple

realities (Rahman, 2017). Qualitative research is tantamount to a form of social action,

 45
which enables individuals to understand human behavior and the social reality of

participants (Mohajan, 2018). Supporters of quantitative research criticize the qualitative

method as being unrepresentative because of its small samples and biased because of the

researcher’s assessment of results (Hammarberg, Kirkman, & de Lacey, 2016). Unlike

the quantitative approach, qualitative research does not involve oversimplification for the

sake of generalization; qualitative research involves trustworthiness, credibility,

applicability, and consistency that ensures transparency, validity, and reliability

(Hammarberg et al., 2016). Researcher detachment is a major weakness of quantitative

research (Daniel, 2016). Despite its time-saving advantage and focus on numerical data

(Katz, 2015), the quantitative method would hinder the flexibility and scope needed to

obtain in-depth information on the motivational strategies of media leaders.

Initially, I had considered using the mixed method for this research study but

based on the literature, I realized that it was not the most appropriate method for me.

Combining qualitative and quantitative methods, requires a high level of expertise some

graduate students have yet to master (Plastow, 2016). Researchers need to first determine

if greater value will be added using the mixed rather than the single method (McKim,

2017). For this study, the qualitative approach was used to obtain rich and sufficient data,

while maintaining a level of objectivity that captures complex realities.

Research Design

Understanding what research design involves is equivalent to conducting good

research (Ejimabo, 2015), and the case study is a powerful type of qualitative research

design (Harrison, Birks, Franklin, & Mills, 2017) that is appropriate for this study. The
 46
use of a single case study enabled the researcher to conduct an intensive investigation

into a phenomenon (Heale & Twycross, 2018; Ponelis, 2015). But before selecting the

case study, I examined the other qualitative designs, including ethnography. Ethnography

centers on highly descriptive discourse about the cultural aspects of social groups

(Biernacka-Licznar & Paprocka, 2016), which would exclude it as a choice of design for

this study. I did not examine the cultural dimensions of any social group. Furthermore,

ethnographic research necessitates seasoned researchers (Gordon, 2018), and despite the

debate on the length of time to conduct fieldwork (Rashid, Caine, & Goez, 2015),

ethnographic researchers usually dedicate a substantial amount of time to gain their

subjects’ trust and pursue all areas of their lives (Gordon, 2018). The demand for

personal, holistic involvement is not required for a case study researcher exploring a

specific aspect like the motivational strategies media leaders use to boost employee

engagement.

Like ethnography, the historical and narrative designs were incompatible with the

qualitative study. My concentration was primarily on the present practices of media

leaders, rather than evaluating past events to explain current and anticipate future

occurrences (Mohajan, 2018). While the narrative design entails telling stories, which can

generate useful data (Felton & Stickley, 2018), I largely used the expositional discourse

that eliminates the chronological limitation of the narrative approach. Like description,

exposition is known to be a major discourse of case study researchers.

Phenomenology and grounded theory are two more qualitative designs that

proved futile. Although phenomenology might not concentrate on the lived experiences
 47
of individuals (Gallagher, 2012), the school of thought is largely synonymous with

people’s experiences and interpretations of a particular phenomenon (Teherani et al.,

2015). Researchers also use phenomenology when there is inadequate information about

a phenomenon (Mohajan, 2018), but the study does not center on life’s experiences, and

since Kahn’s (1990) seminal work, a substantial amount of information on employee

engagement has developed because of its connection to organizational profitability and

survival (Gupta, & Sharma, 2018; Knight, Patterson, & Dawson, 2017). A major

advantage the case study has over the phenomenological and grounded theory designs is

time. But the collection of data is time-consuming and before persons use the grounded

theory, they must first consider their research duration, data access, as well as their

capabilities (Saunders et al., 2015). Grounded theory researchers pay keen attention to an

event’s social and psychological processes and help to bridge the gaps of new

perspectives (Singh & Estefan, 2018). Like the multiple case study, the grounded theory

requires a level of expertise that many students lack. The single case study is much more

manageable for students, especially when it aligns with the study’s research question and

objectives (Saunders et al., 2015).

The issue of data saturation is a critical element of contemporary qualitative

research because it generates rich data and guarantees rigor (Morse, 2015). Data

saturation occurs when there is no need for further data collection or when data collection

becomes counterproductive (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). In small studies such as the single

case study, data saturation was much more achievable than in larger research (Fusch &

Ness, 2015). Qualitative researchers face multiple criticisms for using small samples, but
 48
sample efficiency can be enhanced when researchers ask participants more probing

questions (Weller et al., 2018). Probing promotes clarification, eliminates ambiguities,

and explores unexpected responses (Singer & Couper, 2017). Data saturation was

achieved by interviewing professionals who are capable of sustaining employee

engagement and providing comprehensive data because of their extensive knowledge and

skill set.

The researcher should be extremely knowledgeable about the topic because a lack

of knowledge can lead to missed opportunities to probe and gain further insights. Probing

not only improves the learning process (Yang, 2017), but it also leads to effective data

collection. Probing is a prerequisite for gathering richer data (Paradis, O'Brien, Nimmon,

Bandiera, & Martimianakis, 2016), but it comes with subject familiarity. Researchers

need to be well-informed or well-read about the phenomenon under investigation

(Saunders et al., 2015). I explored past and present literature on employee engagement

and paid close attention to the limitations of various studies in an effort not to repeat the

same blunders. I recognized the achievement of data saturation when the responses of

participants aligned with the literature and when the similarities in their responses are

inescapable. The similarity-phase is also known as replication (Morse, 2015). I paid close

attention to data saturation, which is vital to ensuring that objectives are met and the

overarching research question is answered without skepticism.

Population and Sampling

In an effort to augment credibility and promote data integrity, qualitative

researchers specify their study population (Asiamah, Mensah, & Oteng-Abayie, 2017).
 49
The population of interest was located at a small, media organization in Antigua.

Deliberate sampling, small sample size, and conceptual requirements are major

characteristics of qualitative research (Moser & Korstjens, 2018), and this study was no

exception. The sample of five leaders were taken from various departments within the

media station.

I used purposeful sampling, also known as purposive or judgmental sampling.

Purposeful sampling aligns with the exploratory case study design (Taherdoost, 2016)

and qualitative researchers use purposeful sampling when they are seeking a significant

amount of information on a particular phenomenon (Palinkas et al., 2015).The

nonprobability sampling is not dependent on underlying theories or a specific amount of

participants; rather nonprobability sampling is based on three aspects: the type, nature,

and purpose of the study or the expectation that participants will provide ample

information (Etikan et al., 2016).

The researcher should employ a homogenous process and choose participants

based on the research question (DiCicco-Bloom & Crabtree, 2006). I purposefully

targeted a homogenous sample of media leaders for a combination of reasons: they

worked at the organization for several years, were knowledgeable about employee

engagement strategies, and were successful in implementing motivational strategies that

enhanced employee performance at the media company for at least 2 years. Despite the

limits of generalization of purposive sampling (Taherdoost, 2016), it can be used to make

theoretical, analytical, and logical justifications for generalizations (Sharma, 2017).

