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Learner’s Book

www.mml.co.za

M. Bester • M. Bezuidenhout • A. Clacherty • S. Cohen • S. Doubell

J. Erasmus • A. Joannides • G. Lombard • E. Nkosi • S. Paarman
K. Padayachee • R. Sadie • L. Schreuder

9780636140929_plt_nat_g09_lb_eng_cvr.indd 1-3 2013/05/23 11:31 AM

 Platinum Natural Sciences Grade 9
Learner’s Book

Maskew Miller Longman (Pty) Ltd

Forest Drive, Pinelands, Cape Town

website: www.mml.co.za

© Maskew Miller Longman (Pty) Ltd 2013

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or
otherwise, without the prior written permission of the copyright holder.

Every effort has been made to trace the copyright holders of material produced in this title. We would like
to apologise for any infringement of copyright so caused, and copyright holders are requested to contact
the publishers in order to rectify the matter.

First published in 2013

Print ISBN 978-0-636-14092-9

ePDF ISBN 978-0-636-15150-5

Untitled-1 2 2013/08/22 4:49 PM

 Contents
Term 1 Topic 5 Digestive system
Unit 1 Healthy diet
61
62
Practical task Investigate the presence of
Life and living 1
starch and grease in food 66
Unit 2 Alimentary canal and digestion 68
Topic 1 Cells as the basic unit of life 1 Topic 5 revision 72
Unit 1 Cell structure 2
Unit 2 Differences between plant and Term 1: Practice test 73
animal cells 5
Skills focus Use a compound light
microscope 7
Skills focus Prepare a wet mount slide 10
Term 2
Unit 3 Cells in tissues, organs
and systems 12 Matter and materials 75
Topic 1 revision 16
Topic 6 Compounds and chemical reactions 75
Topic 2 Systems in the human body 17 Unit 1 The Periodic Table of Elements 76
Unit 1 Body systems 18 Unit 2 Names of compounds 81
Unit 2 Digestive system 20 Unit 3 Chemical equations to
represent reactions 83
Unit 3 Circulatory system 22
Unit 4 Balanced equations 86
Unit 4 Respiratory system 24
Topic 6 revision 88
Unit 5 Musculoskeletal system 26
Unit 6 Excretory system 28
Topic 7 Reactions of metals and non-metals
Unit 7 Nervous system 30
with oxygen 89
Unit 8 Reproductive system 32
Unit 1 Reactions of metals with oxygen 90
Topic 2 revision 34
Unit 2 Rusting 93
Unit 3 Reactions of non-metals with
Topic 3 Human reproduction 35 oxygen 96
Unit 1 Purpose and puberty 36 Topic 7 revision 98
Unit 2 Reproductive organs 40
Unit 3 Stages of reproduction 44 Topic 8 Acids, bases and pH value 99
Topic 3 revision 48 Unit 1 The concept of pH value 100
Skills focus Write a scientific report 104
Topic 4 Circulatory and respiratory systems 49 Practical task Test and sequence household
Unit 1 Breathing, gaseous exchange, products according to degree
circulation and respiration 50 of acidity 107
Skills focus Make a dissection 58 Topic 8 revision 108
Topic 4 revision 60

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 Topic 9 Reactions of acids with bases Topic 13 Series and parallel circuits 161
and metals 109 Unit 1 Series circuits 162
Unit 1 Neutralisation and pH 110 Unit 2 Parallel circuits 167
Unit 2 Reactions of acids with metal Topic 13 revision 174
oxides and metal hydroxides 114
Skills focus Ask a testable question 117
Topic 14 Safety with electricity and the national
Unit 3 Reactions of acids with electricity grid 175
metal carbonates 118
Unit 1 Safety practices 176
Skills focus Write a summary 123
Unit 2 Electricity generation 180
Unit 4 Reactions of acids with metals 124
Unit 3 Nuclear power in South Africa 182
Topic 9 revision 126
Unit 4 National electricity grid 184
Term 2: Practice test 127 Topic 14 revision 186

Topic 15 Cost of electrical power 187

Term 3 Unit 1 The cost of power consumption 188
Practical task Compare the cost of running
different household
Energy and change 129
appliances for a month 196
Topic 15 revision 198
Topic 10 Forces 129
Unit 1 Types of forces 130 Term 3: Practice test 199
Unit 2 Contact forces 134
Unit 3 Field forces 136
Topic 10 revision 144 Term 4
Topic 11 Electric cells as energy systems 145 Planet Earth and beyond 201
Unit 1 Electric cells 146
Topic 11 revision 150 Topic 16 Earth as a system 201
Unit 1 Spheres of Earth 202
Topic 12 Resistance 151 Topic 16 revision 206
Unit 1 Uses of resistors 152
Skills focus Measure voltage and Topic 17 Lithosphere 207
current 154
Unit 1 Lithosphere 208
Unit 2 Factors that affect resistance
Unit 2 The rock cycle 212
in a circuit 156
Topic 17 revision 218
Skills focus Analyse data and draw
conclusions 159
Topic 12 revision 160

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 Topic 18 Mining of mineral resources 219 Topic 20 Birth, life and death of stars 251
Unit 1 Extracting ores 220 Unit 1 Birth of a star 252
Unit 2 Refining minerals 222 Unit 2 Life of a star 254
Unit 3 Mining in South Africa 227 Unit 3 Death of a star 256
Project Research and write about a mining Topic 20 revision 258
activity in South Africa 230
Topic 18 revision 232 Practice exams: Terms 1 and 2 259
Terms 3 and 4 265
Topic 19 The atmosphere 233
Unit 1 Atmosphere 234
Skills focus Drawing to scale 236
Unit 2 Troposphere 238 Glossary 269
Practical task Calculate the temperature at Index 275
different heights above sea Periodic table 282
level in the troposphere 240
Unit 3 Stratosphere 242
Unit 4 Mesosphere and
thermosphere 244
Unit 5 Greenhouse effect 246
Topic 19 revision 250

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 Acknowledgements
Every effort has been made to trace the copyright holders of material produced in this title. We would
like to apologise for any infringement of copyright so caused, and copyright holders are requested to
contact the publishers in order to rectify the matter.

Artists: AJ Erasmus, Chris Pheiffer, Claudia Eckard, Merrick James, Sue Etberg, Tina Nel, Vicki Smith,
Will Alves

Photo acknowledgements: Afripics (pp 93c, 95e, 100a, 112a, 171h, 245b); Alamy (pp 36c, 57c, 228e);
Bigstock (pp 7a, 9d, 16b, 27d, 63d, 72d, 95c, 99a, 117d, 121a, 121d, 129a, 145a, 148c, 151c, 151e, 152g,
153b, 153d, 153f, 153h, 156c, 161c, 169a, 169b, 176c, 176d, 179c, 181d, 184b, 187a, 188a, 188b, 193c,
193d, 193e, 193f, 198d, 200c, 200d, 201a, 202a, 202c, 202d, 202e, 202f, 204a, 204c, 204e, 208b, 208c,
210d, 210e, 210f, 211b, 213a, 214c, 215a, 216a, 216b, 216c, 219a, 220d, 221c, 222d, 233a, 238c, 239b,
241a, 246b); Campbell Fleming (pg 105d), Corbis (pg 221a), Gallo (pp 41b, 182c, 248a, 251a, 252b, 252c),
Fotostock (pp 95h, 109a, 109c, 117b, 121b, 125d), Getty (pp 62a, 62c, 220b), Gill Lanham (pp 145c, 145e),
Graeme Williams Kendal2 (pg 180b), Greatstock (pp 89c, 95b), INPRA (pg 21d), iStockphotos (pp 8d, 16d,
26b, 61a, 89a, 135f, 151a, 156d, 157b, 165d, 175a, 181b, 183b, 228c), Media Club SA (pg 229b), (pp 4d,
58d, 59b, 64d, 64e, 64f, 185b, 194c, 263c), NASA (pp 254c, 255b, 256a, 256d, 257b, 258d, 258e, 258f, 258g,
258h, 258i), Reuters (pg 170c), Science Photo Library (pp 1a, 1c, 3b, 3c, 6a, 9b, 9f, 12a, 12b, 12c, 12d, 13a,
13c, 13e, 13g, 13i, 14b, 14d, 14f, 15b, 21b, 25b, 35a, 36d, 38c, 46b, 47b, 55d, 56b, 71b, 75a, 90c, 90d, 90e,
90f, 90g, 91a, 91c, 92c, 94a, 94c, 95a, 96b, 96c, 96d, 97a, 100b, 100c, 101d, 102e, 102f, 103d, 103f, 105b,
106b, 106b, 106c, 106d, 106e, 106f, 110d, 111d, 113b, 114c, 114d, 116b, 121c, 125b, 130b, 161a, 172f,
223c, 241b, 243d, 244b, 244c, 253b), Shutterstock (pp 6d, 17a, 29d, 36f ), Stock Photos (pg 215b), The
Bigger Picture (pg 29f ), Thomas Talkner (pp 10b, 10d, 10f, 11b, 11d, 58b, 59d, 66b, 66c, 66d, 66f, 67a, 67b,
67d, 102d, 110e, 111b, 112b, 112d, 115c, 115d, 119a, 119b, 120b, 124f, 135d, 136a, 139d, 140b, 140c,
141a, 141b, 141c, 142c, 142e, 146e, 148e, 149b, 149d, 149f, 152f, 154a, 154a, 154b, 154c, 154f, 154i, 155a,
155b, 155c, 155f, 158c, 162d, 163b, 167b, 262c), Visuals unlimited (pg 25d)

mml_9780636140929_plt_nat_g09_lb_eng_zaf.indb 4 06/06/13 2:47 PM

 Term 1: Life and living
Topic

1 Cells as the basic unit of life

Starting off
The human body is amazingly complex. It is made up of
lots of different parts that all work together to keep you
alive. The smallest part of your body is a single cell. There
are lots of different types of cells that make up your
body such as muscle cells, nerve cells and bone cells.
Different types of cells have different functions.
All living things are made of cells. Humans are
multicellular organisms. This means that they are
made up of many cells. There are other organisms that
spend their whole lives as a single cell. These are called
unicellular organisms. Individual cells are very small and
can only be seen by using a microscope. When we look
(a) at cells under a microscope we can view their structure.
We can see that plant and animal cells are different from
each other and that the different types of cells that occur
within the same organism are also different from each
other.

Activity 1 Recall information about cells

1. Name the smallest part that an animal is made of.

2. Name the smallest part that a plant is made of.
3. Do you think that the smallest parts of plants and
animals look the same? Give a reason for your
answer.
4. The cells that make up your skin are not the same
as the cells found in your muscles. Suggest a reason
why these cells are different.
(b)
Figure 1 Micrographs of (a) plant cells and (b) human cells

Topic 1: Cells as the basic unit of life 1

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 Unit

1 Cell structure
The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all living organisms. Cells are
Key words
so small that they can only be seen under a microscope. Anything that can only be
• cell – the smallest seen using a microscope is called microscopic.
unit of all living All cells, whether they are plant or animal cells, have the same basic structure. A
organisms typical cell is shown in Figure 2 and each component is described below.
• microscopic –
something that
is so small that it Cell membrane
can only be seen
when using a
microscope Cytoplasm
• DNA – the
Vacuole
material found in
cells that carries
the hereditary
Nucleus
information
• organelle –
specialised
structures found
inside living cells Mitochondrion
that perform
specific functions
for the cell
Figure 2 The general structure of a cell

Cell membrane
The cell membrane forms the outer boundary of the cell. It surrounds the contents
of the cell. The membrane is selectively permeable. This means that it controls
which materials pass into or out of the cell.

Cytoplasm
Cells are filled with a jelly-like substance called cytoplasm. It consists of water
with a complex collection of structures and materials that are either dissolved
or suspended in it. The cytoplasm provides a liquid medium for all the chemical
reactions that take place inside the cell.

2 Term 1

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 Nucleus
All living cells contain DNA. In the simplest cells, such as bacteria, DNA occurs in the
cytoplasm. In plant and animal cells, DNA is contained in the nucleus. The nucleus
is a round organelle surrounded by a nuclear membrane. The nucleus contains
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). DNA contains the information that determines an
organism’s inherited characteristics.
In humans, DNA determines characteristics such as eye colour
or hair colour. Each person’s DNA is unique: it is different from
everyone else’s. Children inherit a mixture of their mother and
father’s DNA. This process allows people to look different from
each other. It is this process that accounts for the variation within
a single species.

Organelles
Each of the organelles listed below performs a different function
for the cell. Organelles are quite large structures that are found in
the cytoplasm of cells. The nucleus is an example of an organelle
but there are also other organelles that occur in cells. While some
organelles occur in both plant and animal cells, others are found
in only one type of cell.
• Mitochondria are found in both plant and animal cells.
Respiration, the metabolic reaction that releases energy
from glucose, takes place in the mitochondria.
• Vacuoles are fluid-filled sacs that are surrounded by a
membrane. They are used to store substances which can
then be used by the cell. Animal cells usually have several
small vacuoles or no vacuoles at all while plant cells usually
have one or two large vacuoles which store substances such Figure 3 Micrograph of a nucleus containing DNA
as sugar, salts and water for the cell.
• Chloroplasts are only found in plant cells. Photosynthesis
takes place in chloroplasts. You will learn more about
chloroplasts in the next unit.

Figure 4 Micrograph of a mitochondrion

Topic 1: Cells as the basic unit of life 3

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 Activity 2 Construct a model of a cell
You will construct a three-dimensional model to show the general structure of a
cell.
You will need: large bowl which represents the cell membrane • 15 g clear gelatine
powder • 500 ml hot water • one object to represent the nucleus,
such as a plum, peach or small ball • objects to represent vacuoles,
such as grapes • objects to represent mitochondria, such as jelly
beans or kidney beans • large plate
1. Make up the gelatine according to the instructions on the box. Carefully pour
the hot gelatine mixture into the bowl. Put in the fridge and let it set for about
an hour, or until it is almost set, but do not let it become completely set. The
gelatine will represent the cytoplasm of the cell.
2. Add your cell parts. Arrange the components of the cell in the gelatine so that
they look like the parts of the cell. Use the photograph below to help you.
3. Make a list of each part. After you’ve added your cell pieces, write up a list of
what part of a cell each item represents.
4. Put the model back into the fridge. Allow the gelatine to set for another hour
or two.
5. Warm the bottom of the bowl slightly by placing it in a basin of warm water.
Then turn the model out onto a plate.

Figure 5 An example of a model of the general structure of a cell

Key concepts
Cells are the functional units of all living organisms. Most cells have a cell
membrane, a nucleus, cytoplasm and organelles.

4 Term 1

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 Unit

2 Differences between plant and animal cells

Plants and animals appear different from each other because their cells are
Key words
different. Compare the plant cell in Figure 6(a) with the animal cell in Figure 6(b).
You will see that there are certain structures and organelles that occur in the plant • chlorophyll – a
cell that do not occur in the animal cell. green pigment
Plant cells differ from animal cells in three main ways: found in
• They have a cell wall that surrounds the cell on the outside of the cell chloroplasts that
membrane. It is made of cellulose, which is a rigid material. The cell wall gives plants their
provides the cell with support and protection. Animal cells do not have a cell green colour
wall because organisms are usually supported and protected by their skeleton. • photosynthesis –
• They have chloroplasts. A chloroplast is a special organelle that contains the process by
chlorophyll. This is a green pigment that absorbs light energy from the sun which plants use
and converts it into energy-rich glucose. This process is called photosynthesis. chlorophyll to
The glucose is stored as starch which is then used as food for the plant. Animals convert radiant
are unable to make their own food by the process of photosynthesis because energy into food
they do not have chloroplasts. You learnt about photosynthesis in Grade 8.
• They usually have one or two large vacuoles. In contrast, animal cells usually
do not have vacuoles or if they are present, they are very small.

Chloroplast

Mitochondrion
Cytoplasm
Vacuole
Nucleus

Cell membrane

Cell wall

(a)

Cell membrane

Nucleus
Mitochondrion

Vacuole

Cytoplasm

(b)
Figure 6 The structure of (a) a typical plant cell and (b) a typical animal cell

Topic 1: Cells as the basic unit of life 5

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 Activity 3 Tabulate the differences between plant and
animal cells
Draw up a table that shows the three main differences between plant and animal
cells.

Activity 4 Identify and explain the main differences

between plant and animal cells

1. a ) State whether the diagram of the cell in Figure 8 shows an animal cell or a
Figure 7 Micrograph of two plant cell.
chloroplasts from a pea plant
b ) Identify three structures that support your previous answer.
c ) Explain why these structures are necessary for this type of cell.
2. Give the name and function of the structures labelled P to U in the diagram.
a ) P
b) Q
c ) R
d) S
e ) T
f ) U
Key words
• microscope – an P
instrument that
uses a lens or a
Q
combination of
lenses to produce
magnified images R
of small objects
S
• magnifying lens –
a piece of glass
that is specially T
curved to produce U
an enlarged image
of an object

Figure 8 General structure of a cell

3. Draw a fully labelled diagram to show the general structure of the type of cell
that is NOT represented in the diagram.

Key concepts
Plant and animal cells are different in structure. This is what makes plants
and animals appear different from each other.

6 Term 1

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 Skills focus: Use a compound light microscope

What is a microscope?
A microscope is an instrument that contains one or more magnifying lenses. It
allows us to look at things that are too small to see with the naked eye.
A compound light microscope is a common tool used in biology. It is called
a “compound” microscope because it has more than one lens, and a “light”
microscope because it uses light to view the specimen. In contrast, an electron
microscope uses beams of electrons to make an image of a specimen.
Make sure you are familiar with the different parts of the microscope and that you
know what they do.
Ocular lens/eyepiece lens:
This is the lens closest to your eye

Body tube: contains the

Coarse focusing knob: Turning the knob lenses that magnify the object
changes the distance between the stage
Rotating nosepiece: A structure
and the objective lens quickly to place
that rotates to allow one of three
the specimen on a slide in rough focus
lenses to be used to view
the specimen
Fine focusing knob: Turning the knob
Objective lenses: These are the
changes the distance between the stage
lenses closest to the specimen.
and the objective lens slowly to allow very
There are usually three objective
clear focusing on the specimen on the slide
lenses attached to the rotating
nosepiece: a low power, medium
power and high power objective

Arm: This connects the body

tube to the base and is used
to carry the microscope Stage clamp/clip: This holds the
microscope slide in place
Stage: This is the platform that the
slide is placed on

Diaphragm and condenser: The diaphragm

adjusts the amount of light that is
passing through the microscope, while
the condenser focuses the
light onto the specimen Mirror: The mirror directs light
up through the microscope
Base: The base supports the lenses
and stage

Figure 9 Compound light microscope

Skills focus: Use a compound light microscope 7

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 Skills focus: Use a compound light microscope

How to use a compound light microscope

1. Place the microscope on a level surface. Check that the lowest power objective
lens is in place.
2. Turn the coarse focusing knob so that the objective lens moves away from the
stage.
3. Place the microscope slide on the stage. Ensure that the specimen on the slide
is placed directly over the hole in the stage. Do not let the slide touch the lens.
4. Look from the side and turn the coarse focusing knob slowly so that the stage
moves towards the objective lens.
5. Look through the eyepiece. Turn the coarse focusing knob slowly so that the
stage moves away from the objective lens. The specimen on the slide should
come into focus.
6. Use the fine focusing knob to get a clear image of the specimen.
7. Once you have the specimen focused you may need to move the slide to find
the best cells to view.
8. To increase the magnification, look from the side again and swing the medium
power objective lens into place. Make sure that the lens does not touch the
slide.
9. Look through the eyepiece and use the fine focus knob to focus on the
specimen.
10. Change to the high power objective lens and then repeat steps 6 and 7.
11. To determine the magnification that you are using to view the specimen,
multiply the magnification of the eyepiece lens with the magnification of the
objective lens. The magnification of the lens is usually written on the side of
the lens. For example, if your eyepiece lens has a magnification of 103 and the
objective lens has a magnification of 403, then the total magnification of the
specimen is 4003.

Figure 10 The magnification of a lens is written on the side of the lens

Activity 5 Practise using a compound light microscope

1. Study the light microscope and its parts.
2. Identify each part of the microscope and explain the function of each part to
your partner.

8 Term 1

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 3. Use a table similar to the example provided below to tabulate the functions
of the different parts of the microscope.

Name of microscope Function

4. If you have access to a microscope, your teacher will provide you with a
microscope slide. Look at the slide under the microscope following the steps
on page 8.
5. Describe to your partner what you see at each magnification. (a)

The discovery of microscopes

1300 AD

14th century – The art of grinding lenses is developed in Italy and spectacles
are made to improve eyesight

1400

(b)
1500

1590 – Dutch lens grinders Hans and Zacharias Janssen make the first
1600 microscope by placing two lenses in a tube

1667 – Robert Hooke studies various objects with his microscope and 1675 – Anton van Leeuwenhoek uses a simple microscope with only one lens
describes the structure of cork cells to look at blood, insects and many other objects. He describes cells and
1700
bacteria for the first time

18th century – Microscopes improve and become easier to handle. This leads to
microscopy becoming more popular among scientists
1800

1830 – Joseph Jackson Lister shows that several weak lenses used together
at certain distances gave good magnification without blurring the image

1900 1903 – Richard Zsigmondy develops the ultramicroscope. He is awarded the

1932 – Frits Zernike invents the phase-contrast microscope that allows the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1925
study of colourless and transparent biological materials. He is awarded the 1938 – Ernst Ruska develops the electron microscope which allows extremely
Nobel Prize in Physics in 1953
1981 – Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer invent the scanning tunnelling
small objects to be seen. He is awarded half of the Nobel Prize in Physics
in 1986 (c)
2000
microscope that gives three-dimensional images of objects down
to the atomic level They are each awarded a quarter of the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1986
Figure 11 Microscopes throughout
the ages: (a) an 18th century
Figure 11 Timeline of the discovery of microscopes microscope similar to that used
by Joseph Lister, (b) a modern
compound light microscope and
Activity 6 Research and write about the history of the (c) a scanning electron microscope

discovery of the light and electron microscopes

Study the timeline provided in Figure 11. Do additional research on the
Internet and/or in your school library and use the timeline to write a report on
the history of the discovery of light and electron microscopes.

Topic 1: Cells as the basic unit of life 9

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 Skills focus: Prepare a wet mount slide

Key words What is a wet mount slide?

A wet mount slide is a type of microscope slide that can be prepared quickly and
• wet mount – a
easily by a biologist in order to look at something under the microscope. It is called
glass slide holding
a wet mount because the specimen is placed in a drop of liquid on a microscope
a specimen
slide. The liquid used is usually water. In some cases a dye may be added to the
suspended in a
water to stain the cells or part of the cells to make them more visible.
drop of water and
covered with a
cover slip
How to make a wet mount slide of onion
• magnifying lens –
a piece of glass
epidermis
that is specially You will need: glass slide • coverslip • two dissecting needles • small wedge of
curved to produce onion • tissues • iodine solution
an enlarged image
Step 1: Place a clean glass slide on a flat
of an object
surface. Then place four to five drops
of iodine solution in the middle of the
slide.
Step 2: Hold a leaf of the onion so that the
shiny side is facing you. Bend the top
of the piece of onion towards you until
it breaks and then pull downwards so
that the shiny epidermis is pulled off.
Step 3: Place a small piece of the onion
epidermis into the iodine solution on
the slide.
Step 4: Place the coverslip at an angle at
the end of the slide. Then slide the
coverslip along so that the liquid
collects under the coverslip. Rest the
coverslip on a dissecting needle and
use the needle to lower the coverslip as
slowly as possible.
Step 5: Use a tissue to dry any excess water.
You should do this by placing the tissue
along the edge of the coverslip. Never
press on top of the coverslip.

10 Term 1

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 How to make a wet mount slide of cheek cells
You will need: a glass slide • a coverslip • two dissecting needles • toothpicks or
cotton buds
Step 1: Place a clean slide on a flat surface. Then place
four to five drops of water in the middle of
the slide.
Step 2: Use the side of the toothpick, a cotton bud
or your fingernail to gently scrape along
the inside of your cheek to collect cheek cells.

Step 3: Dip the toothpick, cotton bud or your

fingernail into the water on the slide so that the
cells that have been collected are transferred
to the water.
Step 4: Follow steps 4 and 5 of the instructions
on page 10 to complete you slide.

Activity 7 Practise making a wet mount slide

1. Follow the instructions to prepare a wet mount slide of a piece of onion
epidermis. When your slide is ready, show it to your teacher to check that
it is okay to look at it under the microscope.
2. Look at your wet mount slide under the microscope. Follow the
instructions for using a microscope on page 8.
3. Choose the magnification that you think is best and draw three cells.
Remember that you can calculate the magnification by multiplying the
magnification of the eyepiece by the magnification of the objective lens
that you have used.
4. Give your drawing a heading and record the magnification that you
used.
5. Label all the parts of one of the cells that are visible in your drawing.
6. Follow the instructions to prepare a wet mount slide of cheek cells.
When your slide is ready, show it to your teacher to check that it is okay
to look at it under the microscope.
7. Repeat steps 2 to 5 with your new slide.

Skills focus:
Topic Prepare
1: Cells a wet
as the mount
basic unit ofslide
life 11
11

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 Unit

3 Cells in tissues, organs and systems

Cells come in many different shapes and sizes, and organisms are made up of
Key words
different numbers of cells.
• unicellular – Some microscopic organisms, such as bacteria, consist of a single cell. This means
consisting of a that all the life processes, such as feeding, respiration, excretion and reproduction,
single cell are carried out within one cell. Organisms that consist of a single cell are called
• macroscopic – unicellular organisms.
large enough to
be seen with the
naked eye
• multicellular –
consisting of
many cells
(a) (b) (c)
• specialise –
Figure 12 Examples of unicellular organisms: (a) amoeba, (b) paramaecium and (c) unicellular algae
to take on a
particular function
and only perform In contrast, macroscopic organisms such as humans, are made up of thousands of
that function cells. Organisms that consist of large numbers of cells are called multicellular. It
would be impossible for every cell to carry out all the life processes needed to keep
large, complex organisms like humans alive. In these organisms, groups of cells
will specialise so that they are able to perform a specific function. Each specialised
group of cells will have the same shape and structure. For example, muscle cells are
able to contract and relax to enable your body to move.

Figure 13 Muscle cells are specialised to contract and enable movement

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 Tissues, organs and systems
You have learnt that multicellular organisms are made up of many cells that all
work together to keep the organism alive. A group of cells performing a specific
function form a tissue, a group of tissues make up an organ, organs working
together in groups form systems and systems make up an organism.
Cells All living organisms are made up of
cells

Tissue A tissue is a group of cells that

all have the same structure and
perform the same function

Organ An organ is made up of a group

of different tissues that perform a
single function. For example, the
heart is made of muscle tissue,
connective tissue, nerve tissue and
blood. All of these tissues work
together to pump blood around the
body

System A system consists of a group of

different organs that work together
to perform a bodily function for the
organism. Some of the organs that
make up the digestive system are
the stomach, the small intestine
and the large intestine. The different
organs work together to digest food
and absorb nutrients

Organism An organism is made up of a

number of different systems which
all work together to keep the
organism alive. Humans have seven
systems:
• the digestive system
• the circulatory system
• the respiratory system
• the musculoskeletal system
• the excretory system
• the nervous system
• the reproductive system
Figure 14 The cells of macroscopic organisms are grouped into tissues, organs and systems

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 Key word Activity 8 Examine micrographs of plant and animal cells
• epithelial tissue – a
1. The diagram alongside shows tissue from a
tissue that covers
leaf. These particular cells are specialised for
the organs and
photosynthesis.
internal surfaces
a ) State TWO reasons why you know this
of the body
micrograph shows plant cells.
b ) Draw a few cells of leaf tissue. Label as
many cell structures as you can identify.
c ) A leaf is a collection of tissues that
perform a specific function. State whether
a leaf is a system or an organ.
Explain your answer.
2. The diagrams below show epithelial tissue
that lines the human mouth and nerve tissue
that transmits nerve impulses around the
body.
a ) Suggest a reason why these cells do not
look the same.
Figure 15 Micrograph of leaf tissue
b ) Draw a few cells of each tissue type. Label
as many cell structures as you can identify.

(a)

(b)
Figure 16 Micrograph of (a) epithelial tissue lining
the human mouth and (b) nerve tissue
3. Explain how a multicellular organism is organised to carry out all the necessary
life processes required for its survival. For example, reproduction, excretion and
digestion.

