ASSIGNMENT NO.

Question No.1:

Discuss the different fields of sociology along with its historical

perspectives.

. Answer:-
Introduction

While available records indicate that Sociology began as an academic discipline in

the 1880s and 1890s, we cannot rule out the fact that early scholars of diverse
callings have engaged in some activities at explaining and understanding social

life. However, some events in the 18th and 19th centuries Europe have no
doubt impacted on the rise of sociology as an academic discipline. The
immediate factor that gave rise to sociological theorizing was the
French Revolution of 1789 and the lasting effects that were carried over
through the following centuries. Other factors include industrial revolution,
urbanization, rise of capitalism, the enlightenment and the growth of science

As earlier stated, Sociology was born in England, France and Germany where
changes that rocked the period was the greatest. The discipline has continued to
grow as a profession and academic discipline. By the beginning of 20th century,
Sociology had spread to Asia, Africa, North America and South America through
globalization process, with the mandate of not just to understand society but to
bring about change toward social justice. The rapid global transformations are
also impacting on its development.
Theory binds the sub-disciplines to the general discipline of Sociology more
broadly than any other part of the sociological enterprise Also, theory is what
commonly differentiates studies in the fields of sociology from socially-
oriented research in related fields such as Public Health, Psychology,
Economics and Education research. Precisely, sociological theory is a
common denominator for all the fields of sociology. It is the driving force and
analytical tool for a nuanced understanding of various aspects of social life. In this
Chapter, efforts will be made to discuss some of the fields of Sociology and their
major preoccupations in proffering explanations of and solutions to social issues
in a rapidly changing world.

Fields of Sociology
Sociology is considered the most recent discipline in the social sciences.
However, its recent emergence as an academic field of study in the 19th
century could not suggest its least influence on human society. In fact, its
impact in the social sciences in particular and on human society in general cannot
be underrated.

Aside the aforementioned fields of sociology, many more sub-fields are emerging
everyday as sociology is a very broad social science. I therefore turn to the
explanations of some of the branches of sociology.

1. Historical Sociology

Historical sociology combines the terms: ‘history’ and ‘sociology’. Since history is
the study of past events and sociology is the study of human relations, historical
sociology is referred to as the systematic study of the past so as to describe and
reconstruct empirical findings about the social world. In actual sense, these pasts
events are not to be considered a day or month old; rather, the study of past
events is commonly useful in studying social phenomena that are more than five
decades

Via this study, historical sociology reveals the genesis of social events: When and
how diverse social organizations or groups originated? Historical sociology
focuses on comparative study of how past social life affect contemporary world.
While social anthropologists might be interested in studying the composition,
interrelationship and social conditions that support or challenge social groups,
historical sociologists would be interested in examining them in contrast with the
histories of past cultures and societies.

The roots of historical sociology lie with the classical founders of sociology such as
Max Weber (who is a historical sociologist). However, notable growth and
reconstruction were experienced after World War II

Today historical sociology is characterized by methodological pluralism, along

with a wide engagement with scientific inquiries into large-scale social
change, the development and institutionalization of contemporary societies,
and the epistemological roots of social science history

2. Sociology of Knowledge:

Sociology of knowledge is a newly developed sub-discipline of sociology and it

explains that our knowledge (of the world and everything in it) is the result of
social phenomena. It presupposes the idea that our knowledge is, to a very large
extent, a social product. In other words, our knowledge is usually determined by
the society we live in. Sociology of knowledge specifically focuses on the
relationship between how human cognition are processed and produced on
one hand and their socio-cultural roots and consequences

General ideas and belief systems (such as moral and religious beliefs), scientific
theories, mental categories, philosophical and political doctrines, cultural and
organizational discourses, and the forms of everyday knowing are embedded in
human cognitions which continue to shape (and be shaped by) the society and its
cultural elements.

Marx and Engels (1967) had earlier raised the relationship between knowledge
and society and acknowledged that knowledge is created by the two opposing
and conflicting class interests – the bourgeoisie and proletariat. According to
them, each class distort, direct and condition knowledge, either consciously or
unconsciously, to suit class interest which is in turn the product of super social
structure.
3. Criminology

This branch of sociology is sometimes called ‘sociology of crime’ or ‘sociology

of delinquency’. Although the terms are slightly different in their definitions,
they however deal with the same subject matter: criminal behavior. In other
words, criminology refers to the study of criminal behavior of individuals or
groups through the use of scientific approach (Siegel, 2007). It is also referred
to as the body of knowledge that studies crime or any other deviant behavior as a
social phenomenon.

The scope of criminology covers the origin, types and causes of crime; law,
punishment, police; as well as the process of making, breaking and reacting
towards the breaking of laws It aims at developing a body of general principles
that can be applied to the process of making laws and to the treatment and
management of crime. This branch has had a long standing history and has since
evolved into the contemporary society (Jensen, 2015)

4. Sociology of Religion:

Sociology of religion focuses on the influence of religion on the societal structure

as no society is ever without some forms of belief in the supernatural.
Specifically, this sub-discipline examines the structure of religion in a given social
system and analyses the social behavior of human beings in relation to their
religious compositions. Sociology of religion emerged in order to examine the
religious behavior of individual members of society from a sociological
standpoint.

5. Sociology of Economy:

This branch of sociology (also called economic sociology or sociology of

economic life) studies the production, distribution, exchange and consumption
of goods and services in relation to the socio-cultural context within which such
activities take place. In other words, sociology of economy is the application of
general principles, frame of reference, and explanatory models of sociology to
the complex but interrelated activities concerned with the production,
distribution, exchange, and consumption of relatively scarce goods and
services for the satisfaction of individual members of society. Specifically, it
studies the cultural conditions of life and how they are produced, distributed,
exchanged, consumed and reproduced through social processes Initial focus of
sociology of economy is on economic activities alone: especially how these social
activities are organized into roles and collectivizes. The second focus of
economic sociology examines the relationship between sociological variables
in relation to their economic as well as non-economic contexts (Shankar-Rao,
2006). This sub-discipline can further be divided into occupational sociology,
plant sociology, sociology of consumption, sociology of markets, and sociology of
work.

Sociology of occupation examines how particular occupation with its associated

roles and structure, affects and influence other segments of society such as
family, education, and politics (Shankar-Rao, 2006). It studies specific
occupations in relations to their functions, meanings and the objective
remuneration that should be attached to different works. In sociology of
consumption, a general question of what constitute consumption is examined
from the standpoint of view of members of a given society This sub-discipline
examines how morals, meanings, and interactions influence the kind of goods
that can be exchanged and consumed. One central idea in sociology of
consumption is that people’s consumption describes their lifestyle. The sociology
of markets describes market place as socially constructed gathering where
members of society (such as buyers and sellers) meet to exchange their goods
and services for the satisfaction of their wants. In this socially constructed
gathering, the relationship among the buyers, sellers and any other
stakeholders in the market place such as government, competitors, suppliers et
cetera are guided by formal and informal rules.

6. Rural Sociology:

Rural sociology is a branch of sociology that focuses on the rural people and rural
places in relation to their social activities. It is an applied field of sociology that
engages sociological research and training toward the development of rural
people and places. Simply put, rural sociology can be defined as the scientific
study of rural society. It can also be referred to as the science of laws that
govern the development of rural areas (Desai, 1994). Rural sociology studies
rural people’s ways of life as they affect and are affected by the people in the
urban regions. Specifically, it studies the social institutions, social processes,
social organizations and social structure in the rural societies.

The scientific study of rural society is based on the assumption that people’s
pattern of life in the rural areas such as belief systems, traditions, norms,
values, rules and regulations are totally distinct from those in the metropolis.
The scope of rural sociology is much less narrow-minded today than in the past,
embracing practical sociological research themes, unconventional methodologies,
and policy issues that shape the boundaries with sociology. Its subject matter is
the explanation and exploration of origin and growth of social life, in its entirety,
as they occur in the rural areas.

Rural sociology has been broadened to address emerging synthesis of research

that borders on rural-urban societies.

7. Urban Sociology:

Urbanization or the development of cities with modern infrastructures is a

recent phenomenon and it contributed to the birth and growth of sociology in
the 19th century.

Urbanization is a very new social phenomenon in the history of human kind, so

recent that it fast growth and complete potentialities are not yet thoroughly
realized (Shankar-Rao, 2006). The birth and unprecedented development of
cities caught urban sociologists’ attentions.

Urban sociology is that sub-discipline of sociology which deals with the city or the
urban community, with urbanization and urbanism (Quinn, 1940). The focus of
urban sociology is on the way of life of people in urban areas as it affects
and being affected by social organizations, social institution, social structure
and social interaction of urban societies.

Urban sociology further examines the social pathology of urban areas like
discrimination of all sorts, criminal activities, corruption, poverty, domestic
violence, robbery, beggary, theft, unemployment, under-employment,
prostitution, family disorganization, environmental pollution and degradation,
among many others. Key to the assumption of urban sociology is the fact that city
is not an unchanging social phenomenon, but a sequence of dynamic inter-
relationships.