 50
An adequate collection of extensive and diverse data is a fundamental criterion of

data saturation (Moser & Korstjens, 2018). I ensured data saturation when no new data

emerge. Participants got sufficient time to review my interpretation of their responses as I

identified recurrent themes that may also be in the literature on employee engagement.

Interviews are largely synonymous with qualitative research but they are also a

vital source of evidence in case studies (Yin, 2018). Although telephone interviews are

increasingly popular (Oltmann, 2016) and can be effective as face to face interviews even

though they are shorter (Rahman, 2015), I believe that in-person interviews are supreme

and conducted them face-to-face. The study’s setting is very significant because it could

positively or negatively affect the execution of the research (Majid, 2018). The

participants should determine an appropriate time and setting for the interviews (Doody

& Noonan, 2013). Participants chose a time and setting in their unoccupied, workplace

offices where they were able to speak without restrictions. The dual nature of a sound

qualitative interview progresses seamlessly and is information-rich (Dörnyei, 2007). A

conversation-friendly atmosphere was established, which made participants relax and

elaborate as I listened patiently and keenly to their responses. Yin (2018) asserted that a

good case study listener makes keen observations, comprehends context, reads between

the lines, and assimilates a substantial amount of data.

Ethical Research

Ethical issues are indispensable in contemporary research, especially in cases

where data sources are human participants (Yip, Han, & Sng, 2016). The participants

were not given any incentives before, during, or after the study. After I explained the
 51
nature of the research, the participants signed an informed consent form. The form

included the purpose of the study, procedures, duration, and implications of the study, as

well as the right of participants to withdraw at any time during the course of the research

(Krajnović & Jocić, 2017). Researchers must not only mention, but also explain the

ethical considerations in their research (McKenna & Gray, 2018). Several days before the

interview, I verbally reiterated the conditions stipulated in the informed consent form and

explained to all participants that the interviews will be recorded to avoid any misquote of

their responses. As Jamshed (2014) posited, the recording of interviews can capture data

effectively.

Participants were informed that the study was approved by their superior and if

they wanted to withdraw, I will adhere respectfully. Researchers should respect the

decision of participants who are as independent beings (Trochim et al., 2016). Emphasis

was placed on the ultimate objective of the study, which was to examine the motivational

strategies of leaders that boost employee engagement. The Institutional Review Board

(IRB) of Walden University ensured that this doctoral research study complied with

ethical standards. Data was not collected until the IRB issued an approval number (12-11-

19-0434255) for the final doctoral study.

Every researcher needs to ensure the well-being of all participants (Kara & Lucy,

2017) and be mindful that confidentiality enhances the quality of research (Petrova,

Dewing, & Camilleri, 2014). I respected and protected the confidentiality of participants

and kept their names confidential by referring to them as P1, P2, P3, P4, or P5. The mp3

data of interview recordings was secured electronically in an encrypted file and will
 52
remain in an encrypted file for 5 years in a safe place. The files will be permanently

deleted once the 5 years expire.

Data Collection Instruments

Trustworthy information can be obtained during the data collection phase once

researchers use valid instruments (Dunemn, Roehrs, & Wilson, 2017) such as interviews

that can generate richer data rather than surveys (Paradis et al., 2016). Semistructured

interviews can be used to collect in-depth data on the engagement strategies of media

leaders because they help to keep participants focused, responding to essential questions

that are related to the overarching research question (Jamshed, 2014). I was solely

responsible for collecting data and conducted one interview with each participant. The

interviews were conducted in person and participants responded individually and

systematically to 9 preset, logically ordered open-ended questions (see Appendix A).

Although the questions were predetermined, they stimulated discussions, which allowed

respondents to elucidate and provide data that can only be acquired through

semistructured interviews (McIntosh & Morse, 2015). I recorded each session of face-to-

face interviews using a voice recorder and use two backup recorders in the event my

main audio recorder fails. I made a conscious decision not to write too many notes during

the interviews and allowed the participants to speak without being distracted by my note-

taking. The timespan of the interviews ranged between 30 and 60 minutes.

In qualitative research, reliability is synonymous with thoroughness, honesty,

(Robson, 2002) and consistency (Leung, 2015), while validity refers to the findings’

truthfulness (Mohajan, 2018). I enhanced reliability and validity by asking simple-

 53
worded questions in the same order and structure on the paper and maintained a neutral

stance throughout each interview. Persons can perceive nonverbal communication

(Bambaeeroo & Shokrpour, 2017) and I ensured that my body language did not affect the

responses of the participants. In pursuit of truthfulness, I did not agree or disagree with

the participants, but focused on participant validation and verified the accuracy of my

interpretation of the participants’ responses. Trustworthiness in qualitative research

means that the study is credible. Trustworthiness is a bedrock component of superb

qualitative research (Birt, Scott, Cavers, Campbell, & Walter, 2016). In order to augment

validity, I thoroughly examined company documents to find evidence substantiating

engagement efforts of media leaders.

Data Collection Technique

An interview consists of an opening, middle, and end that can be flawed if the

researcher fails to prepare (Trochim et al., 2016). The quality of the collected data

depends on my preparation. This process of preparation includes establishing an effective

data collection plan that involves researching updated information on how to conduct

semistructured interviews. I followed recommendations from experts. For example,

Kallio, Pietilä, Johnson, and Kangasniemi (2016) suggested that researchers identify the

prerequisites for semistructured interviews, use previous knowledge, and create an

interview guide. After I was granted permission to research the media agency, a manager

at the media agency gave me the cell numbers and email addresses of five leaders who

were successful with employee engagement initiatives. I contacted the five leaders via

phone and email and told them about the purpose and nature of my study, as well as their
 54
right to withdraw at any time. In an effort not to jeopardize the research and obtain

truthful answers, no incentives were given or promised to the leaders. The leaders

selected an appropriate time and place for the interview to be conducted on the jobsite

and signed an informed consent form several days before the interviews started.

Although the accuracy of semistructured interviews may not equate with direct

measurements, researchers can still gain valuable insights (O’Keeffe, Buytaert, Mijic,

Brozović, & Sinha, 2016). Semistructured interviews are not only a dominant data

collection qualitative method, but also appropriate for qualitative studies (Adhabi &

Anozie, 2017; Alshenqeeti, 2014). Semistructured interviews are usually conducted once

(Jamshed, 2014) and I conducted the interviews one time in person with each participant.

Despite the high level of interviewer bias in face to face interviews, researchers get the

opportunity to observe participants closely and use appropriate nonverbal communication

behavior (Neuman, 2011). For example, I observed and recorded contextual information

that would have been missed had I conducted the interview over the phone.

In the initial stage of the interview, I introduced myself to the participant, stated

my student status at Walden University, explained the purpose of the study and format of

the interview, and reminded participants that their responses will be confidential. The

interviewer is responsible for allaying any lingering insecurities (Saunders et al., 2015).