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 Stem cell research
Stem cells are cells that have not yet developed and have the
ability to specialise into almost any type of cell in the human
body.
Stem cell research involves harvesting stem cells and then
trying to see if they can be used to cure diseases. Human stem
cells can be harvested in a number of ways. Adult stem cells are
harvested from the blood, adipose or fat tissue and the bone
marrow of a person. Umbilical stem cells are harvested from
the blood that is in the umbilical cord when a baby is born.
Embryonic stem cells are harvested from human embryos.
Many people are opposed to stem cell research because the
best source of stem cells is from human embryos. In order to
harvest the stem cells the embryo is destroyed. This practice is
considered to be ethically and morally wrong by many people.
They feel that a human life is being destroyed when stem cells Figure 17 Stems cells can develop into any cell in the
are harvested from embryos. body, such as muscle fibres, blood cells or nerve cells

Activity 9 Research, discuss and write about stem cell research

You are a famous scientist doing crucial work in your laboratory that could cure
a number of diseases that currently affect people. You have come to a point in
your research where, in order to continue, you need to conduct stem cell research.
Unfortunately obtaining stem cells is difficult and very expensive. You have decided
to try to get funding from public organisations and the government in order to
continue your research.
Write a letter that you could send to a number of different organisations requesting
financial assistance. Your letter should include the following points:
1. A brief explanation of what stem cell research is.
2. The three sources of stem cells.
3. State which source you plan to use to obtain your stem cells and why you have
chosen this source. You should explain why many people object to the use of
embryonic stem cells for research purposes.
4. Examples of THREE diseases or human ailments that could be cured as a result
of stem cell research.
Your letter should be clearly and concisely written. The language used should
be respectful and professional. You must include any references you used at the
bottom of your letter.

Key concepts
The cells of living organisms are organised into tissues, organs and systems.
Different types of cells perform different functions in the body. All the parts
of the body work together to keep the organism alive.

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 Topic 1 revision

Science language activity

Write down the correct scientific term for each of the following statements.
1. A special instrument that is used to look at objects that cannot be seen with the naked eye.
2. The functional unit of any living organism.
3. A curved piece of glass that is used to magnify small objects.
4. A term that describes an organism that consists of only one cell.
5. A group of cells that all have the same structure and that work together to perform the same function.
6. A term that describes an organism that consists of many cells.
7. A group of different tissues that work together to perform a single function.
8. A general term used to describe the small structures that are found inside a cell and each perform a
particular function.
9. Processes that occur in all living organisms that are essential to keep the organism alive.
10. A small piece of glass that specimens are placed on before they are viewed under the microscope.
1
Test yourself 2
1. Look at the photo of the microscope shown
opposite: 3
a ) Name the parts numbered 1, 2, 4, 7 and 8. (5) 5
4
b ) Give the function of the parts numbered 6
3, 5, 6, 9 and 10. (5) 7
8
2. Give the procedure that you would follow to 9
prepare a wet mount slide of cheek cells. (8)
10
3. Draw up a table that lists three differences and
three similarities between plant cells and animal Figure 18 Diagram of a
cells. (12) microscope
4. Study the cells shown in the figure alongside and then answer the following questions.
a ) State whether the cells shown are plant cells or animal
cells. Give TWO reasons for your answer. (2)
b ) State whether the micrograph shows an organ, a system,
a tissue or an organism. (1)
c ) Provide a definition of an organ and a system. (4)
d ) Name the organelle in plant and animal cells that
contains the cell’s DNA and describe why
DNA is important to the cell. (3)
Total: 40 Figure 19 Micrograph of cells

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 Term 1: Life and living
Topic

2 Systems in the human body

Starting off
In Grade 8 you learnt that all living organisms need
energy to sustain life. This energy is used in every cell of
the body. Our bodies are made up of many systems that
work together in order to let us do our daily activities. In
this topic you are going to learn about these systems.

Activity 1 Explore the different systems

in the human body
Look at Figure 1 and answer the following questions.
1. Describe how this athlete gets energy to run
this race.
2. Describe how this energy is made available to every
cell in the body.
3. Make a list of all the different parts of the body
this athlete will use during this race.
4. Make a list of all the changes that will take place
in this athlete’s body after the race has been
completed.
5. State whether you think that the different parts of
the body work separately from each other or all
together.

Figure 1 Athlete ready to run a race

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 Unit

1 Body systems
The human body consists of several integrated systems working together. You
Key word
learnt in the previous topic that at the most basic level an organism is made up of
• system – a cells, which group together to form tissues. Tissues form organs, and organs that
group of organs work together form systems.
working together For example, the digestive system consists of various organs such as the mouth,
to perform a oesophagus, stomach, intestines and the liver. These organs are arranged so that all
particular function the organs together perform a common function.

Immune Digestive system

system

Cardiovascular
Nervous system
system

Human
body
systems
Integumentary
Musculoskeletal system
system

Excretory system Respiratory

Reproductive system
system Endocrine system
Figure 2 The human body is made up of a number of inter-related systems

The seven major systems in the human body are the digestive system, circulatory
system, respiratory system, musculoskeletal system, excretory system and nervous
system. Human life depends on all systems working together effectively. You
will learn about the basic structure, function and processes of these systems in
this topic. You will explore further aspects of the reproductive, circulatory and
respiratory systems as well as the digestive system in Topics 3, 4 and 5.

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 Activity 2 Draw an outline of the human body and its systems

1. Trace or photocopy the outline of the human body and the different systems
onto blank paper.
2. Cut out the outline and the different systems.
3. Glue the outline of the human body onto cardboard or stiff paper.
4. Keep all the systems. Each system needs to be labelled and attached to the
outline when the particular system is dealt with in the following units.

Figure 3 Outline of human body and different systems

Key concepts
The human body consists of several integrated systems working
together.
A system is a group of organs, working together to perform a particular
function.

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 Unit

2 Digestive system

Key words Function

The digestive system breaks down food into dissolved nutrients that can be
• nutrient – an
absorbed into the blood stream and transported to cells throughout the body.
ingredient which
A nutrient such as glucose is an ingredient which nourishes the body. Look at
nourishes the
Figure 4 which shows the different parts of the alimentary canal and the main
body
processes that take place in each part.
• ingestion – the
intake of food by
biting, chewing
Structure
and swallowing The main components include the mouth, oesophagus, stomach, intestines
the food and liver.
• digestion – the
mechanical
and chemical
processes that Salivary glands
convert insoluble
food into soluble
nutrients Oesophagus

• absorption – the
soluble nutrients
are taken up by
the blood stream
• egestion –
undigested and
waste products
get passed out of
the body Liver
Gall bladder Stomach
• faeces – waste Digestion takes place
material which is Duodenum in the mouth,
excreted through Small stomach and small
the anus intestine Jejenum intestine.
Absorption takes
Ileum place in the
intestines
Colon
(large intestine):
Egestion takes place
at the end of the
Rectum large intestine
Anus

Figure 4 Human digestive system

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 Main processes
The main processes in the digestive system include:
• ingestion is the intake of food by biting, chewing and swallowing
• digestion is the mechanical and chemical processes that convert insoluble
food into soluble nutrients
• absorption occurs when the soluble nutrients are taken up by the blood stream
• egestion occurs when undigested food materials, called faeces, are passed
out of the body.

Activity 3 Revise knowledge of the digestive system

1. a ) Get out the outline of the body and the digestive system that you drew
and cut out in Activity 1.
b ) Label the parts of the digestive system on the cut out and attach it to the
outline of the body.
2. Name and describe the processes that occur in:
a ) the stomach b ) the large instestine
c ) the mouth d ) the small intestine.

Health issues
The following common health issues are related to this system:
• Ulcers are sores on the skin or the mucous membrane in the intestines.
• Anorexia nervosa is an eating disorder that causes people to obsess about
the food they eat. They fear gaining weight. They may starve themselves or
exercise excessively to continue losing weight.
• Diarrhoea is a condition where a person has more than five bowel movements
or watery stool per day. Figure 5 A stomach ulcer
• Liver cirrhosis is a disease of the liver where liver tissue is replaced with
abnormal nodules or connective tissue.

Activity 4 Research and write about a health issue related to

the digestive system

Do research and write a report on one of the following: ulcers, anorexia nervosa,
diarrhoea or liver cirrhosis. Include information on causes, risks, symptoms and Figure 6 A women suffering
treatment. from anorexia nervosa

Key concepts
The digestive system breaks down food into dissolved nutrients that can
be absorbed into the blood stream and transported to cells throughout
the body. The main components include the mouth, oesophagus, stomach,
intestines and the liver. The main processes include ingestion, digestion,
absorption and egestion. Health issues include ulcers, anorexia nervosa,
diarrhoea and liver cirrhosis.

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 Unit

3 Circulatory system

Key words Function

The circulatory system transports substances around the body. Blood carries
• arteries –
nutrients and oxygen to cells and removes waste products from cells. The
blood vessels
nutrients and oxygen are used by the cells for respiration and as raw materials
transporting
for growth. Waste products are transported in the blood to the excretory organs
blood away from
such as the kidneys and the skin. You will learn more about the excretory system
the heart
in Unit 6.
• capillaries – the
smallest blood
vessel in the
circulatory system
Structure
The main components of the circulatory system are the heart, blood vessels
• veins – blood and blood. The heart is a muscular organ that pumps blood around the body.
vessels Humans have a closed blood system. That means the blood flows around the
transporting body contained in blood vessels.
blood towards the
Blood vessels that transport blood away from the heart are called arteries.
heart
Arteries branch into tiny blood vessels called capillaries. These capillaries lie
between the cells. The walls of the capillaries are
made up of a single layer of cells, which allows gases
and nutrients to pass through them easily. Oxygen
and nutrients pass from the blood across the capillary
walls into the cells. At the same time carbon dioxide
and waste products pass from the cells back into the
capillaries. These capillaries join to form veins. The
veins remove the carbon dioxide and other waste
Lung Lung substances from the cells. Veins are the blood vessels
that transport blood towards the heart.
Vein transports Capillaries Artery transports
blood towards between the blood away from
the heart body cells the heart
Main processes
The main processes of the circulatory system include:
• circulating blood between the heart and the lungs.
The blood that returns to the heart is rich in oxygen.
Figure 7 The circulation of blood in the • circulating blood between the heart and the rest of
human body the body. The heart pumps oxygen-rich blood from
the lungs to every living cell.
Capillary
Figure 7 shows how these circulations take place in
Venule Arteriole the body.
Vein Artery

Figure 8 Capillaries connect arteries and veins

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 Activity 5 Revise knowledge of the circulatory system
1

A
1. a ) Get out the outline of the body and the circulatory system that you drew
and cut out in Activity 1.
b ) Label the parts of the circulatory system on the cut out and attach it to the
outline of the body.
Look at the diagram alongside and answer the questions that follow.
2. Supply labels for the parts numbered:
a) 1 b) 4 2 B
3
3. Describe the circulation which is indicated by:
a) A b) B
4
4. Explain why the walls of capillaries are made up of only a single layer of cells.

Figure 9 Circulatory system

Health issues
The following common health issues are related to this system:
• High blood pressure is a condition that means that the force at which blood is
being pushed against the artery walls is abnormally high. This pressure makes
the walls of the arteries push back harder against the force of the blood and
the walls become thicker. This means there is less space for the blood to flow.
• A heart attack occurs when a blood clot blocks the flow of blood to the heart
muscle. This causes the heart muscle to die or get damaged.
• A stroke occurs when the blood flow to the brain is stopped. This happens
when a blood vessel bursts or is blocked by a clot. The brain cells suddenly die
because of a lack of oxygen.

Activity 6 Present information on a health issue related to

the circulatory system

Do research on the Internet or in your school library on high blood pressure, heart
attacks or strokes. Write up the information on a poster and present your poster to
the class.

Key concepts
The circulatory system brings nutrients and oxygen to cells and removes
waste products.
The main components include the heart, blood vessels (arteries, veins and
capillaries) and blood.
The main processes include circulating blood between the heart and the
lungs, and circulating blood between the heart and the rest of the body.
Health issues include high blood pressure, heart attacks and strokes.

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 Unit

4 Respiratory system

Key words Function

The respiratory system is responsible for supplying oxygen to the body and for
• alveoli – air sacs
removing carbon dioxide. You learnt in Grade 8 that respiration takes place in living
where gaseous
cells. Respiration needs oxygen to take place and carbon dioxide is given off. In
exchange takes
this unit you are going to learn how the oxygen reaches the cells and how carbon
place
dioxide is taken away from the cells.
• breathing – the
flow of air in and
out of the lungs
Structure
The main components
• gaseous of the respiratory system
exchange – the include the nose and Nose
exchange of gases mouth, trachea and other Mouth
between the Oesophagus
passageways, lungs and Larynx
blood, lungs and blood. The trachea is the Trachea
the cells tube through which the
• diffusion – the air travels to the lungs. It Right bronchus Left bronchus
movement of splits into the left and right Bronchiolus Intercostal
molecules of a bronchi which branch into muscles
substance from smaller and smaller tubes. Right lung Left lung

a place with high They eventually end in Diaphragm

concentration to tiny hollow cavities called
a place with low alveoli. Look at Figure 10 Figure 10 Human respiratory system
concentration of which illustrates these
that particular different parts.
substance
Main processes
The main processes include breathing, gaseous exchange and respiration. These
three processes are responsible for maintaining the correct levels of oxygen and
carbon dioxide in the body.

bronchiolus Breathing
Breathing consists of two processes: inhalation and exhalation. During
c apillaries inhalation, the muscles in the thorax contract and air is drawn into the lungs.
alveoli During exhalation, the muscles relax and air is forced out the lungs. Breathing
takes place because of air pressure differences between the air in the lungs and
the air outside the body.

Gaseous exchange
Gaseous exchange takes place in the alveoli of the lungs. Each alveolus is
surrounded by blood capillaries. The walls of these capillaries and the alveoli
Figure 11 Lung alveoli
consist of a single layer of cells. Oxygen diffuses through the walls of the
capillary and into the blood and carbon dioxides diffuses from the blood into the

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 lungs. The blood transports oxygen to the rest of the body. The oxygen diffuses from
the blood into the cells. Diffusion is the movement of molecules from an area where
they are in high concentration to an area where they are in a low concentration.

Respiration
All living cells use oxygen to convert glucose into energy. Carbon dioxide, water
and energy are released as products. The cells use the energy to do their work.
Through gaseous exchange, the respiratory system supplies cells with oxygen and
removes the waste product carbon dioxide.

Activity 7 Revise knowledge of the respiratory system

1. a ) Get out the outline of the body and the respiratory system that you drew
and cut out in Activity 1.
b ) Label the parts of the respiratory system on the cut out and attach it to
the outline of the body.
Figure 12 Healthy lung tissue
2. Name the main processes which take place in the lungs.
3. What is the main function of the respiratory system?

Health issues
The following common health issues are related to this system:
• Asthma is a disorder that causes the airways of the lungs to swell and narrow.
This is caused by inflammation in the airways. This leads to wheezing, Figure 13 Lung tissue
shortness of breath, chest tightness and coughing. damaged by smoking
• Lung cancer is a disease where the epithelial cells grow uncontrollably. These
cells form a mass known as a tumour.
• Bronchitis is inflammation or swelling of the bronchial tubes. People with
bronchitis breathe less air and oxygen into their lungs.
• Asbestosis is a disease caused by asbestos fibres entering the lungs during
inhalation. The fibres build up in the lungs and the lung tissue becomes stiff.

Activity 8 Create a pamphlet to educate your community

Choose one of the following: asthma, lung cancer, bronchitis or asbestosis.

Research the causes, risks, symptoms and treatment. Create a pamphlet that you
could use to educate your community.

Key concepts
The respiratory system is responsible for supplying oxygen to the body and
for removing carbon dioxide.
The main components include the nose, mouth, trachea, bronchi,
bronchioli, lungs and blood.
The main processes include breathing (inhalation and exhalation), gaseous
exchange (diffusion) and respiration.

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 Unit

5 Musculoskeletal system

Key words Function

The skeleton protects the body, provides support and enables movement. The
• ligaments –
skeleton keeps the body upright. However, bones cannot move on their own.
tough, flexible
Muscles can move and are required to produce body movement. Look at Figure 14.
tissue which
Notice that muscles are attached to the outside of the skeletal bones. Muscles and
attaches bones to
bones work together to create body movement.
bones
• tendons – tough,
inelastic tissue
which attaches
muscles to bones
• cartilage – tough,
rubbery tissue
that cushions
bones
• locomotion – the
ability to move
from one place to
another

Figure 14 The musculoskeletal system

Structure
Ligament
binds bone The main components of the musculoskeletal system include muscles,
to bone bones, cartilage, tendons and ligaments. Look at Figure 15. Bones are
Joint attached to bones by means of ligaments. Ligaments are flexible and
Muscle prevent dislocation of bones. Muscles are attached to bones by means of
tendons. Tendons are tough and inelastic.

Tendon Joints make our skeletons flexible. Joints are formed where two or more
binds bones meet in the body. The bones in a joint are joined by ligaments.
muscle to The places where bones meet are covered with cartilage. Cartilage
bone
prevents friction where bones meet and movement takes place.
Figure 15 Tendons and ligaments

Contracting Main processes

biceps The main processes of the musculoskeletal system include the
Relaxed contraction and relaxation of muscles, movement and locomotion.
biceps
Muscles are made up of cells called muscle fibres. These fibres are able to
contract and relax. The brain sends messages to the muscles to contract
Relaxed or relax. The muscles now have the ability to move.
triceps
Some muscles work in pairs: when one muscle contracts, the other
Contracting relaxes. An example of a pair of muscles that work together is the bicep
triceps and tricep muscles in the upper arm. You can see this in Figure 16.
Figure 16 Muscles, together with the Locomotion is the ability to move from place to place. The movement
skeleton, create movement of muscles and the skeleton allows us to walk and run.

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 Activity 9 Revise knowledge of the musculoskeletal system

1. a ) Get out the outline of the body and the musculoskeletal system that you
drew and cut out in Activity 1.
b ) Label the parts of the musculoskeletal system on the cut out and attach it 1
to the outline of the body. 2
2. Look at Figure 17 and answer the following questions.
a ) Supply a label for the part numbered 2. 3
b ) Explain how parts numbered 1 and 3 stay together.
c ) Describe how parts numbered 1 and 3 are able to create movement.
d ) State what will happen if the part numbered 2 disintegrates.
Figure 17 Diagram for
Question 2

Health issues
The following common health issues are related to this system:
• Rickets is a disease which leads to the softening and weakening of the bones
in the arms, legs, pelvis and spine in young children. It is caused by a lack of
vitamin D and calcium.
• Arthritis is caused by inflammation in the joints. It involves the breakdown of
cartilage in the joints.
• Osteoporosis is a disease when bones become porous and brittle. That leads to
an increased risk of bone fractures.

Activity 10 Report on a musculoskeletal health issue

Research and report on one of rickets, arthritis or osteoporosis.

Key concepts
Muscles produce muscle movement. The skeleton protects the body,
provides support and enables movement.
The main components include the muscles, bones, cartilage, tendons and
ligaments.
The main processes include contraction and relaxation of muscles,
locomotion and movement.
Health issues include rickets, arthritis and osteoporosis. Figure 18 A woman with
osteoporosis

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 Unit

6 Excretory system

Key words Function

Many chemical reactions take place in the body. This is called metabolism. The
• metabolism –
waste products produced during these reactions need to be removed from the
all the chemical
body. The excretory system removes waste from the blood and regulates the body’s
reactions in the
fluids.
body
Examples of waste products are urea and uric acid. The removal of waste products
• excretion – the
from the cells or the body is called excretion. We take in water with food and
removal of waste
drinks. The excess water needs to be removed from the body. This is called
products from the
osmoregulation.
body
• osmoregulation –
the regulation of
Structure
the water content The main components include the kidney, bladder and ureter. Look at Figure 19
of the body and see how the urinary system works.

• filtration – when Blood with

Kidneys filter out
waste products
substances are waste such as urea,
products: The excess salts and
separated from blood entering water, from the
each other by the kidney blood, and form
contains waste urine
using a filter products
coming from Left
• absorption – the rest of the kidney
body
when substances Ureter:
move across a Right Conducts urine
kidney to the bladder
membrane
Bladder: Stores
urine
Purified blood: temporarily
All the waste
products have
been removed Urethra:
from the blood Conducts urine
from the
bladder to the
outside

Figure 19 The excretory system

Main processes
The main processes include filtration, absorption, diffusion and excretion.

Filtration
Blood with waste products enters the kidney. Small specialised bodies in the kidney
act as filters. These filters separate the waste products and a part of the water from
the blood. The waste products and excess water is now called a filtrate. The filtrate
ends up in small tubes inside the kidney. The blood which leaves the kidney is now
purified of wastes.

Absorption
The useful substances which are still in the filtrate such as water, glucose and amino
acids get absorbed from the tubes with the filtrate back into the blood.

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 Diffusion
The waste products which are still in the blood diffuse from the blood into the
small tubes with the filtrate.

Excretion
Once these three processes have been completed, then the fluid in the tubes is called
urine. This is how the kidneys are responsible for excretion. These small tubes conduct
the urine to the ureter. The ureter conducts the urine to the bladder. The bladder stores
urine temporarily. From there the urine leaves the body by means of the urethra.

Activity 11 Revise knowledge of the excretory system in the

human body

1. a ) Get out the outline of the body and the musculoskeletal system that you
drew and cut out in Activity 1.
b ) Label the parts of the musculoskeletal system on the cut out and attach it
to the outline of the body.
2. a ) Which processes take place in the excretory system?
b ) What are the two main functions of the excretory system?

Health issues
The following common health issues are related to this system:
• Kidney failure is a sudden loss of the ability of the kidneys to remove waste and
concentrate urine without losing electrolytes. People suffering from kidney
failure need to receive dialysis treatment, which filters waste from the blood.
• Bladder infections are caused by bacteria that infect the urinary tract.
• Kidney stones are solid deposits of minerals and salts that form in the kidneys.
Stones are formed when urine is too concentrated and substances precipitate
out of solution.

Figure 20 A patient receiving

Activity 12 Create a brochure to inform patients on an treatment with a dialysis
excretory health issue machine

Choose one of the following: kidney failure, bladder infection or kidney stones.
Research the causes, risks, symptoms and treatment of that disease. Create a
brochure which could be delivered to doctors’ consulting rooms and that can be
given to patients to inform them about that disease.

Key concepts
The excretory system removes waste from the blood and regulates the
water content of the body.
Figure 21 A kidney stone
The main components include the kidneys, bladder and the ureters.
The main processes include filtration, absorption, diffusion and excretion.
Health issues include kidney failure, bladder infection and kidney stones.

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 Unit

7 Nervous system

Key words Function

The nervous system receives and helps the body respond to stimuli. A stimulus is a
• stimulus – a
change in the environment that causes a reaction in a living organism.
change in the
environment
which causes a Structure
reaction in a living The main components of the human nervous system include the brain, spinal cord,
organism nerves, ears, nose, eyes, skin and tongue. Look at Figure 22. The ears, nose, eyes,
• receptors – skin and tongue are called sense organs. The sense organs have specific cells that
cells in sense detect stimuli in the environment. These cells are called receptors. The receptors
organs which convert the stimuli to impulses. Impulses are signals that travel along nerve cells,
detect particular called neurons. The impulses travel along the spinal cord to and from the brain.
stimuli from the The brain is the main organ that coordinates and controls nerve activity. In this way
environment information is transmitted through the nervous system.

• impulses – signals
transmitted along Main processes
nerves The main processes include hearing, seeing, feeling, tasting, smelling, sending and
receiving impulses and regulating temperature. Examples of stimuli that begin
• nerve cells – cells
these processes are described in the passage on the next page.
that receive and
send messages in
the form of a weak Activity 13 Revise knowledge of the nervous system
electrical current
from the body to 1. a ) Get out the outline of the body and the nervous system that you drew
the brain and back and cut out in Activity 1.
to the body b ) Label the parts of the nervous system on the cut out and attach it to the
• spinal cord – a outline of the body.
cord of nerve 2. Read the text about the man getting lost in a desert on the next page. Answer
tissue that extends the questions which follow.
from the brain a ) Write down all the sense organs which are playing a role and the process
through the spinal in each sense organ while this man is lost in the desert.
column in which b ) Make a list of all the stimuli which play a role in each of these processes
the nerve cells mentioned in the previous question.
carry information
from the body to
the brain and back
to the body Health issues
The following common health issues are related to this system:
• Deafness occurs when a person has partial or complete hearing loss.
• Blindness occurs when a person has complete loss of sight.
• Short-sightedness is a visual defect when a person only sees objects clearly
when they are near the eye.
• Drugs and alcohol affect the transmission of impulses from nerve cell to nerve
cell in the brain. Alcohol is a central nervous system depressant, which means
that it slows down the responses of the nervous system.

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 Case study: Lost in the desert The brain
receives
information
Sound receptors
in the ear
A man is lost in a desert. It is very hot and his body feels from the receive
receptors and messages
very warm. He sees an oasis with water and plants. He sends The spinal cord
information to is a pathway for
jumps into the water to cool his body down. He is thirsty muscles and impulses to and
and drinks water. glands to react from the brain

He finds more plants. Some plants have fruit. He wants to Light receptors Nerves transmit
impulses to and
eat the fruit, but he is not sure which plants are edible and in the eye
from the brain
receive
which are poisonous. He knows that fruit or plant parts messages
that have a burning or irritating effect on his skin and Chemical Touch, pressure,
receptors in the temperature
mouth must be avoided. nose receive and pain
messages receptors in
He goes to the shade of the palm trees. He picks the first the skin receive
fruit he sees and puts a small piece in his mouth. It has a messages
Chemical
receptors in
bitter taste and his mouth is itching. The second fruit he the tongue
picks is a prickly pear. The thorns on the fruit’s skin hurt receive
messages
him. He takes a leaf from another plant and holds the
Figure 22 The nervous system and the sense organs
prickly pear with the leaf. He uses a stone with a sharp
edge to peel the skin. He smells the sweet flavour of the
fruit and puts it into his mouth. He tastes the sweetness of
the fruit.
He falls asleep in a cool place next to the water. After a
while he wakes up from a trembling noise. It is a helicopter
looking for him. He runs to the open dunes and waves his
arms. The pilot sees him and lands the helicopter.

Activity 14 Research and write a report on a health issue

related to the nervous system

Do research and write a report on one of the following health issues: blindness,
short-sightedness or the effects of drugs and alcohol on the brain.

Key concepts
The nervous system receives and helps the body respond to stimuli.
The main components include the brain, spinal cord, nerves, ears, nose,
eyes, skin and the tongue.
The main processes include hearing, seeing, feeling, tasting, smelling,
sending and receiving impulses and regulating temperature.
Health issues include deafness, blindness, short-sightedness, effects of
drugs and alcohol on the brain.

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 Unit

8 Reproductive system

Key words Function

The reproductive system produces sex cells for the purpose of the continuation of
• testes – male sex
the species. The male sex cells are the sperm cells. The female sex cells are the egg
organs where
cells. These cells need to fuse to ensure that new babies are born. In this way the
sperm cells are
human species continue to live from generation to generation.
produced
• ovaries – female
sex organs where
Structure
egg cells are The main components of the human reproductive system include the testes,
produced ovaries and the uterus. Men have testes that produce sperm cells which are the
male sex cells. Women have ovaries that produce egg cells which are the female sex
• uterus – place cells. The uterus is the place where the baby will grow until it is ready to be born.
where the baby You will learn more about reproduction in Topic 3.
grows

Main processes
The main processes include copulation, ejaculation, ovulation, menstruation,
fertilisation and implantation, growth, cell division and maturation. These processes
are shown in the figure below but will be explained further in Topic 3.
1. The man places his penis inside the woman's vagina.
This is called copulation or sexual intercourse

2. The penis releases sperm cells

8. The baby is born after 40
into the vagina of the woman.
weeks of pregnancy. The
This is called ejaculation
baby grows and eventually
develops into an adult. This
is called maturation. The adult
can reproduce

3. Once a month an egg

cell is released into the
Human woman's fallopian
tubes. This is called
life ovulation. Some of the
cycle sperm cells swim into
the fallopian tubes
7. The fertilised egg moves
from the tubes down to
the uterus where it attaches
itself to the lining of the uterus.
This is called implantation.
The woman is now pregnant.
The baby grows in the uterus OR

6. Cell division continues. More and more 4. If fertilisation does not

4. One sperm cell fuses with take place, the lining of
cells are formed. This is called the egg cell. This is called
growth the uterus is released
fertilisation through the vagina. This
is called menstruation
5. The fertilised egg divides into more
and more cells. This is called cell division

Figure 23 Processess in human reproduction

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 Activity 15 Revise knowledge of the reproductive system

1. a ) Get out the outline of the body and the reproductive system that you
traced and cut out in Activity 1.
b ) Label the parts of the reproductive system on the cut out and attach it to
the outline of the body.

Health issues
The following common health issues are related to this system:
• Infertility means a person is unable to produce an offspring or baby.
• Foetal alcohol syndrome is a birth defect caused by alcohol consumption
during pregnancy.
• STDs are sexually transmitted diseases which involve the transmission of
infectious organisms such as bacteria and viruses between sex partners.

Activity 16 Research a health issues related to the

reproductive system

Do research and write a report on one of the following health issues: infertility,
foetal alcohol syndrome or STDs.