8. Political Sociology:

Political sociology is another sub-field of sociology that studies various political

aspects of society including the origin, development and functions of political
ideology and activities. Political sociology encompasses the overlap between the
disciplines of political science and sociology.

In very recent times, important theoretical and empirical advancements have

been recorded as this subfield preoccupies itself with the interrelationships
between polity and society, as well as between political institutions and social
structures along with the issues of power, domination and exploitation
While political scientists focus on the dimension and distribution of power along
with the factors affecting such distribution, sociologists are more concerned with
the way in which social norms and values of a given social system regulate
relationships among members of the system (Shankar-Rao, 2006).

Sociology emphasizes social ties but political science stresses legal power
structures and definitions. The birth of sociology was majorly motivated by the
need to analyses and proffer way forward to the upheavals recorded in the
political arena of the European countries especially France.

In actual sense, sociology was birthed by the political revolution (popularly known
as the French Revolution) of its time. Hence, one of the important concern of
early sociologists was on the analysis of political processes and institutions.

9. Sociology of Law:

Sociology of law is a branch of sociology that is considered a social institution in

its own right. As a legal institution, sociology of law and legal system are related
to, and changing with, other social institutions. More importantly, sociology of
law seeks to preserve the relationship between systems of law and other
social sub-systems such as nature of production and distribution, authority
acquisition and distribution, family system, and kinship relationships (Shankar-
Rao, 2006). The making and execution of rules, regulations, laws, and order are
encapsulated in this sub-discipline of sociology.
Since law is an important means of social control in every society, this sub-
discipline of sociology is therefore associated with moral order for the society
and its members. Historically, Emile Durkheim's (1969) categorisation of laws
into retributive and restitutive as well as Max Weber's (1954) work on ‘law in
Economy and Society’ are early contributions to this sub-discipline of sociology.

Since then, and due to its growing interest, other sociologists and jurists have
made efforts in contributing to this sub-field of study

10. Industrial Sociology:

Industrial sociology is sometimes often referred to as sociology of organisation. It

is an applied discipline that focuses on the application of sociological principles in
the workplace. It is concerned with the interrelationships of industrial institutions
and various aspects of man such as his belief system, occupation, and way of life.

Industrial sociology was initially restricted to the analysis of work life problems
but has now been extended to include the analysis of industrial institutions and
organisations as well as their interrelationship with other various social
institutions (Shankar-Rao, 2006).

Specifically, industrial organisation deals with the structure and administration

of the workplace including the management, workers and stakeholders that
have links with the organisation.

Industrial sociology does not study organisation only in terms of technology,

economy or politics, but also in terms of social and human organisation. This
branch of sociology emphasises the influence of social-cultural factors in
industrial relations, organisation, communication, et cetera (Shankar-Rao, 2006).
When social interaction in an organisation is affected by the fact that a particular
social actor is a physician, a teacher, an architect, a boss, or an employee, then
the subject matter of industrial sociologists has been provided (Spaulding &
Turner, 1968).
Industrial sociology has contributed immensely in finding solutions and suggesting
way forward to many industrial conflicts and instability occasioned by new
developments in industrial sectors and work life.

11.Medical Sociology

Medical sociology is a sub-field of sociology concerned with all aspects of

contemporary social life which imping upon wellbeing throughout the life
course.

Specifically, it studies the organisation and delivery of medical services as

influenced by socio-cultural factors such as norms, values, parents, science,
technology, as well as economic organisation.

It is important to note that medical sociology contributes further to

substantive aspects of sociology. It has majorly focused on the social production
of health, wellness, disability, illness, and mortality (Mechanic, 2015).

Like the educational institution, the functions now carried out by the medical
institution were once embedded in the activities of the family and religious
institutions.

Only in relatively recent times has medicine developed as a distinct social

institution, providing an enduring set of cultural forms and social
relationships accountable for problems of health and disease (Hughes &
Kroehler, 2008). The establishment of medical sociology can be traced to post
World War II era when the American government provided adequate funding
through the National Institutes of Health for joint research projects in the areas of
medicine and sociology (Hughes & Kroehler, 2008). With recent discovery of the
social determinant of health, the importance of medical sociologists has risen.

12. Educational Sociology

The focus of educational sociology as one of the sub-disciplines of sociology is

to examine, in totality, the institutions and organisation of education. In
educational sociology, learning is considered a relatively enduring change in
 human behaviour that result from experience. Educational sociology focuses
attention on the socio-cultural factors that both influence and are influenced
by education.
It examine the interrelationship between education as a social institution and
other social institutions of the society such as the economy, politics, law, religion,
family and kinship, et cetera (Shankar-Rao, 2006). Educational sociology aims at
awakening and promoting social values among individuals, raising responsible
citizens, igniting the process of socialisation, bringing social welfare and social
stability, among many other objectives.

Most societies make efforts to transmit particular attitudes, knowledge and skills
from one generation to another through formal, systemic training – what
sociologists call educational institution (Hughes & Kroehler, 2008). In Nigeria,
this institution is indeed where the destiny of Nigerians is being shaped.
Educational sociologists are both needed to maintain and improve societies
wherever the bedrock of society (being education) is unstable or challenged
respectively. Educational sociology has contributed immensely to the
development and establishment of various sociological theories and methods
to describe and guide research into different types and levels of education
(Saha, 2015).

Such theories, methods and researches are useful in directing policies toward
the right course.

13.Applied Sociology

Applied sociology, as a branch of sociology, applies to different groups of

practitioners all using sociology to understand, describe, intervene, and/or
enhance human social life.

Different approaches to substantive sociological inquiry exist. The term

‘sociological practice’ or ‘practitioner’ is used to inclusively refer to applied,
clinical, and public sociologists, as well as those who identify more with
methods used across the social sciences such as community-based
researchers, participatory-action researchers, and translational researchers
(Price & Will, 2015). With their work, applied sociologists intend to impact groups
of people in the present day.
They primarily differ in the clients with whom they work and their level of
engagement in implementing the action steps of a project.

14.Environmental Sociology

Environmental sociology refers to the study of the interaction between

members of society and the environment. It developed around four decades
ago in the United States of America (USA) and has since then spread globally
(Dunlap, 2015). Key foci of environmental sociology include thorough
examination of the social construction of environmental problems as well
as analysis of the causes and impacts of, and solutions to, such problems.

Humans have an enormous impact on the environment. Most of the earth’s

ecosystem are now dominated by humans. By living beyond their means,
people have changed the atmosphere, depleted fisheries, jeo pardised water
supplies, reduced soil fertility, and scattered pollutants everywhere (McMichael
et al., 2003). Natural scientists may understand exactly the problems the planet
faces and, in many cases, what people ought to do to solve them, but it is the
task of social scientists in general, and environmental sociologists in particular,
to identify and provide socially acceptable and feasible solutions to our problems
(Hull & Robertson, 2000). Major advances in methods and data availability are
yielding a rapid increase in our understanding of driving forces and impacts, but
there is great debate over potential solutions.

The result is an intellectually vibrant field of study (Dunlap & Michelson, 2002;
Dunlap, 2015). 15. Sport Sociology Sociology of sport examines the dynamic
relationships between sport and human beings: the impact of sports on human
social life and the role of human beings in the growth and development of
sport in its entirety. Sport sociology has been a growing and important sub-
discipline within sociology since the nineteen-sixties.

Question No.2:
What are the effects of modernization and industrialization on
society?

Answer:-

The effects of modernization on society:

Modernization, Modernization theory A term and approach that came into

widespread use in the early 1960s, as a consequence of the efforts by a group of
development specialists in the United States to develop an alternative to the
Marxist account of social development. In its most sophisticated variants,
modernization theory explains modernization by reference to the onset of the
process that Talcott Parsons refers to as structural differentiation.

This is a process which may be triggered in many different ways, but which is
most likely to be initiated by changes in either technology or values (as in Parson's
‘pattern variable’ schema). As a result of this process, institutions multiply, the
simple structures of traditional societies are transformed into the complex ones
of modern societies, and values come to bear a striking resemblance to those
current in the United States of the 1960s.

A good example of the genre is the work of the American comparative sociologist
Alex Inkeles, best known for his many studies of the attitudinal aspects of
modernization, mostly using survey data and psychological tests to explore ‘the
process whereby people move from being traditional to become modern
personalities’. Here the author presented the part of Modernization and
Modernization theory.

Introduction

Modernization is a process of socio-cultural transformation. It is a thorough going

process of change involving values, norms, institutions and structures. Political
dimensions of modernization involves creation of a modern nation state and the
development of key institutions political parties, bureaucratic structures,
legislative bodies and a system of elections based on universal franchise and
secret ballot. Cultural modernization involves adherence to nationalistic ideology,
belief in equality, freedom and humanism, a rational and scientific outlook.