As exemplified in the interview protocol (see Appendix B) which I followed, I reminded

the participants that I will be using digital recorders during the interview, emphasized the

importance of capturing their words accurately, and asked them once again if they

approved or objected to the recording. The presence of an active recorder may change the
 55
interviewer’s behavior (McGonagle, Brown, & Schoeni, 2015), but a researcher will have

more time to focus on the responses of participants, prompt appropriately, and create

accurate interview transcripts (Jamshed, 2014).

Once the participants approved the digital recording, I proceeded with the

interview, asked warm-up questions, and inquired about the participant’s name, position,

job description, and organizational tenure. The questions were necessary to create a

comfortable, interview-friendly climate that encouraged the participants to express

themselves freely. Doody and Noonan (2013) indicated that participants give honest

answers when interviewers establish rapport and make them feel relaxed.

After the warm-up session, I asked the nine core open ended questions and

prompted the participants for an example or asked them to elaborate when I need

clarification. Participants were given sufficient time to talk extensively as I grasped on to

every word as if it were life-saving information. Despite being time consuming and

costly, the flexibility of semistructured interviews enables researchers to ask additional

unscripted questions and acquire more data (Young et al., 2018). I wrote some pertinent

information occasionally because I did not want to distract the respondent. Doody and

Noonan (2013) approved note-taking but insisted that the means by which the interviewer

takes the notes could be distracting. Frequent note-taking can result in participant

disengagement. To ensure that there was no misunderstanding, I verified the accuracy of

my notes with the participants immediately after the interview and sent participants the

interview transcript via email the same week I conducted the interview.
 56
I also requested and reviewed the organization’s documents that highlighted the

engagement efforts of leaders over the years. A review of the documents is a form of

triangulation, which is necessary in qualitative research. The researcher solidified

credibility and the authenticity of the findings through triangulation (Chowdhury, 2015).

The literature on engagement was also be used to substantiate the findings of this study.

Data Organization Technique

Qualitative research is synonymous with in-depth data unlike its antithesis,

quantitative research, which is limited to how much and how many, qualitative research

is all about scope and depth (Zamawe, 2015). One software that can secure, organize, and

help analyze the data, as well as create easy access when needed is NVivo 12 Plus

software. NVivo 12 Plus is the most recent version of NVivo, and unlike Atlas and other

software, I find NVivo to be more user friendly and contains advanced features that

enable rapid coding. NVivo is a vital multimedia tool for researchers because of its

efficiency, transparency, and ability to accommodate a large quantity of data (Dollah,

Abduh, & Rosmaladewi, 2017). NVivo 12 Plus was used to manage the study’s data,

including audio files and research documents. I labelled and logged each interview file

into the system in a manner that maintains confidentiality: P1, P2, P3, P4, and P5. The

participant was distinguished from the interviewer in the transcribed interview word-

processed document. The time saving technology NVivo 12 Plus made it easier to find

themes quickly and classify data effectively. Transcripts and audio files were coded with

NVivo 12 Plus, which sped up the coding process and resulted in a better-finished

research product. Researchers who are unfamiliar with NVivo are advised to seek
 57
guidance from experienced NVivo users (Sutton & Austin, 2015). Because I am not adept

at using NVivo, I got professional help to minimize errors.

I scanned, labelled, and saved company documents such as evaluations

electronically. I also create a reflective journal. Sutton and Austin (2015) noted that

qualitative work necessitates reflection before, during, and after research. The journal

was used to solidify my thoughts, register biases, and better analyze the current study. I

also secured confidential data during the course of the study. Data should be stored in a

secured area for 5 years (Fusch & Ness, 2015). As a means of added protection, the

study’s electronic data files were encrypted. The data will be deleted permanently when

the 5 years expire.

Data Analysis

Despite the in depth benefits of qualitative research, analyzing the data is a

laborious activity, which exceeds the requirements of quantitative analysis (Watkins,

2017). The researcher is responsible for ensuring that the procedures used during the

critical stage of data analysis, address the research question (Blanca, Alarcón, & Bono,

2018). I enhanced the quality and confidence of the findings via data triangulation by

conducting semistructured interviews, member checking, and examining the

organization’s documents. After I transcribed the interviews, each file was saved

separately. I also analyzed the verbatim scripts, manually noted the various themes of the

motivational strategies media leaders use to bolster employee engagement, and manually

examined company documents. A thematic analysis was also conducted via the NVivo 12
 58
Plus software, which is used to manage all of the study’s data, including audio files and

research documents.

A thematic analysis comprises a back-and-forth process of reading the data,

coding, probing for, reviewing, and analyzing themes, as well as providing a synopsis of

the findings (Wang, Wang, & Khalil, 2018). As I studied the data, I actively and

continuously engaged in the six processes of thematic analysis until no new themes

emerged. Saunders et al.’s (2015) guidelines for conducting an effective thematic

analysis entails becoming familiar with the data, coding, searching for and identifying

thematic relationships, and refining themes. A lot of data on engagement strategies

resulted via data analysis procedures. The analysis of the data is very useful in

corroborating the theories of this study’s conceptual framework: Maslow’s (1943)

hierarchy of needs, Deci and Ryan’s (1985) SDT, and Kahn’s (1990) employee

engagement. I continued to analyze the data by perusing contemporary literature, looking

for similarities or differences in themes and the latest theories on employee engagement.

Reliability and Validity

Reliability

All studies have limitations (Olu-Daniels, 2017), including qualitative research

that are criticized for a lack of rigor (Noble & Smith, 2015). I followed various data

procedures to augment reliability and validity. Reliability and validity enhanced

transparency and mitigated against researcher bias (Mohajan, 2018). Reliability means

consistency and care (Cypress, 2017), as well as dependability (Moon, Brewer,

Januchowski-Hartley, Adams, & Blackman, 2016).

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Dependability. Dependability is important to the qualitative researcher who

wants to enhance transparency and ensure that readers understand the research

procedures (Moon et al., 2016). I assured dependability by acquiring interview data from

media leaders who were knowledgeable about employee engagement strategies and

implemented these strategies successfully over the years. I also created a semistructured

interview guide and ask questions methodically to each participant. Veteran research

tutors and practitioners, who provided sound advice regarding the construction of

interview questions, reviewed the questions.

The revision of the interview guide through another lens eliminated unsuspecting

bias, such as leading questions. Feedback fortifies robust research (Smith & Noble, 2017)

and I continued to reflect on potential and existing biases throughout the study in an

effort to minimize bias. Reducing bias as much as possible is vital because bias

negatively affects reliability and validity and can lead to flawed research (Smith & Noble,

2017). I increased reliability by being vigilant and thorough during each stage of the

research. Member checking is an important aspect of reliability in qualitative research

that also heightens validity (Birt et al., 2016). I followed the interview protocol and

allowed the participants to verify my interpretation of their responses after the interview.

The participants received my interpretation of their responses via email, during the same

week the interview was conducted. The participants were also given one week to peruse

and critique the interpretations.

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Validity

Validity means trustworthiness (Elo et al., 2014). Validity is also associated with

integrity, which refers to the methods the researcher uses to present the data accurately

(Noble & Smith, 2015) or the appropriateness of the methods (Leung, 2015).