Activity 17 Compile a poster that promotes healthy lifestyle

choices

Work in groups of two learners. Look back at all the diseases you have discussed in
each unit. Compile a poster that promotes healthy lifestyle choices to avoid these
diseases.

Key concepts
The reproductive system produces sex cells for the purpose of the
continuation of the species.
The main components include the testes, ovaries and the uterus.
The main processes include growth, cell division, maturation,
copulation, ejaculation, ovulation, menstruation, fertilisation and
implantation.
Health issues include infertility, foetal alcohol syndrome and STDs.

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 Topic 2 revision

Science language activity

1. Choose only ONE term in the list below for each of the descriptions:
Tendons Capillaries Receptors Ingestion Filtration
a ) The intake of food by biting, chewing and swallowing.
b ) The smallest blood vessels in the circulatory system.
c ) Cells in sense organs that detect particular stimuli from the environment.
d ) Tough, inelastic tissue which attaches muscles to bones.
e ) When substances are separated from each other using a filter.

Test yourself
Figure 24 shows the human body systems. Study the diagram and answer the
questions that follow.
1. a ) Complete the name of the system numbered 1. (1) 1. _________ system,
where digestion takes place
b ) Name the main processes, except digestion, which take
place in this system. (3) 7. Reproductive 2. Circulatory
system system
2. State the most important function of the respiratory system. (1)
3. Name the process that occurs in all living cells that is made Human
possible by the circulatory system. (1) body
4. a ) Give the names of the two body structures that work systems
closely together in the system numbered 4. (2) 6. Nervous 3. Respiratory
system system
b ) Name the main processes made possible by this system. (3)
5. What would happen if the ‘filters’ in the kidney stopped
functioning? (1) 5. Excretory system 4. _________ system

6. a ) Give the names of THREE sense organs in the Figure 24 Human body systems
human body. (3)
b ) Describe what would happen if the receptor cells in a sense
organ were damaged. (3)
7. a ) Name the most important functions of the reproductive system. (2)
b ) Name THREE processes that are brought about by the reproductive
system. (3)
8. Would you consider one system more important than the others? Give a
reason for your answer. (2)
Total: 25

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 Term 1: Life and living
Topic

3 Human reproduction

Starting off
Reproduction is the formation of new individuals. All
living things reproduce so that they do not become
extinct. The reproductive system is the most important
system for the continuation of a species. Without
it, a species would not be able to produce another
generation.
Sexual reproduction involves the production of sex cells
by the sex organs. The reproductive system produces,
stores and releases specialised sex cells called gametes.
The cells are released so that a sperm cell and an egg cell
can join to form a zygote. The zygote is the single cell
from which all other cells of the human body develop.

Activity 1 Explain processes in

reproduction

1. Explain why living things must reproduce.

2. Give definitions for the following terms: gametes,
zygote and sexual reproduction.
3. Make a list of things that you know about
reproduction and write down some questions that
you would like to know the answers to.

Figure 1 Reproduction is the process whereby parents

create offspring

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 Unit

1 Purpose and puberty

Key words Purpose of reproduction

Reproduction means to make more organisms or living things. All living things
• reproduction –
including animals and plants reproduce to make more individuals of the same type
to make more
or species. If organisms did not reproduce they would eventually die out and there
organisms or
would be no more organisms. They would become extinct. Reproduction ensures
living things
the continuation or survival of the species.
• extinct – when
There are two ways in which organisms can reproduce. Reproduction can be sexual
a species that
or asexual.
has died out
completely and
there are no living Asexual reproduction
members left it is In asexual reproduction there is only one parent. The offspring are identical to the
said to be extinct parent. In some plants, a piece of the plant such as the leaf, stem or root can grow
• offspring – the into a new plant. Some simple animals, for example amoebas, can reproduce by
young produced dividing into two.
by an organism
• gametes – the sex
cells or sperm cells
and egg cells
• fertilisation –
fusion of the egg
and the sperm
• embryo – early
developmental
stage
• genetic Figure 2 The hen and chickens plant reproduces Figure 3 An amoeba reproduces asexually by
information – asexually by forming small plants at the end of splitting in two
long stems that eventually become detached
inherited
from the parent plant and form new plants
information that
is passed on from
parents to the Sexual reproduction
young Humans reproduce by sexual reproduction. In sexual
reproduction there are two parents. The parents have
reproductive organs that make sex cells
or gametes. The sex cells or gametes are
also called sperm cells or egg cells. The
testes are the male reproductive organs,
which make sperm. The female ovaries are
the female reproductive organs, which
produce egg cells. A new life starts when
an egg cell and a sperm cell join during
fertilisation. The fertilised egg cell divides
to form a ball of cells. It becomes the
embryo and will eventually develop into a Figure 4 Mammals including humans
new individual. reproduce sexually

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 In Topic 1 you learnt that all plant and animal cells contain DNA enclosed in the
nucleus. DNA contains the genetic information that determines an organism’s
inherited characteristics. Sperm cells contain DNA from the father and the egg
contains DNA from the mother. When an egg and a sperm cell join, the fertilised
egg will contain DNA from both parents. So the new individual will inherit
characteristics from both parents. Sexual reproduction allows for variations to
occur in an individual.

Head – contains the nucleus

Nucleus – contains the information

inherited from the father

Middle piece – has structures that

provide energy for swimming
Sperm cell, drawn on same
scale as egg cell

Nucleus containing genetic

information

Tail – is used for swimming Cytoplasm with food store

Protective jelly coating

Figure 5 Diagram of a sperm cell Figure 6 Diagram of an egg cell being fertilised

Look at Figure 5 and Figure 6 that show a sperm cell and an egg cell respectively.
Sperm cells are special because they are able to swim by using their tails. Sperm
cells contain DNA from the male and will carry this genetic information to the egg
cell of the female.
Egg cells are about the size of a full stop on this page. The egg contains stored food
and information from the mother in its nucleus.
Fertilisation occurs when the nucleus of one sperm cell fuses with the nucleus of
one egg.

Activity 2 Explain reproduction

You will need: Models or posters of the reproductive system

Answer the questions below.
1. Explain the meaning of
a ) a gamete, and
b ) fertilisation.
2. Describe the difference between sexual and asexual reproduction.
3. Explain how the structure of the egg and the sperm help them to carry out
their function.

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 Key words Puberty
Between the ages of 10 and 15 years, young adults experience changes to their
• puberty – stage
bodies, for example, the body becomes taller and broader. This stage in the human
in the human life
life cycle when the sexual organs mature for reproduction is called puberty. The
cycle when the
testes start to make sperm and the ovaries start to make eggs. Girls usually start
sexual organs
puberty before boys, however, this varies from person to person. Puberty is usually
mature for
finished around 18 years. The processes that start these changes are discussed
reproduction
below.
• pituitary gland –
structure found
at the base of The pituitary gland and hormones
the brain which The pituitary gland is a structure found at the base of the brain that starts to make
starts to make hormones that ‘tell’ the organs what to do. Hormones are chemicals that are made
hormones by glands and they speed up or slow down the activities of an organ. Hormones
• hormones – released from the pituitary gland into the blood stream start to make the
chemicals that are reproductive organs active. The reproductive organs begin to make sex hormones.
made by glands The reproductive organs are the testes that make testosterone and the ovaries that
and they speed make oestrogen.
up or slow down
the activities of an
organ
• secondary sexual
characteristics –
changes in the
bodies of males
and females that
happen during
puberty

Figure 7 The pituitary gland (shown in bright

green) is found in the brain

Secondary sexual characteristics

Testosterone and oestrogen cause changes to happen in the body of males and
females. They cause changes such as menstruation, breast development, pubic hair,
facial hair and deepening of the male voice. These changes in the bodies of males
and females are called secondary sexual characteristics. The diagrams on the
next page show the physical changes during puberty that happen to a girl and to a
boy. Physical changes are the changes to the body such as getting taller or broader.

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 Pimples may develop
Hair starts to grow on face
Hormones affect the shape of the vocal cord Pimples may develop
and the voice becomes deeper
The shoulders become broader
and the body becomes more muscular
Hair starts to grow in the armpits
Hair also starts to grow in the armpits
and on the body The breasts start to grow larger

The sex organs enlarge and pubic hair starts to grow The hips become wider
in preparation for childbirth
The testes start making sperm Ovulation starts
and menstruation begins
Pubic hair starts to grow

Figure 8 Physical changes in a boy’s body Figure 9 Physical changes in a

girl’s body

Emotional changes
During puberty you may also experience changes in your emotions. Emotions are
strong feelings about something or somebody. These changes can have emotional
and psychological effects such as unexplained mood changes, low self-esteem,
aggression and depression. These feelings are normal during puberty but they
should not have a big impact on your life. If they are, then you should talk to
someone close to you such as a good friend or relative.

Activity 3 Explain the process of puberty

Read Unit 1 again and look at Figure 8 and Figure 9 above.

1. Explain the meaning of each of the following: puberty, hormones, pituitary
gland.
2. Describe how puberty is initiated and controlled by hormones.
3. Compare the secondary sexual characteristics in girls and in boys. Record your
answer by copying and completing the table.

Changes that happen to girls Changes that happen to boys

Key concept
The main purpose of reproduction is for the gametes to join for the
continuation of species.

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 Unit

2 Reproductive organs

Key words Male reproductive organs

The male reproductive organs include the penis, sperm duct (vas deferens), testes,
• ejaculation – the
scrotum and urethra. The function of the male reproductive organs is to:
rapid release of
semen from the • make and store sperm, and
penis • place the sperm in the female.
• sex hormone – Look at Figure 10 and read the functions of the parts of the male reproductive
chemical that organs in the table below.
carries messages
in the body
• circumcision –
the removal of the
foreskin

Bladder
The male glands that secrete
fluids that provide the correct substances to help
the sperm survive and swim to the egg
The prostate gland
secretes a fluid that
provides the sperm with The male gland releases a fluid known as
food for energy pre-ejaculate that cleans and lubricates
the urethra

Vas deference or
sperm duct During sexual intercourse the penis becomes
filled with blood. This causes it to become
The urethra carries swollen and erect so that it can be inserted
urine and semen out of into the woman's vagina
the body

Testis
Scrotum

Figure 10 The male reproductive system

Table 1 Functions of the parts of the male reproductive organs

Part of reproductive
Function
system
Penis The penis places sperm inside the female. The penis becomes erect when extra blood is
pumped into it. It releases semen in the vagina during ejaculation.
Sperm duct A tube that carries sperm from the testes to the penis.
(vas deferens)
Testis They make sperm. The testes also make the male sex hormone, testosterone.
(plural: Testes)
Scrotum A bag of skin that holds the testes outside the body. This keeps them at a temperature
slightly cooler than the body temperature that is suitable for making sperm.
Urethra A tube that carries semen and urine but never both at the same time.
Male glands Male glands release fluids that contain food for the sperm.

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 The path of sperm
The production of sperm in the testes starts during puberty. Sperm travels from the
testes along the sperm duct. As it moves through the sperm duct it is mixed with
fluids from the male glands. This mixture of sperm and fluids is called semen. The
semen moves through the urethra which runs through the penis.

Case study: Circumcision

The foreskin is a fold of skin that example, the amaXhosa practise
covers the head of the penis. The an ancient custom where young
foreskin is surgically removed in boys go through an initiation
a process called circumcision. process to enter manhood. They
In some cultures the foreskin is are circumcised and then are
removed for religious reasons, recognised as adults. Sometimes
for example, in the Jewish and the procedure is performed under
Muslim faiths. This happens soon unsterile conditions and by people
after birth. In other cultures it is who are not medically trained. Figure 11 During circumcision initiations,
young boys are instructed in the conduct,
performed around the age of 18 This can result in infections and
social duties and traditions of their people
years for traditional reasons. For can even lead to death. before they are accepted as men

Activity 4 Write about circumcision

Read the case study above and answer the following questions.
1. Explain what circumcision means.
2. List two reasons why circumcision is important in some cultures.
3. Suggest one function of the foreskin.
4. There have been reports in newspapers that some boys die after they have
been circumcised. Explain how this happens and suggest how it could be
prevented.

Activity 5 Label diagrams of the male reproductive 1

organs
2
You will need: Models or posters of the reproductive system
1. Give two main functions of the male reproductive system.
3
2. Provide labels for the diagram alongside. 5

3. List the organs that the sperm passes through

starting with the testis. 4
6
4. Explain why the testes are held in a bag of skin
outside the body. Figure 12 The male reproductive system

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 Female reproductive organs
The female reproductive organs include the vagina, uterus, ovaries and the
oviducts (Fallopian tubes). The function of the female reproductive organs is to:
• make egg cells, and
• provide suitable conditions for the growth of a baby.
Look at Figure 13 of the female reproductive system and read the functions of the
parts in the table below.

The Fallopian tubes carry the ovum from the ovary to the
uterus. Fertilisation may take place in the Fallopian tube
The ovary stores ova from birth. The ovaries also secrete the
female hormone progesterone and oestrogen
The uterus is a muscular organ where the fertilised egg
develops into a baby
The cervix is the opening to the uterus and is commonly called
the ‘neck of the womb’
The vagina is the muscular passage leading to the cervix. The
penis is placed in the vagina during sexual intercourse

Figure 13 The female reproductive system

Table 2 Functions of the parts of the female reproductive system

Name of part What it does

Vagina Muscular tube that opens to the outside of the body.
Receives the penis during sex and allows for the birth of a
baby.
Uterus The uterus is hollow with a thick muscular wall. This is where
a baby grows when a woman is pregnant. It is also called the
womb.
Ovaries The ovaries make the egg and release one each month. They
also make female sex hormones.
Oviducts The oviduct carries the egg from the ovary to the uterus.
(Fallopian tubes) Sperm meets the egg here and fertilisation occurs. They are
lined with tiny hairs that push the egg along.

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 The path of the egg
Each month, one egg is released from one of the ovaries. The egg travels from
the ovary along the oviduct to the uterus. The egg cannot move on its own and is
pushed along the oviduct by the action of tiny hairs. If the egg is not fertilised it
starts to break down as it is moved through the uterus to the vagina. The vagina is a
muscular passage also called the birth canal. The egg then passes out of the body.

Activity 6 Label diagrams of the female reproductive organs

You will need: Models or charts of the reproductive system

1. Give the main functions of the female reproductive system.
2. Provide labels for the diagram below.

1
2

4 Did you know?

The ovaries are about
the size and shape of
an almond. At birth,
each ovary of a baby
girl contains about
100 000 undeveloped
Figure 14 Female reproductive system
eggs.
3. Describe the path of an egg cell from the ovary until it is released from the
body.
4. A woman releases one egg every month for 37 years. Calculate how many eggs
she releases in total. Show your working.
5. In some countries some women are paid to donate eggs that scientists can use
in their studies on fertilisation. Is this a good idea? Explain your answer.
6. Some mothers have twins that are not identical. Suggest how this happens.

Key concepts
The male reproductive organs are the penis, sperm duct, testes, scrotum
and urethra.
The female reproductive organs are the vagina, uterus, ovaries and
oviducts.

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 Unit

3 Stages of reproduction
Reproduction in humans has a number of stages: ovulation, menstruation,
Key words
copulation, fertilisation, implantation and pregnancy (gestation).
• copulation – the
process where
the erect penis
Ovulation
is placed in the Each month, a new egg starts to grow in one of the ovaries. The ovary releases the
vagina ripe egg in a process called ovulation. Ovulation happens once a month. The egg
is released into the oviduct. Fertilisation usually occurs in the oviduct. Women are
• ovulation – the most likely to become pregnant while they are ovulating.
release of a ripe
egg from the
ovary Menstruation
At the same time that the egg is developing in the ovary, the soft lining of the
• menstruation – uterus grows thicker. It develops a thick layer of blood. The thick layer of the uterus
the breakdown of is in preparation for a fertilised egg. It prepares the uterus so that a baby can
the thick layer of grow there. The wall of the uterus remains thick for about a week after ovulation.
blood that lines If the egg is not fertilised, it passes out of the body through the vagina and
the uterus menstruation occurs a number of days later.
• menstrual cycle – Menstruation is the breakdown of the thick layer of blood that lines the uterus. The
a series of changes lining and blood are released from the vagina. Menstruation lasts between four to
that happen seven days.
in the female
reproductive
organs The menstrual cycle
The menstrual cycle is a series of changes that happen in the female reproductive
organs. The aim of the menstrual cycle is to get the uterus ready for a fertilised egg.
The menstrual cycle lasts for about 28 days and it has three stages.

Stage 1: Menstruation
Before menstruation, the lining of the uterus grows thick with blood and mucus.
This is needed for an unborn baby to survive. If a woman does not fall pregnant,
the lining comes away from the uterus and leaves
Fallopian tube her body through the vagina. So the bleeding that
Egg a woman experiences is the lining of the uterus that
Ovary
Uterus lining is leaving the body. The first day of menstruation is
Uterus called Day 1 of the menstrual cycle.
Vagina
Stage 1: Menstruation Stage 2: Ovulation
When menstruation is finished, around Day 7, the
lining of the uterus starts to thicken again. Ovulation
usually takes place on Day 14. The follicle in the
ovary that contains the ovum bursts open (see
Figure 15).
Stage 3: Movement of an egg along the oviduct Stage 2: Ovulation

Figure 15 The menstrual cycle

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 Stage 3: Movement of the egg along the oviduct
The ovum moves into the Fallopian tube, also called the oviduct. It is slowly moved
towards the uterus by special hairs called cilia. If the ovum fuses with a sperm cell
while it is in the Fallopian tube, the
Infertile Possibly infertile Most fertile Possibly infertile
woman may fall pregnant. Around Day
22 the uterus wall is thick, ready for a OVULATION
fertilised egg. Figure 16 summarises the

Relative thickness
of lining of uterus
menstrual cycle.

Fertile period
A woman is only likely to fall pregnant
on a few days during her menstrual
cycle, called her fertile period. Sperm
cells can survive in a woman’s body for 0 5 10 14 18 28
two to three days. So the typical fertile Completed days of the cycle
period is from Day 11 to Day 18. Figure 16 Diagram showing the stages of a typical menstrual cycle. The orange
part shows how the thickness of the lining of the uterus changes as the cycle
proceeds

Activity 7 Revise menstruation

You will need: models or charts of the female reproductive system • calendar
1. Define the following:
a ) copulation, April
b ) ovulation. Mon Tues Wed Thur Fri Sat Sun
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
2. Explain the difference between menstruation and the
menstrual cycle. 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

3. Look at the calendar alongside showing Pozisa’s 15 16 17 18 19 20 21

menstrual cycle and answer the questions in your

22 23 24 25 26 27 28
workbook.
a ) How often does a period occur and how long does 28 30
Pozisa’s period last?
b ) Give the date when she releases an egg.
Figure 17 Calendar
c ) Give the dates when fertilisation could occur.
Did you know?
The egg lives for 24
hours. The day of
Copulation ovulation varies from
The egg and sperm are brought together during copulation. Copulation is also person to person
and from month to
called intercourse or sex. During copulation the penis becomes erect because
month. Ovulation can
blood flows into it. The woman’s vagina becomes moist. The male places his penis even occur during
inside the female’s vagina. The penis is moved backwards and forwards. Sperm menstruation.
from the testes are pumped through the sperm ducts and mixed with fluids and
then semen is ejaculated into the vagina.

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 Key words Fertilisation
The penis deposits sperm in the vagina. The sperm swim up the uterus and into the
• zygote – fertilised
oviducts. Many sperm do not survive this journey. If there is an egg in the oviduct,
egg
one sperm will join with the egg. The egg is fertilised and a zygote is produced. If
• implantation – there is no egg in the oviduct, fertilisation will not occur.
embryo sinks into
the blood layer of
the uterus Implantation
The fertilised egg grows and forms a
• foetus – the
ball of cells. It moves from the oviduct
human embryo
into the uterus. It is now called an
after eight weeks
embryo and it sinks into the blood
of development
layer of the uterus. This is called
• placenta – implantation.
structure that
provides the
embryo with food, The placenta
water and oxygen The embryo continues to grow. For the first two Figure 18 A foetus in the uterus
and removes months of development it is called an embryo. For
waste materials the last seven months it is called a foetus. As the foetus grows it is attached to the
uterus wall by the placenta. The placenta provides the embryo with food, water
and oxygen from the mother’s blood. Waste materials made by the embryo such
as carbon dioxide are removed through the placenta. The umbilical cord joins the
foetus to the placenta. It carries blood between the mother and the foetus.
If a mother smokes, drinks or takes drugs so does her foetus. These substances can
affect the unborn baby as they are able to pass to the baby through the placenta.

Pregnancy
Pregnant means that a woman is carrying a developing baby inside her uterus. The
time from fertilisation until birth is called gestation. In humans, gestation is about
40 weeks. The blood layer of the uterus is maintained and the woman does not
have periods while pregnant.
People who have problems with falling pregnant may turn to fertility clinics or
consider surrogacy.

Activity 8 Research and write about the effects of alcohol,

smoking and drugs on the foetus

1. Research and write about the effects of alcohol, smoking and drug abuse on
the foetus.
2. Include information about both physical and mental effects on the foetus.
Suggest ways to prevent mothers taking these substances.

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 Activity 9 Flow charts of reproduction

copulation implantation menstruation fertilisation pregnancy ovulation

1. Copy the words in the box and next to each write a definition.
2. Create a flow chart to show the sequence of the stages during reproduction.
Your flow chart will describe and sequence the stages during which a baby is
produced. Use the answers to Question 1 to help you.

Contraception
‘Contra’ means against and ‘conception’ means fertilisation so contraception is to
prevent fertilisation. It is also called birth control.

The condom
A condom is a rubber sheath which is rolled onto the erect penis before having
sex. The sheath acts like a barrier and stops the sperm from entering the female’s
vagina and reaching the egg. The condom also prevents any fluids mixing between
partners. Condoms are reliable but must be used correctly.
Correctly used, condoms, can protect people from sexually transmitted diseases
(STDs). STDs are passed from one person to another when they have sexual contact
with an infected person. An STD caused by bacteria or parasites can be treated with
antibiotics. There are no cures for STDs caused by a virus such as HIV/AIDS. However,
there are some medicines that can be taken to keep the disease under control. Figure 19 Condoms

Activity 10 Debate and discuss issues

You will need: books and pamphlets on family planning

1. Choose one of the following issues: abortion, infertility, surrogacy,
contraception or population control.
2. Research information on your chosen issue and write about it under the
following headings:
a ) Explain what this issue is.
b ) Explain when or why it is used or occurs.
c ) If applicable, discuss the pros and cons of each issue, and how it affects the
person involved.
3. Present the information to the class. The presentation must be open to
questions.
4. You should take down some notes from other students’ presentations.

Key concepts
The stages of reproduction are: ovulation, menstrual cycle, copulation,
fertilisation, implantation, pregnancy (gestation). Contraception can be used
to prevent pregnancy. Condoms can prevent the transmission of HIV/AIDS and
other STDs if used correctly.

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 Topic 3 revision

Science language activity

1. Match the words in Column A with the definitions in Column B. Write the letter
from Column B next to the question number.

Column A Column B
a ) ovary A. process when an egg is released
b ) uterus B. monthly bleeding when the lining of the uterus is shed
c ) testes C. place where a fertilised egg starts to grow
d ) menstruation D. bag of skin which contains the testes
e ) ovulation E. makes and stores eggs
f ) scrotum F. makes and stores sperm

Test yourself
1. Look at Figure 21 alongside and answer the following questions.
a ) Give labels for the parts A to E. (5)
b ) Give the letter of the part with the function of making sperm. (1) A

c ) Give the letter of the part with the function of placing sperm B
C
inside the female. (1) D

d ) Give the letter of the part with the function of carrying sperm E

from the testes to the penis. (1) Figure 20 Male reproductive

2. Look at Figure 22 and answer the questions. organs
a ) Give labels for the parts A to D. (4)
b ) Give the letter of the part where sperm are released during sexual
intercourse. (1) A

c ) Give the letter of the part where the egg and sperm meet. (1) B

C
d ) Give the letter of the part where the fertilised egg will sink and
begin to grow. (1) D

e ) Describe one function of: (a) the ovaries and (b) the vagina. (2)
3. List the changes that occur in the body of a male during puberty. (6)
Figure 21 Female
4. Describe THREE advantages of using condoms as a contraceptive. (3) reproductive organs
5. Read the following statement:
‘A girl can become pregnant the first time that she has sex.’
Write a paragraph to explain if this statement is true or not.
Support your answer with reasons. (2)
6. Explain how the uterus is suited to carry out its job of protecting and
supporting the developing foetus. (5)
7. a ) Give the function of the placenta. (3)
b ) Explain why pregnant mothers should not drink or take drugs. (4)
Total: 40

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 Term 1: Life and living
Topic

4 Circulatory and respiratory systems

Starting off
In Grade 8 you learnt that living cells need oxygen and
release carbon dioxide during respiration. These gases
need to be transported to and from the cells. In this topic
you are going to learn more about how the respiratory
and circulatory systems work together in order to
transport these gases to the cells where respiration takes
place.

Activity 1 Recall what you know about

systems working together
Look at Figure 1 and answer the following questions.
1. Explain where these learners get their energy from.
2. Name the gas that is necessary to break food down
in body cells.
3. Name the body system that transports gases to and
from the body cells.
4. Name the body system that is responsible for gases
entering and leaving the body.
5. Name three other systems in the bodies of the
learners which are also interrelated with the two
systems mentioned in the previous questions.

Figure 1 Systems in living organisms work together

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 Unit
Breathing, gaseous exchange, circulation and
1 respiration
You learnt in Topic 2 that the respiratory system is responsible for breathing,
Key words
gaseous exchange and respiration, while the circulatory system is responsible for
• breathing – the circulating blood between the heart and the lungs, and the heart and the rest of
inflow and outflow the body.
of air in the lungs The respiratory system and the circulatory system work together to transport
• diaphragm – a gases to and from all the cells of the body. The basic steps of this process are as
muscular plate follows:
that divides the • Oxygen is inhaled by the lungs during breathing.
thorax (chest) • Oxygen diffuses into the bloodstream.
from the abdomen
• Oxygenated blood returns to the heart.
• The heart pumps the oxygenated blood to the rest of the body.
• Oxygen diffuses from the bloodstream into the body cells.
• Carbon dioxide diffuses from the body cells into the bloodstream.
• The deoxygenated blood is transported to the heart.
• The heart pumps the deoxygenated blood to the lungs.
• Carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood stream and into the lungs.
• Carbon dioxide is exhaled by the lungs during breathing.
These processes are explained and discussed further in this unit.

Breathing
During breathing, air enters the lungs through inhalation
and exits through exhalation. Air contains a mixture of
gases including oxygen and carbon dioxide.

8 Activity 2 Recall the structure of the

respiratory system
1
1. Look at the diagram and supply labels for the parts
2 numbered 1 to 8. If you get stuck, refer back to Topic 2
Unit 4.
2. Provide a definition for the following terms: alveoli,
3 trachea, bronchioli, capillaries.
7 5

Figure 2 Respiratory system

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 Inhalation and exhalation take place on the principle that air flows in and out of the
lungs because of differences in air pressure between the lungs and the air in the
atmosphere outside the body.

Inhalation
Inhalation is an active process that is caused by muscle contraction.
Inhalation takes place as follows:
• The muscles of the diaphragm contract, which causes the
diaphragm to move downwards.
• The intercostal muscles contract, which causes the ribcage to
lift upwards.
• The volume of the thoracic cavity increases.
• Air pressure in the thoracic cavity decreases, becoming lower
than the atmospheric air pressure.
• Air containing oxygen flows down the air passages and into
the lungs.

Figure 3 The process of inhalation

Exhalation
Exhalation is a passive process that occurs without muscle
contraction. Exhalation takes place as follows:
• The muscles of the diaphragm relax. The diaphragm
moves upwards to its original position.
• The intercostal muscles relax and the ribcage moves down
to its original position.
• The volume of the thoracic cavity decreases.
• The air pressure in the thoracic cavity increases, becoming
higher than the atmospheric air pressure.
• Air containing carbon dioxide is forced out of the lungs.