Economic modernization involves industrialization accompanied with

monetization of economy, increasing division of labor, use of management
techniques and improved technology and the expansion of service sector. Social
modernization involves universalistic values, achievement motivation, increasing
mobility both social and geographic increasing literacy and urbanization and the
decline of traditional authority.

The secular and scientific education act as an important means of

modernization.
It helps in the diffusion of modern values of equality, freedom and humanism. The
modern school system can inculcate achievement motivation. These values can
form the basis of new relations in the society and growth of rationality can enable
the development of administrative system. Diffusion of values of equality,
freedom and humanism can lay the foundations of a democratic political system.

The spread of modern education in the second half of the 19th century led to the
emergence of modern political elite in India who provided leadership in the
freedom struggle. The diffusion of scientific and technical knowledge by modern
educational institutions can help in the creation of skilled manpower to play the
occupational roles demanded by the industrial economy.

Other values like individualism and universalistic ethics etc can also be inculcated
through education. Thus education can be an important means of modernization.
The importance of education can be realized from the fact that all modernizing
societies tend to emphasize on universalization of education and the modernized
societies have already attained it.

What is Modernization?

Modernization or modernisation refers to a model of an evolutionary transition

from a 'pre-modern' or 'traditional' to a 'modern' society. The teleology of
modernization is described in social evolutionism theories, existing as a template
that has been generally followed by societies that have achieved modernity.
While it may theoretically be possible for some societies to make the transition in
entirely different ways, there have been no counterexamples provided by reliable
sources. Historians link modernization to the processes of urbanization and
industrialisation, as well as to the spread of education.

As Kendall (2007) notes, "Urbanization accompanied modernization and the rapid

process of industrialization." In sociological critical theory, modernization is linked
to an overarching process of rationalisation.

When modernization increases within a society, the individual becomes that

much more important, eventually replacing the family or community as the
fundamental unit of society.

The Impact of Modernization on society:

Education plays an essential role in society, creating knowledge, transferring it to

students and fostering innovation. Modernization is a process of socio-cultural
transformation. It is a thorough going process of change involving values, norms,
institutions and structures. According to the sociological perspective, education
does not arise in response of the individual needs of the individual, but it arises
out of the needs of the society of which the individual is a member. In a static
society, the main function of the educational system is to transmit the cultural
heritage to the new generations.

But in a changing society, these keep on changing from generation to generation

and the educational system in such a society must not only transmit the cultural
heritage, but also aid in preparing the young for adjustment to any changes in
them that may have occurred or are likely to occur in future. The diffusion of
scientific and technical knowledge by modern educational institutions can help in
the creation of skilled manpower to play the occupational roles demanded by the
industrial economy.

Other values like individualism and universalistic ethics etc can also be inculcated
through education. Thus, education can be an important means of modernization.
The importance of education can be realized from the fact that all modernizing
societies tend to emphasize on the universalization of education and the
modernized societies have already attained it.

In the ancient days, education was concentrated to one particular group. But with
the modernization of education, now everyone has access to education,
irrespective of their caste, religion, culture and economic background. The impact
of modernization can be seen in the schools also. The modern-day schools are
fully equipped with technically sound devices that help children develop their
expertise in a more lucid manner.

Effective facilities provide barrier-free access for individuals with disabilities, are
free from health and environmental hazards, offer adequate space for students
and teachers, and are equipped with appropriate technology for classroom and
instructional use. Learn more about the issues surrounding school facilities and
modernization by tapping into these resources.

The useful life for a school building is affected by how teachers and students work
together for learning. As teaching methods change, buildings may also need to
change to accommodate them. Current teaching models require more flexibility
in class spaces than the one classroom model. Students working together in small
groups, for example, can use the shared spaces between classrooms in some of
the newest elementary schools in the district. Modernization is usually associated
with urban and industrial development.

During the 20th century, cities have grown as economic and cultural centers, and
new technologies have transformed almost every aspect of life. Although
modernization has many advantages, some are concerned about the long term
effects it has on countries and people.

Modernization is usually associated with urban and industrial development.

During the 20th century, cities have grown as economic and cultural centers, and
new technologies have transformed almost every aspect of life. Although
modernization has many advantages, some are concerned about the long term
effects it has on countries and people.

Culture:

On the one hand, modernization has encouraged the development of new forms
of creative expression, such as film and television. These forms can be easily
exported and viewed all over the world. However, a loss of culture may result
from modernization. The spread of the Western culture has caused young people
in non-Western countries to abandon traditional customs and values. Even
languages begin to disappear as urbanization encourages people to learn a
country's dominant language.
Business

New technology has revolutionized the speed and accuracy of production.

Furthermore, increased global trade allows businesses to sell their products
anywhere. But increased global production may hurt domestic business when
international companies can offer products at cheaper prices. The production of
goods in foreign countries, where labor laws are more relaxed, amounts to
exploitation in some people's view.

Environment

Natural resources such as wood, water and oil are often processed in modernized
society, and skyscrapers and factories begin to transform the landscape.
Environmental problems, such as climate change, are believed to be the result of
industrial development and production. However, in many poorer countries, the
discovery of oil and the adoption of new technologies is welcomed for the
financial opportunities it presents.

Communication and Travel

New inventions such as phones, televisions and computers allow people to

communicate instantly anywhere on the globe. Increased global travel allows
people to visit foreign cultures for business or leisure. Contact with foreign
cultures fosters international cooperation, but can also result in further loss of
culture as people begin to adopt the foreign cultures and languages they are
exposed to.
Conclusion

The term modernization conjures images of social change in the direction of

general improvement over the past. In contemporary social sciences, the notion
has been the basis of a theoretical orientation variously referred to as
modernization theory, approach, paradigm, or framework to the study of the
development of Third World or underdeveloped societies. The conception of
development as a process of modernization gained prominence in the period
after World War II, but its popularity ebbed in the 1960s. There were rival
definitions of modernization in the social sciences; this entry, however, will be
concerned mainly with the use of the term for a general theoretical orientation a
set of linked assumptions framing analysis of and debates about the nature and
challenges of development. In this regard modernization was a historically unique
type of social change, which was inexorable, transformational in its effects, and
progressive in its consequences.

Negative effects of industrialization

Increasing social problems in urban areas

The urban population is increasing along with urbanization. For example, in the early 18th
century, urban dwellers in British
. This percentage then jumped to 50% in the mid-19th century due to the industrial
revolution.

Although people have better economic opportunities in cities, the denser the population
also raises other problems such as access to housing and other social problems.

Some people come to the city without adequate skills. They are unemployed but need
money to survive. It may lead to rising crime in urban areas.

Environmental pollution
Environmental problems such as garbage appear in urban areas. With a dense population,
garbage accumulates every day, and without building an adequate waste treatment system,
it raises various problems to the environment, such as water pollution.

In addition, the increase in greenhouse gas emissions – both coming from the
manufacturing sector and households – also causes global warming and climate change. For
example, global atmospheric carbon dioxide had already reached 315 ppm in 1858,
increasing from 280 ppm before the first Industrial Revolution started in the mid-1700s.

Natural resource depletion

Industrialization leads to an increase in demand for natural resources as raw materials. The
rapid growth of manufacturing leads to exploitative behavior, depleting natural resources,
and destroying environmental sustainability.

It then gave rise to the It emphasizes efforts to conserve natural resources while sustainably
improving the economy.

Wealth gap
Owners of capital enjoy the benefits of increased manufacturing activity and other services.
They use their money to set up a business or invest their money in various corporate
securities such as manufacturer’s stock. Finally, their money makes more money.

Instead, workers think more about how to meet their daily needs for any income they
receive. So, they are more difficult to allocate more money for investment as capital
owners. Eventually, their money runs out for daily expenses without being able to make
more money.

Rising structural unemployment in the agricultural sector

Urbanization resulted in the depopulation of rural areas. That raises problems in the
agricultural sector as it is difficult to recruit enough workers.

Industrialization also brought mechanization to the agricultural sector, replacing farm

laborers. As a result, some farm laborers are unemployed and find it difficult to upgrade
their skills according to market demand, making them structurally unemployed.

Increased imports of raw materials, components, and capital

goods
Industrialization contributes to improving the trade balance if resources are abundantly
available in the domestic economy. Otherwise, it increases the demand for imported raw
materials and components.

Likewise, suppose industrialization is not directed at building an integrated supply chain in

the economy. In that case, it will also lead to an increase in imports of capital goods.
Domestic industry is not enough to meet domestic demand. The reason may be because the
transfer of technology from developed countries to developing countries is hampered.

Negative foreign investment effect

Industrialization may be driven more by foreign direct investment than by domestic direct
investment. Thus, while creating jobs and income for local workers, multinational
companies transfer some profits to owners in the home country.

In addition, more foreign players such as multinationals increase competition and reduce
local business opportunities to develop due to more limited capital.