Additionally, validity entails three critical elements that sometimes overlap with

dependability and are considered the benchmark of good qualitative research: credibility,

transferability, and confirmability.

Credibility. Credibility is one feature of good qualitative research. Credibility is

tantamount to confidence in the researcher’s findings and conclusions (Korstjens &

Moser, 2018). In an effort to strengthen credibility, I treated all participants fairly, paid

keen attention to their responses, and probed when necessary. Additionally, I wrote brief

notes during the interviews and audio-recorded all interviews with the permission of

participants. Although some researchers purported that the pen-and-paper recorded

interview is ideal, unlike the audio-recorded interview (Trochim et al., 2016), other

researchers believe that the recording is necessary because the transcript should not be

paraphrased (Mabuza, Govender, Ogunbanjo, & Mash, 2014). Recording lessens

participant distraction, ensures no salient point is missed, and leads to sound findings and

conclusions, which are integrally linked, trustworthy, and valid (Kalu & Bwalya, 2017).

The findings in the current study were confirmed because I left a trail of tangible

evidence that increases validity and reliability. Credibility is an important feature of

validity, which is closely related to dependability and involves member checking and

method triangulation (Moon et al., 2016). During the interview, I wrote some responses
 61
of the participants’ and at the end of the interview, shared the notes with participants who

determined if their words and experiences were captured accurately on paper. In the post-

interview stage, participants were furnished with my interpretations of their responses. I

requested participants’ feedback of the document to remove any ambiguity that might

persist. Respondent validation solidifies data consistency and transparency (Noble &

Smith, 2015).

Data triangulation was undertaken to boost the validity of the study. Qualitative

researchers use at least one triangulation method to diminish bias (Anney, 2014).

Triangulation allows the researcher to provide a comprehensive analysis of the issue

under investigation (Mabuza et al., 2014). Triangulation was achieved by examining

company documents relating to employee engagement, the responses of participants

during the semistructured interviews, as well as past and current literature on

engagement. I also achieved triangulation once the literature on engagement supported

the research findings and conclusions. The literature can be used to corroborate or

challenge the research findings and generate more knowledge on the subject matter

(Nowell, Norris, White, & Moules, 2017).

Transferability. Transferability is an important aspect of validity, which can be

achieved once the researcher provides a rich description of the study’s context and

assumptions (Trochim et al., 2016). I thoroughly described the setting, sample selection,

design, and data collection process of the study. The description of the context, sample,

and methods of data collection augments credibility (Hadi, 2016). Through

transferability, researchers can determine the study’s applicability to similar contexts

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(Moon et al., 2016; Saunders et al., 2015). I stated that the study can be generalized to

other settings and compared to other studies on employee engagement.

Confirmability. As the word indicates, confirmability is synonymous with

corroboration. Researchers must exhibit logical procedures that highlight a nexus

between the study’s results and conclusions (Moon et al., 2016). I documented every

decision regarding the research methods, process, assumptions, and biases. The audit trail

bolsters trustworthiness, establishes transparency, dependability, and confirmability

(Korstjens & Moser, 2018). Confirmability is evident amid triangulation (Chowdhury,

2015). I enhanced the study’s trustworthiness by reviewing company documents and

implemented other forms of data triangulation such as interviews and respondent

validation. I also asked questions in the same order during the semistructured interviews,

and made notes of each participant’s nonverbal communication.

Data Saturation. Data saturation means that no new information is available for

the researcher to collect (Saunders et al., 2018). I examined documents that substantiate

motivational strategies the leaders use to enhance workers’ performance. Olu-Daniels

(2017) recommended that researchers move towards triangulation. Triangulation

counteracts bias, realizes data saturation, and adds in-depth data (Fusch, Fusch, & Ness,

2018). I used the NVivo 12 Plus software to identify trends, patterns, and themes after

multiple phases of scrutiny. When no new coding, themes, and data emerge, I was

satisfied with the level of data saturation. Validity is about accuracy and Yin (2018)

advised that the researcher uses triangulation to ensure that the participants’ multiple

realities are captured truthfully. Researchers can use this study in the future to do a
 63
comparative analysis and substantiate causes of employee engagement in another context.

I also provided adequate data from the literature to show that the drivers of employee

engagement are universal and not limited to the media station.

Transition and Summary

Conducting research is a multifaceted process, which should begin with the

awareness of the researcher’s role and includes protecting participants and reporting their

perspectives truthfully. I conformed to other ethical conditions that enhanced the study’s

reliability and validity—critical components of good research. Data collection and data

analysis are also critical stages of the research process that necessitate the right

instruments and critical thinking skills to be of any significance. Once the research

process is executed effectively, the study can include valuable insights into the strategies

media leaders use to increase employee engagement.

Section 3 began with the first sentence in the purpose of the study, along with a

summary of the research findings. I outlined major themes that answered the overarching

research question, aligned with the conceptual framework, and used contemporary

literature to validate the findings and point out areas of contention. The other subheading

application to business practice followed and I gave an explanation on how the study can

improve organizations with disengaged employees. I also discussed the implications for

social change, recommendations for action and future research before reflecting and

concluding. The research ended with several pages of references and various documents

that are located in the Appendices.

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Section 3: Application to Professional Practice and Implications for Change

Introduction

The purpose of this qualitative single case study was to explore the motivational

strategies some media leaders use to keep employees engaged. The findings of this

doctoral study were based on data collected from five face-to-face, semistructured

interviews with various media leaders and documents from the media entity. Three main

themes and drivers of employee engagement emerged during the analysis of data: flexible

leadership, training, and recognition and appreciation.

Presentation of the Findings

The overarching research question was: What motivational strategies do some

media leaders use to keep employees engaged? The interview questions comprised 9

core, open-ended questions, but I was able to probe and obtain clarification for vague

responses during all sessions. Each interview was conducted in a private office in the

organization and lasted between 30 and 60 minutes. I transcribed the interviews and sent

copies to participants to verify the accuracy of their responses. No participant expressed

that there was any misinterpretation. To maintain the confidentiality agreement outlined

in the informed consent form, I did not reveal the names or gender of the media leaders.

Instead, I labelled the leaders as either P1, P2, P3, P4, or P5.

I also used the NVivo software to narrow down themes after I manually coded the

transcripts. The findings aligned with the conceptual framework on employee

engagement, which Kahn (1990), Deci and Ryan (1985), and Maslow (1943) aptly

elucidated. Because the theories of personal engagement, self-determination, and

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hierarchy of needs are transcendent and universal, I used them to explain the occurrences

in the contemporary media setting. The findings were also supported with existing

literature on employee engagement.