Figure 4 The process of exhalation

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 Key words What is gaseous exchange?
Gaseous exchange occurs when gases diffuse from an area of high concentration to
• gaseous
an area of low concentration. It occurs in:
exchange – the
transfer of oxygen • the lungs, when gases are between the alveoli and the surrounding capillaries
and carbon • the body cells, where gases diffuse from the capillaries into the cells, and out
dioxide between of the cells and into the capillaries.
an organism and
Diffusion is a passive process. In order for oxygen to diffuse into the capillaries in
its environment
the alveoli, there must be a difference in concentration of oxygen in the blood and
• diffusion the oxygen in the air in the lungs. The molecules of oxygen move down a diffusion
gradient – a gradient. Because there is always a flow of deoxygenated blood entering the lungs
difference in the from the heart, and a fresh supply of oxygen from inhalation, the diffusion gradient
concentrations is maintained continuously. The same principle applies to all gaseous exchange.
of substances
between a region Deoxygenated
with a high blood
Oxygenated
From the Single layer of cells
concentration of blood
in the alveolus wall
heart
particles and a
Deoxygenated
region with a low blood Oxygenated
concentration To the heart blood
of particles, for CO2 O
2
example oxygen
• deoxygenated Single layer of cells
in the capilliary wall
blood – blood
that is rich in Figure 5 Gaseous exchange takes place in the alveoli
carbon dioxide
• oxygenated Gaseous exchange in the lungs
blood – blood Look at Figure 5. Each alveolus is surrounded by capillary vessels. An artery
that is rich in brings deoxygenated blood, that is rich in carbon dioxide, from the heart to the
oxygen lungs. The air in each alveolus has a low concentration of carbon dioxide. Carbon
• circulation – the dioxide diffuses along the diffusion gradient across the thin walls of the capillaries
flow of blood out of the bloodstream and into the alveolus. The air in the alveolus has a high
through the body concentration of oxygen. The blood has a low concentration of oxygen. Oxygen
cells and organs of diffuses along the diffusion gradient across the thin walls out of the air in the
an animal alveolus into the blood. The capillaries now contain oxygenated blood. The carbon
dioxide flows out of the lungs during exhalation.
• atrium – heart
chamber which
receives blood Activity 3 Apply knowledge of gaseous exchange
• ventricle – heart Look at Figure 5 and answer the following questions.
chamber which
pumps blood 1. Describe the blood that enters the lungs in a branch of the pulmonary artery.
2. Explain where the carbon dioxide comes from.
3. Explain the how carbon dioxide leaves the blood and enters the alveolus.
4. Name this process.
5. Describe why is it important for blood to transport oxygen to the body cells.

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 Circulation of oxygenated blood
The heart pumps blood throughout the body within blood vessels. This process is
called circulation. Oxygenated blood is circulated from the lungs to the left side of the
heart. You learnt in Unit 3 of Topic 2 that blood vessels that transport blood towards
the heart are called veins. Remember that most veins transport deoxygenated blood
except veins taking blood from the lungs back to the heart (this is the only exception).
The oxygenated blood enters the left atrium of the heart. The blood flows into the
left ventricle. The arrows in Figure 7 show the direction in which the blood flows.
The walls of the left ventricle are made of very thick muscle. The walls contract to
pump the blood out of the heart through the aorta. The aorta is the biggest artery
in the human body. It has thick muscular walls to withstand the high pressure at
which blood is pumped out of the heart. From the aorta, blood travels through the
network of arteries and capillaries to all the body cells.

Veins from Aorta

the lungs
Vein from the body

Artery to the lungs

Left atrium

Right atrium

Left ventricle

Right ventricle

Vein from the body

Aorta

Figure 6 The external structure of the human heart

From body To body

To lungs

From lungs

Left atrium
Right atrium Valve

Left ventricle

Right ventricle

Key:

oxygenated blood
deoxygenated blood

Figure 7 The internal structure of the human heart

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 Heart rate
Your heart rate is the number of times your heart beats per minute. The quicker
your heart beats, the harder and faster your heart muscle is contracting to circulate
blood throughout the body.
Your heart rate increases or decreases in response to various factors.
• Your heart rate increases when you exercise. A high heart rate during exercise
means the heart works to get oxygen and nutrients to the muscles that are
doing work.
• Fear or stress can also cause the release of hormones that make the heart
pump faster. This makes a person ready for defence or escape.
• Stimulants such as caffeine or cocaine can also increase heart rate.

Heart rate can be measured by finding the pulse somewhere on the body such as
the inside of the wrist and counting the number of beats over a 20 second period.
Multiply that number by 3 to get the number of beats per minute.

Activity 4 Investigate the effect of exercise on heart rate

You will measure and compare the heart rates of ten learners before and after
exercise. Choose ten learners in class who are willing to participate in this activity.
They are the runners. Each of these runners must choose a classmate who will
measure his or her pulse rate.
1. Write down the question you are trying to answer in this investigation.
2. Write a hypothesis about the relationship between exercise and heart rate.
3. Plan your investigation.
a ) How will you measure heart rate?
b ) What equipment do you need?
c ) What type of exercise will you test?
d ) Identify the independent variable and the dependent variable.
e ) List the variables you should control in this investigation.
4. Conduct your investigation.
a ) Measure the heart rate in beats per minute at rest, after
exercise and measure the time it takes for each of the
ten learners’ heart beats to return to normal. Record
your results in a table.
b ) Draw a bar graph to display the data.
5. Analyse your data and draw conclusions.
a ) What can you conclude from your graph?
b ) Give an explanation for your observations.
c ) Do your results support your hypothesis?
d ) Look at the time it took for the heart beats to turn
back to normal. Make deductions about the fitness of
learners based on their heart rates.
6. Write a report about the benefits of exercise for the
circulatory and respiratory systems.
Figure 8 You can find your pulse on your wrist

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 Gaseous exchange in the body cells
Oxygenated blood leaves the heart via the aorta. The aorta then splits into various
arteries. Arteries subdivide to form capillaries which are in close contact with the
body cells. This blood has a higher oxygen concentration than the cells. Look at
Figure 9. Oxygen diffuses down the diffusion gradient across the capillary walls and
the cell membranes into the body cells. The blood becomes deoxygenated.

single layer of cells

capilliary O2 body cells

deoxygenated
oxygenated CO 2 blood
blood

Figure 9 Capillaries in close contact with body cells

Carbon dioxide that is released as a by-product of

respiration diffuses from the cells into the capillaries for
excretion. Look at Figure 9 again. These body cells have a
higher carbon dioxide concentration than the blood due
to respiration. Carbon dioxide diffuses down the diffusion
gradient across the capillary walls and the cell membranes
into the blood.
The capillaries combine and form bigger veins. The blood
is now transported back to the right side of the heart.
The blood in veins is under much lower pressure than the
blood in arteries because they are much further away from
the pumping action of the heart. Therefore the walls of Figure 10 A micrograph of a vein and an artery. The vein has
veins have thinner muscle layers than arteries. thin walls, while the artery has thick, dark purple walls

Activity 5 Drawing up a table of differences between

arteries, veins and capillaries
Redraw the following table in your workbook. Compare the arteries, veins and
capillaries according to the headings given in the left column of the table.

Arteries Veins Capillaries

Direction of blood flow
Type of blood transported
Thickness of walls
Blood pressure in vessels

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 Respiration
Respiration occurs within the mitochondria of all body cells. The circulatory system
transports the raw materials required for respiration to the cells. Blood transports
oxygen as well as glucose, which both diffuse into the cells.
During respiration, oxygen reacts with glucose and the energy that is released is
used to fuel all the other body processes.

Figure 11 Respiration takes place in the mitochondrion

Can you remember the equation for respiration?

Glucose 1 oxygen → carbon dioxide 1 water 1 energy
The energy which is released is now available for other body processes.

Activity 6 Recall what you know about respiration

1. Write down the equation for respiration.
2. What are the products in this equation?
3. What type of energy is trapped in the glucose molecule?
4. Where does the glucose in the blood stream come from?
5. In which organelle does respiration take place?
6. Why is respiration important for life?

Circulation of deoxygenated blood

Deoxygenated blood is transported to the right side of the heart where it enters
the right atrium. The right ventricle pumps the deoxygenated blood, which is rich
in carbon dioxide, to the lungs. The carbon dioxide diffuses into the lungs. It is then
exhaled out of the body.
Look at Figure 7 on page 22 again. The heart pumps the blood from the right
ventricle to the lungs. The moment this artery enters the lung, it subdivides to form
capillaries throughout the entire lung. Look at Figure 11 where you can see that
these capillaries branch on the surfaces of the alveoli. The blood contains a higher
concentration of carbon dioxide than the air inside the alveoli.

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 Activity 7 Draw a flow chart from inhaling oxygen to exhaling carbon dioxide
Draw a flow chart to show the sequence of events that are the result of the respiratory and circulatory system
working together. Your flow chart must start with the inhalation of oxygen and end with the exhalation of
carbon dioxide. Make your flow chart clear and easy to understand, but do add as many key events and terms as
possible. Use short descriptions/words and arrows in your flow chart.

Common causes of circulatory and respiratory health issues

Health issues of the circulatory and respiratory systems are
commonly caused by the following:
• smoking: cigarettes contain many poisonous substances such as carbon
monoxide that reduces the ability of blood to transport oxygen.
• drinking alcohol: alcohol affects the transport of oxygen in the blood
by speeding up or slowing down normal heart rate.
• high cholesterol levels: too much animal fat in the diet causes fat and
cholesterol to build up on the walls of arteries. This can lead to the
narrowing of the arteries and heart attacks.

Figure 12 The build-up of plaque in an artery

Figure 13 Buerger’s disease is inflammation of

the arteries and veins in the arms and legs. It is
frequently caused by smoking

Activity 8 Research on smoking, drinking alcohol and high cholesterol levels

Do research and write a report on the effects of smoking, drinking alcohol or high cholesterol levels on the
circulatory and respiratory systems.

Key concepts
Breathing is a process of inhalation and exhalation.
Gases are exchanged between the air in the lungs and the capillaries, as well as the capillaries and the
body cells. This is called gaseous exchange.
Oxygen and carbon dioxide are transported by the blood stream (circulation) from the lungs to the heart,
to the body cells, back to the heart and to the lungs.
In the mitochondria of the cells, oxygen is combined with food in the process of respiration and energy is
released for other body processes.

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 Skills focus: Make a dissection

Key words What is a dissection?

The act of cutting a specimen into parts for
• specimen –
scientific examination is called a dissection.
material used
for examination,
testing or study How to do a dissection
• dissection – the 1. Get out all the equipment to do the
act of cutting dissection. Figure 14 shows some of
something into the most common equipment used in
parts for scientific a dissection, for example, latex gloves,
examination scalpel, scissors, forceps and a dissecting
tray, tile or glass plate.
• scalpel – a small
2. Wear latex gloves whenever you dissect Figure 14 Equipment used in a
knife with a thin dissection
animal material. Raw material may be
sharp blade used
contaminated by bacteria.
in dissection
3. Work on a tile or dissecting tray so that you don’t damage the bench surface.
• forceps – a pair of
4. Use a scalpel or a pair of sharp scissors and be careful not to cut yourself.
tweezers used in
dissection 5. Use forceps to gently lift or separate the different parts of the specimen.
6. Examine and identify the different parts.
7. Put the different parts in a plastic bag after you have completed the dissection
for disposal.
8. Wash your hands and all equipment.

Activity 9 Practise making a dissection on a sheep or pig heart and lungs

You will dissect the sheep’s heart first and then dissect the sheep’s lungs. If you do not have the dissection material,
you can follow the instructions and look at the photos. Write the answers to the questions in your workbook.
You will need: fresh sheep or pig heart • fresh sheep or pig lungs • latex gloves • scalpel • pair of scissors • forceps
• large dissecting tray or tiles • piece of hosepipe or flexible tubing • hand lens

Heart dissection
1. Put on the latex gloves. The sheep’s heart is similar to a human
heart. Place the heart in front of you on the dissecting tray. The
left side is the side that includes the pointed end. Squeeze the
left side and the right side. Which side feels harder and thicker?
Why? Can you see the grooves with the coronary blood vessels
on the surface on the heart? These blood vessels supply the
heart tissue with oxygen and remove carbon dioxide. You are
going to learn more about these blood vessels in Grade 10.
2. Turn the heart to the right side. On top of the heart are two darker
flaps. Find the opening next to the right flap. Put your finger into
this opening. This is the vena cava superior. It enters the right
atrium. A little down is another opening also entering the right
atrium. This is the vena cava inferior. What type of blood enters
the heart by means of these two veins? Where does it come from?
Figure 15 The external structure of a sheep heart

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 3. Find the opening next to the left flap. This is the pulmonary vein. From which
organs does the pulmonary vein transport blood to the heart?
4. Look at the largest blood vessel on top of the heart. Put your finger as deep as
possible into this opening. This is the aorta. What type of blood is transported
in the aorta?
5. Just behind the aorta is another large blood vessel. This is the pulmonary
artery. Which organ receives blood from the pulmonary artery?
6. Put your scalpel or pair of scissors into the vena cava superior. Cut downwards
through the walls of the right atrium and the right ventricle. Pull the two sides
of the heart apart.
7. Which chamber has the thinnest wall?
Why? The inside of each ventricle has white
cords that hold a valve in place between the
atrium and the ventricle. These valves prevent
the blood from flowing back into the atria. You
are going to learn more about these valves in
Grade 10.
8. Put your scalpel or pair of scissors into the
base of the aorta. Cut downwards through
the walls of the left atrium and the left
ventricle. Which ventricle has the thickest
wall? Why?
Figure 16 The internal structure of a sheep heart
Lung dissection
1. Look at the lobes of the lung.
How many are there on each side?
2. Feel the lungs. What does the tissue feel like?
3. Look at the larynx. Where is it situated? What Safety
is found inside the larynx?
• Wear latex gloves
4. Put the piece of hosepipe into the whenever you
trachea. Blow air into the pipe. Take dissect animal
care not to inhale the backflow of air material. Raw
from the lungs because it may material may be
contain harmful bacteria. What do you Figure 17 Sheep lungs contaminated by
observe? bacteria.
• Take care not to
5. Make a cut in the trachea from the top to the bottom where it enters the lungs. inhale the backflow
Pull the two sides apart. What do you observe? of air from the lungs
because it may
6. Feel the trachea inside. What does the tissue feel like?
contain harmful
7. Cut off a small piece of the lung. Put it in a beaker with water. What do you bacteria.
observe? • Wash your hands
and all equipment
8. Make a cut in the lung tissue. Use the hand lenses and look at the tissue. Is the after the dissection
tissue solid? Explain. has been
completed.

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 Topic 4 revision

Science language activity

1. Give one word for each of the following.
a ) Blood that is depleted of oxygen
b ) The heart chamber that receives blood
c ) The flow of blood through the body cells and organs of an animal
d ) The transfer of oxygen and carbon dioxide between an organism and its environment
e ) The inflow and outflow of air in the lungs
1

Test yourself 2

1. Study the diagram alongside which represents 3

4
the structure of the respiratory system. Answer
5
the questions which follow:
6
a ) Give the labels of the parts numbered 1, 3, 7
5 and 7. (4) 8
b ) Name the process that takes place in the
lungs if the part numbered 9 contracts. (1) 9
c ) Give the number of the other part which is
also involved in the process mentioned in
the previous question. (1) Figure 18 Structure of the respiratory system
d ) Give two adaptations of the part numbered 2. (2)
e ) State what would happen to the lungs if they were stabbed by a knife. (2)
2. Study the diagram alongside that
represents the human circulatory
system and answer the following
questions:
a ) Give the labels of the 1
parts numbered 1 and 2. (2) 2

b ) Give the general names

of the blood vessels 3
represented by parts
numbered 3–5. (3) 4
c ) Name the process that
takes place at the parts
numbered 1 and 5. (1) 5
d ) State one difference between
Figure 19 The human circulatory system
the blood contained in parts
3 and 4. (2)
e ) Draw a flow chart to illustrate the path of a droplet of deoxygenated blood that flows
out the capillaries of the kidneys until it releases its store of carbon dioxide in the
lungs. (5)
f ) Imagine the parts shown by number 5 are in the skin. Explain what will happen
when it gets ruptured during an injury. (2)
Total: 25

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 Term 1: Life and living
Topic

5 Digestive system

Starting off
In Topic 2 you learnt that food goes through certain
processes in the digestive system in order to be broken
down into nutrients. These nutrients nourish the body.
In this topic you are going to learn more about the
digestive system, the importance of a healthy diet and
the effect that unhealthy food has on our bodies.

Activity 1 Recall what you know about

healthy food
Look at Figure 1 and answer the following questions.
1. Explain what we mean when we describe food as
healthy.
2. Make a list of the foods in the pictures that are
unprocessed. Describe why these types of foods are
important.
3. Make a list of five foods that are unhealthy.
4. Compare the food you normally eat with the foods
in the picture. Do you consider your diet to be
Figure 1 Healthy food healthy? Explain your answer.

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 Unit

1 Healthy diet

Key words
• balanced diet –
diet that contains
adequate amounts
of all the necessary
nutrients from all
the food groups
required for
healthy growth
• solvent – liquid in
which substances
are dissolved to
form a solution
• malnutrition –
a condition
resulting from a
lack of nutrients Figure 2 A variety of foods is important for good nutrition
that are required
for healthy growth
• obesity – having We get our energy from the food that we eat. Food contains useful nutrients that
an excessive nourish our bodies, keep us healthy and allow us to grow. A healthy diet or eating
amount of body fat plan contains a balance of different components including proteins, carbohydrates,
fats and oils, vitamins and minerals, fibre and water.
Healthy foods contain different amounts of these components. For example, some
foods may contain protein, but very little carbohydrate. This means we need to
include many different types of food in our daily meals. Food is generally divided
into the following five food groups. A balanced diet contains the following:
• grains, such as bread and cereal
• dairy products, such as milk and yoghurt
• meat and protein, such as beef, chicken, fish and beans
• vegetables and fruits, such as carrots, corn, bananas and apples
• small amounts of fats and oils such as peanuts, avocado and butter.

Importance of water in the diet

Although water is not a food, it is essential for the survival of every organism on
earth. Water is an important component of a healthy diet for various reasons.
• Most of your body consists of water.
• All the chemical reactions in your body take place in water.
• Water serves as a solvent for nutrients, wastes and gases.
Figure 3 Make sure you drink • Water transports nutrients and waste products in the body.
enough water every day • Water plays a role in digestion.

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 The table below summarises the different types of nutrients and their importance
to the human body. It also shows in which foods they are found.
Table 1 The most important components of a healthy diet, their functions and where they are found

Nutrient Function Foods that contain this nutrient

Carbohydrates Sugars and starch are the main sources of energy for the Sugars: fruits, sugar cane, vegetables
body. and sweets
Starch: pasta, rice, potatoes, corn,
wheat
Proteins Proteins are used for growth and to repair cells. Fish, eggs, milk, meat, nuts, soy beans,
Proteins are part of cell membranes. chickpeas, yoghurt and cheese
Fats and oils Fats help with the absorption of fat soluble vitamins. Oil, nuts and seeds, butter and
Fats are part of cell membranes. margarine
Fats are stored as reserve energy sources.
Fats are insulating material under the skin.
Fats protect organs such as the eyes and kidneys.
Vitamins are Every vitamin has a different function in the human body. Vitamin A: carrots, yellow fruit, liver,
compounds Examples are: butter
that are • vitamin A, which is important for good eyesight. Vitamin C: citrus fruit, tomatoes,
needed in small guavas, berries and green vegetables
• vitamin C, which is important for a healthy immune
amounts
system. Vitamin E: spinach, eggs, whole-wheat
• Vitamin E, which acts as an antioxidant and bread, avocado
protects cells.
Minerals are Every mineral has a different function in the human body. Calcium: milk, cheese, yoghurt,
compounds Examples are: broccoli, spinach
that are • calcium, which builds strong bones and teeth and Iron: red meats, fish, poultry, raisins,
needed in small assists in blood clotting and the working of heart legumes and liver
amounts muscle and nerves.
• iron, which is required for the production of red blood
cells and is responsible for the transportation of
oxygen in the body.
Fibre Fibre promotes the movement of food through the Bran in whole-wheat bread,
alimentary canal and promotes regular bowel movements whole-wheat cereals, fruit and
by keeping the stool soft and bulky. vegetables
Fibre prevents constipation, haemorrhoids and colon
cancer.

Disorders of the digestive system

Unbalanced diets can lead to malnutrition. It occurs when certain nutrients are
lacking, are eaten in too high quantities or in the wrong proportions.
Disorders of the digestive system include the following:
• Obesity is the medical condition of having too much body fat. It is caused by
eating too much food and doing too little exercise.
• Too much sugar and poor oral hygiene causes tooth decay.
• Diabetes occurs when the body is not able to control the amount of sugar in
the blood. Diabetes can be inherited or it may be caused by eating too much Figure 4 Obesity is a lifestyle
sugar and living a sedentary lifestyle. disease

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 • Constipation occurs when stools become hard and difficult to pass.
Key words
Constipation can occur if we do not eat enough fibre. Chronic constipation can
• constipation – lead to haemorrhoids and colon cancer.
a condition in • Mouth ulcers are sores inside the mouth and intestines. They are often a result
which bowel of wounds that do not heal properly. Poor wound healing may be a symptom
movements occur of a vitamin C deficiency.
less frequently and • Diarrhoea is a condition where a person has more than five bowel movements
consist of hard and or watery stools per day. Diarrhoea can be caused by artificial sweeteners and
dry stools other additives in the diet. Too much fibre and fruit can also lead to diarrhoea.
• ulcers – sores • Eating large meals can lead to change in bowel habits and an urge to have
in the lining of bowel movement that does not happen.
the mouth and
intestines
• diarrhoea – a
condition where a
Activity 2 Compare balanced diets from different cultures
person has more South Africa has been referred to as the ‘rainbow nation’ because its population is
than five bowel made up of people with different cultures and traditions. Some of these cultures
movements or have laws that prescribe how food needs to be prepared. For example, Halaal food
watery stools per is prepared as prescribed by Muslim law. Kosher food is prepared by standards
day based on the laws of the Jewish religion. Traditional South African meals are typical
• additives – of a particular region and culture, for example, Zulu, Xhosa, Tswana or English.
chemical Look at the following three meals given in the frames. They show a Kosher meal, a
substances that halaal meal and a traditional South African meal.
make food last
longer and/or add
flavour

Figure 5 A Kosher meal that contains Figure 6 A Halaal meal to celebrate Figure 7 A traditional South African meal
challah bread (egg bread), gefilte fish Ramadan that contains homemade that contains uputu (maize porridge),
(stuffed fish), chicken soup, glazed vegetable soup, whole-wheat bread, morogo (mixed weeds and vegetables such
chicken, potatoes and roasted asparagus chicken, mixed salad, sunflower seeds as spinach), imyama yenkomo (beef stew),
and yoghurt tshwala (fermented sorghum), and amasi
(sour milk)

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 1. Use the information in figures 5, 6 and 7 on the previous page. List the different
foods in each meal and state whether each contains carbohydrates, proteins or
fats and oils. Keep in mind that fats are found in meat, fish and cooked foods.
2. Compare the three menus according to the five food groups you need to eat
each day.

Kosher Halaal African traditional meal

Grains
Dairy products
Meat, fish and poultry
Vegetables
Fats
3. Which one of the meals would you choose? Give a reason for your answer.
4. Write down the food you traditionally eat at celebrations such as coming of
age, weddings and religious holidays or festivals.

Case study: Nutrition problems in South Africa

Many people in South Africa, foods that contain a lot of sugar together with a sensible exercise
especially children, do not have and fat. In addition, recent surveys programme is the safest way to
enough food to eat or do not have by pharmaceutical multinational shed kilograms.
food at all. They go to school GlaxoSmithKline in 2010 indicate Another health concern is
hungry and cannot do their that 49% of South Africans do not that South Africans’ diets contain
schoolwork properly. regularly perform exercise. a lot of additives, such as salt,
On the other hand, one of the Although many South preservatives, artificial flavours
major health problems in South Africans need to lose weight, diets and colours that make food last
Africa is the increase in obesity. that promise quick weight loss are longer and add flavour to food.
Over 61% of the South African frequently unhealthy. They can Some additives are banned in
population is overweight or lead to serious health problems. certain countries because they
obese. People eat too much food, A well-balanced diet that supplies have been shown to be harmful to
especially fast foods and processed fewer nutrients than you consume the body.

Activity 3 Understand food and nutrition

Read the case study about nutrition problems in South Africa. Do some further
research on this topic and write a report about:
• additives in food
• the harmful effects of some diets such as eating too much fast food
• the danger of some crash diets developed for weight loss.

Key concepts
A healthy diet includes proteins, carbohydrates, fats and oils, vitamins and
minerals, as well as fibre and water. Digestive disorders can be related to
bad eating plans.

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 Practical task

Investigate the presence of starch and

grease in food
You will need: glass beaker • funnel • white paper or white filter
paper • mortar and pestle • test tube • ethanol or pure alcohol
• iodine solution • dropper • three food samples to test

Figure 8 Apparatus and chemicals used in

this investigation

Determine whether a food contains starch

Step 1: Grind the food sample into a paste.

Step 2: Add the paste to a test tube with ethanol to make a

mixture.

Step 3: Add a few drops of light brown iodine solution. It turns

blue-black in the presence of starch.

Determine whether a food contains fats or oils Step 1

Step 1: If it is solid, grind the food sample into a paste with a
mortar and pestle.

Step 2: Mix the food sample with a little ethanol.

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 Step 3 Step 4

Step 3: Pour the mixture through filter paper into a glass beaker. Step 6

Step 4: Place a drop of the test liquid onto blank white paper or filter
paper.

Step 5: Let the ethanol evaporate from the paper.

Step 6: Hold the paper in front of a window or a light source and

observe if the sample left a translucent mark (grease spot). If a
grease spot is present, the sample contains fats or oils.

Write a hypothesis
1. Write a hypothesis for your investigation. Your teacher will supply you with three food samples to
test for starch and glucose. (6)
Plan your investigation
2. Write down the variables that will affect the results of your investigation. (4)
3. Explain how you will make sure your test is fair. (2)
Conduct your investigation
Work in groups of two learners. If your school does not have the equipment, you can follow the photos
and steps illustrated on the previous page.
4. Perform the test for starch on the three foods. Record your observations. (6)
5. Perform the test for grease on the three foods. Record your observations. (6)
Analyse your data and draw conclusions
6. What can you conclude from your investigations? (2)
7. How do your conclusions compare with your hypotheses? (2)
Evaluate your investigation
8. What changes could you make to improve your investigation? (2)
[ 30 × _23 = 20 ]
Total: 20

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 Unit

2 Alimentary canal and digestion

The digestive system or alimentary canal is composed of the mouth, oesophagus,
Key words
stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum and anus. The food you eat needs
• digestion – the to be broken down into smaller particles so that it can be absorbed by the body.
breakdown of food In Unit 2 of Topic 2, you learnt about the four processes that take place in the
into a form that digestive system:
can be absorbed
by the body • ingestion, which is the intake of food by biting, chewing and swallowing
• digestion, which is the mechanical and chemical processes that convert
• saliva – liquid insoluble food into soluble nutrients
secreted into the
mouth by the • absorption, which occurs when the soluble nutrients are taken up by the
salivary glands bloodstream
• egestion, which occurs when undigested food materials, called faeces, are
• peristalsis – passed out of the body.
the rhythmic
contraction of the Each organ in the alimentary canal has a particular function in one or more of
muscle layers in these processes. The structure of each part of the alimentary canal is adapted to its
the digestive canal function.
that push the food
forward Functions and structural adaptations of the
• enzymes –
proteins that
digestive organs
speed up the rate Mouth
of a chemical The mouth is where ingestion takes place. The teeth and tongue crush and mash
reaction the food. The tongue helps to mix the food with saliva and swallow the food.

Oesophagus
The walls of the oesophagus and the rest of the canal are built up of muscle layers.
These muscle layers contract and relax rhythmically in order to push the food
through in the alimentary canal. These movements are called peristalsis.

Stomach
The thick muscular walls of the stomach contract and churn the stomach contents.
These movements break up the food into smaller parts for the enzymes to act
upon. An enzyme is a protein that speeds up the rate of a chemical reaction.
Enzymes are secreted by the lining of the alimentary canal and help to break
down food.

Small intestine
Intestinal glands secrete intestinal juice with enzymes. The enzymes break food
down into substances that can be absorbed into the body. The walls of the
intestines are lined with millions of villi that absorb nutrients.

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 Large intestine
The large intestine absorbs water from wastes back into the blood. The waste
material becomes more compact and forms stools or faeces. Mucous glands in the
large intestine secrete mucous that makes the stool smooth and easily excreted.
The colon stores waste before it is egested.

Liver
The liver is the largest gland in the body. The liver breaks down substances to
form bile.
Bile assists in the digestion process and is stored in the gall bladder.

Rectum
Stools are temporarily stored in the rectum before being excreted.

Anus
The anus is the end opening of the digestive system through which wastes are
egested.

Activity 4 Recall the structure of the digestive system

5
6

7
8

Figure 9 Human digestive system

1. Look at the diagram and supply labels for the parts numbered 1 to 8.
2. State the processes that take place in the mouth, stomach, small intestine and
large intestine.

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 Key words Types of digestion
There are two types of digestion:
• mechanical
digestion – • During mechanical digestion, the large food particles are mechanically
the physical broken down into small particles
breakdown of • During chemical digestion, the small particles are chemically altered into
food by crushing, nutrients.
mashing and
churning Mechanical digestion
• chemical Mechanical digestion takes place in the mouth, oesophagus, stomach and small
digestion – the intestines.
breakdown of food • In the mouth, it involves the physical breaking, crushing and mashing of food
into nutrients by by the teeth in the mouth. The tongue pushes the food under the teeth and
means of chemical onto the palate which breaks the food into small pieces.
reactions
• The churning movement of the walls of the stomach break down food into
small pieces. The peristaltic movements in the alimentary canal that push food
forwards, also help to break down the food. Look at Figure 10 which shows
peristalsis in the oesophagus.
• Bile in the small intestine breaks fats into small droplets.

