SEL - Pre-Service Teachers

Teaching and Teacher Education 147 (2024) 104654
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Teaching and Teacher Education

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tate
Research paper
Social and emotional competencies predict pre-service teachers’

occupational health and personal well-being☆
Summer S. Braun a, *, Alison L. Hooper b
a
Department of Psychology and Center for Youth Development and Intervention, The University of Alabama, United States
b
Department of Curriculum and Instruction, The University of Alabama, United States
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Teachers struggle with notably poor occupational health and well-being. Although social and emotional com
Social and emotional competencies petencies (SECs) are posited to promote teachers’ occupational health and well-being, a direct test of these as
Teacher well-being sociations is needed to identify targets for intervention. The present study tested the associations between SECs
Pre-service training
and occupational health and well-being in a sample of 158 pre-service teachers. Results indicated that when
tested individually, all SECs predicted some outcomes, but mindfulness skills, self-compassion, and cognitive
reappraisal were the most consistent predictors across outcomes. Findings have implications for pre-service
training programs, which aim to prepare individuals for successful careers as educators.
Teachers are known to struggle with their occupational health and Sims, 2020; Markowitz, Cubides-Mateus, & Bassok, 2021; Pressley, Ha,
well-being. Several conceptual models, including the Prosocial Class & Learn, 2021; Santamaría, Mondragon, Santxo, & Ozamiz-Etxebarria,
room model and Contemplative Social and Emotional Learning (CSEL) 2021; Silva, Cobucci, Lima, & de Andrade, 2021). Recent reports indi
model of teacher professional development, posit that social and cate 78% of teachers experience frequent job-related stress, compared
emotional competencies (SECs) support teachers’ occupational health with only 40% of employed adults (Steiner & Woo, 2021). At the same
and well-being (Roeser et al., in press; Jennings & Greenberg, 2009). time, 64% of educators are experiencing clinically meaningful depres
Notably, existing approaches to addressing teachers’ occupational sive symptoms, over triple the rate in the general population, and 78%
health and well-being are primarily reactive, waiting until teachers are are experiencing clinically meaningful anxiety symptoms (Hirshberg,
already in the field and struggling. The present study extends the fields Davidson, & Goldberg, 2023; Steiner & Woo, 2021).
of social and emotional learning, teacher preparation, and teacher
well-being by empirically testing the CSEL model, applying this model in 2. Impact of teachers’ occupational health and well-being on
a sample of teachers in training, and identifying which SECs may be teaching practices, students, and schools
fruitful targets for intervention programs that aim to support teachers’
occupational health and well-being. In emphasizing the important role of context in development,
Bronfenbrenner’s (1994) ecological systems model suggests that teach
1. The state of teachers’ occupational health and well-being ers are likely to influence the development of their students. More spe
cifically, the Prosocial Classroom Model (Jennings & Greenberg, 2009)
The alarming state of teachers’ occupational health and well-being is posited that teachers’ occupational health and well-being is critical for
not a new issue. Although the COVID-19 pandemic brought increased establishing healthy relationships with students, effectively managing
attention to teachers, teachers reported among the highest levels of the classroom, and implementing evidence-based programs for students,
career stress of any profession decades prior to the COVID-19 pandemic which, in turn, impact student outcomes. Empirical evidence has pro
(Johnson et al., 2005). However, concerns about this population have vided support for many of the pathways posited in this model. For
escalated significantly since the onset of the pandemic (Allen, Jerrim, & example, teachers who experience high levels of depression have
Authors report no conflicts of interest. This work was supported by the Alabama Life Research Institute. The authorship team would like to thank the College of
☆
Education and the participants of this study.