Theme 1: Flexible Leadership

Flexible leadership is tantamount to situational leadership, which is the ability to

respond appropriately to diverse circumstances using directive and supportive tactics to

accomplish organizational goals. Although media leaders did not label themselves as a

situational leader, the characteristics of their management style were inescapably in sync

with the theory of Hersey and Blanchard (1969). P1, P2, P3, and P4 emphasized that the

nature of media industry necessitates some level of flexibility. In line with the situational

theory that accentuates the need for leaders to be cognizant of employees’ personalities

(Sadique & Shaikh, 2019), P1 and P2 explained that knowledge of workers’

socioeconomic background empowered them to make well-informed decisions. P2

posited that one must not equate the acquisition of employee information to prying into

their personal business, but there were “certain general things” that need to be

considered, such as the single parent status of employees. P2 added that people may

perceive the leader as “soft,” but there were times when adjustment was necessary.

The flexible leadership of P1 and P2 enabled them to approach employees

differently and cater to their diverse needs. The supportive work climate also enhances

engagement (Koon & Chong, 2018) because workers were willing to reciprocate

favorably to the organization. Rigid management impacts employee engagement

negatively, as P1, P2, and P3 indicated. P1 and P3 identified this rigid, authoritarian style
 66
as the least effective motivational strategy, which had resulted in some “pushback”,

according to P1. The human element of leadership is critical to employee engagement

and it involved the use of soft skills. Soft skills encompass emotional and moral, as well

as social aptitudes (Manullang, 2017) that can be used strategically to achieve the vision

of the establishment. For example, P3 suggested that sometimes one has to be willing to

“give and take a little.” P3 did not demand that employees arrive at and leave work at a

specific time, especially when they would have injected a substantial amount of effort

into organizational development. P2, who also alluded to this level of flexibility,

postulated that while some employees may be late, consideration must be given to those

who volunteered their labor beyond the lawfully stipulated 8 hours. P2 was adamant that

being “hard and fast” would not work in a flexible environment like the media. In

accordance with this study’s conceptual theory on employee engagement, Kahn (1990)

underscored the significance of psychological safety that entails working without fear or

repercussions under a supportive management in an enabling environment.

Psychological safety does not mean that superiors must consistently excuse

workers who do not adhere to company rules and regulations. It means that management,

as P2 insisted, must not be quick to act, but should weigh the situation, and compromise

when necessary. The bottom line, according to P2 was to get the job done. While soft

skills are essential, they are inadequate for the day-to-day operations of any business.

Soft skills complement hard skills that are more task-oriented and enable individuals to

deal with changing dynamics (Cimatti, 2016). Getting the job done also means that

flexible leaders must sometimes be firm with employees. P2 mentioned that while some
 67
employees handled criticism well, others “go into a shell” when they are reprimanded. In

such a situation, P2 treaded carefully until the workers re-engaged. P2 described

individuals who were serious about media as “career people.” According to P2, there was

less resistance from the career people than those who were merely looking for a job

because career people recognized the importance of shift schedules and were willing to

fit into the flexible media environment. Flexible leadership does not mean everyone will

buy-in, but in the quest for consistent excellence, P4 emphasized the need for punctuality,

continuous training and improvement, and communication.

P5 suggested that punishment was the least effective engagement strategy.

Despite engagement efforts, P5 found that a small percentage of employees never

engaged and those who did were stimulated temporarily by the presence of millennials,

whom P5 referred to as “fresh blood.” The presence of millennials, according to P5,

created a kind of jealousy in a few of the older staff and forced them to be competitive

and engaged for a time. The millennials, on the other hand, were engaged by technology

and despite financial restrictions and a lack of resources, P5 capitalized on their interest

and put them to work with the technology to bolster productivity. This strategy fits with

the research. Millennials tend to be more at ease with computer devices because of the

technological era in which they were born (Shaw & Fairhurst, 2008).

Meaningful engagement and psychological safety emerge when employees are

also challenged and feel a sense of control over their work (Kahn, 1990). P5 found that

challenging work motivated employees who yearned for knowledge, wanted to get away

from routine, and be fulfilled. Thus, P5 instilled in employees a sense of ownership of

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their work. That sense of ownership is equivalent to autonomy that Deci and Ryan (1985)

described in SDT, which also forms part of this study’s conceptual framework.

Autonomy is an innate need to exert control over an individual’s own actions (Wang, Liu,

Kee, & Chian, 2019) and a major characteristic of flexible leaders is their ability to foster

autonomy. When leaders give employees autonomy, intrinsic motivation and engagement

develop, contrary to situations where micromanagement and authoritarianism were rife.

P1 argued that the micromanagement of the upper echelon of the media agency

undermined productivity and increased conflict. P1 deemed micromanagement and “I am

the boss” mentality to be an anti-progressive strategy, but was able to keep the team

engaged through a flexible style of management that coincided with autonomy and a

sense of trust, which made work more meaningful for employees.

The leaders at the media house also augmented employee engagement by

promoting teamwork and creativity, as well as building personal relationships with

employees. P1 and P3 identified teamwork as the most effective strategy for engagement,

while P5 alluded to its significance in organizational development. P1, P3, and P5

managed by treating employees fairly, engaging continuously in positive dialogue, and

reiterating the value of the symbiotic relationship they share. Rather than creating a

hierarchical divide, P1, P3 and P5 used teamwork to enhance productivity. Teamwork is

beneficial because members tend to have more autonomy when the direct locus of control

shifts from management to members (By, Kuipers, & Procter, 2018). Teamwork also

strengthens group identification (Yukl & Mahsud, 2010). Group identification is

intertwined into Maslow’s (1943) hierarchy of needs. Group identification refers to

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belongingness and is directly correlated to satisfaction with life (Wakefield et al., 2017).

Group identification fulfills social needs and enables humans to make meaningful

contributions and co-exist harmoniously (Aruma & Hanachor, 2017). P3 compared the

team’s cohesiveness to “gel.” P3 added that the workers bonded harmoniously on

projects as they created something new, which resulted in job satisfaction and positive

feedback from the public.

Media is a creative field and P2 emphasized that employees were also given the

freedom to be creative. P2 added that if this freedom were withdrawn and the manager

tried to keep them in a “strait jacket”, the leader will get a lot of pushback. P1, P2, P3,

and P5 created an environment that generated creativity directly and indirectly among

employees. Creative leadership is pivotal because it can result in a competitive advantage

(Randel & Jaussi, 2019), differentiating the organization from others. Flexible leaders are

not only creative, but also strategic. The findings of this study substantiated the findings

in the literature on flexible work environment, which overlapped with a variety of

leadership styles such as: transformational, authentic, and situational leadership.

Theme 2: Organizational Training

Training is a critical employee engagement strategy that proved successful for

media leaders in Antigua and Barbuda. P2, P3, P4, and P5 explained that training was a

continuous process, which was conducted locally, regionally, and internationally. P5,

however noted that some employees did not get in-depth training for their positions.

Because business success is dependent on employees’ performance, training and

development programs should be continuous to build workers’ performance and

 70
proficiency (Karim, Choudhury, & Latif, 2019). Ongoing training is equally important to

all, newcomers and longstanding employees alike (Zahra et al., 2014). The review of the

literature also indicated that training is a predominant, global method, which intensifies

productivity and employee retention (Siddiqui, 2019). As the conceptual framework

accentuated, psychological meaningfulness, safety, and availability are three conditions

that cultivate employee engagement (Kahn, 1990), and work cannot be worthwhile if

employees lack the resources that would make them proficient. P4 highlighted that the

leadership is keen on developing the human capital and tried to match the training

opportunities with organizational gaps. P4 added that training, which was across the

board, helped with consistency and efficiency. The capabilities or quality of the human

capital plays a vital role in organizational outcomes (Cimatti, 2016).