Constriction

Bolus
Food
Pharynx Relaxation
Tongue
Epiglottis
Shortening
Oesophagus
Trachea Stomach

(a) a) (b)
b)

Figure 10 Peristalsis in the oesophagus: (a) shows the food’s passage from the mouth and (b) shows
the contraction and relaxation of the oesophagus in the peristaltic wave

Chemical digestion
Chemical digestion takes place in the mouth, stomach and the small intestine.
• Salivary glands secrete saliva into the mouth. Saliva contains enzymes that
break down starch, therefore chemical digestion starts in the mouth.
• Hydrochloric acid or stomach acid is a digestive juice secreted by glands in
the lining of the stomach. It contains enzymes which chemically alter food
particles into substances that are soluble in water and that are able to be
absorbed into the blood stream.
• Enzymes are secreted by the intestinal glands in the small intestine.

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 Absorption
After food particles have been broken down by the processes of
digestion, they are ready to be absorbed. Absorption is the process
when nutrients are taken up into the bloodstream. The inner wall of the
small intestine is covered with millions of small finger like projections
which are called villi. The villi contain blood vessels which absorb these
nutrients. Look at Figure 11 which shows villi in the small intestine.
The nutrients are now transported in the bloodstream to the body cells.
Do you remember the path of the bloodstream that transports these
nutrients to the body cells?

Figure 11 Villi in the small intestine

Activity 5 Revise knowledge of the alimentary canal

and digestion

1. Name the main processes that take place in the digestive system. Explain the
meaning of each process.
2. Name the organs in which these processes take place.
3. Explain how the structure of the mouth, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine
and the large intestine assist in the process of digestion.
4. In which organs does mechanical digestion take place?
5. State where chemical digestion takes place.
6. Explain what mechanical digestion is.
7. Explain what chemical digestion is.

Key concepts
The alimentary canal is composed of the mouth, oesophagus, stomach,
small intestine, large intestine, rectum and anus.
Digestion is the breakdown of food into usable dissolved form. There are
two types of digestion:
• mechanical digestion involves the physical breaking, crushing and
mashing of food, and
• chemical digestion involves the mixing of food with digestive enzymes
and hydrochloric acid.
The structure of each part of the alimentary canal is adapted to its function.

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 Topic 5 revision

Science language activity

1. Give one word for each of the following statements:
a ) A condition in which the bowel movements occur less frequently and
consist of hard, dry stools.
b ) A protein that speeds up the rate of a chemical reaction.
c ) The process of physically breaking, crushing and mashing food in the
alimentary canal.
d ) A condition due to a lack of nutrients that is required for healthy growth.
e ) A condition characterised by having an excessive amount of body fat.

Test yourself
1. Select from Column B the description which best suits the term in Column A.
Write only the letter of Column B next to the question number, for example
1 (a) B.

Column A Column B
a ) Chemical digestion A. Having an excessive amount of body fat.
b ) Obesity B. The mixing of food with digestive enzymes and
hydrochloric acid.
c ) Peristalsis C. Sores inside the mouth and intestines.
d ) Preservatives D. The rhythmic contraction and relaxation of muscles
in the digestive canal to push food forward.
e ) Ulcers E. Chemical substances that make food last longer. 1
2
(5)
3
2. Study Figure 12 which represents the structure of the digestive system. Answer
the questions that follow.
a) Label the parts numbered 1 to 7. (7) 4

b) Name the glands found in the mouth. (1) 5

c) Describe how these glands assist in the digestive process. (2)

d) Name the type(s) of digestion that take(s) place in the part numbered 3. (1)
6
e) Describe how the part numbered 3 is adapted for digestion to 7
take place. (3)
Figure 12 Structure of the
f) Name the type(s) of digestion that take(s) place in the part numbered 5. (1) digestive system
g) Describe how the part numbered 5 is adapted for digestion to
take place. (3)
h) Explain what the consequences would be if the part numbered
4 is partly removed during an operation. (2)
i ) Explain what happens to the nutrients once they have been
absorbed into the blood. (2)
j ) Explain why it is important to consume enough fibre. (3)
Total: 30

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 Term 1: Practice test

1. Choose the correct answer and write down the number and the letter of your choice.
a ) The tube that transports urine from the kidney to the bladder is the …
A. urethra B. aorta
C. ureter D. oesophagus
b ) The cells in sense organs that detect stimuli from the environment are called …
A. nerves B. impulses
C. effectors D. receptors
c ) The jelly-like medium that fills the cell is called the …
A. nucleus B. vacuole
C. cytoplasm D. membrane
d ) If the eyepiece lens of a microscope has a magnification of 4× and the objective lens has a magnification
of 40×, then the total magnification of the specimen is …
A. 400× B. 160×
C. 10× D. 16× (4)

2. Give the correct biological term for each of the following descriptions.
a) The body system that produces body movement, protects the body and provides support.
b) A group of tissues that work together to perform a specific function.
c) Cells that have the ability to divide and develop into many types of cells.
d) Tough, rubbery tissue that cushions the bones at joints.
e) The stage in the human life cycle when sexual organs mature for reproduction.
f) The release of a ripe egg from the ovaries of the female body. (5)

3. Select the statement from Column B that best describes the term in Column A. Write only the letter from
Column B next to the question number.

Column A Column B
a ) Inhalation A. Blood vessels that transport blood away from the heart
b ) Arteries B. Tissue that attaches muscle to bone
c ) Ligaments C. An active process that is caused by muscle contraction
d ) Exhalation D. Blood vessels that transport blood towards the heart
e ) Veins E. A passive process that occurs without muscle contraction
F. Tissue that attaches bone to bone
G. Blood vessels where the exchange of substances occurs
(5)

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 4. Study the diagram below and answer the questions that follow.

4
3

a ) Supply labels for the parts numbered 2 and 6. (2)

b ) Select the number of the part where egestion takes place. Write the number only. (1)
c ) Select the number of the part where the absorption of a glucose molecule would take place.
Write the number only. (1)
d ) Explain what happens to the glucose that diffuses into the muscle cells. (1)
e ) Tabulate TWO ways in which the cells in this organism differ from plant cells. (4)

5. Study the diagram below and answer the questions that follow.

2
3

a) Give the number of the part where the egg is released. (1)
b) Give the number of the part where the sperm and the egg meet. (1)
c) Explain what foetal alcohol syndrome is and suggest how it can be prevented. (2)
d) Explain what a condom is and discuss why a person would choose to use them. (3)
e) During sexual intercourse about 200 million sperm are ejaculated. Suggest reasons for this. (3)

6. Discuss how the alveoli are structurally suited to their function. (5)

7. More mitochondria are found in muscle cells than in skin cells. Suggest reasons for this difference. (2)
Total: 40

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 Term 2: Matter and materials
Unit

0 6 Unit head goes here

Topic

Compounds and chemical reactions

Starting off
On 1 July 2012, the Periodic Table of Elements as
supplied by IUPAC (International Union of Pure and
Applied Chemistry) contained 114 elements. The
discovery of an additional four elements was yet to be
confirmed by IUPAC.

In Grade 8, you learnt that elements can join together

to form compounds through chemical reactions. In
this topic, you will learn more about the elements
in the Periodic Table and how to use them to name
compounds. You will also learn how to represent
chemical reactions using models and symbols.

Activity 1 Represent a chemical reaction

Hydrogen reacts with oxygen in a very vigorous chemical
reaction that gives out a lot of energy. You can see this
reaction in Figure 1. The product that forms is water.
1. Write down the chemical formula for water.
2. Will you find the chemical formula for water in the
Periodic Table? Explain your answer.
3. Name the two elements that join to form water.
4. Are the two elements you named in Question 3
metals or non-metals?
5. Write a chemical equation to represent the reaction
between hydrogen and oxygen using symbols and
formulae.

Figure 1 The reaction between hydrogen and oxygen is used in

a space shuttle launch

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 Unit

1 The Periodic Table of Elements

In Grades 7 and 8, you learnt about many different elements. An element is a pure
Key words
substance that is made of very tiny particles called atoms. In an element, there
• element – pure is just one type of atom. The atoms in an element cannot be broken down into
substance, made smaller particles by a chemical reaction.
up of only one
type of atom that There are 114 known elements, and they are all listed in the Periodic Table. You will find
cannot be split a Periodic Table at the back of this book. All the elements are different, but sometimes
up into simpler they behave in similar ways. The elements in the Periodic Table are grouped together
substances according to the size of their atoms and the way in which they behave.

• atoms – smallest
units that Representing elements in the Periodic Table
elements are The Periodic Table of Elements gives us information about each element. Every
made of element has its own block, which represents one atom of that element. Inside the
• group – a column block are the element’s chemical symbol and two numbers.
in the Periodic The chemical symbol tells us the name of the element. The smaller of the two numbers
Table is called the atomic number and the larger number is called the mass number of that
• period – a row in element. In Grade 8, you learnt that these two numbers tell us the following:
the Periodic Table • Atomic number: Number of protons in the nucleus
• Atomic number: Number of electrons spinning around the nucleus because
the number of electrons = the number of protons in a neutral atom
• Mass number: Number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus
• Mass number minus atomic number: Number of neutrons in the nucleus
Hydrogen is the first element in the Periodic Table and so it is in the first block
with its chemical symbol, which is H. It has one proton in its nucleus and one
electron spinning around the nucleus. The mass number shows us that there are no
neutrons in the nucleus of a hydrogen atom.
Figure 2 shows the block for the element carbon, as well as a diagram to show all
the information we can derive from this block.

12

C
mass number
symbol for element ++ + 6 protons and 6 neutrons in nucleus
+
+ +
atomic number 6
6 electrons around nucleus

(a) (b)

Figure 2 (a) Representation of the element carbon in the Periodic Table and (b) a diagram of a carbon atom

Did you know?

Element symbols come from different languages. For example, ferrum is the Latin word
for iron, which is why the symbol for iron is Fe.

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 Arrangement of elements in the Periodic Table
The elements in the Periodic Table are arranged in groups and periods. The groups
are the vertical columns. They are numbered from 1 to 18 in the Periodic Table.
Elements in the same group behave in a similar way. They have the same chemical
properties.

For example, potassium (K), sodium (Na) and lithium (Li) are all in Group 1, and so
will react in similar ways. All these Group 1 elements react vigorously with water
and release a gas. They form similar products when they react with oxygen. They
are all quite soft and can be cut with a knife.

Periods in the Periodic Table are the rows, and they run from left to right. There are
seven periods in the Periodic Table. The atomic numbers of the elements increase
by one as you go from left to right across a period.
We can use the groups and periods to describe where an element is in the Periodic
Table, for example, calcium is in Group 2, Period 4.

Activity 2 Use the Periodic Table to understand elements

Study the Periodic Table at the back of this book.
Name of element Symbol
1. How many groups are there in the Periodic Table?
Zinc
2. How many periods are there?
Cu
3. What elements are in the same group as hydrogen?
Gold
4. What elements are in the same period as carbon?
Fe
5. How many elements are represented in the Periodic Table?
Mercury
6. Write down the names and symbols of the first 20 elements.
Ag
7. Complete the table on the right.
Iodine

Activity 3 Study an element

Look at the symbol on the right and study the Periodic Table at the back of this book.
1. Name the element that this symbol represents. 27
2. Give the element’s mass number.
3. Give the element’s atomic number.
13
Al
4. Draw a diagram to represent this element.
5. Give the number of the period that this element is in. Figure 3 Element
6. Name the other elements that are in the same group as this element. block from the
Periodic Table
7. What is this substance commonly used for?

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 Classification of elements
The elements in the Periodic Table can be classified into three groups: metals, non-
metals and semi-metals.
Most of the elements in the Periodic Table are metals. You will find the metals in
the middle and on the left-hand side of the Periodic Table. With one exception, the
metals are all solids at room temperature (25 °C). Only mercury, with the symbol
Hg, is a liquid at room temperature.
You will find the non-metals on the right-hand side of the Periodic Table. They are
mostly gases at room temperature. A few are solids at room temperature. Only
bromine, with the symbol Br, is a liquid at room temperature.
There are a few elements on either side of the black zigzag line in the Periodic Table.
These elements are in between metals and non-metals. They are called semi-metals,
and have properties of both metals and non-metals. You can see the Periodic Table
of Elements in Figure 4. A larger version appears at the back of this book.
Group
semi-metals 18
1 non-metals
1 2

H He
Period

1 metals non-metals
semi-metals
Hydrogen Helium
1 2 13 14 15 16 17 4
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
metals
2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
7 9 11 12 14 16 19 20
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
23 24 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 27 28 31 32 36 40
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 .30 31 32 33 34 35 36

4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
39 40 45 48 51 52 55 56 59 59 64 65 70 73 75 79 80 84
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54

5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
86 88 89 91 93 96 (98) 101 103 106 108 112 115 119 122 128 127 131
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86

6 Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
Caesium Barium Lanthanum Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
133 137 139 179 181 184 186 190 192 195 197 201 204 207 209 (209) (210) (222)
87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118

7 Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Uut Uuq Uup Uuh Uus Uuo

Francium Radium Actinium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Ununtrium Ununquadium Ununpentium Ununhexium Ununseptium Ununoctium
(223) (226) (227) (267) (268) (271) (272) (277) (276) (281) (280) (285) (284) (289) (288) (293) (294) (294)

group
number 13
58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 atomic
number 5
Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
B
6 symbol
Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium period 2
140 141 144 (145) 150 152 157 159 163 165 167 169 173 175 number
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 name Boron
11
7 Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium atomic
232 231 238 (237) (244) (243) (247) (247) (251) (252) (257) (258) (259) (262) mass

Figure 4 Metals, non-metals and semi-metals in the Periodic Table of Elements

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 Formulae for compounds Key words
Compounds are made of elements that are joined together. We use the symbols of
• compounds – pure
elements to write the formulae for compounds.
substances formed
For example, water is a compound made from the elements hydrogen and oxygen by a chemical
joining together. We use the symbols for hydrogen and oxygen to write the formula reaction between
for water. The formula also tells you the ratio of the number of each element in two or more
the compound. The formula for water tells us that there is a ratio of two hydrogen different elements
atoms to one oxygen atom.

HO
hydrogen oxygen
two hydrogen atoms

(a) (b)

Figure 5 (a) Model of a water molecule and (b) the formula for water

Activity 4 Memorise the first 20 elements of the Periodic Table

1. Use Table 1 to memorise the Table 1 Names and symbols of the

names and symbols of the first first twenty elements
20 elements. You do not Atomic Symbol Name
have to memorise the atomic number
numbers.
1 H Hydrogen
2. Test whether you memorised the 2 He Helium
information in Table 1 properly. 3 Li Lithium
a ) Cover the column with the 4 Be Beryllium
names. Write down the name
for each symbol. 5 B Boron
b ) Cover the column with the 6 C Carbon
symbols. Write down the 7 N Nitrogen
symbol for each name. 8 O Oxygen
3. Memorise the following elements 9 F Fluorine
and test yourself: 10 Ne Neon
Fe iron 11 Na Sodium
Cu Copper 12 Mg Magnesium
Zn Zinc 13 Al Aluminium
14 Si Silicon
15 P Phosphorous
16 S Sulfur
17 Cl Chlorine
18 Ar Argon
19 K Potassium
20 Ca Calcium

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 Activity 5 Use the Periodic Table of Elements
1. Copy and complete the table below. Using the following diagram of the
Periodic Table, choose a letter from A to H that represents each description in
the table. The first one has been done for you.

D E F G

Description Letter
A non-metal A
A Group 17 element
A semi-metal
A Group 13 element
A metal
An element in Period 3

2. Use the symbols for elements to write formulae for the following compounds.
a ) Carbon dioxide with a ratio of one carbon atom to two oxygen atoms
b ) Ammonia with a ratio of one nitrogen atom to three hydrogen atoms
c ) Sodium chloride with a ratio of one sodium atom to one chlorine atom

Key concepts
The Periodic Table groups elements with similar properties together. Each
element has a symbol, atomic number and mass number in a block in the
Periodic Table. The elements can be classified into metals, non-metals and
semi-metals.

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 Unit

2
0 Names of compounds
Compounds get their names from the elements that they are made of. We use the
names of the elements to develop the name of the compound.

Activity 6 Identify the patterns in compound names

1. Copy this table into your Compound formula Compound name Elements in compound
workbook. Use the Periodic
K2O Potassium oxide Potassium and oxygen
Table at the back of the book to
complete the last column. MgS Magnesium sulfide
2. Write down the ending of the LiCl Lithium chloride
names of the first three CaSO4 Calcium sulfate Calcium, sulfur and oxygen
compounds in the table. Na2CO3 Sodium carbonate
3. How many types of elements are Mg(NO3)2 Magnesium nitrate
there in each of these compounds?
4. Write down the ending of the names of the last three compounds in the table.
5. How many types of elements are there in each of these compounds?
6. Identify a pattern in naming compounds.

Steps for naming compounds

You can follow these steps to name a compound:
Step 1: Identify the elements in the compound. Step 4: If the compound contains three elements,
Step 2: Write down the name of the metal first. one of which is oxygen, name the element
that is not oxygen and change the ending
Step 3: If the compound contains only two elements,
to ‘-ate’.
name the second element and change the
ending to ‘-ide’.
There are some exceptions to these rules, for example, –OH is called hydroxide.
When a metal is bonded to –OH, the compound’s name will end with ‘-ide’. For
example, NaOH is called sodium hydroxide even though it has three elements in the
compound.

Activity 7 Name compounds

1. Write down the names of the compounds that contain the elements listed below. Use this example to help you:
A compound made from sodium and oxygen is called sodium oxide and a compound made from lithium and
carbon and oxygen is called lithium carbonate.
a ) Calcium and sulfur b ) Calcium, sulfur and oxygen
c ) Chlorine and sodium d ) Magnesium, oxygen and phosphorous
e ) Nitrogen, lithium and oxygen
2. How many different elements are there in the following compounds?
a ) Sodium chloride b ) Potassium nitrate
c ) Calcium fluoride d ) Copper carbonate
e ) Zinc hydroxide

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 Prefixes in compound names
Some compound names have prefixes to show how many atoms of a certain
element the compound contains.
‘Mono’ means one. ‘Di’ means two. ‘Tri’ means three. ‘Tetra’ means four.
For example:
• CO is called carbon monoxide because one oxygen atom has combined with
the carbon atom.
• CO2 is called carbon dioxide because two oxygen atoms have combined with
the carbon atom.
• SO3 is called sulfur trioxide because three oxygen atoms have combined with
the sulfur atom.
• CCl4 is called carbon tetrachloride because four chlorine atoms have combined
with the carbon atom.

Common names for compounds

Some compounds have common names that we use in everyday language, for
example, water (H2O) and ammonia (NH3). Vinegar is the common name for ethanoic
acid. These common names are used more often than their scientific names.

Activity 8 Use scientific and common names for compounds

Copy and complete this table in your Compound formula Scientific name Common name
workbook.
H2O Hydrogen oxide
NaCl Salt
CaCO3 Limestone or marble
Ca(OH)2 Slaked lime
HCl Hydrogen chloride
H2SO4 Sulfuric acid
HNO3 Nitric acid
CH3COOH Ethanoic acid

Key concepts
Many compounds are named according to their elements. If the compound
name ends in ‘ide’, there are two elements in the compound and if it ends
in ‘ate’, there are three elements in the compound, one of which is oxygen.
We can use the prefixes ‘mono’, ‘di’ and ‘tri’ to indicate how many atoms of a
particular element is in a compound.

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 Unit

3 Chemical equations to represent reactions

Using models to represent reactions Key words

In Grade 8, you learnt that chemical substances can break apart and join together
• chemical reaction
in a chemical reaction. The substances that react together are called the reactants.
– a chemical
The new substances that form are called the products.
process in which
You also learnt that we use models to help us understand something. In Grade 8 two or more
you used models to represent atoms of different elements. We can also use models substances react
to represent chemical reactions. This makes it easier to understand how reactants to form new
break apart and rejoin in a different way to form products. substances

Activity 9 Make models of elements and compounds

You will need: modelling clay or playdough Formula Name Picture diagram
Use playdough to build models of the elements and
H2O Water
compounds in this table. Use your models to complete
the table. The first one has been done for you. H2
O2
CO
CO2
CuO
NaCl
SO3

Using symbols and formulae to represent

reactions
You can also use your knowledge about symbols and formulae to represent
chemical reactions. This is called a chemical equation. For example, hydrogen reacts
with oxygen to form water. We write the equation for this reaction as follows:
2H2 + O2 → 2H2O
The subscript numbers in each formula (shown here in green) indicate the number
of atoms of an element in that compound.
The numbers in front of some of the formulae (shown here in red) indicate
the ratio in which the molecules react. In the example above, two molecules of
hydrogen react with one molecule of oxygen to form two molecules of water.

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 Diatomic elements
Oxygen gas and hydrogen gas are often used in chemical reactions. In nature,
the atoms in these gases react in pairs of two. In Grade 8, you learnt that certain
elements are not built using single atoms. They consist of diatomic molecules.
The elements hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine
are made up of diatomic molecules. Whenever we use them as elements in a
reaction, that is, when they are not part of a compound, we must write H2, N2, O2,
F2, Cl2, Br2 and I2.
Figure 6
Drawing of
an oxygen
molecule
Activity 10 Build an equation
You will need: modelling clay or playdough
1. Use the play dough to build models of the following atoms and molecules.

a ) One carbon atom b ) One oxygen c ) One carbon dioxide

molecule molecule
2. Arrange your models to represent a chemical equation in which carbon reacts
with oxygen to form carbon dioxide.
a ) Name the reactants and products in this chemical equation.
b ) Explain how the atoms in the reactants rearrange to form the product.
c ) Use formulae to represent the chemical reaction between carbon
and oxygen.

3. Hydrogen reacts with oxygen to form water.

a ) Use the playdough or plastic beads to build two hydrogen molecules and
one oxygen molecule.
b ) Rearrange the atoms to show how the products are formed.
c ) Draw a diagram to represent the reaction.
d ) Write a chemical equation and a word equation for the reaction.

Atoms are conserved during a reaction

During a chemical reaction, atoms are not lost or gained. The original atoms in the
reactants are simply rearranged to form new groups of atoms in the products.
Look at the model you built in Question 3 of Activity 10 again. There are four
hydrogen atoms and two oxygen atoms in the reactants. In the products, there
are still four hydrogen atoms and two oxygen atoms. They are just arranged in a
different way.

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 Activity 11 Represent equations
1. For each of the following models of reactions, write down: =C
i ) a chemical equation for the reaction =H
ii ) a word equation for the reaction.
= Cl
a)
=K
+ →
=O

b) =S
+ → + Key of the atoms

c)
+ →

d)
+ →

2. Zinc reacts with oxygen to form zinc oxide in this reaction:

2Zn + O2 → 2ZnO
Copy and complete the following sentences:
a ) The subscript number indicates the number of ___________ of an
element found in the formula. There are ___________ oxygen atoms
joined together in one ___________.
b ) The numbers in front of the compounds indicate the ___________ in
which the molecules react. __________ zinc atoms react with _________
oxygen molecule to form two zinc oxides.

Key concepts
Chemical reactions can be represented using models or symbols and
formulae in a chemical equation. No atoms are lost or gained in a reaction,
they are simply rearranged.

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 Unit

4 Balanced equations

Balancing equations
When we write a chemical equation, we have to balance it. The total number and
type of atoms in the reactants is the same as in the products. This means that there
must be the same number of atoms of each type on either side of the arrow in your
chemical equation.

Steps for balancing a chemical equation

Follow these steps to balance a chemical equation. Take as example:

hydrogen + oxygen → water

Step 1: Write down the symbols and formulae for all the substances.
Remember that certain elements are diatomic.
H2 + O2 → H2O
Step 2: Make a picture drawing of the equation to help you count the atoms.

+ →

Step 3: Count the atoms of one of the elements on either side of the arrow. There
are two white (hydrogen) atoms on either side of the arrow. However,
there are two red (oxygen) atoms on the left of the arrow, but only one
red atom on the right.

Step 4: Try to make the atoms on either side of the arrow equal by adding more
molecules to the side where you do not have enough atoms. You cannot
change the composition of a molecule, so you cannot simply add another
red atom on the right. H2O2 is not water. You have to add an entire water
molecule.

+ →

Step 5: Count all the atoms on either side of the arrow again. You now have two
red atoms on either side of the arrow. However, the number of white
(hydrogen) atoms is not equal.

Step 6: Keep on repeating Steps 4 and 5. Add two more white atoms on the left.
Now the equation is balanced.

+ →

Step 7: Write down the formula of each reactant and each product. Write a
number in front of each formula to show how many of each molecule you
have. We do not write the number 1 if there is only one molecule.
2H2 + O2 → 2H2O

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 Important points to remember when balancing
equations
When balancing equations, remember the following:
• There must be an equal number of each type of atom on either side of the arrow.
• You cannot change the composition of a molecule, only the quantity of a
molecule.
• Do not use small numbers in the formula to add atoms, only use big numbers in
front of the formula.
• Start by counting the O atoms and H atoms if there are any in the equation.

Activity 12 Count atoms

1. Draw a model for the equation CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2

2. Count the number of calcium, oxygen and hydrogen atoms in the reactants.
3. Count the number of calcium, oxygen and hydrogen atoms in the products.
How does this compare to your answer to Question 2?
4. Is this equation balanced?

Activity 13 Balance equations

1. For each of the following examples:
i ) balance the equation
ii ) write a word equation for the reaction.
a ) Magnesium reacts with oxygen to form a white powder, magnesium
oxide:
Mg + O2 → MgO
b ) Iron reacts with oxygen to form a brown rusty coat of iron oxide:
Fe + O2 → Fe2O3
c ) Copper reacts very slowly with oxygen to form copper oxide:
Cu + O2 → CuO
2. Balance the following chemical equations.
a ) Na + Cl2 → NaCl b ) N2 + H2 → NH3
c ) Pb(OH)2 + HCl → PbCl2 + H2O d ) P4 + O2 → P2O3
e ) Li + H2SO4 → Li2SO4 + H2

Key concepts
Chemical equations must be written as balanced chemical equations.
The total number and type of atoms in the reactants is the same as in the
products.

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 Topic 6 revision

Science language activity

Write down a word that describes each of the following statements:
1. The common name for hydrogen oxide.
2. The ending of a compound’s name that is made up of three elements, one of
which is oxygen.
3. The common name for sodium chloride.
4. The name of the compound made from lithium and chlorine.
5. The name of the compound made from lithium, chlorine and oxygen.
6. Substances found in the region between metals and non-metals in the
Periodic Table.
7. The larger number in the block of an element in the Periodic Table.
8. The rows from left to right in the Periodic Table.

Test yourself
1. Give one example of each of the following.
a ) Metal (1)
b ) Non-metal (1)
c ) Semi-metal (1)
2. Use the Periodic Table of Elements to copy and complete the following table.

Number of each type Name of compound

Formula of compound
of atom in compound
NaOH 1 sodium, 1 oxygen, Sodium hydroxide
1 hydrogen
MgO

Water

Al2S3

Carbon monoxide

Carbon dioxide

Ca(NO3)2 Calcium nitrate

(11)
3. Balance the following equations.
a ) H2 + O2 → H2O (2)
b ) C + H2 → CH4 (2)
c ) CaCO3 + HCl → CaCl2 + CO2 + H2O (2)

Total: 20

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 Term 2: Matter and materials
Topic
Reactions of metals and non-metals
7 with oxygen
Starting off
In this topic, you will learn how oxygen reacts with
different substances. When you understand how
reactions work, you can use them to produce specific
products. You can also use your knowledge to prevent
reactions from happening.
One of the reactions that we see every day is the reaction
of oxygen with iron in the presence of moisture. We call
the product of this reaction, rust. By understanding how
rust forms, you can use different methods to prevent it.

Activity 1 Determine what you know

about rust
The Cape Argus Pick n Pay Cycle Tour is the largest
timed cycle event in the world. Cyclists from around the
world travel to Cape Town to cycle 110 scenic kilometres
around the Cape Peninsula. The event can be completed
Figure 1 This bicycle is rusting
on many different types of bicycles.
1. Bicycles are made of metal and can rust. In your own
words, write down a definition of rust.
2. Two learners are training for the cycle tour. Johan
trains in Kimberley and Nosipho trains in Port
Elizabeth. Think of a reason why a bicycle in Port
Elizabeth rusts faster than a bicycle in Kimberley.
3. Suggest a method that the learners can use to
protect their bicycles against rust.
4. Cyclists using many different bicycles enter the
Cape Argus Pick n Pay Cycle Tour. Do you think that
a rusty bicycle will affect a cyclist’s performance?
Explain your answer.