Furthermore, if economic or political conditions deteriorate, foreign investors can withdraw

their investment. If the domestic economy is more dependent on foreign investment, these
outflows increase the chances of an exchange rate crisis.
Worker exploitation
Miserable working conditions and the recruitment of underage workers could be a common
practice during industrialization. Significant demand for labor leaves workers with no
bargaining power. Moreover, the regulatory system and labor organization are often
underdeveloped.

Indeed factories can produce more output and enjoy greater economies of scale. However,
it requires workers to spend much of their time in jobs with deplorable and dangerous
conditions. They have to perform the same routine and tasks repeatedly, much like a robot
assigned to a job. Finally, it gives rise to stress between workers in the factory.

Less time for family

Expanding factories make most of the male workers move to the city. They bring their
families to the city and hope for better economic opportunities, even though the reality
may not live up to expectations. In addition, factory work makes them tired and stressed,
making it difficult for them to enjoy leisure time and family life after returning from work.
Question No.3:

Explain the theories of social change with suitable examples.

Answer:-

Theories of Social Change:

INTRODUCTION

Change is a very broad concept. Though change is all around us, we do not refer
to all of it as social change. Thus, physical growth from year to year, or change of
seasons do not fall under the concept of social change. In sociology, we look at
social change as alterations that occur in the social structure and social
relationship. The word “change” denotes a difference in anything observed over
some period of time. Social change, therefore, would mean observable
differences in any social phenomena over any period of time.

Among the theories of social change we shall study the theories regarding:

(i) The direction of social change and

(ii) The causes of social change.

The Direction of Social Change:

Early sociologists viewed the culture of primitive peoples as completely static, but
this was abandoned with the appearance of scientific studies of preliterate
cultures. Anthropologists now agree that primitive cultures have undergone
changes although at such a slow pace as to give the impression of being
stationary.

In recent years the social change has proceeded at a very rapid rate. Since World
War I numerous countries have passed through profound changes not only in
their political institutions but in their class structures, their economic systems,
their modes of living. Various theories have been advanced to explain the
direction of social change. We take a brief consideration of each of them.

Theory of Deterioration:

Some thinkers have identified social change with deterioration. According to

them, man originally lived in a perfect state of happiness in a golden age.
Subsequently, however, deterioration began to take place with the result that
man reached an age of comparative degeneration. This was the notion in the
ancient Orient.

It was expressed in the epic poems of India, Persia and Sumeria. Thus, according
to Indian mythology man has passed through four ages—Satyug, Treta, Dwapar
and Kaliyug. The Satyug was the best age in which man was honest, truthful and
perfectly happy.
Thereafter degeneration began to take place. The modern age is the age of
Kaliyug wherein man is deceitful, treacherous, false, dishonest, selfish and
consequently unhappy. That such should be the concept of history in early times
is understandable, since we observe deterioration in every walk of life today.

Cyclic Theory:

Another ancient notion of social change found side by side with the afore-
mentioned one, is that human society goes through certain cycles. Looking to the
cyclic changes of days and nights and of climates some sociologists like Spengler
believe that society has a predetermined life cycle and has birth, growth,
maturity, and decline.

Modern society is in the last stage. It is in its old age. But since history repeats
itself, society after passing through all the stages, returns to the original stage,
whence the cycle again begins. This concept is found in Hindu mythology, a
cording to which Satyug will again start after Kaliyug is over. J.B. Bury in his The
Idea of Progress, pointed out that this concept is also found in the teachings of
stoic philosophers of Greece as well as in those of some of the Roman
philosophers, particularly Marcus Aurelius.

The view that change takes place in a cyclical way has been accepted by some
modern thinkers also who have given different versions of the cyclical theory. The
French anthropologist and biologist Vacher de Lapouge held that race is the most
important determinant of culture. Civilization, he maintained, develops and
progresses when a society is composed of individuals belonging to superior races
and declines when racially inferior people are absorbed into it.

Western civilization, according to him, is doomed to extinction because of the

constant infiltration of foreign inferior elements and their increasing control over
it. The German anthropologist Otto Ammon, the Englishman Houston Stewart
Chamberlain and American Madison Grant arid Lothrop Stoddard also agreed
with the view of Lapouge which may be called the theory of biological cycle.

Spengler developed another version of cyclical theory of social change. He

analysed the history of various civilizations including the Egyptian, Greek and
Roman and concluded that all civilizations pass through a similar cycle of birth,
maturity and death. The western civilization is now on its decline which is
unavoidable.

Vilfredo Pareto propounded the theory that societies pass through the periods of
political vigour and decline which repeat themselves in cyclical fashion. The
society according to him, consists of two types of people—one, who like to follow
traditional ways whom he called rentiers, and those who like to take chances for
attaining their ends whom he called as Speculators.
Political change is initiated by a strong aristocracy, the speculators who later lose
their energy and become incapable of vigorous role. Thus ruling class eventually
resort to tricks or to clever manipulations and they come to possess individuals
characterized by the rentier mentality. The society declines, but at the same time
speculators arises from among the subjugated to become the new ruling class and
overthrow the old group. Then the cycle begins.

F. Stuart Chapin gave another version of cyclical change. He made the concept of
accumulation the basis for his theory of social change. According to him, cultural
change is “selectively accumulative in time.” He wrote, “The most hopeful
approach to the concept of cultural change would seen to be to regard the
process as selectively accumulative in time and cyclical or oscillatory in
character.” Thus, according to Chapin, cultural change is both selectively
accumulative and cyclical in character. He postulated a hypothesis of synchronous
cyclical change. According to him, the different parts of culture go through a cycle
of growth, vigour and decay.

If the cycles of the major parts, such as government and the family, coincide or
synchronize, the whole culture will be in a state of integration, If they do not
synchronize, the culture will be in a disintegrated condition. Growth and decay,
according to Chapin, in cultural forms are as inescapable as they are in all living
things.
Relying upon data drawn from the history of various civilizations, Sorokin
concluded that civilizations fall into three major types namely, the ideational, the
idealistic and the sensate. In the ideational type of civilization’ reality and value
are conceived of in terms of a “supersensory and super-rational God”, while the
sensory world appears as illusory.

In a word, ideational culture is god-ridden. In the idealistic type of culture, reality

and value are regarded sensory as well as supersensory. This is a synthesis of
ideational and the sensate. The thought and behaviour of man are partly
anchored in the materialistic and are partly anchored with the other world.

In the sensate type of culture the whole way of life is characterized by a

positivistic, materialistic outlook. Reality and value are merely what the senses
perceive and beyond sense perception there is no reality. The western civilization,
according to Sorokin, is now in an “overripe” sensate phase that must be
supplanted by a new ideational system.

In recent times Arnold J. Toynbee, the noted English historian, has also
propounded a cyclical theory of the history of world civilization. He maintained
that civilizations pass through three stages, corresponding to youth, maturity and
decline. The first is marked by a “response to challenge”, the second is a “time of
troubles,” and the third is characterized by gradual degeneration.
He was also of the view that our civilization, although in the state of final
downfall, can still ‘be saved by means of proper guidance by the “creative
minority” by which he meant a select group of leaders who withdraw from the
corrupting influences, commune with God, become spiritually regenerated and
then return to inspire the masses.

The above concepts of the cyclical nature of social change may be called theories
of cultural cycles. They are as a matter of fact the result of philosophical rather
than scientific studies. The authors of these concepts begin with presumptions
which they try to substantiate by marshalling a mass of data from history.

They are philosophical doctrines, spun from the whole cloth, however heavily
documented and illustrated by distorted historical evidences. Barnes, while
appraising Toynbee’s work, wrote, “It is not objective or even interpretative
history. It is theology, employing selected facts of history to illustrate the will of
God as the medieval bestiaries utilized biological fantasies to achieve the same
results…. Toynbee s vast materials throw far more light upon the processes of
Toynbee’s mind than upon the actual process of history….. He writes history as he
thinks it should be to further the cause of salvation, rather than as it has really
been.”

Linear Theory:
Some thinkers subscribe to the linear theory of social change. According to them,
society gradually moves to an even higher state of civilization and that it advances
in a linear fashion and in the direction of improvement. Auguste Comte
postulated three stages of social change: the Theological, the Metaphysical and
the Positive.

Man has passed through the first two stages, even though in some aspects of life
they still prevail, and is gradually reaching the Positive stage. In the first stage
man believed that supernatural powers controlled and designed the world. He
advanced gradually from belief in fetishes and deities to monotheism.

This stage gave way to the Metaphysical stage, during which man tries to explain
phenomena by resorting to abstractions. On the positive stage man considers the
search for ultimate causes hopeless and seeks the explanatory facts that can be
empirically observed. This implies progress which according to Comte will be
assured if man adopts a positive attitude in the understanding of natural and
social phenomena.

Herbert Spencer, who likened society to an organism, maintained that human

society has been gradually progressing towards a better state. In its primitive
state, the state of militarism, society was characterized by warring groups, by a
merciless struggle for existence. From militarism society moved towards a state of
industrialism. Society in the stage of industrialism is marked by greater
differentiation and integration of its parts. The establishment of an integrated
system makes it possible for the different groups—social, economic and racial, to
live in peace.

