Introduction to Computer Networking

1.1 Network as an infrastructure for data communication

Communication is defined as a process in which computers in the network

transfers/exchange information, instructions to each other and for sharing
resources. Communication is a process or act in which we can send or receive data.

A network of computers is defined as an interconnected collection of autonomous computers.

(Autonomous means no computer can start, stop or control another computer.)

Components of Data Communication

[Message, Sender, Receiver, Transmission Medium / Communication Channels, Protocols]
[Protocol/standard/Transmission Media: TCP and IP, Guided/Unguided Transmission media,
simplex/duplex type of communication]

Protocol is defined as a set of rules that governs data communication which is

followed by the sender and receiver (communicating parties) in order to have successful
and reliable data communication. More precisely it defines what/how/when is to be
communicated.
For successful communication to occur, the sender and receiver must agree upon certain
rules called protocols.

1. Data sequencing. It refers to breaking a long message into smaller packets of fixed size.
Data sequencing rules define the method of numbering packets to detect loss or duplication of
packets, and to correctly identify packets, which belong to same message.
2. Data routing. Data routing defines the most efficient path between the source and destination.
3. Data formatting. Data formatting rules define which group of bits or characters within packet
constitute data, control, addressing, or other information.
4. Flow control. A communication protocol also prevents a fast sender from overwhelming a slow
receiver. It ensures resource sharing and protection against traffic congestion by regulating the flow
of data on communication lines.
5. Error control. These rules are designed to detect errors in messages and to ensure transmission of
correct messages.
6. Data security. Providing data security and privacy is also built into most communication software
packages. It prevents access of data by unauthorized users.

The effectiveness depends on four fundamental characteristics of data communications

1. Delivery: The data must be delivered in the correct order with correct destination.
2. Accuracy: The data must be delivered accurately.
3. Timeliness: The data must be delivered in a timely manner. Late delivered data may be useless.
4. Jitter: It is the uneven delay in the packet arrival time that causes uneven quality.

A dedicated line/channel (owned by user or rented from a telecom company) is a

telecommunications path between two points that is available round the clock for use by a
designated user (individual or company). It is not shared in common among multiple users as
dial-up lines are. A dedicated line can be a physical path owned by the user or rented from a
telephone company, in which case it is called a leased line.

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Type of data communication
Transmission mode/Communication mode means transferring data between two devices.
Data communication is communication in which we can send or receive data from one device to
another. There are three types of transmission mode:- .
1. Simplex Communication: It is one-way communication or unidirectional communication in
which signals are sent in only one direction i.e. Sender can send the data but the sender can’t
receive the data. Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit, the other can only receive.
Example: radio broadcasting, television broadcasting, computer to printer communication, and
keyboard to computer connections.
2. Half Duplex communication: It is a two-way communication or we can say that it is a
bidirectional communication in which both the devices can send and receive data but not at the
same time. When one device is sending data then another device is only receiving and vice-
versa. For example, walkie-talkie, in which message is sent one at a time and messages are sent
in both directions.
3. Full-duplex communication: Full-duplex is another type of two-way transmission in Ethernet
networks. Devices connected in full-duplex Ethernet mode can send or receive data
simultaneously. To operate in Full-duplex mode, Ethernet requires at-least two pairs of wires.
One pair is used to send data and other pair is used to receive data, simultaneously. These days,
FastEthernet, Gigabit Ethernet and 10 Gigabit Ethernet operates in full-duplex mode.
Full Duplex communication is a two-way simultaneous communication in which both the
devices can send and receive data at the same time. For example, mobile phones, landlines, etc.

Bandwidth of signal is different from bandwidth of the medium/channel

BANDWIDTH OF A SIGNAL: Bandwidth can be defined as the portion of the

electromagnetic spectrum occupied by the signal. It may also be defined as the frequency
range over which a signal is transmitted.
Different types of signals have different bandwidth. Ex. Voice signal, music signal, etc
Bandwidth is the difference between the upper and lower frequencies in a continuous band of
frequencies. It is typically measured in hertz.
Bandwidth of an analog signal: It is defined as the range of frequencies that the analog signal
carries. It is calculated by the difference between the maximum frequency and the minimum
frequency. If a signal has a minimum frequency of F1 = 50Hz and maximum frequency of F2 =
120Hz. Hence the bandwidth is given by F2 – F1 = 120 – 50 = 70 Hz

Analog signal bandwidth is measured/expressed in terms of its frequency (hz) but digital
signal bandwidth is measured in terms of bit rate (bits per second, bps)
Bandwidth of a digital signal: It is defined as the maximum bit rate of the signal to be
transmitted. It is measured in bits per second.

BANDWIDTH OF A Communication CHANNEL/MEDIUM/LINE (Transmission Medium): A

channel is the medium through which the signal carrying information will be transmitted. In
terms of analog signal, bandwidth of the channel is the range of frequencies that the channel can
carry(available for transmission of data through that channel)
In terms of digital signal, bandwidth of the channel is the maximum bit rate supported by the
channel. i.e. the maximum amount of data that the channel can carry per second.
Higher the bandwidth, higher the data transfer rate. Normally, Bandwidth is the difference of
maximum and minimum frequency contained in the composite signals. Bandwidth is measured
in Hertz (Hz). 1 KHz =1000 Hz, 1 MHz =1000 KHz, 1 GHZ=.1000 MHZ.

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 The bandwidth of the Channel/Medium should always be greater than the
bandwidth of the signal to be transmitted else the transmitted signal will be either
attenuated or distorted or both leading in loss of information. The channel bandwidth
determines the type of signal to be transmitted i.e. analog or digital.

Data Transfer Rate: Data travels in the form of signals over a channel. One signal carries one or
more bits over the channel. Data transfer rate is the number of bits transmitted between source
and destination in one second. It is also known as bit rate. It is measured in terms of bits per
second (bps).
The higher units for data transfer rates are: 1 Kbps=1024 bps, 1 Mbps =1024 Kbps, 1 Gbps1024
Mbps, 1 Tbps =1024 Gbps

Example: A user wants to upload a text document at the rate of 10 pages per 20 second. What
will be the required data rate of the channel? (Consider that 1 page contains 1000 characters and
each character is of 8 bits).
Required Data Rate = 10*1000*8/20 = 4000 bps = 3.9 kbps

BIT RATE: It is the number of bits transmitted in one second. It is expressed as bits per second.
Baud Rate: It is the rate of Signal Speed, i.e the rate at which the signal changes. A digital signal
with two levels 0 & 1 will have the same baud rate and bit rate & bit rate.
Bit rate and Baud rate are are used interchangeably to describe the speed at which data is
transmitted. The Bit rate is used to determine the number of bits transmitted per unit of time,
whereas the Baud rate is used to determine the number of signal units transmitted per unit of
time.
Both Bit rate and Baud rate are generally used in data communication to measure the speed of
data. Bit rate is the transmission of a number of bits per second. The Baud rate is defined as the
number of signal units per second. The formula relates both bit rate and the baud rate.
Bit rate = Baud rate x the number of bit per baud.