Figure 2 Cyclists racing in the Cape Argus Pick n Pay Cycle Tour

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 Unit

1 Reactions of metals with oxygen

Oxygen is colourless and odourless. About 20% of the atmosphere consists of
Key words
oxygen. You already know that oxygen is a diatomic element. Oxygen is a gas at
• combustion – room temperature.
rapid chemical
reaction with
oxygen that
General reaction of metals with oxygen
produces heat and Some metals react with oxygen during burning. This
light process is called combustion. Combustion is usually
a rapid reaction that produces heat and light. When
• oxide – a substance reacts with oxygen, the reaction is called
compound oxidation. A new compound, called an oxide, is formed.
formed when a Figure 3 Two oxygen atoms
substance reacts When you burn a metal in air, the metal reacts with combine to form a molecule
with oxygen the oxygen in the air and a metal oxide is formed. of oxygen

• metal oxide – The general reaction between a metal and oxygen is:
compound metal + oxygen → metal oxide
formed when a
metal reacts with The nature of combustion of different metals
oxygen Some metals burn more easily than others in oxygen. Not all metals react with the
oxygen in the air to form metal oxides, because some metals are too unreactive.
Table 1 shows how some metals burn in oxygen.
Table 1 Combustion of different metals

Sodium Potassium Calcium Zinc Copper

Photo of
combustion in
pure oxygen

Sodium burns Potassium burns The combustion Zinc powder Copper is not
with a bright with a bright light of calcium is less burns with a very reactive. It
yellow flame in in pure oxygen. vigorous than white flame in glows in pure
pure oxygen. that of sodium pure oxygen. oxygen and
and potassium. forms a black
powder.
Metal oxide that Na2O K2O CaO ZnO CuO
forms (Sodium oxide) (Potassium oxide) (Calcium oxide) (Zinc oxide) (Copper oxide)

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 Reaction of iron with oxygen
Air contains oxygen. When iron is burnt in air, the reaction forms iron oxide. Iron Did you know?
and oxygen can combine in different ways. During the combustion of iron in air, We know Fe2O3 as rust.
Fe2O3 and Fe3O4 are formed. Fe3O4 is a magnetic
Word equation: iron + oxygen → iron oxide black substance that is
called magnetite.
Symbol equations (unbalanced): Fe + O2 → Fe2O3 and Fe + O2 → Fe3O4
Balanced symbol equations: 4Fe + 3O2 → 2Fe2O3 and 3Fe + 2O2 → Fe3O4

Figure 4 Steel wool contains iron. Here, a piece of steel wool burns in air

Reaction of magnesium with oxygen

When magnesium is burnt in air, it forms a white powder called magnesium oxide.
Word equation: magnesium + oxygen → magnesium oxide
Symbol equation (unbalanced): Mg + O2 → MgO
Balanced symbol equation: 2Mg + O2 → 2MgO

Figure 5 Magnesium ribbon burns in air

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 Activity 2 Investigate the reaction of iron and magnesium
with oxygen
You will need: a Bunsen burner • matches • safety goggles • steel wool • tongs •
Safety magnesium ribbon
Steel wool gets very
hot when it burns and 1. Copy the table below into your workbook and complete it by recording your
can produce sparks. Be observations of the following.
careful not to start a a ) Your teacher will demonstrate the reaction of iron with oxygen by using a
fire or burn yourself. pair of tongs to hold a piece of steel wool in the flame of a Bunsen burner.
Record your observations in the table.
b ) Your teacher will demonstrate the reaction of magnesium with oxygen
Safety by using a pair of tongs to hold a piece of magnesium in the flame of a
Magnesium ribbon Bunsen burner. Record your observations in the table.
produces a very bright
light that can damage Appearance when Name of metal Appearance of
your eyes if you look at burning oxide oxide
it directly. Do not look Steel wool
at the reaction directly.
Look to the side and Magnesium
just be aware of a 2. Draw conclusions: How do you know that there has been a chemical reaction
bright light.
in each case?
3. Write a balanced chemical equation for the combustion of:
a ) magnesium
b ) iron.

Activity 3 Write chemical equations for metals reacting

with oxygen

1. Write the word equations for the reactions that take place when the following
metals burn in air.
a ) aluminium b ) potassium
c ) lead d ) mercury
e ) beryllium
Figure 6 White magnesium 2. Complete the following chemical equations and balance them.
oxide powder a ) Fe + _______ → Fe2O3 b ) Cu + O2 → _______
c ) Ca + O2 → _______ d ) _______ + O2 → Na2O
e ) Li + _______ → Li2O

Key concept
Metals burn in oxygen to form metal oxides.

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 Unit

2 Rusting

Rusting is a form of corrosion Key words

Rusting is a type of corrosion. Corrosion is a chemical process that damages or
• rusting – slow
weakens a metal or other strong material. It usually takes place when metals react
chemical reaction
with oxygen, water, acids or bases in their environment.
of iron with
All metals do not corrode to the same extent. More reactive metals usually corrode oxygen in the air,
faster than less reactive metals. Sodium corrodes so fast that it has to be stored in the presence of
in oil. The least reactive metals, like gold and platinum, do not corrode even after water
many years.
• corrosion –
process where a
The formation of rust metal is damaged
Rusting is a slow chemical reaction that most of us see all around us. Rusting occurs or weakened by a
when iron reacts with oxygen in the presence of moisture. Water is needed for the chemical reaction
rusting process to take place. The reaction produces a complex compound. Part of
this compound is iron oxide (Fe2O3). This oxide is an orange coloured solid that we
call rust.
A bicycle will rust faster in Cape Town than in Johannesburg, because near the
coast there is more water vapour in the air.
Rusting happens at the surface of iron when it is exposed to air and water for a long
time. We can see that corrosion is starting to take place when a metal surface loses
its shine.
The red-brown colour in Figure 7 is iron oxide. Rusting is a continuous process, so
over time, more and more of the metal turns into rust. After a long time, holes will
form in the metal and eventually the object falls apart.

Figure 7 Rusting happens more quickly when there are impurities like salt in the water

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 Activity 4 Investigate rusting
You will need: five iron nails • five test tubes • test tube rack • salt • one test tube
stopper • calcium chloride • tap water • distilled water • oil
1. Place four test tubes in a test tube holder. Follow the instructions in the table
below.
2. Leave the test tubes for one week. Copy this table into your workbook and
record your observations.

Method Instructions Observations

Test tube 1 Place a nail in the test tube. Close the test
tube firmly with the stopper.
Test tube 2 Place a nail in test tube. Half-fill the test tube
with tap water.
Test tube 3 Place half a teaspoon of calcium carbonate in
the test tube. Place a nail in the test tube.
Test tube 4 Place a nail in the test tube. Pour enough
distilled water in the test tube to cover the
nail. Pour a thin layer of oil on top of the water.
2 3 4 5
Figure 8 Experimental setup Test tube 5 Half-fill the test tube with tap water.
to investigate rusting Add half a teaspoon of salt. Swirl the test
tube until the salt dissolves. Place a nail in
the test tube.

3. Interpret your observations.

a ) What is the purpose of test tube 1?
b ) Calcium carbonate is a drying agent. How does this relate to your
observation in test tube 3?
c ) What does test tube 4 tell you about the conditions needed for rusting to
take place?
2 3 4 5
d ) Explain the difference in your observations in test tubes 2 and 5.
Figure 9 Results of
experiment to investigate 4. Write an overall conclusion for this experiment.
rusting

Ways to prevent rusting

Many modern structures and equipment are made of steel. Steel consists mostly
of iron. Rusting weakens these structures. It is therefore important to prevent
rusting. We can do this by preventing oxygen from the air and water coming into
contact with the steel. The photographs in figures 10 to 14 on page 95 show some
well-known ways to do this.

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 Figure 10 In this method of protecting metal from
rusting, we galvanise the iron. The iron is coated with
a thin layer of a more reactive metal. This protects the
iron. This roof was dipped into molten zinc. Even if the
surface is scratched, the zinc will corrode before the
iron
Figure 11 Chrome plating is another way of protecting
steel or iron. Electrolysis is used in a process called
electroplating. The electrolysis reaction deposits a
thin layer of chromium on the steel. This protects the Figure 10 Galvanised iron Figure 11 Chrome plating
steel, because chromium does not rust. It also forms a
ships hull
shiny, attractive surface, and is therefore often used to
made of steel
produce components of motorbikes and cars
(mainly iron)
Figure 12 When you paint iron, the paint prevents the
metal from coming into contact with water and oxygen zinc bar
in the air. We paint ships, bridges, fences and many
other structures to protect them from rusting. However,
if the paint is scratched, the iron underneath it will start
to rust hull
Figure 13 Ships and pipelines are always in contact Figure 12 Painting iron Figure 13 Bars protect ships
with water. We can prevent these structures from
rusting by attaching bars of a more reactive metal to
them. Magnesium alloys and zinc are more reactive Key words
than iron. The bar corrodes instead of the iron. The
corrosion of the bar helps the iron stay intact. The bar • galvanise – to
slowly dissolves and must be renewed cover steel or iron
Figure 14 We can protect some structures against with a layer of
rusting by applying a layer of oil. Oiling prevents rust by a more reactive
repelling water. As oil and water do not mix, the water metal such as zinc
does not come into contact with the metal underneath
Figure 14 Using oil • electroplating –
to use electrolysis
Activity 5 Hypothesise about the best way to prevent rust to cover one metal
with a layer of
On a road trip through South Africa, you stop to help with several projects. another metal
1. A windmill on a sheep farm in the Karoo is rusting. Suggest a method to
prevent it from rusting any further.
2. A school building in Natal needs a roof. Suggest a suitable material for the new
roof.
3. A container ship arrives in the Port of Ngqura. The captain needs to protect the
hull from rusting during long voyages at sea. Suggest a method of preventing
the hull of the container ship from rusting.
4. At a school in Johannesburg, a class is learning about rust prevention. The
learners have collected nails, jars and paint to conduct an investigation. Suggest
a method that the learners can use to investigate how to prevent rusting. Write
a hypothesis for the investigation and predict the result of the experiment. Figure 15 A windmill in the
Karoo

Key concepts
Iron and steel react with oxygen in the air in the presence of water.
This is called rusting and it weakens the iron or steel. We can galvanise,
electroplate or paint iron or steel to prevent it from rusting.

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 Unit

3 Reactions of non-metals with oxygen

Key word General reaction of non-metals with oxygen

Non-metals can also combust. When you burn a non-metal in air, the non-metal
• non-metal oxide –
reacts with the oxygen in the air and a non-metal oxide is formed.
compound
formed when a The general reaction between a non-metal and oxygen is:
non-metal reacts non-metal + oxygen → non-metal oxide
with oxygen

Case study: An application of combustion

Some non-metals burn more easily than under water so that they cannot come
others in oxygen. Phosphorous is an into contact with the oxygen in the air.
example of a non-metal that combusts The striking surface on the outside
very easily. If a relatively pure sample of a matchbox is made of a mixture of
of phosphorous comes into contact with substances, of which red phosphorous
air, it will ignite spontaneously and burn is one. The match heads are dipped in a
with an orange flame. mixture that contains potassium chlorate
There are different forms of and sulfur. When you strike a match, the
phosphorous. White phosphorous and red friction causes the red phosphorous to react
phosphorous are the most well-known. vigorously with the potassium chlorate in
Figure 16 Phosphorous is
Both forms of phosphorous are stored the presence of oxygen. The match ignites. used in the striking surfaces on
match boxes

Reaction of carbon with oxygen

When carbon is burnt in air, a colourless gas called carbon dioxide is formed.
We can test for carbon dioxide by bubbling it through clear limewater. It will make
the limewater milky.
Word equation: carbon + oxygen → carbon dioxide
Balanced symbol equation: C + O2 → CO2

Figure 17 Carbon dioxide

cannot be seen or smelt, but it
turns clear limewater milky Figure 18 The combustion of carbon can be seen in a coal fire

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 Reaction of sulfur with oxygen
Sulfur burns in pure oxygen with a bright blue flame. A colourless gas called sulfur
dioxide is produced. Sulfur dioxide is toxic and has a pungent, irritating smell. It is
released when volcanoes erupt.
Word equation: sulfur + oxygen → sulfur dioxide
Balanced symbol equation: S + O2 → SO2

Figure 19 Sulfur burns in pure oxygen with a bright blue flame

Activity 6 Name, write symbols, draw pictures and make

models of chemical reactions
You will need: plastic beads • plasticine or playdough
1. Write down a balanced chemical equation for the reaction between sulfur and
oxygen.
a ) Name each substance in your equation.
b ) Draw a picture of your equation. Use yellow for sulfur and red for oxygen.
c ) Use plastic beads and plasticine to build the reactants.
d ) Show how the reactant atoms rearrange to form the product.
2. Repeat Question 1 for the reaction between carbon and oxygen. When you
draw a picture of the equation, use black for carbon.

Key concept
Non-metals burn in oxygen to form non-metal oxides.

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 Topic 7 revision

Science language activity

Match the term in Column A with its description in Column B.
Column A Column B
Combustion A compound formed when metals burn in oxygen.
Non-metal oxide Orange solid formed by the reaction of iron and oxygen in the
presence of water.
Galvanising Coating iron with a more reactive metal to protect it from
rusting.
Rust A compound that is formed when a non-metal burns in oxygen.
Metal oxide A rapid chemical reaction with oxygen that produces heat and
light.

Test yourself
1. Fill in the missing words.
a ) metal + oxygen → __________
b ) non-metal + __________ → non-metal oxide (2)
2. Write balanced symbol equations for each of the following reactions.
a ) Carbon burns in oxygen (2)
b ) Magnesium burns in oxygen (2)
c ) Sulfur burns in oxygen (2)
3. Describe the term ‘rusting’. (2)
4. Explain why you think rust costs the South African economy millions
of rands every year. (2)
5. A learner plans an investigation to find out how well different methods
of preventing rust work. The learner writes down the following materials
and method.
Materials: three nails, three jars with lids, paint, oil, water
Method:
Actions Observations
Jar 1 Pour water in jar. Place nail in jar. Close lid.
Jar 2 Pour water in jar. Paint nail with paint. Allow to
dry. Place nail in jar. Close lid.
Jar 3 Pour water in jar. Place nail in jar. Pour a layer of oil
on top of water. Close lid.
a ) Suggest a hypothesis for this experiment. (1)
b ) Which jar is used as the control? Explain your answer. (2)
c ) Complete the table with the observations that the learner is likely to
find when he returns to the laboratory two weeks later.
Explain your answer. (5)
Total: 20

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 Term 2: Matter and materials
Topic

8 Acids, bases and pH value

Starting off
Substances can be classified in different ways, for
example, as pure substances or mixtures, or elements or
compounds. Many substances can also be classified as
acids or bases. Acids and bases are common ingredients
in the foods and cleaning agents that we find in our
homes. Some acids and bases are stronger than others.
In this topic, you will learn about acids and bases, and
the pH scale. You will also learn how to tell the difference
between acids and bases.

Activity 1 Find examples of acids

and bases

1. Figure 1 shows some oranges and orange juice. Fruit

juices are slightly acidic with a sour taste.
a ) Do you think orange juice is a strong or weak
acid? Give a reason for your answer.
b ) Name any other acids that we use in our
homes.
2. Bases are found in cleaning agents such as bleach.
a ) Do you think bleach is a strong or weak base?
Give a reason for your answer.
b ) Name any other example of a base.
3. Can you think of a way to tell the difference between
acids and bases?
4. What do you know about the dangers of working
with acids? Are all acids dangerous?
5. Can bases be dangerous? Explain your answer.
6. Discuss safety precautions for using acids and bases.

Figure 1 Oranges are slightly acidic

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 Unit

1 The concept of pH value

Key words Acids and bases

Acids and bases are all around us. We use them every day without even thinking
• acids – substances
about it. The acid in our stomach helps us digest food. Acids are also found in food
with a pH between
such as fruit and soft drinks. Bases are used in soaps and cleaning agents. If a base
0 and 7
can dissolve in water, we call it an alkali.
• bases – substances
Both acids and bases can be strong or weak. Strong acids and bases are very
with a pH between
dangerous. Strong acids are corrosive. They can eat away at metals and other
7 and 14
strong materials. Strong acids and bases can cause serious burns. The acids and
• alkali – base that alkalis you use in the laboratory are usually diluted with water.
can dissolve in
water
• corrosive –
substance that
dissolves or eats
away at metals
and other strong
materials
• pH – number
between 0 and 14
that tells us how
acidic or basic
a water soluble
(a) (b)
substance is
Figure 2 Examples of (a) household acids and (b) household bases
• neutral –
substance that is
not an acid or a The pH scale
base, with a pH of 7 The pH of a chemical substance that can dissolve in water is a measure of how
acidic or basic that substance is. It tells us how strong or weak acids and alkalis are.
The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14. Acids have a pH between 0 and 7, and alkalis
have a pH between 7 and 14. Substances that are neutral have a pH of 7.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

strong acids weak acids neutral weak bases strong bases

Figure 4 The pH scale

Figure 3 Acids are corrosive

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 Strong acids have the lowest pH numbers. Although it is theoretically possible for
Key words
an acid to have a pH of 0, we seldom work with pH values below 1. Weak acids have
pH numbers just below 7. Strong alkalis have the highest pH numbers. We do not • indicator – dye
work with pH values above 14. Weak alkalis have pH numbers just above 7. Table 1 that has different
shows some examples of strong and weak acids and bases. colours in acids and
bases
Table 1 Examples of pH values

Substance Description pH
Hydrochloric acid (stomach acid) Strong acid 1
Milk Weak acid 6
Ammonia Weak base 11
Sodium hydroxide (drain cleaner) Strong base 14

Chemical indicators
We use a chemical indicator to identify whether a chemical is an acid or a base.
Indicators are dyes that change colour when they are mixed with acids and bases.
They have one colour in an acid and another colour in a base.

Activity 2 Test household substances with red cabbage indicator

You will need: hotplate or Bunsen burner • wire gauze
and tripod • beaker or pot • knife •
teaspoon • large tablespoon •
red cabbage leaves • distilled water •
vinegar • bicarbonate of soda dissolved
in distilled water • three small see-
through beakers or containers
1. Chop the red cabbage leaves finely. Put about
ten heaped tablespoons of chopped leaves in the
beaker or pot.
2. Cover the leaves with distilled water. Cook them
for about 15 minutes. The water should be red
to purple.
3. Decant the liquid carefully and let it cool completely.
4. Fill one of the small beakers about one-quarter full
with distilled water, one with vinegar and one with Figure 5 Red cabbage can
bicarbonate of soda solution. be used to prepare a natural
5. Add three teaspoons of cabbage indicator to each of the containers and record indicator. This photo shows
your findings. the different colours of the
indicator for different pH
6. Identify each substance as acidic, basic or neutral. Use Figure 5 to help you. values

7. Evaluate the red cabbage indicator. How easy or difficult was it to determine
whether a substance is acidic, basic or neutral? If your indicator works well,
keep it for the practical task on page 107.

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 Activity 3 Test acids and bases with laboratory indicators
You will need: red litmus paper • phenolphthalein indicator solution •
bromothymol blue indicator solution • dilute hydrochloric acid •
sodium hydroxide solution • six test tubes or beakers
1. Pour a little bit of dilute hydrochloric acid into three of the beakers or test
tubes. Dip the red litmus paper in one of the beakers.
2. Add two drops of phenolphthalein to another beaker and two drops of
bromothymol blue to the third beaker.
3. Using the remaining three test tubes or beakers, repeat Steps 1 and 2 with
sodium hydroxide solution instead of hydrochloric acid.
4. Record your results in a table.

Figure 6 Litmus indicator paper is blue in a Figure 7 Phenolphthalein indicator is pink in Figure 8 Bromothymol blue indicator is blue
base (left) and red in an acid (right) a base (left) and colourless in an acid (right) in a base (left) and yellow in an acid (right)

Universal indicator
The indicators you used in Activity 3 can show us whether a substance is an acid
or base, but they cannot show us how strong or weak the acid or base is. To find
out the strength of acids and bases, we use universal indicator. Universal indicator
is a mixture of dyes that can change into many different colours. The colour that
universal indicator changes to depends on how strong or weak the acid or alkali is.

Universal indicator colours

Universal indicator has the ability to show the full range of pH values on the
pH scale by its colour changes. Each of the colours of universal indicator can be
matched to a number on the pH scale (see Figure 9). Acids change the colour of
universal indicator towards the yellow, orange and red end of the colour scale.
Bases change the colour of universal indicator towards the blue and purple end
of the colour scale. If a substance is not an acid or a base, it is neutral. Pure water
is neutral and has a pH of 7. Neutral substances change the colour of universal
indicator to green.

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 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Figure 9 The colour changes of universal indicator for different pH values

Activity 4 Identify acids and bases

1. Figure 10 shows the colours of universal indicator paper in

some substances. Write down the letter(s) of the:
a ) substances that are acids
b ) substances that are alkalis
c ) neutral substance.
2. Write down a possible pH value for each of the substances in
Figure 10.

A B C D E
Figure 10 Colour of universal indicator paper for
different substances

pH meters
We use universal indicator to identify the pH of a substance,
but we can also use digital pH meters. Digital pH meters
measure the pH of a substance very quickly and accurately.

Figure 11 A digital pH meter

Key concepts
pH is a measure of how acidic or basic a substance is on a scale of 0 to 14.
Acids have a pH between 0 and 7, and bases have a pH between 7 and 14.
Neutral substances have a pH of 7. Indicators are dyes that change colour
in acids and bases. Universal indicator has a full range of colours that match
each number on the pH scale.

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 Skills focus: Write a scientific report

What is a scientific report?

A scientific report is a written story of what you did in an experiment or investigation. It is a good way of keeping
records of your scientific activities.

How to write a scientific report

A scientific report should consist of five parts: aim, method, results, conclusion and evaluation.

Aim
The aim is what you are trying to find out in an experiment or investigation. It is the reason why you are doing
the experiment or investigation. The aim can be in the form of a question or problem. You may need to make a
prediction or hypothesis as part of your aim.

your Prediction: State what you

can you write
Question: How think your results will be for your
on?
aim as a questi investigation.

Hypothesis: Write a sta

tement or possible expla
for your investigation th nation
at will be proved or dispr
during your investigation oved
, for example: ‘Hydrochlo
acid is stronger than vin ric
egar’.

Method
The method is a record of how you conducted the investigation or experiment. In your method, you should have:
• a list of all the variables
• a list of the apparatus or equipment that you used
• some diagrams that clearly show your method – you should draw these neatly using a ruler and a pencil
• a clear list of the steps that you followed – each step should be numbered.

Example

vestigation:
Independent variable
: Apparatus used: Steps in the in hloric
5 ml of hydroc
• The different aci ds • Hydrochloric acid 1. Measure be.
it into a test tu
• Vinegar acid and pour
Dependent variable: ep 1 with vine
gar.
• How vigorous the reacti
ons are • Zinc metal 2. Repeat St m et al to
e of zinc
• Two test tubes 3. Add a piec
Controlled variables: • Test tube rack each test tube
.
actions
• Same metal (zinc) the chemical re
• Measuring cylinder 4. Observe
Same temperature ch reaction is
• • Tongs and decide whi
• Same amount of acid more vigorous
.

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 Results
This is where you record your data in a systematic way. It can
include drawings, descriptions, tables and graphs.

Conclusion
The conclusion answers the question you wrote in your aim, or it proves or
disproves your prediction or hypothesis.

Evaluation
After you have finished an experiment, it is a good idea to evaluate
Figure 12 Observation
your work. When you evaluate your work, you should ask yourself
for zinc reacting with
questions such as the following:
hydrochloric acid
• Was our test question or problem clearly stated so that we could
work out which steps to follow to answer it?
sults were
• Were the investigation steps clear and easy to follow? Results: The re
acted more
that the zinc re
• Were our results clear? h hydrochloric
vigorously wit
vinegar.
• Did our results help us to answer our question or prove/disprove acid than with
our prediction or hypothesis?
• Did our conclusion answer our question or solve the problem? Conclusion: Since the zinc reacted more
• What could be improved to make the investigation more reliable? vigorously with hydrochloric acid than
• Was our investigation a fair test? Did we keep all the controlled with vinegar, it proves that hydrochloric
variables constant? acid is a stronger acid than vinegar.

Activity 5 Practise writing a scientific report

In an investigation to find out if food contains energy, learners in Grade 9 held

a peanut with some tongs. They lit the peanut with a match and used the flame
from the peanut to boil 50 ml of water in a test tube.
In their discussion, they agreed that the peanut contained chemical energy,
which was converted into light and heat energy. This heat energy was
transferred to the test tube and then to the water, causing the water to boil.
Write a scientific report on this investigation.

Figure 13 Using the flame of a

burning peanut to heat water

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 More resources

Colours of different indicators

We find indicators not only in laboratories, but also in nature.
Many plants, flowers or fruits change colour if the acidity
or alkalinity around them changes. In farming, the colour
of flowers and plants can indicate how acidic the soil is. For
example, hydrangeas change colour according to the acidity
of the soil.

We can also use the dyes in red cabbage leaves, tea leaves,
beetroot and turmeric water as indicators. In Activity 2, you
made red cabbage indicator.
Table 2 shows the colour changes of some indicators.
Universal indicator, phenolphthalein, bromothymol blue and
litmus paper are often used in laboratories.

Figure 14 Hydrangeas can be blue or pink,

Table 2 Colour changes of some indicators depending on the acidity of the soil

Indicator Colour in acid (pH 1–6) Colour in neutral (pH 7) Colour in base (pH 8–14)
Universal indicator Red, orange, yellow Green Blue, violet, purple
Red cabbage water Red, pink Violet, purple Blue, green, yellow
Red onion water Red Violet Green
Turmeric water Yellow Yellow Red
Phenolphthalein Colourless Colourless Pink, red
Bromothymol blue Yellow Green Blue
Red litmus paper Red Red Blue
Blue litmus paper Red Blue Blue

Activity 6 Use indicator colours to identify substances

The photos show different indicators being used to identify unknown substances. Say whether each of the
substances is acidic, neutral or basic.

Figure 15 Substance A Figure 16 Substance B Figure 17 Substance C Figure 18 Substance D

tested with universal tested with blue litmus tested with universal tested with universal
indicator paper indicator indicator paper

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 Practical task

Test and sequence household products according to

degree of acidity
You will need: universal indicator • one other indicator such as red cabbage indicator • phenolphthalein
or bromothymol blue indicator solution • distilled water • at least ten different household
substances, for example, tap water, tea, coffee, milk, fruit juice, vinegar, tartaric acid,
washing powder, bicarbonate of soda, salt water, fizzy carbonated drink and soap • test
tubes • test tube racks • glass beakers

Write a hypothesis
The aim of this investigation is to test different household products and arrange them from most
acidic to most basic.
1. Predict which of the substances you are going to test will be acidic, basic or neutral.
Record your prediction by listing the three different groups. (3)
2. Write a hypothesis to state which household substance will be the most acidic and which
substance will be the most basic. (2)

Plan your investigation

3. Write a short method that you can follow. Pay specific attention to substances that are solids. (4)
4. Decide what you will use as a control. (1)

Conduct your investigation

5. Use the phenolphthalein or bromothymol blue to test whether each of the substances are
acidic, basic or neutral. List the three different groups. (3)
6. Use universal indicator and your other indicator to test how acidic each acid is. Arrange the
acids from most acidic to least acidic. (2)
7. Repeat the previous step with the bases. Arrange them from the least basic to the most basic. (2)
8. Use universal indicator to confirm the neutral substances. Record your result. (1)

Analyse your data and draw conclusions

9. Combine your results to arrange all the substances from the most acidic to the most basic. (2)

Evaluate your investigation

10. Was your test successful? Give a reason for your answer. (2)
11. Why was it necessary to use two indicators that change colour over a range of pH values? (1)
12. Evaluate your prediction and hypothesis. (2)
[ 25 × _45 = 20 ]
Total: 20

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 Topic 8 revision
Unit

0 Unit head goes here

Science language activity
Match the words in Column B with the correct descriptions in Column A.

Column A Column B
a ) A substance with a pH higher than 7 A. Acid
b ) A measure of how acidic or basic a substance is B. Base
c ) A strong acid C. pH
d ) A substance with a pH less than 7 D. Indicator
e ) Has the ability to indicate a full range of pH values E. pH 7
by colour change
f ) Green in universal indicator F. Red litmus paper
g ) Red in a neutral substance G. Hydrochloric acid
h ) Weak acid H. Vinegar
i ) A substance that changes colour in an acid and I. Universal indicator
base

Test yourself
1. Copy and complete this table.

Colour in Colour in Example Example

phenolphthalein blue litmus (weak) (strong)
Acid
Base
(8)
2. A learner tested unknown substances with universal indicator to see
whether the substances were acids, bases or neutral. Her results are in the
table below.