Some Russian sociologists also subscribed to the linear theory of social change.
Nikolai K. Mikhailovsky opined that human society passes through three stages;
(1) the objective anthropocentric,

(2) the eccentric, and

(3) the subjective anthropocentric. In the first stage, man considers himself the
centre of the universe and is preoccupied with mystic beliefs in the supernatural.
In the second stage, man is given over to abstractions; the abstract is more “real”
to him than the actual. In the third stage, man comes to rely upon empirical
knowledge by means of which he exercises more and more control over nature
for his own benefit. Solo-view conceived of the three stages as the tribal, the
national governmental, and the period of universal brotherhood.

Pritirim Sorokin in his concept of variable recurrence has attempted to include

both cyclical and linear change. In his view culture may proceed in a given
direction for a time and thus appear to conform to a linear formula. But
eventually, as a result of forces that are internal within the culture itself, there
will be a shift of direction and a new period of development will be ushered in.
Perhaps the new trend is also linear, perhaps it is oscillating, perhaps it conforms
to some particular type of curve. At any rate, it also reaches limits and still
another trend takes its place.
The description given by Sorokin makes room for almost any possibility,
deterioration, progress or cyclical change and, therefore, sociologists find little
quarrel with his description. But at any rate, Sorokin’s variable occurrence is an
admission that the present state of sociological knowledge does not warrant the
construction of theories regarding the long-run trend or character of social
change.

Whether contemporary civilization is headed for the scrap-heap via internal

disintegration or atomic warfare, or is destined to be replaced by some stabler
and idealistic system of social relationships cannot be predicted on other than
grounds of faith. The factual evidence which is available to us can only lead us to
remark that whatever direction social change takes in future, that direction will
be determined by man himself.

Social Change Examples

The Reformation – The Reformation was a religious revolution that occurred in
the Western church during the 16th century. It is also called the Protestant
Reformation and led to a decline in the power of a centralized church authority. It
had far-reaching political, economic, and social effects on society.

The Industrial Revolution – The Industrial Revolution was a period of significant

social and economic change marked by the widespread development of new
technologies, transportation and communication systems, and the growth of
factories and mass production, which led to a shift from an agrarian-based
economy to an industrialized one. Urbanization, labor rights, and women’s rights
were some of the issues that society had to tackle during this period in history.

The abolition of the transatlantic slave trade – Slavery ended in 1865 when the
13th Amendment was adopted as part of the United States Constitution. This
change in history led to a world transformed for African Americans, granting
rights that previously did not exist.

The Civil Rights movement – This movement (1954–68) originated in the

American South and used nonviolent direct action to confront Jim Crow laws and
to force the federal government to demolish the system of racial segregation and
inequality. (Vardaman & James, 2015)

The feminist movement – Feminism promotes the idea that women, men, boys,
and girls are equal regarding culture, politics, and economics. This movement has
achieved improvements in women’s rights over the past 60 years.

The LGBTQ+ rights movement – The movement for equal rights for all human
beings despite sexual orientation and gender identity achieved massive change in
social perceptions in the 2000s.

The green movement – The contemporary green movement focuses on

environmental remediation and protection, with concerns about pollution, global
warming, renewable energy, recycling and more. It has acheived great changes in
social attitudes toward littering, effects of consumption, and even economic
policy.
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights – The Universal Declaration of Human
Rights (UDHR) is a milestone document for protecting human rights. The UDHR
paved the way for the adoption of over seventy human rights treaties, applied
today at global, national, and regional levels. One example is the declaration that
people have the right to apply for refugee status and children shall not work.

The prohibition of physical punishment of children – In 1979, Sweden became the

first country in the world to prohibit all physical punishment of children. Today,
many countries such as the UK have banned smacking and most nations
increasingly see physical punishment of children as wrong.

The Bologna process in Europe – The Bologna Process achieved change in higher
education systems across Europe. It enables student and staff mobility across
Europe, and it has made higher education more inclusive, accessible, and
competitive (European Commission, 2018). This has helped underpin faster
globalization, knowledge sharing, deplomacy, and intellectual development.

More Examples:

 The increasing acceptance of body positivity and diverse body types

 The growth of the sharing economy
 The shift to online education
 The increase of women’s representation in leadership roles
 The increasing use of virtual reality technology in various fields
 The rise of Artificial intelligence in marketing
 The Me Too movement
 The rise of the internet and technology
 The fall of communism in Eastern Europe
 The end of apartheid in South Africa

 The legalization of same-sex marriage
 The increasing acceptance of interracial relationships
  The increasing acceptance of the LGBTQ+ community
 The growth of the internet and social media
 The increasing acceptance of mental health as a valid concern
 The rise of the #blacklivesmatter movement
 The increased acceptance of veganism and plant-based diet
 The increasing use of electric vehicles
 The rise of remote work

Question No.4:

Describe the term culture and also elaborate its significance in a

society?

Answer:-

Culture is a term that refers to a large and diverse set of mostly intangible aspects
of social life. According to sociologists, culture consists of the values, beliefs,
systems of language, communication, and practices that people share in common
and that can be used to define them as a collective. Culture also includes the
material objects that are common to that group or society.
Culture is distinct from and economic aspects of society, but it is connected to
them—both continuously informing them and being informed by them.

Culture consists of the beliefs, behaviors, objects, and other characteristics

common to the members of a particular group or society. Through culture, people
and groups define themselves, conform to society's shared values, and contribute
to society. Thus, culture includes many societal aspects: language, customs,
values, norms, mores, rules, tools, technologies, products, organizations, and
institutions.

This latter term institution refers to clusters of rules and cultural meanings
associated with specific social activities. Common institutions are the family,
education, religion, work, and health care.

Popularly speaking, being cultured means being well‐educated, knowledgeable of

the arts, stylish, and well‐mannered. High culture—generally pursued by the
upper class—refers to classical music, theater, fine arts, and other sophisticated
pursuits. Members of the upper class can pursue high art because they have
cultural capital, which means the professional credentials, education, knowledge,
and verbal and social skills necessary to attain the “property, power, and prestige”
to “get ahead” socially.

Low culture, or popular culture—generally pursued by the working and middle

classes—refers to sports, movies, television sitcoms and soaps, and rock music.
Remember that sociologists define culture differently than they do cultured, high
culture, low culture, and popular culture.
Sociologists define society as the people who interact in such a way as to share a
common culture. The cultural bond may be ethnic or racial, based on gender, or
due to shared beliefs, values, and activities. The term society can also have a
geographic meaning and refer to people who share a common culture in a
particular location.

For example, people living in arctic climates developed different cultures from
those living in desert cultures. In time, a large variety of human cultures arose
around the world.

Culture and society are intricately related. A culture consists of the “objects” of a
society, whereas a society consists of the people who share a common culture.
When the terms culture and society first acquired their current meanings, most
people in the world worked and lived in small groups in the same locale.

In today's world of 6 billion people, these terms have lost some of their
usefulness because increasing numbers of people interact and share resources
globally. Still, people tend to use culture and society in a more traditional sense:
for example, being a part of a “racial culture” within the larger “U.S. society.”

Universalist approaches to culture and the human mind

Culture, as noted above, is due to an ability possessed by man alone. The

question of whether the difference between the mind of man and that of the
lower animals is one of kind or of degree has been debated for many years, and
even today reputable scientists can be found on both sides of this issue.

But no one who holds the view that the difference is one of degree has adduced
any evidence to show that nonhuman animals are capable, to any degree
whatever, of a kind of behaviour that all human beings exhibit. This kind of
behaviour may be illustrated by the following examples: remembering the
sabbath to keep it holy, classifying one’s relatives and distinguishing one class
from another (such as uncles from cousins), defining and prohibiting incest, and
so on.

There is no reason or evidence that leads one to believe that any animal other
than man can have or be brought to any appreciation or comprehension
whatever of such meanings and acts. There is, as Tylor argued long ago, a “mental
gulf that divides the lowest savage from the highest ape” (Anthropology).

In line with the foregoing distinction, human behaviour is to be defined as

behaviour consisting of, or dependent upon, symboling rather than upon anything
else that Homo sapiens does; coughing, yawning, stretching, and the like are not
human.

Next to nothing is yet known about the neuroanatomy of symboling. Man is

characterized by a very large brain, considered both absolutely and relatively, and
it is reasonable—and even obligatory—to believe that the central nervous
system, especially the forebrain, is the locus of the ability to symbol. But how it
does this and with what specific mechanisms remain to be discovered. One is thus
led to the conclusion that at some point in the evolution of primates a threshold
was reached in some line, or lines, when the ability to symbol was realized and
made explicit in overt behaviour. There is no intermediate stage, logical or
neurological, between symboling and nonsymboling; an individual or a species is
capable of symboling, or he or it is not. The life of Helen Keller makes this clear:
when, through the aid of her teacher, Anne Sullivan, Keller was enabled to escape
from the isolation to which her blindness and deafness had consigned her and to
effect contact with the world of human meanings and values, the transformation
was instantaneous.