* Corresponding author. Tuscaloosa, AL 35487, United States.
E-mail addresses: ssbraun@ua.edu (S.S. Braun), alhooper2@ua.edu (A.L. Hooper).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2024.104654
Received 2 August 2023; Received in revised form 15 May 2024; Accepted 27 May 2024
Available online 1 June 2024
0742-051X/Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/).
S.S. Braun and A.L. Hooper Teaching and Teacher Education 147 (2024) 104654
poorer-quality classroom climate and less organized instruction than consistency in the field, these are terms consistent with those used in
teachers who experience low levels of depression (Jennings, 2015; Jeon, previous research (e.g., Roeser et al., in press; Braun, Roeser, Mashburn,
Buettner, & Snyder, 2014; McLean & Connor, 2015; McLean, Abry, & Skinner, 2019; Roeser, Mashburn, et al., 2022).
Taylor, & McDonald Connor, 2018; Sandilos et al., 2015). Further,
students of depressed teachers have greater externalizing and internal 4. Social and emotional competencies as antecedents of
izing problems, poorer well-being, and lower academic achievement teachers’ occupational health and well-being
(Harding et al., 2019; Jeon et al., 2014; McLean & Connor, 2015).
Similarly, teachers experiencing high levels of burnout are known to The recent conceptualization of “Systemic Social and Emotional
have less supportive interactions with students, and have students who Learning” has brought to light the importance of SECs for adults. The
are more disruptive, less interested in the subject, and score lower on CASEL-5 framework provides a definition of these key SECs (CASEL,
standardized tests than teachers who are less burned out (Arens & 2017). Emotional competencies include 1) self-awareness, the ability to
Morin, 2016; Benita, Butler, & Shibaz, 2019; Klusmann, Aldrup, Roloff, be attuned to one’s own mind and body (e.g., mindfulness skills), and 2)
Lüdtke, & Hamre, 2022). self-management, the ability to regulate and manage oneself given the
The negative impacts of poor occupational health and well-being situation (e.g., emotion regulation skills). Social competencies include
also extend beyond the classroom walls; poor occupational health and 3) social awareness, the ability to identify oneself in relation to others (e.
well-being is a major contributor to the high rates of attrition from the g., perspective taking skills), and 4) relationship skills, the ability to
profession, which have resulted in teacher shortages across the U.S. establish and maintain healthy relationships with others (e.g., forgive
(Alabama Commission on the Evaluation of Services, 2022; Carver- ness skills). The final competency, 5) responsible decision making, in
Thomas & Darling-Hammond, 2017; Diliberti, Schwartz, & Grant, 2021; volves the ability to make logical decisions in socially and emotionally
Ryan et al., 2017). These shortages have worsened since the onset of the charged situations. SECs are particularly important for teachers, who
pandemic (Carver-Thomas, Leung, & Burns, 2021). The turnover rate for frequently face social and emotional challenges in the classroom,
early career teachers, in particular, varies by location and is markedly including managing challenging student behavior and navigating re
high in the Southern U.S. (Carver-Thomas & Darling-Hammond, 2017). lationships with other educators and administrators (Clunies-Ross, Lit
For example, recent reports indicate 44% of new teachers leave the tle, & Kienhuis, 2008; Haydon, Leko, & Stevens, 2018). Although the
classroom within the first five years, yet some Southeastern states report CASEL-5 framework was used to anchor the current study, similar
as high as 50% of new teachers leaving the classroom within the first competencies have been variously described under other names by a
three years (Alabama Commission on the Evaluation of Services, 2022). selection of scholars (e.g., emotional intelligence by Salovey & Mayer,
In addition to causing teacher shortages, high teacher turnover rates 1990; social intelligence by Walker & Foley, 1973).
negatively impact student achievement (Ronfeldt, Loeb, & Wyckoff, The CSEL model of teacher professional development posits that
2013). Thus, poor occupational health and well-being impacts not only these core competencies provide the skills necessary for teachers to
teachers themselves; it jeopardizes their professional capacity and has manage the everyday stressors of teaching and facilitate their occupa
far-reaching effects on the robustness of the teacher workforce. Research tional health and well-being (Roeser et al., in press). Notably, although
on the antecedents of teachers’ occupational health and well-being, with research has linked individual competencies (e.g., emotion regulation
an eye towards potentially malleable points of intervention, is critically skills) to various indicators of well-being in the general population (e.g.,
needed. depression; Martin & Dahlen, 2005; Moore, Zoellner, & Mollenholt,
2008), this model has yet to be systematically applied to teachers, for
3. Conceptualization of teachers’ occupational health and whom occupational health and well-being is a critical concern. There are
personal well-being many discrete skills which constitute each competency area. Below, we
describe one such skill in each of the social and emotional competency
Although various conceptualizations of well-being exist (Diener, areas, and what is known regarding its link to teachers’ occupational
Suh, Lucas, & Smith, 1999; Ryff & Keyes, 1995; Seligman, 2010, pp. health and well-being. We focus specifically on skills within the social
231–242), no one model has guided the study of teacher well-being and emotional competency areas (vs. responsible decision making)
(Hascher & Waber, 2021). Across models, however, common themes because these have been implicated most prominently in conceptual
exist. For example, although well-being may be a global construct, models and empirical research as skills which underlie teachers’ occu
models of subjective well-being (e.g., Diener et al., 1999) and occupa pational health and well-being (Roeser et al., in press; Jennings et al.,
tional health (Israel, Baker, Goldenhar, Heaney, & Schurman, 1996; 2019; Roeser, Mashburn, et al., 2022).
McIntyre, McIntyre, & Francies, 2017; van Horn, Taris, Schaufeli, &
Schreurs, 2004) indicate that well-being may also be domain-specific, 4.1. Self-awareness: Mindfulness skills
with work being one of the main domains. As teachers face both gen
eral stressors relevant to all adults, and specific stressors given their To be self-aware necessitates paying attention to one’s mind and
profession, this distinction is important to capture. Thus, we use the body. Mindfulness, as the “awareness that emerges through paying
term “occupational health” to refer to teachers’ work-centric well-being attention on purpose, in the present moment, and nonjudgmentally to
(e.g., occupational stress, teaching efficacy), and use the term personal the unfolding of experience moment by moment” (Kabat-Zinn, 2003, p.
“well-being” to refer to experiences that exist in, or permeate through, 145), can be conceptualized as one way to assess self-awareness.
the non-work realm (e.g., anxiety, depression). In addition, although Research from the field of contemplative educational psychology has
many models of well-being emphasize the importance of the presence of focused on the value of mindfulness skills for teachers (e.g., Jennings
positive experiences (e.g., Diener et al., 1999; Seligman, 2010, pp. et al., 2019; Roeser, Mashburn, et al., 2022). Through both
231–242), others posit that the presence of positive experiences does not cross-sectional and intervention studies, contemplative scholars have
exclude concurrent negative experiences (Diener et al., 1999; Kazdin, demonstrated that teachers who are more mindful experience lower job
1993; Maslow, 1968; World Health Organization, 2024); optimal health stress and burnout (i.e., indicators of occupational health) and depres
and well-being is not just as the presence of optimal functioning but also sive and anxiety symptoms (i.e., indicators of well-being; Braun et al.,
as the absence of dysfunction. As such, we conceptualize desirable 2019; Jennings, Frank, Snowberg, Coccia, & Greenberg, 2013; Roeser,
occupational health and personal well-being as both the presence of Mashburn, et al., 2022; Zarate, Maggin, & Passmore, 2019). Yet, it is
pleasant emotional experiences (e.g., subjective feelings of efficacy as a unknown whether mindfulness skills are associated with positively ori