Difference between Bit Rate and Baud Rate:

Bit rate is defined as the transmission of a number of bits per second.
Baud rate is defined as the number of signal units per second.
Bit rate is also defined as per second travel number of bits.
Baud rate is also defined as per second number of changes in signal.
Bit rate emphasized computer efficiency.
The baud rate emphasized data transmission.
The formula of Bit Rate is: = baud rate x the number of bit per baud
The formula of Baud Rate is: = bit rate / the number of bit per baud
Bit rate doesn‟t determine the requirement of bandwidth for transmission of the signal.
The Baud rate can easily determine the overall bandwidth that is required to send a signal.
Bit Rate cannot determine the bandwidth.
Baud rate can determine the amount of bandwidth necessary to send the signal.
It counts the number of bits traveled per second such as Kbps, Mbps, Gbps, etc
It counts how many times the state of a signal is changing.

1.2 Applications of Computer network

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1.3 Network Architecture
Computer networks are logically classified into 1) peer to peer networks and 2) client server
networks.
Peer to Peer Network:
A peer to peer network has no dedicated servers. In a peer to peer network, a number of
workstations (or clients) are connected together for sharing devices, information or data. All the
workstations (clients) are considered equal. Eacch and every computer can act as a client or a server
at any instance. This network is ideal for small networks where there is no need for dedicated
servers, like home networks, small business networks, or retail shops. The Microsoft term for peer to
peer network is “Workgroup”.
There is no limitation for the number of computers in a peer to peer network. But peer to peer
implementations are meant for small networks. Typically, a Workgroup contain less than 10
workstations.
Commonly used Workstation Operating Systems are Microsoft Windows 10 Desktop, Red Hat
Enterprise Linux Workstation, SUSE Linux Enterprise Desktop, Ubuntu Desktop, etc.

Peer to peer computer networks are good choice for small business organizations. For
example: a small pharmacy outlet, an automobile service center, a small clinic etc.
The main disadvantages of peer to peer networks are listed below.
• Everything is kept distributed in different computers.
• User generated files are stored in individual computers. Data backup is extremely difficult.
• Each computer has its own user database. There is no centralized user & user privilege
management. Users need to remember their user ids and passwords in every computer. Managing
network users is extremely difficult.
As the organization's network grows, they must gradually upgrade their peer to peer network to
client server based network.
Client Server Architecture/Networks:

Client-Server architecture is an architecture of a computer network in which many clients

(remote processors) request and receive service from a centralized server (host computer). Client
computers provide an interface to allow a computer user to request services of the server and to
display the results the server returns. Servers wait for requests to arrive from clients and then
respond to them. Ideally, a server provides a standardized transparent interface to clients so that
clients need not be aware of the specifics of the system (i.e., the hardware and software) that is
providing the service. Clients are often situated at workstations or on personal computers, while
servers are located elsewhere on the network, usually on more powerful machines. This computing
model is especially effective when clients and the server each have distinct tasks that they routinely
perform. For example, in hospital data processing, a client computer can be running an application
program for entering patient information while the server computer is running another program that
manages the database in which the information is permanently stored. Many clients can access the
server‟s information simultaneously, and, at the same time, a client computer can perform other
tasks, such as sending e-mail.

A Client computer is a computer which is seeking any resource from another computer. For
Example: Downloading a file from a File Server, Browsing Intranet/Internet etc. The network user
normally uses a client computer to perform day to day work.

Server computer: If a computer has a resource which is served to another computer, it is a server
computer. The client establishes a connection to a server and accesses the services installed on the
server. A server is not meant for a network user to browse in internet. A server computer is installed

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with appropriate Operating System and related software to serve the network clients with one or
more services.
In a client server network, high-end servers, installed with the Network Operating System
(Server Operating System) and the related software, serve the clients continuously on a network, by
providing them with specific services upon request. A server computer is built and installed to run
continuously uninterrupted/round the clock without a break. An unexpected shutdown of a server
computer can cause catastrophic damage to a business.

Well known server Operating System Products are Microsoft Windows Server 2019, Unix (Oracle
Solaris, FreeBSD, NetBSD, OpenBSD, GNU/Linux (RedHat Enterprise Linux, Debian Linux, SUSE
Linux Enterprise Server, Ubuntu Server etc.

Building a client server based network is costlier than building a peer to peer network. Client server
based networks require dedicated servers. Server hardware is costlier than normal desktop client
computer hardware. Network Operating System (Server Operating System) are also costlier
than Client/Desktop Operating system

Different types of servers used in client server based networks are listed below.

File Server: File servers are used to store the user documents and files centrally. An ideal file server
should have a large amount of memory and storage space, fast hard-disks, multiple processors, fast
network adapters, redundant power supplies etc.
A File server runs FTP (File Transfer Protocol) in Windows, Linux or Unix Networks Well
known FTP software products are Microsoft IIS, FileZilla Server, Apache FTP Server etc.
The main advantage of keeping network user files and electronic documents centrally in a file server
is that the network user files and documents can be managed (backups) easily.

Print Server: which redirects print jobs from client computers to specific printers.
Mail Server: Mail Servers are used to transmit emails using email protocols. Most widely used email
transmission protocol is SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol). Mail Servers exchange emails
between different domains.

Application Server: Common computer applications or programs which are required by different
network users can be run in a central server, which enables multiple network users to access common
network applications from the network. Typically, Application Servers run business logic. Means
that, every business is different and the Application Server is the Server Software which controls the
business process.
Some examples for Application Server Software are Oracle ERP Cloud, SAP ERP, Microsoft
Dynamics etc.

Database Server: Database Server allows authorized network clients to create, view, modify and/or
delete an organization's data, stored in a common database.
Examples of Database Management Systems are Oracle Database Products, Microsoft SQL Server
2019, PostgreSQL, IBM DB2 Database Server, MySQL Database Server, Informix, MongoDB, MariaDB
Server etc.

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Difference between Client-Server and Peer-to-Peer Network:

In Client-Server Network, Clients and server are differentiated, Specific server and clients
are present.
In Peer-to-Peer Network, Clients and server are not differentiated.

Client-Server Network focuses on information sharing.

While Peer-to-Peer Network focuses on connectivity.

In Client-Server Network, Centralized server is used to store the data.

While in Peer-to-Peer Network, Each peer has its own data.

In Client-Server Network, Server respond the services which is request by Client.

While in Peer-to-Peer Network, Each and every node can do both request and respond
for the services.

Client-Server Network are costlier than Peer-to-Peer Network.

While Peer-to-Peer Network are less costlier than Client-Server Network.

Client-Server Network are more stable than Peer-to-Peer Network.

While Peer-to-Peer Network are less stable if number of peer is increase.
Client-Server Network is used for both small and large networks.
While Peer-to-Peer Network is generally suited for small networks with fewer than 10
computers.

1.4 Types of Computer Networks

Three Types of area networks – LAN, MAN and WAN
The Network allows computers to connect and communicate with different computers via any
medium. The major difference between LAN MAN and WAN is the geographical are they cover.

Local Area Network (LAN) –A LAN is a group of computer(workstations and servers) and
peripheral devices(printer, scanner etc) which are connected in a limited area such as school,
laboratory, home, and office building by switch or stack of switches via Ethernet cable, that is used
for sharing resources like files, printers, database, games, and other application.
(Routers are found at the boundary of a LAN, connecting them to the larger WAN.)
A Communication medium used for LAN has twisted-pair cables and coaxial cables.
A network interface card (NIC) is a hardware component without which a computer cannot
be connected over a network. It is a circuit board installed in a computer that provides a dedicated
network connection to the computer. It is also called network interface controller, network adapter,
Ethernet card or LAN adapter.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) –

MAN or Metropolitan area Network covers a larger area than that of a LAN and smaller area
as compared to WAN. It covers a large geographical area and may serve as an ISP (Internet Service
Provider). MAN is designed for customers who need high-speed connectivity. Speeds of MAN range
in terms of Mbps. It‟s hard to design and maintain a Metropolitan Area Network.