Evolution of culture

The direction of biologic evolution toward greater expansion and security of life
can be seen from another point of view: the advance from instinctive behaviour
(i.e., responses determined by intrinsic properties of the organism) to learned and
freely variable behaviour, patterns of which may be acquired and transmitted
from one individual and generation to another, and finally to a system of things
and events, the essence of which is meanings that cannot be comprehended by
the senses alone.

This system is, of course, culture, and the species is the human species. Culture is
a man-made environment, brought into existence by the ability to symbol.

Once established, culture has a life of its own, so to speak; that is, it is a
continuum of things and events in a cause and effect relationship; it flows down
through time from one generation to another. Since its inception 1,000,000 or
more years ago, this culture—with its language, beliefs, tools, codes, and so on—
has had an existence external to each individual born into it.

The function of this external, man-made environment is to make life secure and
enduring for the society of human beings living within the cultural system. Thus,
culture may be seen as the most recent, the most highly developed means of
promoting the security and continuity of life, in a series that began with the
simple reflex.

Society preceded culture; society, conceived as the interaction of living beings, is

coextensive with life itself. Man’s immediate prehuman ancestors had societies,
but they did not have culture. Studies of monkeys and apes have greatly enlarged
scientific knowledge of their social life—and, by inference, the scientific
conception of the earliest human societies.

Data derived from paleontological sources and from accumulating studies of

living, nonhuman primates are now fairly abundant, and hypotheses derived from
these are numerous and varied in detail. A fair summary of them may be made as
follows: The growth of the primate brain was stimulated by life in the trees,
specifically, by eye-hand coordinations involved in swinging from limb to limb and
by manipulating food with the hands (as among the insectivorous lemurs).

Descent to the ground, as a consequence of deforestation or increase in body size

(which would tend to restrict arboreal locomotion and increase the difficulty of
obtaining enough food to supply increased need), and the assumption of erect
posture were other significant steps in biologic evolution and the eventual
emergence of culture. Some theories reject the arboreal stage in man’s
evolutionary past, but this does not seriously affect the overall conception of his
development.

The Australopithecines of Africa, extinct manlike higher primates about which

reliable knowledge is very considerable today, exemplify the stage of erect
posture in primate evolution.
Erect posture freed the arms and hands from their earlier function of locomotion
and made possible an extensive and versatile use of tools. Again, the eye-hand-
object coordinations involved in tool using stimulated the growth of the brain,
especially the forebrain. It is not possible to determine on the basis of
paleontological evidence the precise point at which the ability to symbol
(specifically, articulate speech) was realized, as expressed in overt behaviour.

It is believed by some that man’s prehuman ancestors used tools habitually and
that habit became custom through the transmission of tool using from one
generation to another long before articulate speech came into being. In fact,
some theorists hold, the customary use of tools became a powerful stimulus in
the development of a brain that was capable of symboling or articulate speech.

The introjection of symboling into primate social life was revolutionary.

Everything was transformed, everything acquired new meaning; the symbol
added a new dimension to primate—now human—existence. An ax was no longer
merely a tool with which to chop; it could become a symbol of authority.

Mating became marriage, and all social relationships between parents and
children and brothers and sisters became moral obligations, duties, rights, and
privileges. The world of nature, from the stones beside the path to the stars in
their courses, became alive and conscious spirits. “And all that I beheld respired
with inward meaning” (Wordsworth). The anthropoid had at last become a man.

Relativist approaches to sociocultural systems

Thus far in this article, culture has been considered in general, as the possession
of all mankind. Now it is appropriate to turn to particular cultures, or sociocultural
systems. Human beings, like other animal species, live in societies, and each
society possesses culture. It has long been customary for ethnologists to speak of
Seneca culture, Eskimo culture, North American Plains culture, and so on—that is,
the culture of a particular society (Seneca) or an indefinite number of societies
(Eskimo) or the cultures found in or characteristic of a topographic area (the
North American Plains).

There is no objection to this usage as a convenient means of reference: “Seneca

culture” is the culture that the Seneca tribe possesses at a particular time.
Similarly, Eskimo culture refers to a class of cultures, and Plains culture refers to a
type of culture.

What is needed is a term that defines culture precisely in its particular

manifestations for the purpose of scientific study, and for this the term
sociocultural system has been proposed. It is defined as the culture possessed by
a distinguishable and autonomous group (society) of human beings, such as a
tribe or a modern nation.

Cultural elements may pass freely from one system to another (cultural diffusion),
but the boundary provided by the distinction between one system and another
(Seneca, Cayuga; United States, Japan) makes it possible to study the system at
any given time or over a period of time.

Every human society, therefore, has its own sociocultural system: a particular and
unique expression of human culture as a whole. Every sociocultural system
possesses the components of human culture as a whole—namely, technological,
sociological, and ideological elements. But sociocultural systems vary widely in
their structure and organization. These variations are attributable to differences
among physical habitats and the resources that they offer or withhold for human
use; to the range of possibilities inherent in various areas of activity, such as
language or the manufacture and use of tools; and to the degree of development.

The biologic factor of man may, for purposes of analysis and comparison of
sociocultural systems, be considered as a constant. Although the equality or
inequality of races, or physical types, of mankind has not been established by
science, all evidence and reason lead to the conclusion that, whatever differences
of native endowment may exist, they are insignificant as compared with the
overriding influence of the external tradition that is culture. Culture and
personality

Since the infant of the human species enters the world cultureless, his behaviour
—his attitudes, values, ideals, and beliefs, as well as his overt motor activity—is
powerfully influenced by the culture that surrounds him on all sides. It is almost
impossible to exaggerate the power and influence of culture upon the human
animal. It is powerful enough to hold the sex urge in check and achieve premarital
chastity and even voluntary vows of celibacy for life.

It can cause a person to die of hunger, though nourishment is available, because

some foods are branded unclean by the culture. And it can cause a person to
disembowel or shoot himself to wipe out a stain of dishonour. Culture is stronger
than life and stronger than death. Among subhuman animals, death is merely the
cessation of the vital processes of metabolism, respiration, and so on.
In the human species, however, death is also a concept; only man knows death.
But culture triumphs over death and offers man eternal life. Thus, culture may
deny satisfactions on the one hand while it fulfills desires on the other.

The predominant emphasis, perhaps, in studies of culture and personality has

been the inquiry into the process by which the individual personality is formed as
it develops under the influence of its cultural milieu. But the individual biologic
organism is itself a significant determinant in the development of personality.

The mature personality is, therefore, a function of both biologic and cultural
factors, and it is virtually impossible to distinguish these factors from each other
and to evaluate the magnitude of each in particular cases. If the cultural factor
were a constant, personality would vary with the variations of the neurosensory-
glandular-muscular structure of the individual.

But there are no tests that can indicate, for example, precisely how much of the
taxicab driver’s ability to make change is due to innate endowment and how
much to cultural experience. Therefore, the student of culture and personality is
driven to work with “modal personalities,” that is, the personality of the typical
Crow Indian or the typical Frenchman insofar as this can be determined. But it is
of interest, theoretically at least, to note that even if both factors, the biologic
and the cultural, were constant—which they never are in actuality—variations of
personality would still be possible.

Within the confines of these two constants, individuals might undergo a number
of profound experiences in different chronological permutations. For example,
two young women might have the same experiences of
(1) having a baby,

(2) graduating from college, and

(3) getting married.

But the effect of sequence (1), (2), (3) upon personality development would be
quite different than that of sequence (2), (3), (1).

Culture is the lifeblood of a vibrant society, expressed in the many ways we tell
our stories, celebrate, remember the past, entertain ourselves, and imagine the
future. Our creative expression helps define who we are, and helps us see the
world through the eyes of others. Ontarians participate in culture in many ways—
as audiences, professionals, amateurs, volunteers, and donors or investors.

In addition to its intrinsic value, culture provides important social and economic
benefits. With improved learning and health, increased tolerance, and
opportunities to come together with others, culture enhances our quality of life
and increases overall well-being for both individuals and communities.

Individual and social benefits of culture

Intrinsic benefits

Participating in culture can benefit individuals in many different ways, some of

which are deeply personal. They are a source of delight and wonder, and can
provide emotionally and intellectually moving experiences, whether pleasurable
or unsettling, that encourage celebration or contemplation. Culture is also a
means of expressing creativity, forging an individual identity, and enhancing or
preserving a community’s sense of place.

Cultural experiences are opportunities for leisure, entertainment, learning, and

sharing experiences with others.

From museums to theatres to dance studios to public libraries, culture brings

people together.

These benefits are intrinsic to culture. They are what attracts us and why we
participate.