teacher), and the relative absence of unpleasant experiences (e.g., ented indicators of occupational health and well-being. In addition, the
occupational stress). Importantly, as we work towards clarity and merging of contemplative science with social and emotional learning
2
approaches is relatively novel, such that the associations between other et al., 2020a,b). The ability to forgive students when such instances
key SECs and teachers’ occupational health and well-being are less well occur are thought to allow the teacher to move forward constructively
understood. while maintaining a positive relationship with the student, thereby
buffering teachers from poor occupational health that emerges from
4.2. Self-management: Self-compassion and emotion regulation skills relationship challenges (Chan, 2010; Spilt, Koomen, & Thijs, 2011).
Although not directly focused on forgiveness skills, a body of research
Self-compassion is an emotionally positive self-attitude character has demonstrated that positive relationships at school are associated
ized by self-kindness (Neff, 2003). This self-directed kindness is one way with greater occupational health (Corbin, Alamos, Lowenstein, Downer,
to manage emotions and relate to oneself, particularly in the face of & Brown, 2019; Hascher & Waber, 2021; Veldman, van Tartwijk, Bre
one’s own suffering (Gibbons & Newberry, 2023; Neff, 2011). kelmans, & Wubbels, 2013, 2016). It is still unknown whether this
Meta-analyses of both correlational and intervention studies in general discrete relationship skill is associated with these outcomes.
populations have concluded that self-compassion skills are associated Because SECs are relatively general, it may be that they are associ
with personal well-being, including lower levels of stress, depression, ated with personal well-being, but may be less strongly linked to occu
and anxiety (Ferrari et al., 2019; Zessin, Dickhäuser, & Garbade, 2015). pational health, as these experiences are localized to the workplace and
Research has also demonstrated that self-compassion is associated with also subject to various contextual demands and available work-related
the presence of optimal functioning, including happiness, optimism, and resources (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007). Further, it is currently un
positive affect (Neff, Rude, & Kirkpatrick, 2007). With regards to known whether all SECs are equally associated with occupational health
teachers, greater self-compassion skills have been associated with low and well-being, or whether some competencies may be more important
levels of stress and greater resilience in the face of stress (Chen, 2022; in predicting occupational health and well-being than others. The
Hwang et al., 2019). However, relatively little work has investigated testing of the CSEL model is needed to identify whether, and if so, which,
whether teachers’ self-compassion skills are associated with their health SECs are associated with teachers’ occupational health and well-being,
in the workplace. information which will inform targets for future intervention programs.
In addition to teachers’ mindfulness skills, perhaps the largest body
of existing work on teacher SECs has focused on teachers’ emotion 5. Focusing on pre-service teachers
regulation skills (e.g., Keller, Chang, Becker, Goetz, & Frenzel, 2014;
Mérida-López & Extremera, 2020; Taxer & Frenzel, 2015). Two specific Early career teachers, in particular, struggle with their occupational
emotion regulation skills are of particular interest: cognitive reappraisal, health and well-being, and this deterioration can begin as early as the
a healthy emotion regulation strategy involving a cognitive reframe of teacher-training phase (Maistre & Pare, 2010; McLean, Abry, Taylor,
an emotionally-charged situation, and expressive suppression, an un Jimenez, & Granger, 2017; Roberts, Gallagher, Daro, Iruka, & Sarver,
healthy emotion regulation strategy involving the masking of 2019). “Pre-service” teachers are defined here as full-time college stu
emotion-expressive behavior (Gross & John, 2003). A meta-analysis of dents attending an institution of higher education who are in training to
87 studies of the correlates of teachers’ emotion regulation skills be teachers. Emerging adulthood is already known to be a period of risk
concluded that teachers who adopted more healthy emotion regulation (e.g., 34% of college students experience symptoms of depression, with
strategies and fewer unhealthy emotion regulation strategies reported rates higher since the onset of the pandemic; Li, Zhao, Chen, Peng, & Lu,
greater occupational health and well-being (Wang, Burić, Chang, & 2022; Olino, Klein, Lewinsohn, Rohde, & Seeley, 2010). With regard to
Gross, 2023). However, the collapsing of multiple outcomes (i.e., job this general population, research has linked poor occupational health
satisfaction, life satisfaction, burnout, occupational stress, etc.) into one and well-being among college students with later negative outcomes.
general category of “well-being” makes it impossible to discern which For example, a meta-analysis by Madigan and Curran (2021) found that
occupational health and well-being outcomes were most strongly asso burnout predicted lower academic achievement. These findings indicate
ciated with this competency. a need for preventive interventions to support the well-being of
emerging adults.
4.3. Social awareness: Perspective-taking skills In addition to the known risks for poor well-being during emerging
adulthood, many of the distinct training experiences required of pre-
The ability to imagine a situation from another person’s point of service teachers are known to cause stress and anxiety, specifically:
view – perspective taking – is a critical skill within the social awareness balancing coursework and teaching experiences, evaluations (e.g.,
competency (CASEL, 2017). Perspective taking allows for flexible having teaching assessed by supervisors, passing teacher certification
reappraisals of social situations and can facilitate constructive and exams), classroom management, and logistical teaching demands (e.g.,
harmonious social interactions (Wolgast, Tandler, Harrison, & Umlauft, creating lesson plans, maintaining documentation of individual student
2020). As teaching is a highly relational profession, perspective taking progress; Birchinall, Spendlove, & Buck, 2019). Pre-service teachers also
skills are likely to be particularly useful for teachers and their subse complete a student teaching experience during their final semester of
quent occupational health and well-being. Indeed, some conceptualize training; this is often the first time they act as the primary classroom
poor well-being (e.g., depression, anxiety) as defined, in part, by teacher. As they prepare to manage these concerns and others, the stu
egocentric thinking or a deficit in perspective-taking skills (Erle, Barth, dent teaching experience is known to be particularly challenging (Paker,
& Topolinski, 2019). We know of only several studies to investigate 2011). Once graduated and certified, these challenges do not abate;
teachers’ perspective taking skills, documenting associations between teaching is one of the few professions that places newly certified grad
teachers’ perspective-taking and culturally sensitive teaching practices uates in the same situation as experienced professionals with minimal or
(e.g., Abacioglu, Volman, & Fischer, 2020), but none focused on asso no additional institutional support (Maistre & Pare, 2010). Teachers’
ciations with teachers’ occupational health and well-being. occupational health and well-being is known to deteriorate across the
transition from pre-service teacher to “in-service” (i.e., certified and
4.4. Relationship skills: Forgiveness skills independent) teacher (McLean et al., 2017).
Critically, despite their potential to help pre-service teachers manage
The capacity to forgive those who trespass against one is a key the everyday stresses of teaching, few pre-service training programs
relationship skill. Transgressions occur frequently in the classroom, develop teachers’ SECs across these core dimensions (Schonert-Reichl,
where the teacher is tasked with managing a classroom full of students 2017; Schonert-Reichl, Kitil, & Hanson-Peterson, 2017). The develop
who are still developing their own ability to listen carefully, follow di ment of teachers’ emotional competencies during pre-service training is
rections, and behave in a way conducive to traditional schooling (Braun particularly lacking, with only 1% of training programs incorporating
3
the teaching of self-awareness, and 6% covering self-management Table 1