P2 emphasized that training was vital because not everyone who comes into

media is passionate about broadcasting. P2 pointed out that working in the field of

broadcasting necessitated a lot of sacrifice and for the unskilled employees, the media can

be very challenging. Besides trying to get the unenthusiastic workers to buy into the

organization’s vision, P2 encouraged employees to participate in overseas engagement

training programs. P2 and P3 noted that many employees looked forward to overseas

training. P2 said external training takes them out of their comfort zone with no financial

losses, while P3 asserted that training entailed an element of excitement and surprise as

employees were glad for the opportunity to learn and implement new strategies to

enhance their work. The literature on employee engagement shows that there is a

significant correlation between training and employee performance (Sendawula, Kimuli,

 71
Bananuka, & Munganga, 2018). Training remains necessary because experts’ capabilities

can foster employee professionalism (Harris, & Clayton, 2018). Training should result in

increased knowledge and skills, which should translate into heightened performance

(Siddiqui, 2019).

Training was also used like an antidote for employees with low evaluation scores.

P3 said that quarterly evaluations were conducted and in cases where employees were

deficient, they trained and gave them tips to improve their performance. Evaluations,

according to P3, were not used as a reason for punishment, but rather as a helping tool.

The organization’s employee performance and development review measured areas such

as job knowledge, initiative, attitude, quantity and quality of work, as well as time

management and work ethic. P3 indicated that sometimes a small percentage of

employees was resistant to evaluations because of the low scores they received, but

leaders continued to train them to enhance their skills. P3 indicated that training helped

because some employees with limited skillset were underutilized, but once trained, they

became more useful and engaged.

Based on the SDT conceptual framework, one inherent driver of motivation is

competence, which is synonymous with effectivity. Increasing employee competence

results in lasting intrinsic engagement and employee well-being, and can be strengthened

via training (Koole et al., 2018). The findings of this study are in line with the existing

literature on training. Training and development help to maximize employee utilization

and productivity (Vinesh, 2014) and also enable individuals to exploit their skills and

talents and self-actualize. As the hierarchy of needs conceptual framework highlighted,

 72
individuals cannot self-actualize if their physiological, safety, social, and esteem needs

are unfulfilled (Maslow, 1943). Training should be a basic requirement for all

organizations. Training results in organizational commitment and employee

empowerment (Hanaysha, 2016).

Success stories about employee engagement coincided with a restructuring of the

media entity. It is important that employees are not only adequately trained, but also

strategically placed in the workplace. Information from the organization revealed that

several positions were created; some employees were transferred and some resigned, as

new workers were hired. Training, largely in-house, also intensified and was buttressed

by numerous tips media leaders shared with subordinates and the efforts of local,

regional, and international specialists, who participated in various training programs. The

review of the literature showed that in-house training is more advantageous and

economical (Jehanzeb & Bashir, 2013) and has a positive effect on employee

productivity (Van Zyl, 2017). Training, in general, also improves organizational image

(Vinesh, 2014). The restructuring of the media agency was met with staunch resistance

from employees who were accustomed to the old work regime, but within a few years,

the public lauded the media entity for new programs and professional presentation of the

news. The organization was also awarded for its contribution to broadcasting.

Theme 3: Recognition and Appreciation

While it is true that motivation varies (Delaney & Royal, 2017), the majority of

media leaders (P1, P3, P4, and P5) identified public recognition and appreciation as an

effective employee engagement strategy. Recognition is the acknowledgement of

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employees’ efforts and appreciation is a basic human requirement (Alam, Saeed,

Sahabuddin, & Akter, 2013). Recognition and appreciation are major antecedents of

employee engagement (Abdullah, Shonubi, Hashim, & Hamid, 2016; Saks, 2019). P1

indicated that in the past, employee morale was extremely low and the turnover rate was

high; many employees felt ostracized because of a lack of organizational appreciation. P1

equated the feelings of employees to that of an outcast but combatted employee

despondency by being optimistic and recognizing publicly the discretionary efforts of

workers. P1 asserted that employee recognition and appreciation was the most effective

engagement strategy. As indicated in this study’s conceptual framework on engagement,

employees are likely to see their work as meaningful and become engaged if they believe

that they are contributing to organizational development (Kahn, 1990). P1 expressed

appreciation in cost effective ways, such as treating devoted employees to a night out or

funding the cost for simple social events. P3 confirmed that social events kept employees

engaged, but so too did structured recognition programs like end of year awards, which

were given to individuals from various departments, as well as those who were never sick

or who had a great attendance record.

Although psychological relatedness is the least discussed need in past literature on

SDT (Wang et al., 2019), it remains a fundamental element of this study’s conceptual

framework. Making workers aware of their value is essential; appreciation and

recognition bolster employee performance and organizational success (Abdullah et al.,

2016). In the workplace, relatedness augments a social and psychological sense of

belonging that are critical to engagement. P5 highlighted that praising employees was the
 74
most effective engagement strategy because it gave them the recognition that they were

being helpful or were contributing to the development of the organization. P5 insisted

that it is important employees realize that they, like management, play an integral role in

the institution’s growth. Likewise, P1 underscored the importance of magnifying the

arduous efforts of employees and telling them earnestly that they are a special part of the

organization. Being earnest is critical. White (2014) stated that rather than the usual

protocol, the recognition must be authentic so that it can be effective and valued by each

employee. Social conditions can determine an individual’s level of engagement and the

fulfilment of certain general needs are prerequisites for psychological well-being

(Migliorini, Cardinali, & Rania, 2019).

Employee recognition also coincides with increased self-esteem and is most

effective when the following conditions exist: a robust organizational support,

psychological understanding of lauding workers’ performance, and the application of

employee recognition principles (Amoatemaa & Kyeremeh, 2016). As highlighted in the

conceptual framework, esteem is a higher order need in Maslow’s (1943) theory of

human motivation. Esteem can be classified as self-esteem (internal) and the esteem

people get from others (external), which involves recognition and respect (Shahrawat &

Shahrawat, 2017). P1 contended that no one wants to feel like he or she is working in

vain in any establishment, and despite people’s intrinsic passion to work hard,

sustainability becomes problematic when there is little or no emphasis on recognizing and

appreciating employees. Recognition augments job security and employee responsibility

 75
(Zeb, Abdullah, Javaid, & Khan, 2017). Maslow (1943) identified safety, which

incorporates security of employment, as an important human need.