Improved learning and valuable skills for the future

In children and youth, participation in culture helps develop thinking skills, builds
self-esteem, and improves resilience, all of which enhance education outcomes.
For example, students from low-income families who take part in arts activities at
school are three times more likely to get a degree than those who do not. In the
US, schools that integrate arts across the curriculum have shown consistently
higher average reading and mathematics scores compared with similar schools
that do not.
Many jurisdictions make strong linkages between culture and literacy and
enhanced learning outcomes, in both public education and in the development of
valuable workforce skills.

Cultural heritage broadens opportunities for education and lifelong learning,

including a better understanding of history. Ontario’s cultural heritage sector
develops educational products and learning resources in museums and designed
around built heritage and cultural landscapes.

As trusted community hubs and centres of knowledge and information, public

libraries play an important role in expanding education opportunities and literacy,
overcoming the digital divide, supporting lifelong learning, and preparing people
for work in the knowledge economy.

Participation in library activities has been shown to improve literacy and increase
cognitive abilities.

E-learning is on the rise in both academic and professional settings. Games are
being used to enhance math, writing, and other academic skills, and to motivate
employees. There are over 120 specialized e-learning companies in Ontario.

Better health and well-being

Participation in culture contributes to healthy populations in several ways.
Creativity and cultural engagement have been shown to improve both mental and
physical health.

Culture is being integrated into health care, notably in the UK, but also
increasingly in other jurisdictions, including Canada.

A growing body of research also demonstrates that the arts can improve the
health and well-being of older adults. Participation in the arts can relieve isolation
and promote identity formation and intercultural understanding.

Vancouver’s Arts, Health and Seniors Project found that active participation in the
arts had positive health benefits, such as social cohesion and emotional and
physical well-being. Both the perceived health and chronic pain measures showed
improvement over time.

In First Nation, Métis and Inuit communities, culture is “simultaneously art,

creative expression, religious practice, ritual models and markers of governance
structures and territorial heritage, as well as maps of individual and community
identity and lineage.”

The link between past efforts to eradicate Indigenous cultures and health issues in
today’s Indigenous communities is increasingly recognized. Research has shown
that revitalization of Indigenous cultures plays a key role in supporting the health,
well-being, and healing of individuals and communities.

Vibrant communities
The benefits of culture for individuals can spill over to society as a whole.

Culture helps build social capital, the glue that holds communities together. By
bringing people together, cultural activities such as festivals, fairs, or classes
create social solidarity and cohesion, fostering social inclusion, community
empowerment, and capacity-building, and enhancing confidence, civic pride, and
tolerance.

The social capital created through culture increases with regular participation in
cultural activities.

Cultural engagement also plays a key role in poverty reduction and communities-
at-risk strategies.

Culture is important to the vitality of all communities. Research in the US has

shown direct connections between culture and community revitalization in
Chicago neighbourhoods. Social networks created through arts initiatives based in
the community resulted in direct economic benefits for the neighbourhood, such
as new uses of existing facilities, and new jobs for local artists.

Our diverse cultural heritage resources tell the story of our shared past, fostering
social cohesion.

They are intrinsic to our sense of place. Investments in heritage streetscapes have
been shown to have a positive impact on sense of place.

Benefits include improved quality of life for local residents, a feeling of pride,
identification with the past, and a sense of belonging to a wider community.
Culture helps cities to develop compelling city narratives and distinctive brands,
with unique selling points for tourists and business investors. Culturally rich
districts also enhance competitiveness by attracting talent and businesses.
Cultural heritage is also a factor in rural development, supporting tourism,
community renewal, and farmstead conservation.

Economic benefits of culture

The culture sector helps support the economy through direct and indirect job
creation. It also helps spur innovation in other sectors in the form of productivity
advancements, regional development, community branding, and increased local
tourism.

Contribution to job creation

Economic opportunities created by culture have taken on greater importance as

economies transition from the industrial model, and work based on physical
labour, to a new model in which knowledge and creativity drive productivity and
growth. Knowledge-based economies favour ideas to stimulate innovation, and
they develop specialized services and highly customized products to create value.
Information, technology, and learning are central to their performance.

The culture sector is the foundation for Ontario’s growing creative economy
sector. In 2010, culture contributed nearly $22 billion to Ontario’s GDP,
representing 3.7% of the province’s economy. There were about 280,000 culture
jobs in Ontario in 2010, or 4.1% of all jobs in the province. Almost half of all
culture jobs in Canada were located in Ontario as of 2010.footnote 30[30]

Interactive Digital Media (IDM) is poised to be a key driver of growth and

employment in Ontario’s cultural industries and the overall economy as cultural
media products such as games and interactive experiences become more
prevalent. According to the most recent Canadian Interactive Industry Profile,
nearly one-third of the “core” IDM industry, specifically companies engaged
mainly in content creation, were located in Ontario. They contributed estimated
revenues of $1.1 billion in 2011 and accounted for over 17,000 jobs.

Ontario is the number one film and television production jurisdiction in Canada in
terms of production volume, revenue and employment; and the third-largest film
production location in North America after California and New York. Film and
television production contributed $2.3 billion in expenditures in Ontario
(accounting for 40% of the national total) and supported 44,410 direct and
indirect jobs in 2013-2014. Film and television productions supported by the
province contributed $1.3 billion in expenditures, supporting over 28,000 full-time
direct and spin-off jobs in 2014.

With leading computer animation, visual effects, and post-production facilities

engaged in cutting edge innovation, and a strong network of training and research
centres such as the Canadian Film Centre and the Screen Industries Training
Centre located at Pinewood Studios, Ontario is positioned to remain one of the
leading centres of film and television production and post-production in North
America.

Contribution to tourism

Culture makes a significant contribution to the tourism industry in Ontario,

further supporting job creation and encouraging infrastructure development. In
2010, cultural tourism generated $3.7 billion in GDP and resulted in 67,700 jobs
for Ontarians.

The many festivals and events hosted each year in every corner of Ontario,
coupled with the province’s museums, art galleries, and historic sites, are
magnets for cultural tourists. Almost 90% of the 21 million North Americans who
visited Ontario among other destinations over a two-year period sought out a
cultural activity on their visit. Of visitors from outside the province who stayed at
least one night (1.3 million visitors), 25% attended festivals and sporting events.

There are significant opportunities to grow cultural tourism through marketing

cultural heritage assets. Historic sites in Ontario had over 3.7 million visits in 2011,
placing built heritage in the top five most popular tourist attractions in the
province.

Music tourism offers Canadian artists a means of showcasing their talents and
promoting their work. Local music scenes can help brand communities to attract
tourists from Ontario and around the world. Three-quarters of those who
attended the Jazz on the Mountain at Blue in 2013, hosted by the town of Blue
Mountain Village, travelled from over 100 kilometres away. In Ottawa, almost
12,000 travelled over 40 kilometres to attend the Ottawa Folk Festival in 2014. In
that year, the Folk Festival drew an audience of over 54,000, up from only 2,500
in 2010.

Cultural planning

Increasingly, municipalities are recognizing the contribution of culture to sense of

place, quality of life, and community and economic prosperity through a process
called “cultural planning.” Cultural planning is led by local governments and
involves broad community engagement to identify and leverage a community's
cultural resources, strengthen the management of those resources, and integrate
them in all facets of local planning and decision-making.

The process is part of a global trend toward more place-based approaches to

planning and development that take into account four interdependent pillars of
community sustainability: economic prosperity, social equity, environmental
responsibility, and cultural vitality. Cultural planning helps create the
environment for culture to flourish.

To date, 69 municipalities, representing nearly three-quarters of Ontario’s

population, have developed cultural plans and engaged in cultural mapping
exercises to identify their unique and valued cultural resources. Maps can include
cultural resources both tangible (e.g., cultural workers, spaces and facilities,
cultural heritage and natural heritage resources) and intangible (e.g., stories and
activities) that reflect the distinct cultural identity of the community.
Cultural plans have contributed to downtown, waterfront, and neighbourhood
revitalization. They complement economic development and community growth
plans, as well as tourism and population retention strategies, and expand
opportunities for youth. For example, St. Catharines’s 2015 cultural plan strongly
positions culture as a key economic driver, crucial to combatting the loss of
manufacturing jobs. It also positions culture as a source of new business, youth
retention, and a means of revitalizing downtown St. Catharines.

The City of Ottawa’s 2013 cultural plan has already resulted in outcomes such as
development of an archaeology-related public awareness initiative, a pilot
program providing training for youth, support for First Nation, Métis, and Inuit
cultural initiatives, investment in local culture (e.g., Arts Court and Ottawa Art
Gallery), and music industry development.

For First Nations and Métis communities, the focus of cultural mapping is typically
on conserving cultural heritage, traditions, and language. Cultural planning
processes have resulted in language plans and policies, place-name maps, videos
of Elders’ stories, and the recording of traditional knowledge, as well as cultural
tourism and economic development opportunities.
Question No.5:

Discuss the characteristics of family as a social institution.