(Schonert-Reichl, 2017; Schonert-Reichl et al., 2017). Identifying Descriptive statistics for main study measures.
whether SECs are linked to pre-service teachers’ occupational health N Mean SD Min Max Scale Alpha
and well-being is necessary to determine whether developing SECs Range
during the pre-service period may be a useful avenue for preserving Social and Emotional Competencies
teachers’ occupational health and well-being as they transition into the Mindfulness 152 3.31 0.47 2.00 4.53 1–5 0.74
classroom. Self-Compassion 152 2.96 0.55 1.42 4.58 1–5 0.80
Cognitive 144 3.67 1.28 1.00 7.00 1–7 0.85
Reappraisal
6. Present study Expressive 145 4.93 0.90 2.67 7.00 1–7 0.77
Suppression
Considering early career teachers struggle with poor occupational Perspective 145 3.81 0.66 2.14 5.00 1–5 0.79
health and well-being, and that SECs are posited to underly teachers’ Taking
Forgiveness 145 2.82 0.93 1.25 5.00 1–5 0.77
occupational health and well-being, the present study tests the CSEL
Personal Well-Being
conceptual model by addressing the following research questions (RQs): Anxiety 144 5.49 1.73 2.00 8.00 2–8 r=
0.71
RQ1: Are pre-service teachers’ SECs associated with their personal Depression 144 4.35 1.75 2.00 8.00 1–7 r=
well-being? 0.69
Flourishing 144 47.78 6.02 28.00 56.00 8–56 0.88
RQ2: Are pre-service teachers’ SECs associated with their occupa Occupational Health
tional health? Occupational 143 3.49 0.93 1.00 5.00 1–5 0.85
Stress
Findings from this investigation are necessary to identify targets for Burnout 144 2.01 0.74 0.14 3.50 0–6 0.86
Teaching 144 7.13 0.94 4.92 9.00 1–9 0.88
intervention for future prevention programs and/or adaptations to pre-
Efficacy
service training programs so that they may better equip teachers in Commitment to 144 29.72 6.63 9.00 40.00 8–40 0.86
training with the skills necessary to be successful educators. the Profession
7. Method
Questionnaire-15 (Gu et al., 2016; 15 items). Items were rated on a 1 to 5
7.1. Study design and recruitment scale (1 = Rarely or never true, 5 = Very often or always true; e.g., “I pay
attention to sensations, such as the wind in my hair or sun on my face.”;
Pre-service teachers at the end of their final semester of undergrad α = 0.74).
uate training at a large university in the southeastern U.S. were recruited Self-Compassion was measured using the Self-Compassion Scale-
to participate in this study in April of 2022 (Cohort 1; N = 66) and 2023 Short Form (Raes, Pommier, Neff, Gucht, & Wiley, 2011; 12 items).
(Cohort 2; N = 92), just prior to graduation and earning teacher certi Items were rated on a 1 to 5 scale (1 = Never, 5 = Always; e.g., “I try to be
fication. Importantly, the study was conducted following the semester- understanding and patient towards those aspects of my personality I
long student teaching placement during which pre-service teachers don’t like.”; α = 0.80).
gained experience leading the classroom, under the supervision of a Cognitive Reappraisal was measured using the cognitive reap
mentor teacher, for the first time. Thus, participants answered measures praisal subscale of the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (Gross & John,
of occupational health below in reference to their experiences as a 2003; 6 items). Items were rated on a 1 to 7 scale (1 = Strongly disagree,
student-teacher. Recruitment occurred via email invitation for both 7 = Strongly agree; e.g., “I control my emotions by changing the way I
cohorts, and in Cohort 2 also included a visit to a mandatory pre- think about the situation I’m in.”; α = 0.85).
graduation meeting. Participants represented 50% and 62% of eligible Expressive Suppression was measured using the expressive sup
teacher candidates in each respective cohort. pression subscale of the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (Gross &
John, 2003; 4 items). Items were rated on a 1 to 7 scale (1 = Strongly
7.2. Participants disagree, 7 = Strongly agree; e.g., “I keep my emotions to myself.”; α =
0.77).
Participants included 158 pre-service teachers across certification Perspective Taking was measured using the Perspective Taking
areas (41% Early Childhood and Elementary Education; 33% Secondary subscale of the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (Davis, 1980; 7 items).
Education; 26% Special Education). Participants were primarily White Items were rated on a 1 to 5 scale (1 = Does not describe me well, 5 =
(87% White; 7% Black, 2% Hispanic or Latinx, 4% Biracial, 1% Other) Describes me very well; e.g., “Before criticizing somebody, I try to imagine
and identified as women (85% women; 15% men) and of traditional how I would feel if I were in their place.”; α = 0.79).
college age (M = 22.12 years, SD = 1.87). Forgiveness was measured using the Tendency to Forgive scale
(Brown, 2003; 4 items). Items were rated on a 1 to 5 scale (1 = Strongly
7.3. Measures disagree, 5 = Strongly agree; e.g., “I tend to get over it quickly when
someone hurts my feelings.”; α = 0.77).
7.3.1. Social and emotional competencies
Measures were strategically selected to assess the four core domains 7.3.2. Personal well-being
of the CASEL-5 model. Regarding emotional competencies, mindfulness Pre-service teachers’ experiences of personal well-being were
was selected to capture the self-awareness domain, and self-compassion assessed via anxiety, depression, and flourishing.
and emotion regulation were selected to capture the self-management Anxiety was measured using the Generalized Anxiety Disorder
domain. Regarding social competencies, perspective taking was Screener (Löwe et al., 2010; 2 items). Items were rated on a 1 to 4 scale
selected to capture the social awareness domain, and forgiveness was (1 = Not at all, 4 = Nearly every day; e.g., “How often have you felt
selected to capture the relationship skills domain. Descriptive statistics nervous, anxious, or on edge?”; r = 0.71). Items were summed to create
are provided in Table 1. Items were reversed, when necessary, such that the scale score.
higher values indicate greater endorsement of the construct. Unless Depression was measured using the 2-Item Patient Health Ques
specified, items were averaged to create the scale scores. tionnaire (Löwe et al., 2010; 2 items). Items were rated on a 1 to 4 scale
Mindfulness was measured using the Five Facet Mindfulness (1 = Not at all, 4 = Nearly every day; e.g., “How often have you been
4
feeling down, depressed, or hopeless?”; r = 0.69). Items were summed to
16
create the scale score.
–
Flourishing was measured using the Flourishing Scale (Diener et al.,
2010; 8 items). Items were rated on a 1 to 7 scale (1 = Strongly disagree,
0.26*
Occupational Health
15
5 = Strongly agree; e.g., “I lead a purposeful and meaningful life.”; α =
–
0.88). Items were summed to create the scale score.
− 0.38*
− 0.39*
14
7.3.3. Occupational health
–
Pre-service teachers’ experiences of occupational health pertaining
to their roles as teachers in training were assessed via occupational
− 0.27*
− 0.12
stress, burnout, teaching efficacy, and commitment to the profession.
0.53*
13
Occupational Stress was measured using the Perceived Occupa
–
tional Stress Scale (Marcatto, Blas, Luis, Festa, & Ferrante, 2021; 4
items). Items were rated on a 1 to 5 scale (1 = Strongly disagree, 5 =
− 0.24*
− 0.39*
0.32*
0.27*
12
Strongly agree; e.g., “My work is stressful.”; α = 0.85).
–
Personal Well-Being
Burnout was measured using the Maslach Burnout Inventory (Mas
lach, Jackson, & Leiter, 1996; 21 items). Items were rated on a 0 to 6
− 0.32*
− 0.10
− 0.16
scale (0 = Never, 6 = Everyday; e.g., “How often do you … feel
0.28*
0.38*
11
emotionally drained from your work?”; α = 0.86). The Maslach Burnout
–
Inventory assesses three dimensions of burnout: emotional exhaustion,
personal accomplishment, and depersonalization. The full scale was
− 0.32*
− 0.14
0.62*
0.42*
0.35*
10
0.06
used in this study; personal accomplishment items were reversed and all
–
items were averaged to create the scale score such that higher values
indicate greater burnout.
− 0.20*
− 0.16*
− 0.12
− 0.10
− 0.04
Teaching Efficacy was measured using the Teachers’ Sense of Effi
0.23*
0.13
9
cacy Scale-Short Form (Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2001; 12 items). Items
–
were rated on a 1 to 9 scale (1 = Nothing, 9 = A great deal; e.g., “How
much can you do to control disruptive behavior in the classroom.”; α =
− 0.18*
− 0.27*
− 0.14
− 0.08
0.24*
0.25*
0.22*
0.11
0.88). This measure assesses three dimensions of teaching efficacy: 8
Social and Emotional Competencies
Bivariate correlations among covariates, social and emotional competencies, personal well-being, and occupational health.
–
engagement, instructional support, and classroom management. The full
scale was used in this study.
− 0.21*
− 0.10
− 0.11
0.02
0.06
0.08
0.07
Commitment to the Profession was measured using the Career
0.05
0.06
7
Commitment scale (Blau, 1985; 8 items) with “teaching” inserted as the
−
−
−
−
profession of reference. Items were rated on a 1 to 5 scale (1 = Strongly
disagree, 5 = Strongly agree; e.g., “I definitely want a career for myself in
− 0.31*
− 0.23*
− 0.16*
− 0.26*
0.28*
0.24*
0.31*
0.28*
0.24*
0.02
6
teaching”; α = 0.86).
7.4. Analytic strategy
− 0.46*
− 0.41*
− 0.33*
− 0.25*
− 0.12
0.48*
0.32*
0.41*
0.36*
0.08
0.06
5
7.4.1. Preliminary analyses