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 The fault tolerance of a MAN is less and also there is more congestion in the network. It is
costly and may or may not be owned by a single organization. The data transfer rate and the
propagation delay of MAN are moderate. Devices used for transmission of data through MAN are
Modem and Wire/Cable. Examples of a MAN are the part of the telephone company network that
can provide a high-speed DSL line to the customer or the cable TV network in a city.

Wide Area Network (WAN) –

WAN or Wide Area Network is a computer network that extends over a large geographical
area, although it might be confined within the bounds of a state or country. A WAN could be a
connection of LAN connecting to other LANs via telephone lines and radio waves and may be
limited to an enterprise (a corporation or an organization) or accessible to the public. The technology
is high speed and relatively expensive.

Similar to a MAN, the fault tolerance of a WAN is less and there is more congestion in the network. A
Communication medium used for WAN is PSTN or Satellite Link. Due to long-distance transmission,
the noise and error tend to be more in WAN. WAN‟s data rate is slow about a 10th LAN‟s speed
since it involves increased distance and increased number of servers and terminals etc. Speeds of
WAN ranges from a few kilobits per second (Kbps) to megabits per second (Mbps).

Propagation delay is one of the biggest problems faced here. Devices used for the transmission of
data through WAN are Optic wires, Microwaves, and Satellites.

There are many advantages of LAN over MAN and WAN, such as LAN‟s provide excellent
reliability, high data transmission rate, they can easily be managed and shares peripheral devices too.

LAN, WAN, Differences between LAN and WAN

Local Area Networks (LAN)
Local Area Network (LAN) is a computer network, which is limited to a small office, single building,
multiple buildings inside a campus etc. Typically, a Local Area Network (LAN) is a private network
owned and maintained by a single organization.

Wide Area Networks (WAN)

A Wide Area Network (WAN) spans over multiple geographic locations, which is composed
of multiple LANs. It is nearly impossible for a small to medium organization (except Network
Service Providers) to pull network cables between their two offices in two different countries located
1000s of kilometers away. Network Service Providers (also called as ISPs) provide the connectivity
solutions for Wide Area Networks (WAN).

Differences between LAN and WAN

a. A Local Area Network (LAN) is a private computer network that connects computers in small
physical areas. Example: A small office, A Single building, Multiple buildings inside a campus
etc. Wide Area Networks (WAN) is type of computer network to connect offices which are
located in different geographical locations. Wide Area Network (WAN) depends mainly on
Internet Service Providers (ISPs) for connection solutions.
b. Local Area Network (LAN) has higher bandwidth rates. Current Local Area Networks
(LANs) runs at bandwidth speeds of 100 Mbps, 1 Gbps or 10 Gbps.
Wide Area Networks (WAN) has lower bandwidth rates compared with Local Area Network
(LAN). Current Wide Area Networks runs on bandwidths of 20 Mbps, 50 Mbps or 100 Mbps.
c. Local Area Network (LAN) bandwidth rates are almost constant. Local Area Network (LAN)
bandwidth rates are dependent on characteristics of the LAN technology in use (Normally
FastEthernet or Gigabit Ethernet).
Since most of Wide Area Networks (WAN) connectivity solutions are dependent on Internet
Service Providers (ISPs), budget related constraints affect the quality of WAN.
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 d. Most of the current Local Area Networks (LANs) use Ethernet as the LAN Standard
(FastEthernet 100 Mbps, or Gigabit Ethernet 1/10 Gbps).
Normally for WAN connectivity, technologies like VPN (Virtual Private Network) over
Internet, or MPLS (Multi-Protocol Label Switching) are used.
e. Since Local Area Networks (LANs) are private networks, managed by dedicated local
network administrators, Local Area Networks (LANs) are more reliable and secure than Wide
Area Networks (WANs).
Since Wide Area Networks (WANs) involve third-party service providers, WAN networks are
less reliable and secure.
f. Initial set-up costs for Local Area Networks (LANs) are low as the devices required to set up
the networks are cheap.
Initial set-up costs for Wide Area Networks (WANs) are high, because of the devices (Routers,
Firewalls etc.), cables and manpower required.
g. Local Area Networks (LANs) running costs are less & Wide Area Networks (WANs) running
costs are high. Wide Area Networks (WANs) normally have recurring monthly cost as Service
Provider access fees.
h. Wide Area Networks (WANs) are more congested than Local Area Networks (LANs).

Network Topology
A Network Topology is the physical layout/arrangement of computers, cables, and other
components on a network. Network topology may be used to show physical or logical arrangement
of devices inside a computer network.
A network topology diagram allows a network engineer to visualize how the devices are connected
in the network. Network topology diagrams thus helps a network engineer to maintain and
troubleshoot the network.
Some of the common network topologies are Bus topology, Star topology, Ring topology, Hybrid
topology, Mesh topology and tree topology.

Types of Network Topology

Bus Topology:
Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected to
a single cable called Trunk with a terminator at each end. It transmits the data from one end to
another in a single direction. No bi-directional feature is in bus topology. It is a multi-point
connection and a non-robust topology because if the backbone fails the topology crashes.
All nodes like workstations, printers, laptops, servers etc., are connected to the linear cable.
The terminator is used to absorb the signal when the signal reaches the end, preventing signal
bounce. When using bus topology, when a computer sends out a signal, the signal travels the cable
length in both directions from the sending computer. When the signal reaches the end of the cable
length, it bounces back and returns in the direction it came from. This is known as signal bounce
which can create problems in the computer network, because if another signal is sent on the cable at
the same time, the two signals will collide. In Bus Topology, various MAC (Media Access Control)
protocols are followed by LAN Ethernet connections like TDMA, Pure Aloha, CDMA, Slotted Aloha,
etc.
Advantages of Bus Topology
• Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a linear bus.
• Requires less cable length hence cost of the cable is less compared to other topologies, but it
is used to build small networks.

Disadvantages of Bus Topology

a. Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable.

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 b. Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable.
c. Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down.
d. Not meant to be used as a stand-alone solution.
e. If the common cable fails, then the whole system will crash down.
f. If the network traffic is heavy, it increases collisions in the network. To avoid this, various
protocols are used in the MAC layer known as Pure Aloha, Slotted Aloha, CSMA/CD, etc.
Security is very low.

Star Topology:
A star topology is designed with each node (like workstations, printers, laptops, servers etc.)
connected directly to a central device called as a Network Switch or Hub. Each workstation has a
cable that goes from its NIC card to Network Switch.
Most popular and most widely used LAN technology Ethernet operates in Star or Star-Bus topology.
In star topology, all the devices are connected to a single central hub through a cable (central
node). The hub can be passive in nature i.e., not an intelligent hub such as broadcasting devices, at
the same time the hub can be intelligent known as an active hub. Active hubs have repeaters in them.
In Star Topology, many popular Ethernet LAN protocols are used as CD(Collision Detection), CSMA
(Carrier Sense Multiple Access), etc.

Advantages of Star Topology

a. Easy to install and wire.
b. No disruptions to the network when connecting or removing devices.
c. Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.
d. It is easy to set up.
e. Each device requires only 1 port i.e. to connect to the hub, therefore the total number of ports
required is N.
f. It is Robust. If one link fails only that link will affect and not other than that.
g. Easy to fault identification and fault isolation.