Substance Colour in universal indicator Acid/base/neutral

A Orange
B Green
C Red
D Purple
E Yellow
F Blue

a) Copy the table and complete the last column. (6)

b) Which substance is the strongest acid? (1)
c) Which substance is the strongest base? (1)
d) Define the term ‘pH’. (1)
e) Give a possible pH for substances A, B and C. (3)
Total: 20

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 Term 2: Matter and materials
Topic

9 Reactions of acids with bases and metals

Starting off
In this topic, you will learn about how acids react with
bases and metals. You already know that acids and bases
form part of our everyday lives.
Acids and bases work against each other when they
react. In this topic, you will look at examples of the
following bases.
• Metal oxides, for example, magnesium oxide (MgO)
• Metal hydroxides, for example, sodium hydroxide
(NaOH)
• Metal carbonates, for example, calcium carbonate
(CaCO3)
Figures 1 and 2 show examples of situations in everyday
life where neutralisation reactions are useful.
At the end of this topic, you will see what happens when
acids react with metals.

Figure 1 Indigestion is not very pleasant! Activity 1 Think about acids and bases
that react

1. The child in Figure 1 has indigestion.

a ) What do you think caused the indigestion?
b ) Suggest one way in which the child’s
indigestion can be treated.
c ) Explain why this child should not be given a
fizzy drink.
d ) Name one way that indigestion can be
prevented.
2. Suppose it was your arm shown in Figure 2.
a ) Explain why you would not put vinegar on
the sting.
b ) Name one substance in your home that can be
used to relieve the effect of the sting. Give a
reason for your answer.
c ) Name one other insect that also has an acidic
sting or bite.

Figure 2 A bee sting is acidic

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 Unit

1 Neutralisation and pH

Key words Acids and bases can neutralise each other

If you mix an acid and a base, a chemical reaction takes place. We call this a
• neutralisation –
neutralisation reaction. The acid and the base counteract each other. This means
chemical reaction
that they work against each other.
in which an acid
and a base react to If you add a base to an acid, the acid becomes less acidic. Its pH value increases.
produce a salt and If you add an acid to a base, the base becomes less basic. Its pH value decreases.
water
When we add solutions of a strong acid and a strong base together in just the right
amounts, the end solution will have a pH of exactly 7. However, the pH at the end
of a neutralisation reaction always depends on the strengths of the acid and base,
as well as the amounts of acid and base that are added together.
Figure 4 A
Figure 3(a) This Figure 3(b) This reaction between
is a solution of is a solution of hydrochloric
hydrochloric acid. sodium hydroxide. acid and sodium
It contains water It contains water hydroxide solution
molecules, and H+ molecules, and Na+ produces a neutral
and Cl– ions. It will and OH– ions. It will solution of sodium
turn litmus red turn litmus blue chloride
(a) (b)

Figure 4 shows what happens when you mix the correct amounts of hydrochloric
acid and sodium hydroxide solution together. The OH– ions from the sodium
hydroxide solution and H+ ions from the hydrochloric acid join to form water
molecules. The end solution contains only water molecules, Na+ ions and Cl– ions.
Universal indicator will show that it has a pH of 7.

Acids in the laboratory

The acids that are used commonly in a school laboratory are hydrochloric acid
(HCl), sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and nitric acid (HNO3). All three are strong acids. Ethanoic
acid and carbonic acid are examples of weak acids (see Figure 5). In Grade 10 you
will learn about the differences between strong acids and weak acids.

HCl
dil.
SULFURIC
ACID CONC.
Figure 5 (a) Hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid and nitric
acid are strong acids. (b) Household vinegar is a solution
of ethanoic acid. Carbonic acid forms in fizzy drinks. Both
(a) (b) these acids are weak acids.

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 In the laboratory, we normally dilute acids before
we work with them. You should never try to dilute
a laboratory acid yourself. Your teacher knows how
to do it. He will add the acid very carefully, and bit
by bit to lots of distilled water (see Figure 6). He
will never add water to lots of acid.

Safety
Never dilute a
laboratory acid
Figure 6 When an acid is diluted, it is very important to add yourself. Acids react
the acid bit by bit to the water. It must never be done the strongly with water.
other way around

Activity 2 Investigate the neutralisation reaction of

vinegar with bicarbonate of soda
The reaction of vinegar with bicarbonate of soda is an acid-base reaction.
Figure 5(b) shows that vinegar is a solution of ethanoic acid, sometimes called
acetic acid, in water. Sodium bicarbonate is a base.
You will need: beaker or glass jar • spatula or teaspoon • household vinegar
• bicarbonate of soda • universal indicator solution
1. Pour about 125 ml (half a cup) of vinegar into the beaker.
2. Add a few drops of universal indicator. Note the colour of the indicator.
3. Turn back to Topic 8 and explain the colour of the indicator.
4. Add a spatula tip of bicarbonate of soda to the vinegar. Record your
observations.
5. Carry on adding small amounts of bicarbonate of soda to the vinegar until the
indicator is green. Figure 7 The neutralisation
reaction between vinegar and
6. Explain the meaning of the green colour of the indicator. bicarbonate of soda

7. The word equation for this reaction is:

ethanoic acid + sodium bicarbonate → sodium ethanoate + water +
carbon dioxide
Use the equation to explain the fizzing that you observed.

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 Key words pH of metal oxides and non-metal oxides
From previous grades, you know that the elements in the Periodic Table are
• acid rain – rain
classified as metals, non-metals and semi-metals. In Topic 7, you investigated the
water that is more
formation of metal oxides and non-metal oxides.
acidic than natural
rain water, because
of gases that are
Metal oxides
released into the Soluble metal oxides tend to form alkaline solutions in water. Magnesium oxide is
atmosphere by regarded as soluble in water. The solution of magnesium oxide in water looks like
industries milk and is therefore often called ‘milk of magnesia’ (see Figure 8).
Word equation: magnesium oxide + water → magnesium hydroxide
Symbol equation MgO + H2O → Mg(OH)2
(balanced):

Activity 3 Investigate the pH of magnesium oxide dissolved

in water
You will need: magnesium oxide powder • distilled water
Figure 8 Milk of magnesia
• beaker or glass jar • universal indicator
is used as an antacid to
solution • teaspoon
neutralise stomach acid
1. Put half a teaspoon of magnesium oxide in the
beaker.
2. Add distilled water and stir until most of the
powder is dissolved.
3. Add a few drops of universal indicator solution. Figure 9 Solution of
4. Write down the colour of the indicator. Use it to magnesium oxide in water,
draw a conclusion about the pH of a solution of with universal indicator
magnesium oxide. added

Non-metal oxides
Soluble non-metal oxides tend to form acidic solutions in water. Figure 5(b) shows
a photograph of a fizzy drink. Carbon dioxide is pumped into the cooldrink to make
it fizzy. Carbon dioxide is a non-metal oxide. When it dissolves in the water of the
cooldrink, carbonic acid is formed. Figure 10 shows a see-through fizzy drink to
which universal indicator has been added.

Did you know?

The oxides of some
semi-metals can act
as acids or bases, for Figure 10 See-through fizzy drink, with universal indicator added.
example aluminium The colour of the indicator shows that the fizzy drink is acidic
oxide.

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 Case study: Acid rain
Carbon dioxide is one of the gases into the atmosphere, increasing pH kills plants and animals. Acid
in the atmosphere. This gas plays an the amount of carbonic acid that rain can damage zinc roofs, as well
important role in the life processes forms. Sulfur dioxide and different as buildings and structures made of
of plants and animals. Respiration nitrogen oxides are other non-metal limestone and cement.
of plants and animals releases carbon oxides that are released by industries
dioxide into the atmosphere. because of burning processes.
Normal rain water has a pH As more and more of these
of about 5,6. It is slightly acidic non-metal oxides are released into
because carbon dioxide that is the atmosphere, the water droplets
naturally in the air, reacts with water become more acidic. This water falls
droplets in the atmosphere. This back to Earth as rain. We call it acid
produces carbonic acid, the same rain. Acid rain has a pH of lower
acid found in fizzy drinks. The acid than 5. In areas where there are
is present in water that rains down many industries, the rain water can
to Earth. have a pH that is lower than 2,5!
Burning wood and fossil fuels Acid rain acidifies the soil, as Figure 11 The effect of acid rain on a
release additional carbon dioxide well as lakes and rivers. The low statue made of limestone

Activity 4 Read about acid rain

Read the case study and answer the following questions.
1. The majority of power stations in South Africa burn coal to generate electricity.
Explain why this causes environmental problems.
2. Use the Internet and/or visit your local library to do research about acid rain.
Write a paragraph on the negative effects of acid rain on the environment.
3. Suggest possible ways to reduce acid rain in South Africa.

Key concepts
A chemical reaction in which an acid and a base react to produce a salt and
water is called neutralisation. Metal oxides tend to be basic. Non-metal
oxides tend to be acidic. Acid rain forms because industries release non-
metal oxides into the atmosphere.

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 Unit
Reactions of acids with metal oxides and
2 metal hydroxides
Key words Acids and metal oxides
Metal oxides tend to react as bases. They have the ability to make an acid less acidic.
• metal hydroxide
– compound When an acid reacts with a metal oxide, a salt and water forms. The type of salt that
consisting of forms depends on the acid and metal oxide that is used in the reaction.
a metal and a
The general word equation for such a reaction is: metal oxide + acid → salt + water
hydroxide, for
example Mg(OH)2 For example:
can be formed
when a metal Word equation: magnesium oxide + hydrochloric acid → magnesium chloride + water
oxide reacts with Symbol equation (unbalanced): MgO + HCl → MgCl2 + H2O
water Symbol equation (balanced): MgO + 2HCl → MgCl2 + H2O

Word equation: calcium oxide + sulfuric acid → calcium sulfate + water

Symbol equation (balanced): CaO + H2SO4 → CaSO4 + H2O

Word equation: sodium oxide + nitric acid → sodium nitrate + water

Symbol equation (unbalanced): Na2O + HNO3 → NaNO3 + H2O
Symbol equation (balanced): Na2O + 2HNO3 → 2NaNO3 + H2O

Acids and metal hydroxides

Formation of hydroxides
When metals react with water, they tend to form metal hydroxides. A hydroxide ion
consists of an oxygen atom and a hydrogen atom held together by a bond. The ion
carries a negative electric charge and has the chemical formula OH−.
Metal hydroxides are bases. When they dissolve in water, they form alkaline
solutions, with a pH greater than 7. The solutions turn red litmus blue. If colourless
phenolphthalein indicator is added to a metal hydroxide solution, it turns pink (see
Figure 12).

Figure 12 When sodium reacts with water, sodium hydroxide Figure 13 Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is also called caustic soda. It is
is formed. Phenolphthalein indicator turns pink because the used in drain cleaners
hydroxide is alkaline

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 Hydroxides can neutralise acids
Metal hydroxides have the ability to make an acid less acidic. When an acid reacts
with a metal hydroxide, a salt and water forms. The type of salt that forms depends
on the acid and metal hydroxide that is used in the reaction.
The general word equation for such a reaction is:
metal hydroxide + acid → salt + water
For example:

Word equation: sodium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid → sodium chloride + water

Symbol equation (balanced): NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H2O

Word equation: potassium hydroxide + sulfuric acid → potassium sulfate + water

Symbol equation (unbalanced): KOH + H2SO4 → K2SO4 + H2O
Symbol equation (balanced): 2KOH + H2SO4 → K2SO4 + 2H2O

Word equation: magnesium hydroxide + nitric acid → magnesium nitrate + water

Symbol equation (unbalanced): Mg(OH)2 + HNO3 → Mg(NO3)2 + H2O
Symbol equation (balanced): Mg(OH)2 + 2HNO3 → Mg(NO3)2 + 2H2O

Activity 5 Investigate the neutralisation of a metal hydroxide

You will need: sodium hydroxide solution • dilute hydrochloric acid • test tube or
small beaker • teaspoon or measuring cylinder • dropper • universal
indicator solution
1. Place about 10 ml (two teaspoons) of sodium hydroxide solution in the test
tube or beaker.
2. Add a drop of universal indicator solution. Use the colour of the indicator to
determine the pH of the sodium hydroxide.
3. Use the dropper to add hydrochloric acid to the sodium hydroxide. Swirl the
beaker or test tube after every few drops. Safety
4. When the indicator turns light blue, add the acid one drop at a time. Be careful not to get
Stop when the indicator turns green. the chemicals on your
skin or clothes. Wear
5. Explain the meaning of the green colour of the indicator.
gloves and a laboratory
6. Write a word equation and a balanced symbol equation for the reaction in the coat or old shirt.
test tube.

(a) (b)
Figure 14 (a) Add the hydrochloric acid drop by drop (b) The sodium hydroxide is neutralised

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 Activity 6 Recover table salt from a neutralised solution
You will need: hydrochloric acid • sodium hydroxide • watch glass or saucer
1. Make a neutral solution by carefully adding hydrochloric solution to sodium
Safety hydroxide solution. Pour some of your solution into the watch glass or saucer.
The universal indicator
must clearly show that
2. Leave the watch glass in a sunny spot until all the water has evaporated.
the solution is neutral This may take a day or two.
before you proceed 3. Record your observations.
with this activity.
4. Write down the formula, chemical name and everyday name of the substance
in the watch glass.
5. Explain what happened when the watch glass was left in the sunny spot.

Figure 15 Result after the watch glass was left in sunny spot

Activity 7 Predict reactions between hydroxides and acids

Write word equations and balanced chemical equations for each of the following
reactions.
1. Sodium hydroxide and nitric acid
2. Calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2, and hydrochloric acid
3. Magnesium hydroxide, Mg(OH)2, and sulfuric acid
4. Potassium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid
5. Aluminum hydroxide, Al(OH)3, and hydrochloric acid

Key concepts
Metal oxides and metal hydroxides can neutralise acids. When acids react
with metal oxides or metal hydroxides, the products are a salt and water.
The salt can be recovered from the neutralised solution.

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 Skills focus: Ask a testable question

What is a testable question?

A testable question is the question you are trying to answer through your investigation. It is important to word
your question in such a way that you can answer it by conducting an experiment or a test.

How to write a testable question

Ask questions
Make a list of questions about something you What would happen if
have noticed or observed. a plant is given acidic
Here are some examples of how your questions I wonder how water? How long can
could start. acidic tap water a plant survive
• Why does …? is? without water?
• I wonder …?
• What would happen if …?
• Is it possible to …?
• How long …?

Choose one question

Choose one question that you would like to investigate further. Does water
Think about what type of experiment or test you will need to with a pH of 3
conduct to answer your question. affect the growth
of a plant?

Make sure your question is testable

A question is only testable if:

✓ you can answer it by collecting evidence through a test or experiment

✓ it is possible to carry out a fair test that will answer it

✓ it is a specific question that has only one answer, not a general question that has many answers

Activity 8 Practise asking a testable question

1. Look at the question that the second learner identified. Decide whether it is testable by answering the
following questions.
a ) Is it possible to do a test or experiment to answer her question?
b ) Is it possible to do a fair test?
c ) Does the question have only one answer?
2. Prove your answers in Question 1 by suggesting a fair test that the learner can do to answer her question.

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 Unit

3 Reactions of acids with metal carbonates

A carbonate ion consists of a carbon atom and three oxygen atoms bonded
Key words
together. The ion carries a negative electric charge of –2. It has the chemical
• metal carbonates formula CO32−.
– compounds Metal carbonates are bases. They have the ability to make acids less acidic. Most
consisting of carbonates are not soluble in water, or they are only partially soluble.
a metal and a
carbonate, for When an acid reacts with a metal carbonate, a salt, water and carbon dioxide gas
example, CaCO3 forms. The type of salt that forms depends on the acid and metal carbonate that are
used in the reaction.
The general word equation for such a reaction is:
metal carbonate + acid → salt + water + carbon dioxide
For example:

Word equation: calcium carbonate + hydrochloric acid → calcium chloride + water + carbon dioxide
Symbol equation (unbalanced): CaCO3 + HCl → CaCl2 + H2O + CO2
Symbol equation (balanced): CaCO3 + 2HCl → CaCl2 + H2O + CO2

Word equation: magnesium carbonate + sulfuric acid → magnesium sulfate + water + carbon dioxide
Symbol equation (balanced): MgCO3 + H2SO4 → MgSO4 + H2O + CO2
Word equation: sodium carbonate + nitric acid → sodium nitrate + water + carbon dioxide
Symbol equation (unbalanced): Na2CO3 + HNO3 → NaNO3 + H2O + CO2
Symbol equation (balanced): Na2CO3 + 2HNO3 → 2NaNO3 + H2O + CO2

Activity 9 Investigate the neutralisation of a metal carbonate

Did you know?
Blackboard chalk was You will need: calcium carbonate powder or dust from old blackboard chalk
traditionally made of • dilute hydrochloric acid • small beaker • teaspoon • dropper
calcium carbonate • universal indicator solution
(CaCO3). Today, most 1. Place about half a teaspoon of calcium carbonate powder in the beaker.
chalk is made of
calcium sulfate (CaSO4), 2. Add a few drops of water and swirl the beaker. Write down what you observe.
also called gypsum. 3. Add a drop of universal indicator solution. Use the colour of the indicator to
determine the pH of the reaction mixture.
4. Use the dropper to add water to the reaction mixture. Swirl the beaker or test
tube after every few drops.
Safety 5. When the indicator becomes light blue, add the acid one drop at a time.
Be careful not to get Stop when the indicator turns green.
the chemicals on your 6. Explain the meaning of the green colour of the indicator.
skin or clothes. Wear
7. Write a word equation and a balanced symbol equation for the reaction in
gloves and a laboratory
coat or old shirt.
the beaker.

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 (a) (b)
Figure 16 (a) A few drops of hydrochloric acid were added to the calcium carbonate powder (b) Add
the acid drop by drop to neutralise the base

Testing for carbon dioxide gas

By now you know that the chemical formula for carbon dioxide gas is CO2.
Figure 17 shows a model of a carbon dioxide molecule.
Carbon dioxide has no colour or smell. If you want to know whether carbon dioxide
gas was formed in a reaction, you first need to trap it.
Figure 17 A carbon dioxide
Limewater is a solution of calcium hydroxide. If you filter the lime water so that it is molecule consists of one
clear, you can use it to test for carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide reacts with clear lime carbon atom and two oxygen
water and turns it milky. In Grade 10, you will learn why this happens. atoms

Activity 10 Test whether the reaction between a carbonate

and an acid releases carbon dioxide gas
You will need: calcium carbonate powder or dust from old blackboard chalk
• dilute hydrochloric acid in a small beaker • teaspoon
• two test tubes • stopper with a delivery tube that fits on the test
tubes • clear limewater
1. Put one-quarter of a teaspoon of calcium carbonate powder in one of the test
tubes.
2. Fill the other test tube about halfway with clear limewater.
3. Add hydrochloric acid to the test tube with the calcium carbonate powder in it
until it is about one-third full. Immediately close the test tube with the stopper.
4. Put the end of the delivery tube under the level of the clear limewater as
quickly as you can. Safety
5. Write down everything you observe. Be careful not to get
the chemicals on your
6. What does this experiment tell you about the reaction between a carbonate skin or clothes. Wear
and an acid? gloves and a laboratory
coat or old shirt.

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 Figure 18 Testing for carbon dioxide gas

Case study: Acid-base reactions sold as

‘miracle cures’
In the 19th century, traveling horse- carbon dioxide, the water would turn
and-wagon teams moved across the cloudy. The salesperson would claim
United States promoting ‘miracle that cloudy water meant that the
cures’. The sales people put on shows audience member suffered from
that often made use of simple chemical some disease!
reactions to trick innocent bystanders The salesperson would then pour
into buying their so-called cures. vinegar or a similar acid into the milky
Limewater was often used as part solution. This neutralised the base that
of their act. The salesperson would made the limewater milky. The poor
ask a member of the audience to audience member would be tricked
blow through a straw into a glass of into buying the vinegar as a cure for
limewater. Since the person exhaled his ‘illness’!

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 Applications of acid-base reactions
There are many everyday applications of the acid-base reactions you have learnt
about so far. Here are a few examples.
• Bicarbonate of soda (NaHCO3) is used for baking. When it is heated and reacts
with other ingredients in bread or cake dough, carbon dioxide gas is released.
This makes the bread or cake rise.
• Excess stomach acid causes indigestion and heart burn (see Figure 1 on page 109
again). Antacids are used to neutralise excess stomach acid. Different antacids
contain different bases, for example, CaCO3, MgCO3, Mg(OH)2 and Al(OH)3.
• When an insect bites you, it injects a small amount of a chemical into your skin.
This is why it stings. Bees inject an acid (see Figure 2 on page 109). A bee sting
can be neutralised using a base such as bicarbonate of soda. Wasps inject an
alkali. Their sting can be treated with a weak acid such as vinegar.
• Toothpaste often contains particles of calcium carbonate or aluminium
hydroxide. These particles are slightly rough and clean plaque, a sticky leftover
from food and bacteria, off your teeth when you brush them.
• Some crops cannot grow if the soil is too acidic. Farmers use agricultural lime,
which contains calcium hydroxide and calcium carbonate, to lower the acidity
in the soil.
• The pH of a swimming pool must be controlled carefully. Pool acid is used to
lower the pH if needed. Soda ash is used to increase the pH if needed.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure 19 Everyday applications of acid-base reactions. (a) Bicarbonate of soda is used for baking.
(b) Antacids are used to treat excess stomach acid. (c) Farmers use agricultural lime to lower the pH of
the soil. (d) Pool acid and soda ash are used to control the pH of swimming pools. Soda ash consists
mostly of sodium carbonate

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 Activity 11 Find everyday reactions of acids and bases
1. Other than those in Figure 19, there is another example of an antacid in this
topic. Read through the topic to find it, and then write down the:
a ) page number and figure number that shows the antacid
b ) chemical formula of the antacid
c ) chemical name and everyday name of the antacid.
2. See whether you can find an antacid in your house. If not, look for one in
your local supermarket. The ingredients should be given somewhere on
the package or bottle. Write down the chemical formulae of all the bases
in the antacid.
3. If a bee stings you and you cannot find bicarbonate of soda in the kitchen,
what else could you use to neutralise the sting?
4. If a wasp stings you and you cannot find vinegar in the kitchen, what else can
you use to neutralise the sting?
5. You place a piece of litmus paper in some toothpaste. What will happen if:
a ) the litmus paper is red? b ) the litmus paper is blue?
6. Write down the chemical formulae of the main ingredients of agricultural lime.
7. Visit your local supermarket or talk to someone that has a swimming pool.
a ) Find out what pool acid is made of.
b ) Write down the chemical formula for the main ingredient of soda ash.
c ) How do you know that soda ash is soluble in water?
8. The salts that form from acid-base reactions are also useful. Farmers use copper
sulfate (CuSO4) to treat crops. Copper sulfate kills fungus, bacteria and other
pests.
a ) Copper sulfate is formed when copper carbonate (CuCO3) reacts with
sulfuric acid. Write a balanced equation for this reaction.
b ) Visit your local library and/or look on the Internet to find out why farmers
should use copper sulfate sparingly.
9. Write word equations and balanced chemical equations for each of the
following reactions.
a ) magnesium carbonate and hydrochloric acid
b ) sodium carbonate, Na2CO3, and sulfuric acid
c ) calcium carbonate and nitric acid

Key concepts
Metal carbonates can neutralise acids. When acids react with metal
carbonates, the products are a salt, water and carbon dioxide gas. We use
clear limewater to test for carbon dioxide gas. The gas makes the clear
limewater milky.

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 Skills focus: Write a summary

How to write a summary Key words

A summary is a short way of stating the most important points in a story or a topic.
• summary – short
Drawing a diagram will help you organise the information. Let us use the chemical
way of stating the
reactions that you have studied so far as an example. You can follow these steps to
most important
create a mind map of a topic.
points
1. Write the main topic in the centre of the page. In this case it will be
‘chemical reactions’.
2. Select key words that represent the subtopics. They must be related to the
main topic. Use a separate colour to indicate the subtopics. You studied the
following reactions:
• Metals and non-metals with oxygen
• Reactions of acids and bases
3. Connect the sub topics to the main topic with lines.
4. Use another colour to divide the subtopics further.

Activity 12 Practise writing a summary

1. Use the following mind map of the reactions you studied so far to write a
summary of the reactions. Give an example of each type of reaction, written as
a balanced chemical equation.

metal + oxygen → metal oxide Metals and non- non-metal + oxygen → non-metal oxide
metals with oxygen

Chemical
reactions

metal hydroxide + acid → salt + water

metal carbonate + acid → salt + water + carbon dioxide

Acids and bases

metal oxide + acid → salt + water
(neutralisation)

2. Visit your local library and/or search on the Internet for information about
careers in the chemical industry.
a ) Draw a mind map of the information you find. Use careers in agriculture,
pharmacy, chemical engineering and mining as your subtopics.
b ) Divide the subtopics further.
c ) Write a summary of 250 words on careers in the chemical industry.

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 Unit

4 Reactions of acids with metals

Key words The general reaction of an acid with a metal

When a metal reacts with an acid, the products formed are a salt and hydrogen gas.
• density – amount
The general word equation for the reaction between a metal and an acid is:
of mass in a given
volume of a metal + acid → salt + hydrogen gas
material The type of salt produced depends on the metal and the acid used in the reaction.
For example:

Word equation: magnesium + hydrochloric acid → magnesium chloride + hydrogen

Symbol equation (unbalanced): Mg + HCl → MgCl2 + H2
Symbol equation (balanced): Mg + 2HCl → MgCl2 + H2

Word equation: zinc + sulfuric acid → zinc sulfate + hydrogen

Symbol equation (balanced): Zn + H2SO4 → ZnSO4 + H2

Word equation: copper + nitric acid → copper nitrate + hydrogen

Symbol equation (unbalanced): Cu + HNO3 → Cu(NO3)2 + H2
Symbol equation (balanced): Cu + 2HNO3 → Cu(NO3)2 + H2

Testing for hydrogen gas

Hydrogen is a diatomic element. This means that hydrogen gas is not made up of
single atoms, but of molecules. Each molecule consists of two hydrogen atoms
bonded together (see Figure 20). The formula for hydrogen gas is H2.
Hydrogen has a lower density than air. It is the gas with the lowest density that
we know. It has no colour or smell. It reacts violently with oxygen. The reaction
Figure 20 Hydrogen gas produces water and gives off heat, light and sound energy.
is made up of diatomic
molecules It is easy to trap hydrogen gas. If you hold a container upside down, the gas will not
escape. It always moves upwards because it has such a low density (see Figure 21).

Did you know?

The reaction between
hydrogen and
oxygen gives off a
lot of energy. It only
produces water as a
product. This quality
makes hydrogen
useful as a fuel. It was
used to launch space
shuttles. Scientists
are also investigating
the possibility of
using hydrogen as an
alternative fuel source
for cars and airplanes.
Figure 21 As long as you hold the test tube upside down, the hydrogen gas will not escape

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 We can use these properties of hydrogen
in a simple laboratory test to see if a gas is
hydrogen. Collect the gas in an upside down
test tube. Tilt the test tube slightly so that the
hydrogen can mix with oxygen in the air. Hold
a lit match in the mouth of the test tube. The
flame ignites the hydrogen and a combustion
reaction occurs. The hydrogen and oxygen
mixture explodes and a popping sound is
heard. If you hold the test tube against a dark
background and look closely, you might see
that the hydrogen burns with a blue flame.
Figure 22 A flame is moved
towards a mixture of
Activity 14 Investigate the reaction between a metal and an hydrogen and oxygen. When
acid, and test for hydrogen gas the flame ignites the mixture
an explosion occurs and a
You will need: a piece of magnesium ribbon • dilute hydrochloric acid • two test popping sound is heard
tubes • two test tube holders or tongs • a match or splint
1. Cut a piece of magnesium ribbon of about
3 cm. If it is dull, clean it with sand paper or Safety
scrape it clean with a pair of scissors. Be careful not to get
the chemicals on your
2. Put the magnesium ribbon in a test tube. skin or clothes. Wear
Fill the test tube about halfway with gloves and a laboratory
hydrochloric acid. Note what happens. coat or old shirt.
3. Immediately hold the second test tube
upside down over the first one, so that you
can trap the hydrogen gas.
4. After a while, remove the test tube with the
hydrogen gas. Use a lit match or splint to
test for hydrogen gas as described in the
paragraph above.
5. Write down all your observations.

Figure 23 Magnesium ribbon reacts

with hydrochloric acid

Key concept
When acids react with metals, the products are a salt and hydrogen gas.

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 Topic 9 revision

Science language activity

Match each term in Column A with the description in Column B.