–
Descriptive statistics (e.g., means, standard deviations, etc.) and

− 0.36*
− 0.34*
− 0.28*
− 0.33*
bivariate correlations were calculated for all measures of interest.
− 0.14
0.54*
0.36*
0.28*
0.27*
0.42*
0.18*
0.13
4
7.4.2. RQ1: The Association Between SECs and Personal Well-Being

A series of seven linear regression models were run to predict anxi
0.18*
0.23*
− 0.20*
0.12
0.02
0.04
0.11
− 0.09
− 0.09
0.21*
0.24*
ety. All models controlled for gender (0 = Man; 1 = Woman), race (0 =

0.16
0.16
3
Non-White; 1 = White), Cohort (0 = Cohort 1; 1 = Cohort 2) due to their

–
−
−
−
−
−
−
correlations with outcomes (Table 2). The first six models tested the
Covariates
− 0.22*
predictive utility of each measure of SEC separately: mindfulness, self-

− 0.03
− 0.03
− 0.06
− 0.05
− 0.04
− 0.06
− 0.12
− 0.15
0.01
0.00
0.02
0.14
0.16
2
compassion, cognitive reappraisal, expressive suppression, perspective

–
taking, and forgiveness. All SECs were entered as z-scores. The intercept
for these models is interpreted as the predicted level of anxiety for a
− 0.28*
− 0.06
− 0.02
− 0.07
− 0.04
− 0.15
0.30*
0.21*
male, non-White teacher from Cohort 1 with an average level of the SEC;
0.04
0.05
0.09
0.16
0.07
0.11
0.14
1
the effect of the SEC is interpreted in terms of the predicted difference in

–
anxiety given a teacher is one standard deviation higher in the SEC. The
Commitment to the Profession
final model included all SECs together. This sequence of models allows
for the testing of the unique contribution of each specific SEC (Models
Expressive Suppression
1–6), and the relative contribution of each having controlled for the
Cognitive Reappraisal
Occupational Stress
others (Model 7) to determine which SECs are most predictive after

Perspective Taking
Teaching Efficacy
Self-Compassion
partialling out shared variance. This sequence of models was replicated

Occupational Health
Personal Well-Being
Mindfulness
Forgiveness
to predict depression, and then flourishing.

Flourishing
Depression
Burnout
Anxiety
Female
Cohort
White
7.4.3. RQ2: The Association Between SECs and Occupational Health

Covariates
The same sequence of models to address RQ1 were employed to

*p < .05.
Table 2
address RQ2, this time predicting occupational stress, burnout, teaching

Note.
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
7
9
efficacy, and commitment to the profession.
5
7.4.4. Power analysis SE = 0.13, p < 0.001), self-compassion (B = − 0.76, SE = 0.12, p <
An a priori sample size analysis indicated the most complex (i.e., 0.001), and cognitive reappraisal (B = − 0.54, SE = 0.13, p < 0.001)
combined) models were powered (power = 0.80) to detect a medium reported lower levels of anxiety than those with lower levels of these
effect size f2 = 0.15 given α = 0.05 with 98 participants. The afore skills. Expressive suppression, perspective taking, and forgiveness were
mentioned recruitment procedures resulted in a sample size exceeding not significant predictors of anxiety. In the combined model, mindful
this target; the study was adequately powered. ness (B = − 0.32, SE = 0.15, p = 0.03) and self-compassion (B = − 0.61,
SE = 0.16, p < 0.001) remained significant predictors of lower levels of
7.4.5. Missing data anxiety.
Missing data ranged from 4 to 9% on any given variable of interest.
Given Little’s Test indicated data were missing completely at random 8.2.2. Predicting depression
(X2 = 36.85, DF = 47, p = 0.86), full information maximum likelihood In models predicting depression with each SEC tested separately, pre-
(Enders & Bandalos, 2001) was used to account for missing data in service teachers with higher levels of mindfulness skills (B = − 0.61, SE
analyses. = 0.14, p < 0.001), self-compassion (B = − 0.70, SE = 0.13, p < 0.001),
and cognitive reappraisal (B = − 0.39, SE = 0.14, p < 0.01) reported
8. Results lower levels of depression than those with lower levels of these skills.
Expressive suppression, perspective taking, and forgiveness were not
8.1. Preliminary analyses significant predictors of depression. In the combined model, self-
compassion remained a significant predictor of lower levels of depres
Descriptive statistics are provided in Table 1; bivariate correlations sion (B = − 0.56, SE = 0.17, p = 0.001).
are provided in Table 2. Notably, mindfulness skills were significantly
associated in the expected direction with all occupational health and 8.2.3. Predicting flourishing
well-being outcomes with the exception of teaching efficacy, which was In models predicting flourishing with each SEC tested separately, all
uncorrelated (rs ranged |0.18-0.42|). Self-compassion was significantly SECs were significant predictors of flourishing in the expected direction:
associated in the expected direction with all outcomes with the excep Pre-service teachers with higher levels of mindfulness skills (B = 2.54,
tion of teaching efficacy and commitment to the profession (rs ranged | SE = 0.47, p < 0.001), self-compassion (B = 2.19, SE = 0.46, p < 0.001),
0.25-0.46|). Cognitive reappraisal was significantly associated in the cognitive reappraisal (B = 1.80, SE = 0.48, p < 0.001), lower levels of
expected direction with all outcomes (rs ranged |0.16-0.31|). Expressive expressive suppression (B = − 1.25, SE = 0.50, p = 0.01), greater
suppression was significantly associated only with flourishing (r = perspective taking (B = 1.43, SE = 0.49, p < 0.01), and greater
− 0.21). Perspective taking was significantly associated in the expected forgiveness (B = 1.59, SE = 0.53, p < 0.01), reported greater flourishing.
direction with all outcomes with the exception of anxiety, occupational In the combined model, greater mindfulness skills (B = 1.55, SE = 0.54,
stress, and commitment to the profession (rs ranged |0.18-0.27|). p < 0.01) and less expressive suppression (B = − 0.93, SE = 0.46, p =
Forgiveness was significantly associated in the expected direction with 0.04) remained significant predictors of flourishing.
all three measures of personal well-being (rs ranged |0.16-0.23|), but not
occupational health.
8.3. RQ2: The Association Between SECs and Occupational Health
8.2. RQ1: The Association Between SECs and Personal Well-Being Results of models predicting pre-service teachers’ occupational
health from their SECs are displayed in Table 4.
Results of models predicting pre-service teachers’ personal well-
being from their SECs are displayed in Table 3. 8.3.1. Predicting occupational stress
In models predicting occupational stress with each SEC tested
8.2.1. Predicting anxiety separately, pre-service teachers with higher levels of mindfulness skills
In models predicting anxiety with each SEC tested separately, pre- (B = − 0.25, SE = 0.07, p = 0.001), and self-compassion (B = − 0.29, SE
service teachers with higher levels of mindfulness skills (B = − 0.64, = 0.07, p < 0.001) reported lower levels of stress than those with lower
Table 3
Regression models predicting pre-service teachers’ personal well-being.
Anxiety Depression Flourishing
Models 1-6 Model 7 Models 1-6 Model 7 Models 1-6 Model 7
Testing SECs Testing SECs Testing SECs Testing SECs Testing SECs Testing SECs
Individually Together Individually Together Individually Together
B SE B SE B SE B SE B SE B SE
Intercept 3.86 * 0.48 4.03 * 0.47 3.46 * 0.51 3.46 * 0.50 48.58 * 1.73 48.60 * 1.71
Covariates
Gender (1 = Female) 1.52 * 0.34 1.34 * 0.34 1.07 * 0.36 1.06 * 0.37 1.05 1.23 0.74 1.25
Race (1 = White) 0.13 0.36 0.07 0.34 − 0.29 0.38 − 0.33 0.37 − 1.62 1.30 − 1.54 1.25
Cohort (1 = Cohort 2) 0.44 + 0.26 0.51 * 0.25 0.44 + 0.27 0.53 * 0.27 − 0.55 0.91 − 0.27 0.91
Mindfulness − 0.64 * 0.13 − 0.32 * 0.15 − 0.61 * 0.14 − 0.30 + 0.16 2.54 * 0.47 1.55 * 0.54
Self-Compassion − 0.76 * 0.12 − 0.61 * 0.16 − 0.70 * 0.13 − 0.56 * 0.17 2.19 * 0.46 0.51 0.59
Cognitive Reappraisal − 0.54 * 0.13 − 0.18 0.14 − 0.39 * 0.14 − 0.04 0.15 1.80 * 0.48 0.80 0.51
Expressive Suppression − 0.03 0.14 − 0.14 0.13 0.23 0.15 0.11 0.14 − 1.25 * 0.50 − 0.93 * 0.46
Perspective Taking − 0.17 0.14 0.12 0.13 − 0.25 + 0.14 0.02 0.14 1.43 * 0.49 0.39 0.48
Forgiveness − 0.24 + 0.14 0.11 0.13 − 0.21 0.14 0.10 0.14 1.47 * 0.49 0.58 0.48
2
R 0.25 | 0.31 | 0.21 | 0.11 0.35 0.19 | 0.23 | 0.12 | 0.09 0.26 0.20 | 0.16 | 0.11 | 0.07 0.27
| 0.12 | 0.13 | 0.09 | 0.08 | 0.08 | 0.09
Note. *p < 0.05. +p < 0.10. Results in the “Models 1–6” column summarize models where each SEC was tested separately.
6
levels of these skills. Cognitive reappraisal, expressive suppression,