Disadvantages of Star Topology

a. Requires more cable length than a linear bus topology.
b. If the connecting network device (network switch) fails, nodes attached are disabled and
cannot participate in computer network communication.
c. More expensive than linear bus topology because of the cost of the connecting devices
(network switch)
d. If the concentrator (hub) on which the whole topology relies fails, the whole system will crash
down.
e. The cost of installation is high.
f. Performance is based on the single concentrator i.e. hub/switch.

Ring Topology:
In a ring topology, all devices in the network are connected via a cable that loops in a logical
ring or circle. In ring topology, the data circulates in a logical ring shape within the network.
The physical shape of the network need not be in ring or circular shape. A ring topology can
be a logical circle that has no start and no end. Signals travel in one direction on a ring while they
pass from one computer to the next. Each device in ring topology can regenerate the data signal, so
that the data signal may travel the required distance, without signal quality deterioration.
In this topology, it forms a ring connecting devices with exactly two neighboring devices.
A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with a large number of nodes, because if someone
wants to send some data to the last node in the ring topology with 100 nodes, then the data will have
to pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data loss repeaters are used in the
network.

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 The transmission is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by having 2 connections
between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology. In-Ring Topology, the Token Ring
Passing protocol is used by the workstations to transmit the data.
The main advantage of ring topology is that the signal degeneration is low since each
workstation participating in the network is responsible for regenerating the weak signal.
The disadvantage of ring topology is that the failure of one device in the network can cause
the failure entire network. Ring down can also happen when computers are added or removed from
the network and when any network maintenance is done.

Tree Topology :
In tree topology, the devices are arranged in a tree fashion similar to the branches of a tree.
Devices at lower level are connected to devices at next higher level, which resembles a tree like
structure. At higher levels of the tree, often point-to-point or point-to-multipoint connections are
used.
The various secondary hubs are connected to the central hub which contains the repeater. This data
flow from top to bottom i.e. from the central hub to the secondary and then to the devices or from
bottom to top i.e. devices to the secondary hub and then to the central hub. It is a multi-point
connection and a non-robust topology because if the backbone fails the topology crashes.

Tree topology based networks are not suitable for small networks because of the requirement
for additional devices and cables. Tree topology is suitable for large networks, spread into many
branches. Example: Big university campuses, hospitals etc.
Main disadvantage of tree topology is that the connectivity between tree branches are dependent on
main backbone switches. If there is no redundancy solution applied at backbone switches,
connectivity between branches will fail.

Hybrid Topology :
A hybrid network topology can be made of different network topologies. Hybrid topologies
are often made using combination of bus topology, star topology, mesh topology, ring topology as
per the requirement of the organization.
An example of hybrid topology is star-bus topology. Another example of hybrid topology is star-ring
topology.

Mesh Topology:
In Mesh topology, each device on the network is connected together via a
particular/dedicated channel, creating connections between all device on the network. Mesh
topology provide an extreme level of redundancy when compared with other network topologies.
The main advantage in full-mesh topology is, if any connection between two devices fails, there is
always an alternate path exists to reach the destination.
Mesh topology works well in a small network. Example; less than five devices. But as the number of
devices in the network increases, Mesh topology based networks become complex. It is not easy to
connect 500 computers together in mesh topology.
In Mesh Topology, the protocols used are AHCP (Ad Hoc Configuration Protocols), DHCP (Dynamic
Host Configuration Protocol), etc.

Redundancy of paths is the main advantage of Mesh topology. If a connection between two
devices failed, there is always an alternate path available to reach the destination.
Mesh topology is also used for server connectivity redundancy and site-to-site WAN connectivity
redundancy. The cabling costs of mesh topology-based network can be very high. It is not easy to
troubleshoot a large Mesh topology based network.
Advantages of Mesh topology:
 It is robust.

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 The fault is diagnosed easily. Data is reliable because data is transferred among the devices
through dedicated channels or links.
 Provides security and privacy.
Problems with Mehs topology:
 Installation and configuration are difficult.
 The cost of cables is high as bulk wiring is required, hence suitable for less number of devices.
 The cost of maintenance is high.

1.5 Protocols and Standards

1.6 The OSI Reference Model

OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection. It has been developed by ISO –
„International Organization for Standardization. It is a seven layer architecture with each layer
having specific functionality to perform.
OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) is a reference model for how applications communicate
over a network. This model focuses on providing a visual design of how each communications layer
is built on top of the other, starting with the physical cabling, all the way to the application that's
trying to communicate with other devices on a network.

Physical Layer (Layer 1) : Bottom –most layer

The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical layer that contains information in
the form of bits. It is responsible for the actual physical connection between the devices and for
transmitting individual bits from one node to the next.
Physical circuits are created on the physical layer of Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model.
Physical layers describe the electrical or optical signals used for communication. Physical layer of the
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is only concerned with the physical characteristics of
electrical or optical signaling techniques including the voltage of the electrical current used to
transport the signal, the media type (Twisted Pair, Coaxial, Cble, Fiber Optics etc.), impedance(
effective resistance of an electric circuit or component to alternating current) characteristics, physical
shape of the connector, Synchronization etc.

The functions of the physical layer are as follows:

1. Bit synchronization: (to cause file, data, settings on one computer to remain same on another)
The physical layer provides the synchronization of the bits by providing a clock that controls both
sender and receiver thus providing synchronization at bit level.
2. Bit rate control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate i.e. the number of bits
sent per second.
3. Physical topologies: Physical layer specifies the way in which the different, devices/nodes are
arranged in a network i.e. bus, star, or mesh topology.
4. Transmission mode: Physical layer also defines the way in which the data flows between the
two connected devices. i.e. transmission modes possible are Simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex.
Hub, Repeater, Modem, Cables(TP, Coax, Optical Fibre) are Physical Layer devices.

Layer 2. Datalink Layer

The Data Link Layer is logically divided into two sub-layers, The Media Access Control
(MAC) Sublayer and the Logical Link Control (LLC) Sub-layer.

11
 The MAC sub-layer determines the physical addressing of the hosts and maintains MAC
address for communicating with other devices on the network. MAC addresses are burned into the
network cards and constitute the low-level address used to determine the source and destination of
network traffic.
The Logical Link Control(LLC) sub -layer is responsible for synchronizing frames, error checking,
and flow control.
The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the message. The main function of
this layer is to make sure data transfer is error-free from one node to another, over the physical layer.
The Receiver‟s MAC address is obtained by placing an ARP(Address Resolution Protocol) request
onto the wire asking “Who has that IP address?” and the destination host will reply with its MAC
address.

The functions of the Data Link layer are:

a. Framing: The packet received from the Network layer is further divided into frames
depending on the frame size of NIC(Network Interface Card).
Framing provides a way for a sender to transmit a set of bits that are meaningful to the receiver.
b. Physical addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer encapsulates/adds physical
addresses (MAC address) of the sender and/or receiver in the header of each frame.
c. Error control: Data link layer provides the mechanism of error control in which it detects and
retransmits damaged or lost frames.
d. Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the data may get corrupted
thus, flow control coordinates the amount of data that can be sent before receiving
acknowledgement.
e. Access control: When a single communication channel is shared by multiple devices, the
MAC sub-layer of the data link layer helps to determine which device has control over the channel at
a given time.
Packet in Data Link layer is referred to as Frame. Data Link layer is handled by the NIC
(Network Interface Card) and device drivers of host machines. Switch & Bridge are Data Link Layer
devices.