While praise and public recognition are significant factors of employee

engagement, the desire to move to the next level is also vital because monotony can

suppress engagement. Employee attachment occurs mentally when workers acknowledge

that upward mobility is possible in an organization (Ahmed, Ahmad, & Jaaffar, 2017),

and P4 believed that promotions are the ultimate reward of appreciation for consistently

good work. An extrinsic reward like promotions, lead to increased proficiency, especially

when salary serves as a yardstick for employees’ organizational value (Asaari, Desa, &

Subramaniam, 2019). P4 explained that the promotion, which is tied to increased

remuneration, did not only have a positive effect on the rewarded employees who

continued to strive for excellence, but also on their colleagues who buy-in to the vision

and became motivated as a result. The findings are in accordance with Kahn’s (1990)

engagement theory; work becomes more meaningful for employees when management

show recognition and appreciation.

Superb management is synonymous with superb employee performance (Medlin

& Green, 2014) and effective leaders recognized that although promotions and money

can improve employee performance, the needs of the workforce remains diverse.

Through simple praise and recognition P1, P3, P4, and P5 motivated employees despite

challenges such as low morale, lack of financial resources, and consistency of effort.

Increased morale and productivity, as well as a changed atmosphere were attained as a

result of the inexpensive engagement strategy. P1 and P3 stated that employees within the
 76
department became a very tight-knit group and were willing to work extra hours. The

findings of this study corroborated the information in existing literature that underscored

the significance of non-financial, extrinsic drivers of employee engagement.

Applications to Professional Practice

Employee engagement is critical to business survival, and if the ultimate aim of a

business is to make a profit, leaders must pay close attention to the factors that stimulate

discretionary effort. The findings of this case study highlighted the urgent need for

leaders to exercise flexibility on the job. Because employees spend a substantial amount

of time in the workplace (Bartels, Peterson, & Reina, 2019), business leaders should care

about their well-being. The leaders of the media agency recognized that 21st century

employees are diverse and engagement thrives on their need to feel valued for their

contribution. Business leaders must not focus only on the product, but also on the process

of achieving organizational goals.

To determine the needs of employees, it is imperative that leaders strengthen

communication by listening keenly to their subordinates, including those who seem

impossible to engage, according to the findings. Listening is a fundamental

communication skill that fosters understanding, learning, and success (Manzouri,

Shahraki, & Fatemi, 2016; Nagendra, 2014). Listening requires hard work and intricate

skills that must be nurtured (Okwuchukwu, 2016). Whereas listening is sometimes

mistaken for the physiological act of hearing, Arnold (2014) asserted that listening entails

other comprehension skills that involve reading non-verbal communication, such as the

tone, gestures, and inflection of the speaker. Leaders must develop the habit of listening
 77
to all employees when verbal communication is lacking. Asemota (2015) identified four

types of listening and listeners: active (quick learners), appreciative (sensitive and

understanding), quite the opposite of partial listeners who focus on counteracting the

speaker, and intermittent listeners who pretend to listen. Good communication is

tantamount to good listening and leaders desirous of solving contemporary business

problems must be effective listeners (Cacciattolo, 2015). Leaders must also be able to

identify their weaknesses and work towards improving their flaws.

Although employee engagement is the key to corporate competitiveness, it

remains a critical area of concern (Singh, 2016). Engaged employees are directly linked

to the materialization of organizational goals, but a two-way employer-employee

communication system must first be established prior to engagement (Ikon & Chukwu,

2017). Employees feel valued when their superiors listen to and consider their ideas. This

worthwhile feeling of having a stake or input in the organization is priceless and can

maintain engagement.

The findings showed that the psychological state of the workplace is pivotal to

employee engagement. Employees need to feel like they are a good organizational fit

(Lampinen, Konu, Kettunen, & Suutala, 2018) and management should do their best to

heighten employee morale and provide them with the necessary training to elevate their

confidence. Employees need to be the center of attention in the workplace and the

environment should be restructured to meet their needs (Wieneke et al., 2019). Strategic

leaders realize that the institutional advancement necessitates a holistic approach, which
 78
involves an effective level of coordination for the success of employee engagement

initiatives.

Implications for Social Change

Low employee engagement is a disturbing universal problem that will likely

result in diminished performance (Motyka, 2018). Research has shown that there is a

positive relationship between employee engagement and productivity (Choudhury &

Mohanty, 2018; Khalaf, et al., 2019; Sun & Bunchapattanasakda, 2019). Productivity is

important because it is directly linked to organizational profitability and longevity.

Failure to keep employees engaged have resulted in losses that exceed $500 billion

annually (Rastogi et al., 2018). Contrastingly, the greater the level of employee

engagement, the greater the potential that business owners will surpass average revenue

expectations (Markos & Sridevi, 2010). Although it may sound cliché that employees are

the most vital assets of any institution, it is a reality. Because employee engagement

coincides with job satisfaction, the efforts of employees must not be downplayed or taken

for granted.

Employees who experience job satisfaction are happier than their disengaged

counterparts. When leaders engage employees, increased efficiency, morale, loyalty, and

customer satisfaction are the end results (Sharma & Sharma, 2014). Engaged employees

also produce better products and deliver quality service, which in turn generate

contentment among customers. The happy effect of employee engagement also

transcends business establishments into the homes of workers. Ilies, Liu, Liu, and Zheng

(2017) found that job engagement correlated with family satisfaction.

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Retention rates are also higher among engaged employees (Allam, 2017; Sharma

& Sharma, 2014). High retention rates do not only make organizations more attractable,

but they also translate into organizational savings and stability because it is expensive to

replace employees (Mitrovska & Eftimov, 2016). Employee engagement and productivity

may also have a positive impact on the socioeconomic development of a nation (Sarangi

& Nayak, 2016) because profitable businesses contribute to the Gross Domestic Product

(GDP). Engaged employees also position organizational leaders to mitigate against

globally competitive forces that threaten business sustainability (Vorina, Simonič, &

Vlasova, 2017).

Recommendations for Action

Based on the findings of this case study, training played a fundamental role in

employee engagement initiatives, but all employees did not receive in-depth training at

the media agency. I would recommend that leaders put measures in place to ensure that

all employees are trained effectively. Leaders must also introduce development programs

to strengthen employees’ critical thinking skills and ready them for upward mobility

(Gupta & Sharma, 2018). The more training and development programs employees are

exposed to, the more likely they will exceed expectations. Training is essential because it

develops employee confidence, self-efficacy, and commitment (Markos & Sridevi, 2010).

If leaders want to keep employee engagement high on their agenda, they must

make it a habit of recognizing and appreciating their hard work. A paycheck can no

longer be the only motivating force. Authoritative figures who refuse to recognize and

support employees’ efforts will lower morale, productivity, and creativity (Asaari, et al.,
 80
2019). Business leaders can reward employees for outstanding work and encourage

workers who are not yet up to par. Some managers make a grave mistake by

acknowledging only employees who are prolific. Struggling employees must also be

stimulated for small achievements and general effort. Scaffolding employees to that zone

of proximal development is important for the development of any institution.

Leaders should also be well-informed about the various leadership styles that are

appropriate for employee engagement. Situational leadership is appropriate because it

incorporates other styles of leadership (democratic, laissez faire, and autocratic) that can

address organizational issues. The findings show that media leaders use all of these styles

to maximize employee productivity, but transformational leadership may also be suitable.