perspective taking, and forgiveness skills were not significant predictors
2.01
1.47
1.46
1.07
0.64
0.69
0.60
0.54
0.56
0.57
SE
of stress. In the combined model, self-compassion (B = − 0.28, SE = 0.09,
Testing SECs
Together
Model 7 p < 0.01) remained a significant predictor of stress.
0.16
+
*
*
Commitment to the Profession
1.34
− 3.84
− 2.08
0.95
− 0.59
1.37
− 0.31
0.10
− 0.68
33.09
8.3.2. Predicting burnout
In models predicting burnout with each SEC tested separately, pre-
service teachers with higher levels of mindfulness skills (B = − 0.23,
0.12 | 0.10 | 0.14 | 0.10 |

SE = 0.06, p < 0.001), self-compassion (B = − 0.18, SE = 0.16, p < 0.01),
SE
1.99
1.41
1.50
1.05
0.54
0.53
0.52
0.54
0.54
0.53
cognitive reappraisal (B = − 0.16, SE = 0.06, p < 0.01), and perspective
Testing SECs
Individually
Models 1-6
0.10 | 0.10
taking (B = − 0.17, SE = 0.06, p < 0.01) reported lower levels of burnout
than those with lower levels of these skills. Expressive suppression and
+
*
*
*
*
forgiveness were not significant predictors of burnout. In the combined
B
2.10
− 3.93
− 2.40
1.01
0.38
1.29
− 0.34
0.41
− 0.32
32.71
model, only mindfulness skills (B = − 0.17, SE = 0.07, p = 0.01)

remained a significant predictor of burnout.
0.29
0.21
0.21
0.15
0.09
0.10
0.09
0.08
0.08
0.08
SE
8.3.3. Teaching Efficacy

Testing SECs
In models predicting teaching efficacy with each SEC tested sepa

Together
Model 7
0.15
+
rately, pre-service teachers with higher levels of cognitive reappraisal

*
(B = 0.25, SE = 0.08, p < 0.01), and perspective taking (B = 0.20, SE =

B
7.27
0.19
− 0.35
0.01
0.01
− 0.15
0.26
− 0.06
0.15
0.10
Teaching Efficacy
0.08, p = 0.01) reported greater teaching efficacy than those with lower
levels of these skills. Mindfulness, self-compassion, expressive suppres
sion, and forgiveness were not significant predictors of teaching efficacy.
0.05 | 0.04 | 0.10 | 0.04 |
In the combined model, cognitive reappraisal (B = 0.26, SE = 0.09, p <

SE
0.30
0.21
0.22
0.16
0.08
0.08
0.08
0.08
0.08
0.08
Testing SECs
0.01) remained a significant predictor of teaching efficacy.

Individually
Models 1-6
0.08 | 0.06
+
+
*
8.3.4. Commitment to the profession

In models predicting commitment to the profession with each SEC
B
0.23
− 0.37
− 0.14
0.10
0.08
0.25
− 0.05
0.20
0.14
7.34
tested separately, pre-service teachers with higher levels of cognitive

Note. *p < 0.05. +p < 0.10. Results in the “Models 1–6” column summarize models where each SEC was tested separately.
reappraisal (B = 1.29, SE = 0.52, p = 0.01) reported stronger commit

ment to a career in teaching. No other effects were significant. In the
0.22
0.16
0.16
0.12
0.07
0.07
0.07
0.06
0.06
0.06
SE
combined model, cognitive reappraisal (B = 1.37, SE = 0.60, p = 0.02)

Testing SECs
Together
Model 7
remained a significant predictor of commitment to the profession.

0.22
+
+
*
*
B
9. Discussion
1.47
0.16
0.30
0.26
0.17
0.06
0.06
0.06
0.10
0.06
−
−
−
−
−
Burnout
The present study tested the CSEL model by examining the associa
0.18 | 0.15 | 0.13 | 0.09 |
tions between pre-service teachers’ SECs and their occupational health

SE
and well-being. Results indicated that SECs are important predictors of

0.22
0.15
0.16
0.11
0.06
0.06
0.06
0.06
0.06
0.06
Testing SECs
Individually
Models 1-6
0.14 | 0.09
pre-service teachers’ occupational health and well-being. When tested

individually, all SECs predicted some outcomes, but mindfulness skills,
*
*
*
*
*
*
self-compassion, and cognitive reappraisal were the most consistent

B
1.38
0.21
0.32
0.31
0.23
0.18
0.16
0.02
0.17
0.05
predictors across outcomes, predicting five, five, and six of the seven
outcomes considered, respectively. When SECs were tested together,
−
−
−
−
−
−
mindfulness and self-compassion remained significant predictors of

Regression models predicting pre-service teachers’ occupational health.
0.28
0.20
0.20
0.15
0.09
0.09
0.08
0.07
0.08
0.08
SE
personal well-being, while mindfulness, self-compassion, and cognitive