Layer 3. Network Layer : (Logical/IP Address)

The Network layer is responsible for managing logical addressing information in the packets
and the delivery of those packets to the correct destination. The logical addresses are used to
uniquely identify a computer on the network, but at the same time identify the network that system
resides on. The Logical addressing system used in Network Layer is known as IP address.
Routers, which are special computers used to build the network, direct the data packet
generated by Network Layer using information stored in a table known as routing table. The routing
table is a list of available destinations that are stored in memory on the routers.

The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other located in different
networks. It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to transmit the packet,
from the number of routes available. The sender & receiver‟s IP addresses are placed in the header by
the network layer.
The functions of the Network layer are :
1. Routing: The network layer protocols determine which (shortest path) route is suitable from
source to destination. This function of the network layer is known as routing.
2. Logical Addressing: The sender & receiver‟s IP addresses are placed in the header by the
network layer in order to identify each device on internetwork uniquely and universally.

Segment in Network layer is referred to as Packet.

Network layer is implemented by networking devices such as routers.

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Layer 4. Transport Layer (segment, TCP/UDP)

Many network applications can run on a computer simultaneously and there should be some
mechanism to identify which application should receive the incoming data.
The protocols operating at the Transport Layer, TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and
UDP (User Datagram Protocol) uses a mechanism known as "Port Number" to enable multiplexing
and de-multiplexing. Port numbers identify the originating network application on the source
computer and destination network application on the receiving computer.
The Transport layer handles transport functions such as reliable or unreliable delivery of the
data to the destination. Another function of the transport layer is TCP segment sequencing that is a
connection-oriented service that takes TCP segments that are received out of order and place them in
the right order.

Multiplexing: Gathering data from multiple applications (gmail, twitter, outlook or Skype)
processes of the sender, enveloping that data with a header, and sending them as a whole to the
intended receiver is called multiplexing.
DE multiplexing – Delivering received segments at the receiver side to the correct app layer
processes is called demultiplexing.

It is responsible for the End to End Delivery of the complete message. The transport layer also
provides the acknowledgement of the successful data transmission and re-transmits the data if an
error is found.
At sender’s side: Transport layer receives the formatted data from the upper layers,
performs Segmentation, and also implements Flow & Error control to ensure proper data
transmission. It also adds Source and Destination port numbers in its header and forwards the
segmented data to the Network Layer.
Note: The sender needs to know the port number associated with the receiver‟s application.

Generally, this destination port number is configured, either by default or manually. For example,
when a web application makes a request to a web server, it typically uses port number 80, because
this is the default port assigned to web applications.
At receiver’s side: Transport Layer reads the port number from its header and forwards the Data
which it has received to the respective application. It also performs sequencing and reassembling of
the segmented data.
The functions of the transport layer are as follows:
1. Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the (session) layer, and
breaks the message into smaller units. Each of the segments produced has a header associated with it.
The transport layer at the destination station reassembles the message.
2. Service Point Addressing: In order to deliver the message to the correct process, the transport
layer header includes a type of address called service point address or port address. Thus by
specifying this address, the transport layer makes sure that the message is delivered to the correct
process.

The services provided by the transport layer :

A. Connection-Oriented Service: It is a three-phase process that includes
– Connection Establishment, – Data Transfer, – Termination / disconnection
In this type of transmission, the receiving device sends an acknowledgement, back to the source after
a packet or group of packets is received. This type of transmission is reliable and secure.

B. Connectionless service: It is a one-phase process and includes Data Transfer. In this type of
transmission, the receiver does not acknowledge receipt of a packet. This approach allows for much
faster communication between devices.

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Data in the Transport Layer is called as Segments. Transport layer is operated by the Operating
System. Transport Layer is called as Heart of OSI model.

Layer 5. Session Layer

The session layer is responsible for establishing, managing, and terminating connections
between applications at each end of the communication. In the connection establishment phase, the
service and the rules (who transmits and when, how much data can be sent at a time etc.) for
communication between the two devices are proposed. The participating devices must agree on the
rules. Once the rules are established, the data transfer phase begins.
Connection termination occurs when the session is complete, and communication ends gracefully. In
practice, Session Layer is often combined with the Transport Layer.
This layer is responsible for the establishment of connection, maintenance of sessions,
authentication, and also ensures security.

The functions of the session layer are :

1. Session establishment, maintenance, and termination: The layer allows the two processes to
establish, Manage/Use and terminate a connection.
2. Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints which are considered
synchronization points into the data that helps to identify the error so that the data is re-
synchronized properly, and ends of the messages are not cut prematurely and data loss is avoided.
3. Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start communication with each other in
half-duplex or full-duplex.

Layer 6. Presentation Layer (converts data into proper format)

When the presentation layer receives data from the application layer, to be sent over the
network, it makes sure that the data is in the proper format. If it is not, the presentation layer
converts the data to the proper format. On the other side of communication, when the presentation
layer receives network data from the session layer, it makes sure that the data is in the proper format
and once again converts it if it is not.
Formatting functions at the presentation layer may include compression, encryption, and
ensuring that the character code set (ASCII, Unicode, EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal
Interchange Code, which is used in IBM servers) etc.) can be interpreted on the other side.
The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer. The data from the application layer
is extracted here and manipulated as per the required format to transmit over the network.
The functions of the presentation layer are :
• Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC, Unicode etc.
• Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into another form or code. The
encrypted data is known as the cipher text and the decrypted data is known as plain text. A key value
is used for encrypting as well as decrypting/decoding/deciphering data.
• Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the network.

Layer 7. Application Layer : Top Most Layer

Real traffic data will be often generated from the Application Layer which may be a web request
generated from HTTP protocol, a command from telnet protocol, a file download request from FTP
protocol etc.
At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, there is an Application layer
which is implemented by the network applications. These applications produce the data, which

14
has to be transferred over the network. This layer also serves as a window for the application
services to access the network and for displaying the received information to the user.
Example: Application – Browsers, Skype Messenger, etc.

1.7 TCP/IP Protocol Suite

[The OSI Model was developed by the International Organization of Standardization (ISO) and the
TCP/IP Model was with the US Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA).]

The Internet protocol suite, TCP/IP, is the set of communication protocol used in the Internet and
similar computer networks. The current foundational protocols in the suite are the Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP)[RFC 793] and the Internet Protocol (IP), as well as the User Datagram
Protocol (UDP)[RFC 768]. The IP specifies the format of the packets that are sent and received among
routers and end systems.
Internet Standards are developed by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) and IETF
standards documents are called RFC(Requests for Comments). IETF standardize what protocols must
be run by an Internet host [RFC 1122, RFC1123] and an Internet router [RFC 1812]. IEEE 802.2
specifies the Ethernet and wireless Wi-Fi Standards.