Transformational leaders are effective because they align employees’ personal needs with

organizational goals and instill a consciousness within subordinates that they are valuable

assets (Jones & George, 2017). Transformational leaders also exercise flexibility; they

realize that employees are not a means to an end, but human beings who have a life

outside of the work, which may sometimes conflict with job requirements. Successful

leaders are cognizant that employee well-being is vital to business survival, so they try to

make the business place as comfortable as possible to realize the organization’s vision.

Another recommendation that leaders need to consider is the timing of feedback

and the manner in which it is delivered. For instance, employees who receive low

evaluation scores may directly or indirectly show their disapproval. Sometimes, the

feedback is given after a long period of observation or once per year. Leaders need to

work closely with employees, communicate their expectations, and provide feedback
 81
frequently (Sharma & Sharma, 2014). Feedback is not only indicative of employee

performance, but is also critical to their development. Based on the findings, some

employees did not handle feedback well and isolated themselves. Leaders should deliver

the feedback professionally and constructively, and listen to the employees’ response or

request that they express how they feel about the feedback (Prayson & Rowe, 2017).

The onus is also on the upper echelon of establishments to positively engage

leaders who are tasked with employee engagement initiatives. If leaders are stressed, for

example, being micromanaged, it may hinder engagement efforts. Leaders who are not

engaged may experience difficulties keeping other engaged. The needs of employees are

not different from the needs of leaders. In his hierarchy of needs, Maslow (1943)

indicated that physiological, safety, love and belonging, esteem, and self-actualization are

fundamental needs of mankind.

The results of this study can be shared at conferences aimed at developing and

implementing best business practices in various organizations. Management students at

colleges and universities may also appreciate the findings as they conduct research on

contemporary organizational problems. As a former media practitioner, the results can be

discussed during training sessions with media leaders who are embarking on employee

engagement programs. The information in this research study may also be disseminated

via a journal. The aim is to convert this doctoral study in a journal article so that the

information could be accessed easily by multitudes of people who are interested in

employee engagement.
 82
Recommendations for Further Research

One limitation of this study was that I focused on a single organization, which

may make it difficult to generalize. I recommend that a comparative research should be

conducted on media organizations to highlight the similarities and differences of

engagement strategies, as well their effectiveness in Antigua and Barbuda. This

comparative analysis would be very useful for generalization purposes.

Another limitation was the use of purposive sampling. Rather than targeting

media leaders who have been successful with employee engagement, I recommend that in

the future, the researcher chooses a sample of leaders randomly. The population would

comprise all leaders, including those who have been unsuccessful with employee

engagement. This would allow the researcher to get a holistic picture of organizational

practices.

Additionally, I recommend that the researcher investigate the effects of employee

engagement on employees at the media agency to determine if they align with the

perspectives of the leaders. Interviews should be used to get an in-depth view of the

phenomenon and to examine the veracity of leaders’ perceptions. Future research could

also indicate the impact of engagement strategies on gender. The findings of this study

can be used to conduct further robust research and enlighten all about the important role

of strategic leadership in driving employee engagement.

Reflections

This doctoral journey has been quite exhausting, but extremely fulfilling. It is not

easy being a mother, wife, educator, and student. The obligations of each of these roles
 83
were overwhelming at times, but somehow I managed. This doctoral study has taken a

psychological, social, and economic toll on my family, but I believe that every penny was

well spent. I decided to take on this mammoth, academic task because I believe it could

help me reach that level of self-actualization, which is priceless. When I began my

studies in 2017, I thought there was not much to learn and would have already done

something similar with my MBA. Now, I recognize that the gap between my MBA and

DBA is much wider than I initially thought.

This DBA experience has been interesting for me because there were many things

I needed to learn, especially about the doctoral research process, and with utmost thanks

to the staff at Walden, I now have a fairly good understanding of the intricacies involved

in research. I realize that it is okay to have personal biases and more importantly,

acknowledge that they exist. In the past, I associated biases solely with weaknesses and

felt it was best to keep them hidden. I was enlightened during this doctoral process about

the ethical requirements of research, which not only make sense, but help to guarantee the

protection of all participants.

It would be remiss to me to end this section without highlighting the impact this

process has had on my writing development. I am more cognizant about scholarly

writing. Additionally, my research on employee was one of the most profound topics I

researched. The plethora of information I garnered and learned enabled me to view the

world through different lens and apply engagement strategies to various domains. My

interactions with colleagues and students on the job and family discourse within my
 84
home have improved significantly. I must say that the journey was real as it could be and

so too was my holistic development.

Conclusion

The successful implementation of employee engagement strategies necessitates

calculated leaders who recognize the significance of motivation. While many leaders

perceive employees who are intrinsically motivated as ideal, the reality is that mankind

does not live in a Utopian society. Motivation is a critical element that drives employee

engagement. Regardless of the sex or gender, engagement requires leaders of exceptional

fortitude who can create enabling workplace environments that satisfy the diverse needs

of employees. A supportive climate will make it possible to align employees’ personal

goals with organizational goals.

Effective leaders also strive to engage all employees because they are aware that

the existence of any weak link is detrimental to team success. Business leaders who are

genuinely interested in transforming their organizations must go back to basics and

recognize that the development of communication skills is not only a theoretical

proposition, but is also paramount to organizational growth. The onus is on 21st century

leaders to dialogue with those they lead and equip them with the necessary resources that

will build their skills and confidence, as well as position them for upward mobility.

Leaders who refuse to act, but reiterate constantly that their subordinates are integral to

organizational survival, must understand that lip service is anti-progressive.

 85
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Appendix A: Interview Questions

The interview questions are as follows:

1. What motivational strategies do you use to keep employees engaged?

2. How do motivational strategies help to maintain employee engagement at your

organization?

3. Based upon your organization’s experience, what motivational strategies have

been the most effective to keep employees engaged?

4. How do employees respond to the motivational strategies you use to keep them

engaged?

5. Based upon your organization’s experience, what motivational strategies were

least effective to keep employees engaged?

6. What fundamental difficulties did your organization encounter as you

implemented motivational strategies to bolster employee engagement?

7. How did your organization address the fundamental challenges to implementing

its strategies for employee engagement?

8. Based upon your experience, how have the motivational strategies you use to

keep employees engaged increased your organization’s performance?

9. What other information can you share about the motivational strategies your

organization implemented to enhance employee engagement that we’ve not

already covered?
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Appendix B: Interview Protocol

The following steps comprise the interview protocol:

1. introduce myself and thank the participant for taking part in the study;;

2. state the purpose of the study;

3. verify if the agreement to record the interview remains the same and remind

participants of their right to stop the interview and withdraw at any time;

4. explain the interview format;

5. remind participants that their names will remain anonymous and responses

confidential;

6. ask questions methodically;

7. probe responses;

8. clarify interviewee’s responses;

9. inform the participant that he/she will receive a typed copy of my interpretation of their

responses via email; they are free to comment;

10. thank the participant for taking part in the study; and

11. transcribe the interview as soon as possible.