Testing SECs
reappraisal remained significant predictors of occupational health. The

Together
Model 7
0.23
+
present study merges research on social and emotional learning, teacher

*
preparation, and teacher well-being and expands the current knowledge

B
2.54
0.45
0.35
0.46
− 0.16
− 0.28
0.03
− 0.02
0.12
0.06
Occupational Stress
base by 1) empirically testing the CSEL model, 2) employing the CASEL-

5 framework to characterize these key competencies, and 3) applying
these models to pre-service teachers, whereby providing evidence that
0.17 | 0.19 | 0.11 | 0.10 |
SECs across the CASEL-5 framework predict pre-service teachers’

SE
0.28
0.20
0.20
0.14
0.07
0.07
0.07
0.08
0.08
0.07
Testing SECs
occupational health and well-being and calling specific attention to

Individually
Models 1-6
0.10 | 0.10
emotional competencies like mindfulness skills, self-compassion, and

+
+
*
*
*
cognitive reappraisal as important for occupational health and well-

being.
B
2.56
0.49
0.37
0.36
− 0.25
− 0.29
− 0.12
0.03
0.00
− 0.07
9.1. Social and emotional competencies predict pre-service teachers’

occupational health and personal well-being
Expressive Suppression
Cohort (1 = Cohort 2)
Cognitive Reappraisal
Gender (1 = Female)
Perspective Taking
Race (1 = White)
Self-Compassion
Although in individual models all SECs were predictive of some

indices of occupational health and well-being, models testing SECs
Mindfulness
Forgiveness
Covariates
Intercept
together imply potentially differential targets for intervention depend

Table 4
ing on desired outcome. For those interested in improving pre-service

R2
teachers’ personal well-being, mindfulness and self-compassion may
7
be the most expeditious targets for intervention. These results are expressive suppression have students who report a less positive outlook
consistent with findings from the general population, where individual and peers who report less prosocial behavior (b). Although that research
studies and meta-analyses have found self-compassion to be associated demonstrated a link between teachers’ SECs and student outcomes, the
with various indicators of personal well-being (Baer, Lykins, & Peters, present study suggests there is no direct link between pre-service
2012; Zessin et al., 2015). For those interested in improving occupa teachers’ use of expressive suppression and their own occupational
tional health, cognitive reappraisal may be a useful target for develop health and well-being, at least in this population of pre-service teachers.
ment. Cognitive reappraisal is widely known to be associated with It may be that such effects on students emerge through other avenues,
greater well-being in the general population (Riepenhausen et al., such as direct modeling or the teaching practices these teachers choose
2022), and there is some evidence that it is also associated with greater to employ. In terms of targets for intervention, these results indicate that
well-being in pre-service teachers (i.e., mood; Totterdell & Parkinson, not all emotion regulation strategies are equally predictive of occupa
1999). The present study extends this research by suggesting that tional health and well-being, and suggest that interventions aiming to
cognitive reappraisal is also important for pre-service teachers’ improve occupational health and well-being may be most efficacious if
well-being in the workplace, where they are known to struggle. Mind cognitive reappraisal is taught (vs. avoiding expressive suppression).
fulness was the most consistent predictor across all outcomes, suggesting
that mindfulness-based interventions could benefit both pre-service 9.2. Limitations and future research directions
teachers’ personal well-being and their well-being related to the work
place. Indeed, results from studies of in-service teachers indicate that Notably, the present study employed a cross-sectional design
mindfulness-based interventions such as Cultivating Awareness and whereby measures of SECs and outcomes were assessed at the same
Resilience in Education (CARE) and the Mindfulness-Based Emotional timepoint. The guiding conceptual model, the CSEL model (Roeser et al.,
Balance (MBEB) programs do have effects in both of these domains (e.g., in press), informed the decision to include SECs as predictors and
job stress, anxiety; Jennings et al., 2019; Roeser, Galla, & Baelen, 2022). occupational health and well-being as outcomes, yet the design of the
Stemming from Kazdin’s (1993) conceptualization, we explicitly study prevents the drawing of strong causal conclusions. Longitudinal
assessed indices of desirable and undesirable functioning in both the studies testing whether these SECs during pre-service are predictive of
occupational health and personal well-being domains. Synthesizing re occupational health and well-being during in-service are already un
sults in this way indicates that a lack of mindfulness and self-compassion derway and will provide strong evidence indicating whether building
skills are associated with undesirable functioning in both domains (i.e., SECs during pre-service training can impact teachers’ occupational
indicators of a lack of occupational health and poor well-being including health and well-being once they are in the classroom. Of particular in
occupational stress, burnout, anxiety, depression, and flourishing), terest will be turnover intentions, which are only relevant during the
whereas the presence of cognitive reappraisal skills, in particular, pro in-service period, and not at pre-service. Relatedly, the present study
motes optimal functioning (i.e., teaching efficacy, commitment to the focused exclusively on pre-service teachers, a distinct population of
profession, flourishing). Again, these differing results are useful for study from the many existing studies on in-service teachers. Further,
informing targets for intervention. With much emphasis on alleviating participants were drawn from one university’s traditional (i.e., full time,
poor mental health outcomes, a priority for the National Institute of undergraduate) teacher training program. Although results are similar
Mental Health , among others, building mindfulness and to those found in general populations, they may not generalize to other
self-compassion skills may be useful targets for intervention. However, populations. Additionally, the sample included pre-service teachers
like Kazdin, we assert that a lack of distress does not necessarily indicate across disciplines (e.g., elementary education, subject-specific second
the presence of optimal functioning. If optimal functioning is a target, ary education). Future research could examine ways in which SECs and
incorporating training in cognitive reappraisal may also be fruitful. occupational health and well-being may vary across disciplines (e.g.,
Interestingly, across all outcomes, the emotional competencies (i.e., Descoeudres, 2023; Descoeudres, Cece, & Lentillon-Kaestner, 2022).
mindfulness skills as self-awareness, self-compassion and cognitive Mindfulness-based interventions are the most prominent approach
reappraisal as self-management) emerged as most predictive of out for building SECs (i.e., the self-awareness and self-management com
comes, while the social competencies (i.e., perspective taking as social petencies; Oliveira, Roberto, Marques-Pinto, & Veiga-Simão, 2021;
awareness, and forgiveness skills as relationships skills) were less pre Roeser et al., in press. These interventions have primarily been imple
dictive of pre-service teachers’ occupational health and well-being. In mented with samples of in-service teachers (e.g., Jennings et al., 2019;
models testing all SECs together, social competencies never reached Roeser et al., 2013; Roeser, Mashburn, et al., 2022). Studies of in-service
above marginal significance. It may be that social competencies are teachers, however, target fully certified teachers who are likely to be
more salient for in-service teachers, who have greater responsibility and already struggling with their occupational health and well-being. While
authority in the classroom related to relationships with students, fam restoring occupational health and well-being is important, there is a
ilies, and co-workers. Additionally, social competencies may more missed opportunity to intervene at the critical pre-service training stage,
indirectly predict occupational health and well-being, such as by during which such challenges often emerge and escalate (McLean et al.,
improving student-teacher relationships. 2017). Bolstering SECs during the pre-service training period is a pre
Findings related to emotional competencies are especially striking ventative approach, equipping teachers with the skills necessary to
considering a national scan of pre-service training programs found that manage the stressors of the profession before they are required. Evi
few programs incorporate training in emotional competencies: only 1% dence indicating that early career teachers benefit more than experi
of programs included training in self-awareness and 6% included enced teachers from mindfulness training suggests that prevention
training in self-management (Schonert-Reichl, 2017). Altogether, this programs may be particularly useful to pre-service teachers (Roeser,
research indicates that although emotional competencies are strongly Mashburn, et al., 2022), yet comparative studies with pre-service and
associated with pre-service teachers’ occupational health and in-service samples have yet to be undertaken. Although the potential
well-being, they are unlikely to get substantial training in these critical benefits of preventative MBIs for pre-service teachers are substantial,
skills. These results suggest that whereas all SECs may be useful to there is a paucity of research on MBIs for pre-service teachers (Beers
develop, interventions and training programs that place special Dewhirst & Goldman, 2020; Birchinall et al., 2019; Hirshberg, Flook,
emphasis on emotional competencies may be the most helpful for Enright, & Davidson, 2020). The limited prior data are promising,
pre-service teachers. however, indicating reductions in depressive and anxiety symptoms
Despite being an emotion regulation skill , expressive suppression (Beers Dewhirst & Goldman, 2020; Hue & Lau, 2015), the use of more
was largely unrelated to pre-service teachers’ occupational health and effective teaching practices (Hirshberg et al., 2020), and an increased
well-being. Previous research has found that teachers who use odds of retention in the profession three years into their teaching careers
8
(i.e., four years after completion of the intervention; Hirshberg, Flook, and well-being. Together, findings indicate that pre-service teachers
Sundaram-Stukel, & Davidson, 2021). Together with existing research, with greater mindfulness, self-compassion, and cognitive reappraisal
the present study paves the way for future prevention research to build skills experience greater occupational health and well-being, and sug
pre-service teachers’ SECs, particularly mindfulness, self-compassion, gest that explicit efforts to develop these emotional competencies during
and emotion regulation skills, which are core components of existing pre-service training may help to promote the occupational health and
MBIs (e.g., Cullen & Pons, 2015; Roeser et al., 2013). well-being of pre-service teachers.
Finally, the present study focused on select measures of SECs which
map well to the CASEL-5 framework and had been employed in prior CRediT authorship contribution statement
research. However, the measures assessed here are not a comprehensive
assessment of pre-service teachers’ SEC. Although emotional compe Summer S. Braun: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original
tencies were more predictive of the outcomes of focus in this study than draft, Funding acquisition, Formal analysis, Conceptualization. Alison
social competencies, social competencies remain an important area for L. Hooper: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Funding
future research. Specifically, alternative measures of social compe acquisition.
tencies (e.g., empathy, compassion, conflict resolution skills) may yield
different results than those found here. Further, the present study Declaration of competing interest
focused on the social and emotional components of the CASEL-5
framework; additional research should also consider the responsible The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
decision-making component, and pursue triangulating data from other interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
sources (e.g., observations, student-reports, interviews). the work reported in this paper.
9.3. Implications for practice Data availability
Results have direct relevance to pre-service training programs. Pre- Data will be made available on request.
service training programs have long aimed to develop the core do
mains of teacher expertise: subject matter knowledge, pedagogical
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Teaching and Teacher Education 147 (2024) 104654