The internet provides two services to its distributed applications (web surfing, instant
messaging, P2P file sharing, remote login, email, Internet Telephony, audio & video streaming
etc.) :A Connection Oriented Reliable and Connectionless Unreliable service.
Loosely speaking connection oriented reliable service guarantee the data transmitted from
a sender to receiver will eventually be delivered to the receiver in order and in its entirety.
Connectionless unreliable service doesn’t make any guarantees about eventual delivery.
Most of the more familiar Internet applications ( Telnet for remote login, SMTP for e-mail,
FTP for file transfer, HTTP for Web) use TCP, the connection oriented services
The internet‟s connection-oriented service comes bundled with several other services including
reliable data transfer, flow control and congestion control.
Reliable data transfer means that an application can rely on the connection to deliver all of its data
without error and in the proper order. Reliability in the internet is achieved through the use of
acknowledgement and retransmission.
Flow control makes sure that neither side of a connection overwhelms the other side by sending too
many packets too fast.
Congestion control helps prevent the internet from entering a state of gridlock. When a packet
switch becomes congested, its buffers can overflow and packet loss can occur.
UDP is Internet‟s connectionless service which is used by applications including multimedia
applications, such as Internet phone and Video Conferencing.

Some Real-Time Applications are:

• Simple Mail Transfer Protocol(SMTP): It helps to send email to another email address.
• File Transfer Protocol(FTP): It is used for sending large files.
• Dynamic Host Configure Protocol(DHCP): It assigns the IP address, default gateways and
other network parameters to client devices.
• Telnet: Bi-directional text communication via a terminal application.
• HyperText Transfer Protocol(HTTP): Used to transfer the web pages.
• Domain Name System(DNS): It translates the website name to IP addresses.
• Simple Network Time Protocol(SNTP): It provides the time of a day to the network devices.

Introduction to TCP/IP, History /Features of TCP/IP, What is RFC (Request for Comments)
What is TCP/IP?
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 TCP/IP is a set of network protocols (Protocol Suite) that enable communication between
computers. Network protocols are rules or standards that govern network communications.
If two devices in a network need to communicate together, they need to use common set of network
protocols.
TCP/IP is the industry standard. Almost all Operating Systems now support TCP/IP. Internet is
working on TCP/IP. TCP/IP is known as "the language of the Internet".

TCP/IP History

The predecessor of today‟s Internet was ARPAnet, created by the Advanced Research Projects
Agency (ARPA) and launched in 1969 during "Cold War".
ARPAnet was created in response to the potential threat of nuclear attack from the Soviet
Union. One of ARPA‟s primary goals was to design a fault-tolerant network that would enable U.S.
military leaders to stay in contact in case of nuclear war.
The protocol used on the ARPAnet was called Network Control Protocol (NCP). As the
ARPAnet grew, however, a new protocol was needed because NCP was not able to fulfill all the
needs of a larger network.
In 1974 Vinton Gray Cerf and Robert Elliot Kahn (proposed TCP/IP, the fundamental
communication protocols at the heart of the Internet.), published a paper “A Protocol for Packet
Network Interconnection.” This paper describes the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), which
eventually replaced NCP.
The name of the organization first changed from its founding name, ARPA, to DARPA, in
March 1972, changing back to ARPA in February 1993, then reverted to DARPA in March 1996.[8]

Requests for Comments (RFC)

Request for Comments (RFC) is a paper describing a protocol or technology. RFC's are used as
a platform to encourage and facilitate correspondence among the engineers who are involved in
developing a new technology or a protocol. RFCs help in providing feedback and collaboration
among engineers.
RFC is written by an engineer, a team of engineers, or just someone who has an innovative
idea, to define a new technology or enhance an existing technology. After an RFC is written and
posted, it can be evaluated, and used by other engineers and developers. If another engineer or
developer can improve on the theory or standard, the RFC provides an open forum to do so.
RFC can be submitted for review to the IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force). Engineers
from the IETF review the papers that are submitted and assign a number to each. From that point on,
the RFC number becomes the effective "name" of the paper.

Features of TCP/IP

TCP/IP protocol suite is a tested, proved and robust protocol suite.

1. Multi-Vendor Support:- TCP/IP is implemented by many hardware and software vendors. It is an
industry standard and not limited to any specific vendor.
2. Interoperability:- Working in a heterogeneous network (consisting of devices, Operating
Systems, software from different vendors) is only possible because of TCP/IP. A network user who is
using a Windows Operating System based computer can download files from a Linux machine,
because both Operating Systems support TCP/IP. TCP/IP eliminates the cross-platform/multi-
vendor boundaries.
3. Logical Addressing:- Every network adapter has a globally unique and permanent physical
address, as MAC address (physical address or hardware address). The physical address is burnt into
the card while manufacturing. Low-lying hardware-conscious protocols on a LAN deliver data
packets using the adapter's physical address. The network adapter of each computer listens to every

16
transmission on the local network to determine whether a message is addressed to its own physical
address.
[SMALL LAN issue ]: For a small LAN, this will work well. But when our computer is
connected to a big network like internet, it may need to listen to millions of transmissions per second.
This may cause our network connection to stop functioning.
To avoid this, network administrators often segment (divide) big networks into smaller networks
using devices such as routers to reduce network traffic, so that the unwanted data traffic from one
network may not create problem in another network. A network can be again subdivided into
smaller subnets so that a message can travel efficiently from its source to the destination. TCP/IP has
a robust subnetting capability achieved using logical addressing. The logical addressing system used
in TCP/IP protocol suite is known as IP address.

4) Routability. A router is a network infrastructure device which can read logical addressing
information and direct data across the network to its destination. TCP/IP is a routable protocol,
which means the TCP/IP data packets can be moved from one network segment to another.
5) Name Resolution:- IP addresses are designed for the computers and it is difficult for humans to
remember many IP addresses. TCP/IP allows us to use human-friendly names, which are very easy
to remember (Ex. www.ird.gov.np). Name Resolutions servers (DNS Servers) are used to resolve a
human readable name (also known as Fully Qualified Domain Names (FQDN)) to an IP address and
vice versa.
6) Error Control and Flow Control: The TCP/IP protocol has features that ensure the reliable
delivery of data from source computer to the destination computer. TCP (Transmission Control
Protocol) defines many of these error-checking, flow-control, and acknowledgement functions.
7) Multiplexing/De-multiplexing. Multiplexing means accepting data from different applications
and directing that data to different applications listening on different receiving computers. On the
receiving side the data need to be directed to the correct application, for that data was meant for. This
is called De-multiplexing. Several network applications can be run on the same computer, by using
logical channels called “ports”. TCP/IP provides means for delivering packets to the correct
application based on port numbers. In TCP/IP, ports are identified by using TCP or UDP port
numbers.

Port number is a 16-bit numerical value that ranges from 0 to 65535. Well-known port (0-
1023), registered port (1024-49151), and dynamic port is three types of port number space. (49152-
65535). A web browser when connected to a web server, a port in range (49152- 65535) is self-
allocated by web browser, which is called an ephemeral port.
These ports can be opened and used by software applications and operating system services
to send and receive data over networks (LAN or WAN) that employ certain protocols (eg TCP,
UDP). For example, we use 80 for HTTP-web-based plain-text surfing and 443 for HTTPS-web-
based encrypted websites in our daily work.

Port can be treated as a gateway to Internet. To facilitate different applications to make

connections at the same time, each device connecting to web uses ports in a different manner. All
operations are carried out using different ports when we simultaneously use web, download some
files, use a printer, etc. For instance, HTTP transfers use port number 80, whereas Telnet uses 23.
As it is known, device (i.e., computer) is identified by its IP address. Since multiple services (tabs) or
applications run by web browser simultaneously, to run network applications, the IP address alone is
not sufficient. Network port facilitates in identifying application or service running in
browser/computer in same fashion as IP address does.
What are the functions of ports?
When interacting over the Internet, TCP and UDP protocols make connections, recompile
data packages after the transfer, and then deliver them to applications on the recipient‟s device. For
this handover to work, the operating system must install and open the gateway for the transfer.