Answer:-

Family is one of the most fundamental social institutions found in human societies
across cultures and throughout history. It serves as the building block of societies
and plays a crucial role in shaping individuals and their interactions within
broader communities. The concept of family can vary in structure, function, and
dynamics based on cultural, religious, and societal factors. However, certain key
features are common to most definitions of family as a social institution:

Unit of Socialization: The family is the primary agent of socialization, where

children learn social norms, values, and behaviors that are essential for their
integration into society. Parents and other family members impart cultural
traditions, language, and basic life skills to the younger generation.

Emotional Support: Families provide emotional support and nurturance to their

members. They offer love, care, and a sense of belonging, which contribute to the
well-being and mental health of individuals.

Reproduction and Child-Rearing: Families are responsible for procreation and

raising children. This involves not only biological parenting but also adoptive,
step-parenting, and extended family arrangements.
4. **Economic Cooperation:** Traditionally, families often work together to meet
their basic economic needs, such as food, shelter, and protection. While this
dynamic has evolved in modern societies, families still play a role in financial
support and resource-sharing among their members.

Roles and Responsibilities: Family members typically have defined roles and
responsibilities based on age, gender, and social norms. These roles can vary
across cultures and over time.

Transmission of Culture and Tradition: Families are instrumental in passing down

cultural heritage, traditions, and customs from one generation to another.

Social Integration and Stability: Families contribute to social stability by providing

a sense of continuity, a source of social identity, and maintaining connections
between different generations.

It's important to recognize that the concept of family has evolved over time, and
contemporary societies may embrace various family structures, such as nuclear
families, extended families, single-parent families, same-sex families, and more.
As societies change, the definition and functions of family as a social institution
may continue to evolve to meet the needs of individuals and communities.

What is a family institution?

In simple terms, a family can be referred to as a group that is deliberately created

or created by the virtue of birth. It may be created to serve various purposes like
for protection and security, sense of belonging, controlled and disciplined
behavior and even for the mating purpose.

The word family is said to have been derived from the Roman word ‘famulus’
meaning servant and from the Latin word ‘familia’ meaning household.

Therefore, the etymological meaning of the word family would be “The family is
generally regarded a locus of much of a person’s social activity. It is a social unit
created by blood, marriage, or adoption, for the purpose of support and mutual
growth.

What purpose does a family serve?

To understand what the characteristics of the family as an institution are it is

necessary to understand its purpose, existence, and origin. The main function of
the family is considered as the continuation of the human race which is through
giving birth and properly nurturing and caring for the child beside this a family as
helps fulfill sexual needs and also provide a sense of commitment and sexual
fidelity.

Main features of family as a social institution

The lines below tell about the important features of a family as a social
institution.

Family as a social institution is the

1. most basic/primary unit of society;

2. one of the oldest social institutions in the world;

3. has multifaceted functions right from reproduction, upbringing, care, emotional

training, and protection to the members.

4. varies from place to place in concept but all types of families share certain
common aspects.

Characteristics of family as a social institution:

The essential characteristics of family institution are as under.

Attachment of Blood Relations:

The family members have blood relations with one another. But on the other
hand blood relation is not so important is a family because if the family members
there would be no blood relatives is case if adoption, relation is that of affinity.
So, family is not restricted to the blood relations among its members.

Economic Provision:
Family is the basic institution for the provision of the economic resources. Every
individual is assigned a specific work, man can go outside of the home for earning
while women do her domestic works. So, this division of labour is a source of
economy provision and the basic help of dependent members like children and
old age people.

Emotional Basis:

Family institutions is characterized by the emotional relationships b/w family

members. It brings unity and harmony is family members due to “we feelings”
among them. Family members feels themselves attach to on another on the basis
of personal interests and relations.

Common Habitation:

Family members have the characteristics to live is a common home. This home
may be a single roof or an entire place, rented or the ancestral home of the family
but they live is a particular place together. The nomadic families also have the
common habitation under a tent.

Nomenclature System:
Every family has its own ancestral name for which the whole family can be
recognized. For this purpose a nomenclature system go as is a family and attach
to the member’s names.

Permanent Relations of Husband Wife:

Family is a social institution is which there exists a permanent relationships b/w

the couple to produce young ones and to look after them.

Permanent Sexual Relations:

Only place is which the husband and his wife has permanent sexual relations and
needs satisfaction. This relationship gives a charm to their social life due to
marriage and marital relationships.

Universality:

Family is a universal institution recognized and accepted everywhere. Family

system is in practice everywhere even the primitive societies is.

Limited Size:
In comparison to other social institutions, family is a small one but the basic
institution. It is very small but very much multi-functional for society.

Closed Group:

Family is a closed group is which the members have tied themselves to one
another. Every person cannot become the group member of a family but there is
small chances of gaining a family like marriage, birth, adoption etc.

Each Family has a Head:

It is also the basic characteristic of a family to has its own head. It would be the
father, mother or any other member of family but must be a powerful authority
to govern the rules of a family.

Permanency:

Family is a permanent social institution is which members live is a lifelong time

connected to one another.

Fixed habitation:
In the daily life if an individual doesn’t have a home the life would be one of great
unrest as it would be haphazard in nature. A family has a specific place of
habitation known as a home and it provides a safe space to all the members of
the family a so-called ‘haven’. It also provides orderliness to human life.

Ezoic

Economic stability or financial provisions: Every family has some or the other kind
of financial provisions that help fulfill the needs of all the members of the family.
This provision could be by means of working and getting money in the house. For
example, a father in a family is expected to be the bread earner of the family and
he has to go and work and earn money for the sustenance of the family.

A sense of responsibility among members:

The family is a very closely related group of people where each individual has a
responsibility towards other members of the family. The family provides full
security to all members including the young and the old. For example, when such
responsibility is ignored as in the case of abandoning of a child or an old mother
or father it results in breaking up of the family i.e. it disorganizes a family.

Emotional connection/support/basis:
The integration bonds in a family are mutual affection and blood ties. A family is a
closed entity and is held together not only due to a tag but also due to emotional
ties. For example, a mother for the child may make great sacrifices which for
someone else she would abstain from doing, this happens due to the emotional
connection between them.

A mating relationship:

The basic existence of a family depends upon the mating relationship. A family
comes into existence when a man and a woman have a mating relationship. This
relationship also supports the institution of marriage. It also regulates the
behaviors of various members of the family like maintaining sexual fidelity or
exclusivity.

A form of marriage/ supports the institution of marriage:

A family pre-supposes the institution of marriage. It is assumed that a mating

relationship is established through the institution of marriage.

Types of family

1. Nuclear family
A nuclear family consists of two parents (mother and father) and their children. It
has been the traditional kind of family structure in almost all societies of the
world. However, this family type has witnessed a decline in developed states like
the United States where only less than 25% of families are said to live in a nuclear
family structure.

2. Joint family

This family type is prevalent in rural parts of the Indian subcontinent and many
other regions of the world. This type of family consists of a husband and wife,
their married and unmarried offsprings (daughters and sons), and their offsprings
(nieces, grandson, etc. )

To put it in simple words, in this type of family structure the male or females do
not leave their parents’ homes at marriage but bring their spouses to live with
them.

3. Single parent family

A single-parent family is the relatively new family type that has come into
existence. This type of family structure consists of one parent. This one parent
may be a single mother or a single father raising one or more kids on his/her own.
According to some reports, one-fourth of children in the developed world are
born to a single mother.

4. Extended Family
The extended family structure is characterized by two or more adult couples living
in the same home. They are related either by blood or marriage. The members of
this family type include cousins, aunts, uncles, their children, and grandparents.

Role of the family as a social institution

1. Socialization

Man is a social animal as stated by Aristotle more than 2300 years ago. He learns
to adjust and behave in accord with the norms of society. This process of learning
to adjust to societal norms and behaving in a manner approved by society is
called socialization.

Socialization does not happen abruptly. It starts gradually after the birth of a child
in the family. The child as it grows learns to talk and behave in a particular way. It
is here in the family where he gets the training to enter society. The grooming of a
child at home carries a huge impact on his mind in dealing with society.

Thus family acts as the primary and fundamental social institution for primary
human socialization. Sociologists consider the family as the first focal
socialization agency because of its role in the primary socialization of a person.
Scholars consider value learning in childhood influences a child’s development.

2. Emotional Support

Family acts as a source of support in times of emotional distress, financial crisis, or

any sort of problem that a person may come across in life. Right from birth to
death, the institution of the family has taken the responsibility of meeting the
basic essentials of life i.e. food, clothing, shelter, love, protection, care, comfort.

3. Continuity of human race

All societies have a set of norms that their members follow to live an organized
life. Like many other human activities, the continuity of the human race also takes
place as per the already social norms of society. It is the institution of the family in
which human reproduction takes place as per approved social norms. Moreover,
the family also acts as the primary unit for educating the young about these
norms related to sexual reproduction.

4. Social identity

Another important function of the family is the provision of social identity to its
members. A person gets an identity according to social class, ethnicity, race,
religion, etc. his/her parents belong to.