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Teaching and Teacher Education

Social and emotional competencies predict pre-service teachers’

Education and the participants of this study.

the teaching of self-awareness, and 6% covering self-management Table 1

feeling down, depressed, or hopeless?”; r = 0.69). Items were summed to

Commitment scale (Blau, 1985; 8 items) with “teaching” inserted as the

7.4. Analytic strategy

7.4.1. Preliminary analyses

Descriptive statistics (e.g., means, standard deviations, etc.) and

7.4.2. RQ1: The Association Between SECs and Personal Well-Being

ety. All models controlled for gender (0 = Man; 1 = Woman), race (0 =

Non-White; 1 = White), Cohort (0 = Cohort 1; 1 = Cohort 2) due to their

predictive utility of each measure of SEC separately: mindfulness, self-

compassion, cognitive reappraisal, expressive suppression, perspective

the effect of the SEC is interpreted in terms of the predicted difference in

others (Model 7) to determine which SECs are most predictive after

partialling out shared variance. This sequence of models was replicated

to predict depression, and then flourishing.

7.4.3. RQ2: The Association Between SECs and Occupational Health

The same sequence of models to address RQ1 were employed to

address RQ2, this time predicting occupational stress, burnout, teaching

efficacy, and commitment to the profession.

Models 1-6 Model 7 Models 1-6 Model 7 Models 1-6 Model 7

levels of these skills. Cognitive reappraisal, expressive suppression,

0.12 | 0.10 | 0.14 | 0.10 |

model, only mindfulness skills (B = − 0.17, SE = 0.07, p = 0.01)

8.3.3. Teaching Efficacy

In models predicting teaching efficacy with each SEC tested sepa­

rately, pre-service teachers with higher levels of cognitive reappraisal

(B = 0.25, SE = 0.08, p < 0.01), and perspective taking (B = 0.20, SE =

In the combined model, cognitive reappraisal (B = 0.26, SE = 0.09, p <

0.01) remained a significant predictor of teaching efficacy.

8.3.4. Commitment to the profession

tested separately, pre-service teachers with higher levels of cognitive

reappraisal (B = 1.29, SE = 0.52, p = 0.01) reported stronger commit­

combined model, cognitive reappraisal (B = 1.37, SE = 0.60, p = 0.02)

remained a significant predictor of commitment to the profession.

tions between pre-service teachers’ SECs and their occupational health

and well-being. Results indicated that SECs are important predictors of

pre-service teachers’ occupational health and well-being. When tested

self-compassion, and cognitive reappraisal were the most consistent

mindfulness and self-compassion remained significant predictors of

personal well-being, while mindfulness, self-compassion, and cognitive

reappraisal remained significant predictors of occupational health. The

present study merges research on social and emotional learning, teacher

preparation, and teacher well-being and expands the current knowledge

base by 1) empirically testing the CSEL model, 2) employing the CASEL-

SECs across the CASEL-5 framework predict pre-service teachers’

occupational health and well-being and calling specific attention to

emotional competencies like mindfulness skills, self-compassion, and

cognitive reappraisal as important for occupational health and well-

9.1. Social and emotional competencies predict pre-service teachers’

Although in individual models all SECs were predictive of some

together imply potentially differential targets for intervention depend­

ing on desired outcome. For those interested in improving pre-service

teachers’ personal well-being, mindfulness and self-compassion may

9.3. Implications for practice Data availability

In models predicting teaching efficacy with each SEC tested sepa

reappraisal (B = 1.29, SE = 0.52, p = 0.01) reported stronger commit

together imply potentially differential targets for intervention depend