17
Each door has a unique code number. After transmission, the receiving system uses the port
number to determine where the data should be sent. The port numbers of the sender and receiver
are always included in the data packet.

Standardized ports are assigned to certain uses. Since code numbers are universally
recognized and permanently assigned, these standard ports are aka well-known ports.
Registered ports are those that organizations or software developers have registered for their
applications. Registration is handled by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA).
A diverse selection of dynamically assigned port numbers is also available. For example,
when viewing websites, browsers use these ports. After that, the phone number is free again.
FTP(21), Telnet(23), SMTP(25), DNS (53), HTTP(80), POP3 (110), MYSQL(3306), ORACLE DB (2484)

Apparent differences between original four layered and five layered TCP/IP model.
a. The functionalities of top three layers of OSI reference model (Application Layer, Presentation
Layer and Session Layer) are merged to a single layer, called as "Application Layer" in both five
layered and original four layered TCP/IP model.
b. Four layered TCP/IP model had only a single layer (Network Access Layer) to define the
functionalities for lower level data transmission (similar to functions associated with Physical layer
and Datalink layer of OSI model). In five layered TCP/IP model, Network Access Layer is split into
Physical layer and Datalink layer, to match with the functions of layers of OSI reference model.
c. Internet Layer is renamed to Network Layer, to match with the name of layer 3 of OSI
reference model.

Functions of different layers of five layered TCP/IP model

Layer 5 - Application Layer

Application layer is where network applications (web browsers, chat clients, email clients)
are placed. Network applications residing on Application Layer use its bottom layer, that is the
Transport Layer to connect to remote computers.
Layer 4 - Transport Layer
Two important protocols in Transport Layer are TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and
UDP (User Datagram Protocol). TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is used for reliable connections
and UDP (User Datagram Protocol) for fast streaming type of connections. Transport Layer provides
an addressing system for different applications, called as port numbers. Transport Layer delivers
data to exact application by assigning port numbers to applications.
Layer 3 - Network Layer
The Network Layer is responsible moving data from one network to another network. Main
protocol in Network Layer is Internet Protocol (IP) that uses IP addresses to identify the source and
destination of IP traffic. Routing function is associated with Network Layer.
Layer 2 - Datalink Layer
LAN standards (Example: Ethernet) are associated with Datalink Layer. The Datalink layer
creates its data packet called as frames, which encapsulates Internet Layer's IP Datagram. Datalink
Layer uses MAC addresses to identify the source and destination computers.
Layer 1 - Physical Layer
The Physical Layer is responsible for sending computer bits from one device to another along the
network. Physical Layer transmit the data either electrically, optically or as radio waves.

18
The original TCP/IP is a four layered model.

The original TCP/IP model had only four layers, but the updated TCP/IP model has five layers.
The four layers of original TCP/IP model are Application Layer, Transport Layer, Internet Layer and
Network Access Layer.

Layer 4. Application Layer

Application layer is placed on the top of the Transport layer. Application layer defines
TCP/IP application protocols and how host programs interface with Transport layer services to use
the network.
Application layer includes all the higher-level protocols like DNS (Domain Naming
System), HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol), Telnet, SSH, FTP (File Transfer Protocol), TFTP
(Trivial File Transfer Protocol), SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol), SMTP (Simple
Mail Transfer Protocol) , DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) etc.

Layer 3. Transport Layer

The purpose of Transport layer is to permit devices on the source and destination hosts to
carry on a conversation. Transport layer defines the level of service and status of the connection used
when transporting data. The main protocols included at Transport layer are TCP (Transmission
Control Protocol) and UDP (User Datagram Protocol).

Layer 2. Internet Layer (logical address or IP address)

Internet layer pack data into data packets known as IP datagrams, which contain source and
destination address (logical address or IP address) information that is used to forward the datagrams
between hosts and across networks. The Internet layer is also responsible for routing of IP datagrams.
Internet layer allow hosts to insert packets into network and have them delivered to the
destination, on the same network or on another remote network. At the destination side data packets
may appear in a different order than they were sent. It is the job of the higher layers to rearrange
them in order to deliver them to proper network applications operating at the Application layer.
The main protocols included at Internet layer are IP (Internet Protocol), ICMP (Internet
Control Message Protocol), ARP (Address Resolution Protocol), RARP (Reverse Address
Resolution Protocol) and IGMP (Internet Group Management Protocol).

Layer 1. Network Access Layer

Network Access Layer defines details of how data is physically sent through the network,
including how bits are electrically or optically signaled by hardware devices that interface directly
with a network medium, such as coaxial cable, optical fiber, or twisted pair copper wire.
The protocols/standards included in Network Access Layer are Ethernet, Token Ring, FDDI, X.25,
Frame Relay etc.
The most popular LAN architecture among those listed above is Ethernet that uses an Access Method
called CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection) to access the media, when
Ethernet operates in a shared media. An Access Method determines how a host will place data on the
medium.
In CSMA/CD Access Method, every host has equal access to the wire/medium and can place
data on the wire when the wire is free from network traffic. When a host wants to place data on the
wire, it will “sense”/check the wire to find whether another host is already using the medium (there
is a signal already on the wire). If there is traffic already in the medium, the host will wait and if there
is no traffic, it will place the data in the medium. But, if two systems place data on the medium at the
same instance, they will collide with each other, destroying the data. If the data is destroyed during
transmission, the data will need to be retransmitted. After collision, each host will wait for a small
interval of time and again the data will be retransmitted, to avoid collision again.

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Four Layered TCP/IP Model

1. Network Access Layer –

This layer corresponds to the combination of Data Link Layer and Physical Layer of the OSI
model. It looks out for hardware addressing and the protocols present in this layer allows for the
physical transmission of data.

2. Internet Layer –
This layer parallels the functions of OSI‟s Network layer. It defines the protocols which are
responsible for logical transmission of data over the entire network.

1. IP – Internet Protocol is responsible for delivering packets from the source host to the
destination host by looking at the IP addresses in the packet headers. IP has 2 versions:
IPv4 and IPv6. IPv4 is the one that most of the websites are using currently. But IPv6 is growing as
the number of IPv4 addresses are limited in number when compared to the number of users.
2. ICMP – Internet Control Message Protocol is encapsulated within IP datagrams and is
responsible for providing hosts with information about network problems.
Since IP does not have an inbuilt mechanism for sending error and control messages, [error-
reporting(Destination unreachable, Source quench, Time Exceeded, Parameter problem ) or error-
correcting mechanism], Query Message(Echo/Timestamp request or reply) it depends on ICMP to
provide an error control. It is used for reporting errors and management queries and is used by
networks devices like routers for sending error messages and operations information., e.g. the
requested service is not available or that a host or router could not be reached.

3. ARP – Address Resolution Protocol‟s job is to find the hardware address of a host from a known
IP address.

3. Host-to-Host Layer (Transport Layer)–

This layer is analogous to the transport layer of the OSI model, is responsible for end-to-end
communication and error-free delivery of data. It shields the upper-layer applications from the
complexities of data. The two main protocols present in this layer are :
1. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) – It is known to provide reliable and error-free
communication between end systems. It performs sequencing and segmentation of data. It also has
acknowledgment feature and controls the flow of the data through flow control mechanism. It is a
very effective protocol but has a lot of overhead due to such features. Increased overhead leads to
increased cost.
2. User Datagram Protocol (UDP) – On the other hand does not provide any such features. It is
the go-to protocol if our application does not require reliable transport as it is very cost-effective.
Unlike TCP, which is connection-oriented protocol, UDP is connectionless.

4. Application Layer –
This layer performs the functions of Application, Presentation and Session Layer together. It is
responsible for node-to-node communication and controls user-interface specifications. Some of the
protocols present in this layer are: HTTP, HTTPS, FTP, TFTP, Telnet, SSH, SMTP, SNMP, NTP, DNS,
DHCP, NFS, X Window, LPD.

a. HTTP and HTTPS – HTTP is used by the World Wide Web to manage communications between
web browsers and servers. HTTPS (HTTP-Secure) is a combination of HTTP with SSL(Secure Socket
Layer). It is efficient in cases where the browser need to fill out forms, sign in, authenticate and carry
out bank transactions.

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 b. SSH – SSH (Secure Shell) is a terminal emulations software similar to Telnet. The
reason SSH is more preferred is because of its ability to maintain the encrypted connection. It sets up
a secure session over a TCP/IP connection.
c. NTP – Network Time Protocol is used to synchronize the clocks on our computer to one
standard time source. NTP is very useful in situations like bank transactions.

TCP stands for Transmission Control Protocol and it guarantees delivery of data packets. This
protocol provides extensive error checking mechanisms such as flow control and acknowledgment of
data. Before transmitting data, a connection must be established between the devices participating in
data transmission. If our Application require guaranteed delivery of data, then we must choose TCP
as the Transport layer protocol.
UDP stands for User Datagram Protocol and it operates in Datagram mode. User Datagram
Protocol (UDP) is a connection-less protocol. User Datagram Protocol (UDP) has only the basic error
checking mechanism using checksums.
Difference between (TCP) and (UDP)

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

1) Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is a connection oriented protocol, which means the devices
should open a connection before transmitting data and should close the connection gracefully after
transmitting the data.
2) Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) assure reliable delivery of data to the destination.
3) Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) protocol provides extensive error checking mechanisms such
as flow control and acknowledgment of data.
4) Sequencing of data is a feature of Transmission Control Protocol (TCP).
5) Delivery of data is guaranteed if using Transmission Control Protocol (TCP).
6) Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is comparatively slow because of these extensive error
checking mechanisms.
7) Multiplexing and Demultiplexing is possible in Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) using TCP
port numbers.
8) Retransmission of lost packets is possible in Transmission Control Protocol (TCP).

User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

1) User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is Datagram oriented protocol with no overhead for opening a
connection (using three-way handshake), maintaining a connection, and closing (terminating) a
connection.
2) User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is efficient for broadcast/multicast type of network transmission.
3) User Datagram Protocol (UDP) has only the basic error checking mechanism using checksums.
4) There is no sequencing of data in User Datagram Protocol (UDP).
5) The delivery of data cannot be guaranteed in User Datagram Protocol (UDP).
6) User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is faster, simpler and more efficient than TCP. However, User
Datagram Protocol (UDP) is less robust than TCP
7) Multiplexing and Demultiplexing is possible in User Datagram Protocol (UDP) using UDP port
numbers.
8) There is No retransmission of lost packets in User Datagram Protocol (UDP).

1.8 Comparison between OSI and TCP/IP Reference model

The OSI and TCP/IP reference models have much in common. Both are based on the concept
of a stack of independent protocols. The functionality of the layers is roughly similar. In both models
the layers up through and including the transport layer are there to provide an end-to-end, network-
independent transport service. We are comparing the reference models here, not the corresponding
protocol stacks.

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Three concepts are central to the OSI model: 1. Services. 2. Interfaces. 3. Protocols.

Each layer performs some services for the layer above it. The service definition tells what the
layer does, not how entities above it access it or how the layer works. It defines the layer‟s semantics.
A layer’s interface tells the processes above it how to access it. It specifies what the parameters are
and what results to expect. It, too, says nothing about how the layer works inside.
Finally, the peer protocols used in a layer are the layer‟s own business. It can use any protocols it
wants to, as long as it gets the job done (i.e., provides the offered services). It can also change them at
will without affecting software in higher layers

1. An obvious difference between the two models is the number of layers: the OSI model has
seven layers and the TCP/IP model has four. Both have (inter)network, transport, and application
layers, but the other layers are different
2. Another difference is in the area of connectionless versus connection-oriented
communication. The OSI model supports both connectionless and connection oriented
communication in the network layer, but only “connection-oriented communication in the transport
layer”, where it counts (because the transport service is visible to the users). The TCP/IP model
supports only one mode in the network layer (connectionless) but both in the transport layer, giving
the users a choice. This choice is especially important for simple request-response protocols

Comparison Between TCP/IP and OSI Mode

Comparison of both four layered TCP/IP model and five layered TCP/IP model with seven layered
OSI reference model.

OSI (Open System Interconnection) model was introduced by ISO (International Standard
Organization). Currently OSI (Open System Interconnection) model is just a reference model. Means
that, there are no real working implementations of OSI model on any of latest network infrastructure
devices or Operating Systems. OSI (Open System Interconnection) model is used these days only as a
reference model for teaching computer networking concepts and for understanding how computer
networks operate.
The roots of TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol Internet Protocol) are with US Department of
Defense (DoD). Original TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) model had only
four layers, and later an updated model evolved with five layers.

1.9 Critiques of OSI and TCP/IP Reference model

A Critique of the OSI Model and Protocols
Neither the OSI model and its protocols nor the TCP/IP model and its protocols are perfect.

Bad Timing
The time at which a standard is established/introduced is absolutely critical to its success.

Bad Design
The choice of seven layers was more political than technical, and two of the layers (session
and presentation) are nearly empty, whereas two other ones (data link and network) are overfull. The
OSI model, along with its associated service definitions and protocols, is extraordinarily complex.
They are also difficult to implement and inefficient in operation.
In addition to being incomprehensible, another problem with OSI is that some functions, such
as addressing, flow control, and error control, reappear again and again in each layer. To be effective,
error control must be done in the highest layer, so that repeating it over and over in each of the lower
layers is often unnecessary and inefficient.

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Bad Implementations
The initial implementations were huge, unwieldy (too large or disorganized to function
efficiently), and slow. It did not take long for people to associate „„OSI‟‟ with „„poor quality.‟‟
Although the products improved in the course of time, the image stuck.
In contrast, one of the first implementations of TCP/IP was part of Berkeley UNIX and was quite
good. People began using it quickly, which led to a large user community, which led to
improvements and which led to an even larger community.

Bad Politics
On account of the initial implementation, many people, especially in academia, thought of
TCP/IP as part of UNIX, and UNIX. OSI, on the other hand, was widely thought to be the creature of
the European telecommunication ministries, the European Community, and later the U.S.
Government. This belief was only partly true

A Critique of the TCP/IP Reference Model and Protocols

The TCP/IP model and protocols also have their problems. First, the TCP/IP model does not
clearly distinguish the concepts of services, interfaces, and protocols. Good software engineering
practice requires differentiating between the specification and the implementation, something that
OSI does very carefully, but TCP/IP does not. Consequently, the TCP/IP model is not much of a
guide for de- signing new networks using new technologies.

Second, the TCP/IP model is not at all general and is poorly suited to describing any protocol
stack other than TCP/IP. Trying to use the TCP/IP model to de- scribe Bluetooth, for example, is
completely impossible.

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