Column A Column B
a ) Carbonate A. An acid and base react together to produce a salt and water
b ) Hydroxide B. A base or basic salt that neutralises stomach acid
2+
c ) Mg C. A magnesium ion with a double positive charge
d ) Au D. A gas with no colour or smell that is lighter than air
e ) Ion E. Found in nature as limestone and it can lower acidity in soil
f ) Mg(OH)2 F. Forms a milky solution when bubbled through limewater
g ) CaCO3 G. A milky solution that is useful as an antacid and fire retardant
h ) Neutralisation H. Carbon and three oxygen ions with a double negative charge
i ) Acid and metal
I. A valuable metal that does not react with dilute hydrochloric acid
reaction
j ) CuSO4 J. A metal ion reacts with a negative ion from an acid to form a salt and hydrogen gas
k ) Carbon dioxide gas K. An atom or molecule with an electric charge because of a gain or loss of electrons
l ) Hydrogen gas L. Copper sulfate
m) Antacid M. Oxygen and hydrogen ions with a negative charge

Test yourself
1. Fill in the missing words.
a ) metal hydroxide + acid → __________ + water
b ) metal carbonate + acid → salt + water +__________
c ) metal + acid → __________ + hydrogen
d ) Mg + H2SO4 → MgSO4 + __________
e ) CaCO3 + HCl → CaCl2 + __________ + __________
f ) When we mix acid and water we always add __________ to __________. (6)
2. A learner wants to investigate the reaction between a strong acid and a strong base.
a ) She puts hydrochloric acid in a beaker and uses universal indicator to test the pH.
Give a possible colour that the indicator will be. (1)
b ) She added sodium hydroxide with a dropper until the indicator turns green.
What does the green colour of the indicator mean? (1)
c ) What happened in the beaker? (1)
d ) Write the balanced chemical equation for the reaction in the beaker. (4)
e ) The learner pours the product from the reaction into an evaporating basin.
She leaves the basin in a sunny spot for one week. What did the learner find in the basin
when she returned to the laboratory one week later? (2)
Total: 15

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 Term 2: Practice test

1. Give the correct scientific term for each of the following descriptions.
a ) An arrangement of elements in an organised pattern (1)
b ) A metal with 25 protons in its nucleus (1)
c ) Examples include sodium, potassium, iron and carbon (1)
d ) The classification of iron (1)
e ) A non-metal found in all living things. (1)

2. Use a Periodic Table to answer the following questions.

a ) Name the noble gas in Period 2. (1)
b ) What element has 86 protons in its nucleus? (1)
c ) Name the element with the symbol Sn. (1)
d ) Describe two properties of chlorine. (2)

3. Apply your knowledge of naming compounds to name the following substances.

a ) H2SO4 (1)
b ) HNO3 (1)
c ) CaCO3 (1)

4. Explain the meaning of the following terms.

a ) Alkali (1)
b ) pH (1)

5. Categorise the following substances as strong or weak acids and bases.

a ) milk (1)
b ) hydrochloric acid (1)
c ) oven cleaner (1)

6. When mixing an acid and water, we always add to . (2)

7. Thando investigates a reaction between an acid and a base. She tests the pH of a beaker that contains 5 ml of
hydrochloric acid. She then pours 5 ml of sodium hydroxide into the beaker. She mixes the two solutions and
then measures the pH of the product. She also adds a few drops of universal indicator and it turns green.
a ) Predict the pH of the product. (1)
b ) Analyse the results of the experiment. What conclusion can she draw? (1)
c ) Write the balanced chemical equation for the reaction that occurred. (1)
d ) Thando pours the product into an evaporating basin. She places it in a sunny spot for one week.
Predict what she would find in the evaporating basin one week later. (1)

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 8. Mpho investigates rusting. Figure 1 shows the experiment.

test tube

water calcium
carbonate

nail salt

Figure 1
a) Explain the term ‘rusting’. (1)
b) Suggest why the nail in test tube 2 did not rust. (1)
c) Discuss how Mpho could use his findings to protect his bicycle from rusting. (2)
d) List two different methods to prevent rust and explain how each works. (2)

9. Cells in your stomach produce gastric acid. This acid contains hydrochloric acid and salts. If there is too much
acid in your stomach, it can travel up your oesophagus (food pipe) and cause irritation and discomfort. Often,
the pain feels like a burning sensation near the heart. This feeling is called heartburn.
a ) Suggest one method for easing the symptoms of heartburn. (1)
b ) Discuss the advantage of using an antacid for the irritation and discomfort. (1)
c ) Milk of magnesia is an antacid that is a suspension (a fluid that contains solid particles).
Describe what happens when the liquid enters your stomach. (1)
d ) Calcium carbonate is an antacid. Write a balanced word and symbol equation to show the reaction
between calcium carbonate and hydrochloric acid. (2)

10. Write balanced symbol equations for the following reactions.

a ) magnesium hydroxide + nitric acid → magnesium nitrate + water (1)
b ) sodium carbonate + nitric acid → sodium nitrate + water + carbon dioxide (1)
c ) zinc + sulfuric acid → zinc sulfate + hydrogen (1)

11. Write word equations for the following reactions.

a ) Cu + 2HNO3 → Cu(NO3)2 + H2 (1)
b ) KOH + H2SO4 → K2SO4 + H2O (1)
Total: 40

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 Term 3: Energy and change
Topic

10 Forces

Starting off
Rollerblades have wheels, which have the ability to
rotate. The wheels have to be pushed in order to rotate,
and this causes movement. Similarly, the girl’s hair will
only move from its position if it is pulled, pushed or
twisted.
In Figure 1, the wind is causing the girl’s hair to ‘fly’
backwards by way of a pushing force. The rollerblade
wheels will stop rotating when the girl lifts one foot
into the air, and then places that foot onto the ground
sideways, causing her to slow down and eventually
come to a halt.
The words ‘push’, ‘pull’ and ‘twist’ describe how forces are
exerted. In this topic, you will learn about different types
of forces and their effects.

Activity 1 Discuss forces

1. Explain what is causing the roller blades to move.
2. Identify the force that is pushing the girl’s hair
backwards.
3. Discuss how the roller blades will come to a
complete stop, after being in motion.
4. Copy the table below into your workbook and
fill in the forces (Column B) for the given motions
(Column A). The first one has been done for you.

Figure 1 The effects of forces Column A Column B

Roller blades moving Pushing force
forward
Hairdresser drying
your mum’s hair with
the blow dryer
Stretching an elastic
band
Tying your shoelaces

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 Unit

1 Types of forces
We cannot see forces, but we can see the effect of forces everywhere around us.
Key words
A force can be described as a push or a pull. When we combine pushing and
• force – action that pulling forces, we sometimes get a twist. We exert a
can be described force when we use a push, a pull or a twist to change
as a push or a pull the shape, direction or speed of an object.
• exert – to apply Force is measured in newton, named
by pushing, after Sir Isaac Newton. We abbreviate
pulling or twisting newton with a capital letter N.
• newton – unit
in which force is How do we describe forces?
measured When we describe a force, we give its size and the
direction in which it is acting, as seen in Figure 3.

Figure 2 Sir Isaac Newton

5N 28 N 16 N
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 3 Examples of forces: (a) a downwards force of 5 N, (b) a south

westerly force of 28 N and (c) a 16 N force acting to the right

Effects of forces
Some of the effects that forces can have on objects and materials are shown below
and on the next page (Figures 4 to 8).

A force can cause an object to start moving. The

pushing force that the people exert on the stationary
car makes it move.

Figure 4 Example of the effect of a force that makes an

object move
A force can cause a moving object to speed up, slow
down or stop. The force that the brakes exert, makes
the taxi slow down.

Figure 5 Example of the effect of a force that makes an object

slow down

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 A force can cause a moving object to change direction.
The dog exerts a pulling force on its leash that makes
the girl change direction.

Figure 6 Example of the effect of a force that makes an object

change direction
A force can cause an object to change its shape.
The boy is exerting a twisting force to dry out the
sponge. The shape of the sponge changes while he
is twisting it.

Figure 7 Example of the effect of a force that changes the shape of

an object
A force can cause an object to rotate.
The girl exerts force on the pedals of the bicycle that
makes the axles of the wheels turn. The wheels of the
bicycle rotate.

Figure 8 Example of the effect of forces that makes an object rotate

Activity 2 Identify the effect of forces

Look at Figure 1 on page 129 again and identify the effects of the following forces:
1. The girl’s hair as she is moving on the rollerblades
2. The wheels of the rollerblades
3. The effect on the rollerblades when the girl places one foot on the ground
while the rollerblade is in motion.

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 Key words Forces act in pairs
Forces always act in pairs. If you push against the classroom wall, the wall resists,
• balanced forces
as if it pushes back at you. Books lying on a table push down on the table and
– two forces that
the table resists the force, ‘pushing up’. In both cases the forces act in opposite
have no visible
directions, as shown in Figure 9.
effect because
they are exactly
equal and
opposite
• unbalanced
forces – two
forces that have
a visible effect
because they
are not exactly
opposite and
equal
• contact force
– force that is
exerted when
two objects touch
(a) (b)
each other
Figure 9 Forces always work in pairs. In (a) the boy pushes against the wall and the wall resists, while
• non-contact in (b) the books push down on the table and the table resists.
force – force that
is exerted over If the forces in a pair have exactly the same size, they are balanced. When the two
a distance; also forces in a pair have exactly the same size, you will see no effect on the two objects.
called a field force When you push against the classroom wall, the wall resists with exactly the same
force. We know this because your hand does not move past the wall, and the wall
does not move either (see Figure 9 (a)). In this case, we have balanced forces.
When one force in a pair is larger than the other, we will see the effect on one of the
two objects. Suppose the force that the books in Figure 9 (b) exerts on the table is
larger than the force that the table can resist with. The effect is that the surface of
the table will break, as in Figure 10. Now we have unbalanced forces.

Figure 10 If one of the forces in a pair is larger than the other, the forces are unbalanced. There is an
effect on one of the objects

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 Activity 3 Identify the force pairs
Look at Figure 11 below and identify the force pairs. State whether the force pairs are balanced or unbalanced.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 11 (a) Tshepo jumping on the trampoline (b) A glass of orange juice (c) A boat sailing on the sea

Contact forces and field forces

Forces acting on objects can be classified into two broad groups:
• A contact force is exerted when two objects are in contact, that is, they touch
each other. When you push against the classroom wall, you are exerting
a contact force. The wall is also exerting a contact force (in the opposite
direction). We will discuss this further in Unit 2.
• A non-contact force, or field force, acts over a distance. Two bodies exert
field forces on each other without touching each other. You know by now that
planet Earth moves in an orbit around the Sun. This is because the two bodies
attract each other over a distance. We will discuss this further in Unit 3.

Key concepts
A force can be described as a push or a pull. We exert a force when we use
a push, a pull or a twist to change the shape, direction and speed of an
object. Force is measured in newtons. Balanced forces are exactly equal and
opposite and have no visible effect on an object. Unbalanced forces have a
visible effect on an object because they are not exactly equal and opposite.

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 Unit

2 Contact forces

Key words What is a contact force?

A contact force is exerted when two objects are in contact, so they touch each
• friction − contact
other. Look at Figures 4 to 8 in Unit 1 again and identify all the contact forces.
force that a surface
exerts on an object
Friction
• tension − contact Friction is a contact force that a surface exerts on an object.
force in a rope or
cable when it is A ball that rolls along the ground will slow down and stop after a while. This
used to carry a load happens because of friction. The surface of the ground rubs against the surface
of the ball. The frictional force always acts parallel to the surface. It also acts in the
• compression opposite direction to the movement of the ball.
− contact force
that pushes
or squeezes
something into a
smaller space

(a) (b)
Figure 12 The paved ground
Figure 13 The box in (a) remains stationary. The frictional force exerted by the grass is larger than the
exerts a frictional force in
force exerted by the boy. The box in (b) moves in the direction of the push, as the friction exerted by
the opposite direction to the
the grass is smaller than the force exerted by the boy
force exerted by the rolling
ball. Eventually the ball stops Friction can prevent an object from moving. If you push against a heavy box that is
rolling standing on grass, the grass exerts a frictional force against your pushing force. If
your pushing force is smaller than the frictional force, the box will not move.

Case study: Friction: useful or inconvenient?

Friction can be seen as useful or able to walk on the floor or want a substance to move about
inconvenient. There would be tiles without falling. Certain freely, for example, to skate on ice,
numerous accidents if all objects substances need friction, for the friction needs to be reduced.
were to move about freely, for example, the soles of our shoes Ice skates allow less friction and
example, people would not be and the brakes of a car. If you easy movement.

Activity 4 Demonstrate an understanding of frictional force

1. Draw a diagram to show the force exerted by the soles of our shoes and the
frictional force.
2. Discuss how friction is reduced in ice-skating.
3. Describe the usefulness or inconvenience of frictional force in the actions below:
a ) turning a door knob
b ) a soccer player running with soccer boots (studs underneath).

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 Friction sometimes produces heat. You can demonstrate this by rubbing your
palms together for about ten seconds.
Did you know?
Tension Many years ago, before
If a car breaks down, a tow-truck is used to pull it to a garage. A cable is attached matches were discovered,
to the car to pull it. Tension is a contact force in a rope or cable when it is used to indigenous African
people used friction to
carry a load.
light a fire by rubbing
If you hang something on a rope from the ceiling, tension is created in the rope. two sticks together.
If the object is too heavy, the tension in the rope will be too much and the
rope will break.
Some materials stretch if the
tension in them increases. If you
apply enough force to an elastic
band, the tension in the elastic
band will make it stretch. Figure 14 Tension force is exerted in the cable or rope when it is used to tow the car

Compression
If you squeeze a blown-up balloon a little bit
between your hands, it becomes smaller. This is
because you are pushing the air particles inside
the balloon closer together. Compression is a
contact force that pushes or squeezes something
into a smaller space.
Compression can also push something into
another space. When you squeeze toothpaste Figure 16 Air particles in the
Figure 15 Pony bands are balloon are pushed closer
from a tube, you compress the tube of
elastic so that they can together
toothpaste to force the toothpaste onto your stretch, causing maximum
toothbrush. tension, before they are
twisted firmly around the hair

Activity 5 Identify the type of contact force exerted

Identify which contact force is exerted in the actions stated below. Only write
whether it is friction, tension or compression. Give a reason for your answer.
1. The force exerted in the string of beads worn around Anya’s neck.
2. Kavi presses onto the plastic tomato sauce bottle to squeeze out the last bit of
tomato sauce onto his fried chips.
3. Thapelo uses soccer boots when playing a soccer match to prevent him from Figure 17 Toothpaste tube
slipping and falling on the field.

Key concepts
Contact forces are exerted when objects touch each other. Friction is exerted by a surface on an object.
Tension exists in a rope or cable when it is used to carry a load. Compression pushes or squeezes something
into a smaller space or another space.

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 Unit

3 Field forces
Field forces (non-contact forces) act over a distance. Two bodies exert field forces
Key word
on each other without touching each other.
• gravitational In this unit we look at three different field forces: gravitational force, magnetic force
force − pulling and electrical force.
force that bodies
exert on each
other over a Gravitational force
distance due to Gravitational force is a pulling force that bodies exert on each other over
their masses a distance due to their masses. From earlier grades you know that matter is
something that has mass and takes up space, so all the objects you
can think of have mass. Any object in the universe will therefore
exert a force of attraction on any other object.
Gravitational forces act in a gravitational field. For example,
you exert a tiny gravitational force on all the people and
objects in the classroom and each of them exert an equally tiny
gravitational force on you!
In our solar system, the Sun exerts a gravitational force on all the
planets and each of them exert a gravitational force on the Sun.
Figure 18 Everything around us including everything
That is one of the reasons why the planets stay in orbit around
you see in the classroom has mass and therefore the Sun.
exerts a force of attraction on other objects

Gravitational force works in pairs

In Unit 1 you learnt that forces work in pairs. This is also true of gravitational force.
You exert a gravitational force on the person sitting next to you. That person exerts
exactly the same size gravitational force on you, but in the opposite direction.
Planet Earth exerts a gravitational force on you, and you exert a gravitational force
of exactly the same size on Earth!
If you jump from a plane, the gravitational force is big enough to make you move
towards Earth. But it is not big enough to make Earth move towards you.

Activity 6 Demonstrate gravitational force

You will need: ball of paper • pen • leaf • eraser • toy car
1. Throw the ball of paper up in the air. Write down what you observe.
2. Compare the size of the force of Earth on the ball of paper with the force of the
Figure 19 Yashi is attracted ball of paper on Earth.
to Earth, therefore moves
towards Earth. The force 3. Explain why the ball of paper is moving towards Earth while Earth is not
exerted by Yashi is the same moving towards the ball of paper.
as the force exerted by Earth, 4. Repeat Steps 1 to 3 with the pen, leaf, eraser and toy car. Write down one final
but Earth is so large and
observation that is the same for all the objects.
therefore it does not move
towards Yashi

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 The size of gravitational force
Sir Isaac Newton formulated a law that describes the gravitational force that two Did you know?
objects exert on each other. He discovered that the gravitational force that two The name of the law
objects exert on each other becomes smaller if we move the two objects further that Sir Isaac Newton
apart. For example, if you move away from the classroom wall, the gravitational formulated is Newton’s
force that the wall exerts on you becomes smaller. At the same time, the Law of Universal
gravitational force that you exert on the wall also becomes smaller. Gravitation.

0,1 m 100 m

(a) (b)
Figure 20 The cricket ball in (a) is 0,1 m from the bat and exerts a greater gravitational force than the
ball in (b)

Newton also noticed that the more mass two objects have, the larger the
gravitational force that they exert on each other is. The gravitational force that you
and a chair exert on each other is much smaller than the gravitational force that
you and a minibus taxi exert on each other. Look at Figure 21.

(a) (a)(a) (b)(b) (b)

Figure 21 Fruit bowl with (a) an apple and (b) a watermelon

The fruit bowls are identical, but the watermelon has a greater mass than the apple.
The watermelon therefore exerts a larger gravitational force on the fruit bowl than
the gravitational force exerted by the apple on the fruit bowl.

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 Key words Activity 7 Identify the size of gravitational forces
• weight − the
Look at Figure 22 and Figure 23 and answer the questions below.
gravitational force
that a celestial 1. If Abigail answers her cellphone, what happens to the distance between her
body such as a and the cellphone, as compared to the distance between them when the
moon or a planet cellphone is placed on the table?
exerts on an object 2. a ) Is the gravitational force between Abigail and her cellphone smaller or
on its own surface larger when it is on the table?
• mass − a measure b ) Explain your answer to question 2 a).
of the amount of
3. Gerald picks his baby sister up from her cot and carries her.
matter that a body
is made of a ) Where is the distance smaller between Gerald and his baby sister?
b ) Where is the gravitational force greater?
• magnetic force
− force that two
magnetic materials
exert on each other
Weight
over a distance The Earth exerts a gravitational force on you.
This force is so strong that you cannot jump
very high or cannot float in the air.
You may have seen pictures of astronauts on
the moon showing them able to jump very
high and almost float over small distances.
The moon has a much smaller mass than Figure 24 An astronaut jumping on the
Earth. So the gravitational force that a human moon and floating around its surface is
and Earth exert on each other is much larger due to the gravitational force exerted by
than the gravitational force that a human and the moon being less than the gravitational
the moon exert on each other. force exerted by Earth on the astronaut

The difference between weight and mass (a)

Figure 22 Abigail’s cellphone Any celestial body such as a moon or a planet exerts
starts ringing a gravitational force on an object on its surface. This is
called the object’s weight. As for all forces, weight is
measured in newtons (N).
Your weight on Earth is different from what it will be on
the moon or on Mars. This is because the gravitational
force that you and another body exert on each other
depends on both your masses. (b)

A body’s mass is a measure of the amount of matter that

it is made of. In everyday life mass is measured in gram (g)
Figure 23 Gerald’s baby sister or kilogram (kg). If your mass is 65 kg on Earth, it will be
awakes crying in her cot 65 kg on the moon or any other planet. Your weight will be
different elsewhere in space, but your mass stays the same.
On Earth, an object’s weight is about 9,8 times its mass in
kilograms. On the moon, an object’s weight is about 1,63 Figure 25 (a) Astronaut
times its mass in kilograms. For example, if your mass is 65 kg: on Earth with a weight of
your weight on Earth = 65 × 9,8 = 637 N 637 N and (b) astronaut on
the moon with a weight of
your weight on the moon = 65 × 1,63 = 106 N
106 N

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 We use special instruments called spring balances or force meters to measure the
weight of an object on Earth.
Did you know?
It is scientifically
Activity 8 Measure and record weight wrong to say that
someone has ‘a weight
You will need: five mass pieces or objects of known mass • force meter or spring of 50 kg’. A person has
balance calibrated in newton ‘a mass of 50 kg’.
1. Convert the mass of each object in grams to kilograms.
2. Calculate the weight of each object in newton.
3. Now use a force meter, or a spring balance to measure the weight of your five
objects.
4. Record the information in a table such as the one below. The first row shows
you an example using a 500 g mass piece.
Object Mass (g) Mass (kg) Weight (N) Weight
Calculate: mass in Calculate: measured
grams ÷ 1 000 = weight = (N)
mass in kg mass × 9,8
Mass piece 500 g 500 ÷ 1 000 = 0,5 kg 0,5 kg × 9,8 = 4,9 N
4,9 N

5. Plot the information from your table onto a line graph. Use mass on your
x-axis and weight on your y-axis.
6. Write a sentence to explain what you see on your graph. (a)

Magnetic force
A magnetic force is a force that two magnetic materials exert on each other over a
distance. Magnetic forces act in a magnetic field. Magnetic objects have magnetic
fields around them.

Activity 9 Investigate the magnetic field around a bar magnet

(b)
You will need: bar magnet • A4 white sheet of paper • some iron filings
1. Place an A4 sheet of white paper on a bar magnet.
2. Sprinkle iron filings around the bars.
3. What happens to the iron filings?
4. Draw the magnetic field.
5. Answer the following questions:
a ) Identify the force holding the iron filings in place.
b ) Do the magnetic field lines touch or cross each other? Describe what you Figure 26 (a) Sprinkle iron
observe. filings around a bar magnet
c ) Explain whether magnetism is a contact or non-contact force. (b) the pattern of the
magnetic field lines

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 Key words Magnetic and non-magnetic materials
The metals iron, cobalt and nickel are magnetic. Some human-made materials such
• force of attraction as steel are also magnetic. This is because steel contains iron.
− pulling force that
two objects exert
on each other Activity 10 Investigate magnetic materials and forces
• force of repulsion
− pushing force You will need: bar magnet • wood • paper • plastic • iron • brass • aluminium foil
that two objects • iron filings on a piece of paper
exert on each 1. Place each substance on your desk. Make sure the iron filings stay on the
other paper.
• like poles − 2. Use you bar magnet, and move it above the wood. Explain what you observe.
similar magnetic
3. Repeat Step 2 with each of the substances.
poles, that is,
north and north or 4. Identify which substances are magnetic
south and south (attracted to the magnet) and which substances
are non-magnetic. Record your observations in
• unlike poles −
a table.
different magnetic
poles, that is, 5. Investigate whether the magnetic force can act
north and south on a magnetic substance if it is separated by:
• electrostatic a ) your hand
force − force that b ) wood
two electrically c ) paper
charged objects Figure 27 Using a magnet to
d ) foil
exert on each attract magnetic substances
other over a e ) steel
distance 6. Write a statement to explain your findings in this investigation.

Types of magnetic force

Unlike gravitational force, magnetic forces are not always pulling forces.
• A force of attraction is a pulling force that two objects exert on each other.
• A force of repulsion is a pushing force that two objects exert on each other.
A magnet has a north pole and a south pole. When two magnets face each other
with the same poles, they will push each other away. We say that like poles repel
each other. When two magnets face each other with different poles, they will pull
towards each other. We say that unlike poles attract each other.

Figure 28 Can the magnetic Magnetic field of Earth

force act on a magnetic
Earth is one large magnet! It has a North pole and a South pole.
substance if it is separated by
your hand? Like all magnets, Earth has a magnetic field around it, which is a result of the
electric current that is constantly circulating within it. The geographical North pole
of Earth is attracted to the magnetic North pole of a compass, which is used to
guide us with directions.

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 (a) (b) (c)
Figure 29 a) Force of repulsion between like North poles b) Force of repulsion between like South poles c) Force of attraction
between unlike North and South poles

Activity 11 Investigate repulsion and attraction between

magnets
You will need: two bar magnets
1. a ) Place the North pole of one bar magnet close to the North pole of the
other bar magnet.
b ) Describe your observation in two sentences, expressing what you see and
what you feel.
2. a ) Now place the North pole of one bar magnet close to the South pole of
the other bar magnet.
b ) Describe your observation in three sentences, expressing what you see
and what you feel.

Electrostatic force
An electrostatic force is a force that two electrically charged objects exert on
each other over a distance. Electrostatic forces act in an electrostatic field. An
electrostatic field exists around any charged object.

How objects become charged

From earlier grades, you may remember
that all substances are made up of tiny
particles called atoms. An atom consists of
a small nucleus, with a cloud of electrons
spinning around the nucleus, as shown in
Figure 30.

Positively charged protons and neutral

neutrons are held together in the nucleus
by very strong forces. It takes enormous
amounts of energy to split the nucleus of an
atom apart. Under normal conditions, the Figure 30 An atom consists of a small
protons and neutrons of an atom remain nucleus, with a cloud of electrons spinning
inside the nucleus. around the nucleus

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 An atom as a whole is electrically neutral. This is because the amount of protons is
Key words
equal to the amount of electrons. Electrons can be removed from or added to the
• like charges – surface of a substance fairly easily. One way is to rub two substances together. This
similar electric can make electrons move from one substance to another. Look at Figure 31. The
charges, that substance that gains electrons becomes electrically negative. The substance that
is, positive and loses electrons becomes electrically positive.
positive or negative
and negative
• unlike charges –
different electric
charges, that
is, positive and
negative

Figure 31 Electrons can be removed from or added to the surface of a substance fairly easily by
rubbing two substances together

Forces between like and unlike charges

As in the case of magnetic forces, an electrostatic force can be a force of attraction
or a force of repulsion. In Grade 8 you learnt that like charges repel each other and
unlike charges attract each other.

Activity 12 Investigate and observe electrostatic forces

You will need: perspex ruler • plastic ruler or comb • glass rod • tissue paper • two
balloons • a silk cloth • a cotton cloth • a woollen cloth
1. Tear the tissue paper into very small pieces. Spread them on your desk.
Figure 32 Rub the glass rod
with the woollen cloth. Hold 2. Rub the glass rod with the woollen cloth. Hold it near the pieces of tissue
it near the pieces of tissue paper. Write down what you observe.
paper
3. Repeat Step 2 with the perspex ruler and the silk cloth, as well as the plastic
ruler and the cotton cloth.
4. Explain your observation in Steps 2 and 3 in terms of like and
unlike charges.
5. Blow up both balloons and tie them at the opening so that
the air cannot escape.
6. Rub both balloons thoroughly with the woollen cloth.
Without letting the balloons touch anything, hold them
upside down at the tied end.
7. Hold the balloons very close together, without letting them
touch. Write down what you observe.
8. Explain your observation in Step 7 in terms of like and unlike
charges.
Figure 33 Hold the balloons on the tied end
without letting them touch anything

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 Electrostatic potential energy
You know that potential energy is energy that is stored in a system.
When you lift a box above the ground, you have to do work to overcome the
gravitational force of Earth on the box. If you hold the box above the ground, the
box and Earth form a system. The system stores gravitational potential energy. If
you let go of the box, the stored potential energy is changed to kinetic energy as
the box falls.
In almost the same way, if you move a positively charged object away from a
negatively charged object, you have to do work to overcome the electrostatic
force of attraction between like charges. The system of two charged objects then
has stored electrostatic potential energy. The electrostatic potential energy can be
changed to other forms of energy such as kinetic energy.
If you hold two like charges close together, the system also has electrostatic
potential energy, because you had to overcome the electrostatic force of repulsion
to force the like charges close together.
A familiar example of electrostatic potential energy usually occurs on a cold day.
You wear a jersey on top of your school uniform. Your jersey and your school
uniform are in direct contact and they both become charged. Both objects now
have electrostatic potential energy. When you start getting warmer, you decide to
remove your jersey. You hear a crackling sound − the electrostatic potential energy
has converted to sound energy!

Lightning
Lightning is an example of the effects of electric charge.
Clouds are made up of water molecules. The movement
of air inside a thunder cloud creates friction between
water particles and air particles. This causes the cloud
to become positively charged at the top and negatively
charged towards the bottom. The negative bottom of
the cloud pushes negative charges on the surface of the
earth away. The ground becomes positively charged.
Eventually, if the build-up of charges becomes too great,
the negative charges jump from the cloud to the ground.
We call this discharge. Negative charges are instantly
released from the cloud. The discharge makes the cloud
less negative and the ground less positive. We observe it
as a lightning strike. Lightning is actually a giant spark of Figure 34 Lightning is a
electricity! giant spark of electricity

Key concepts
Non-contact forces or field forces are exerted over a distance; the objects do not have to touch each other.
Gravitational force is the force of attraction between any two objects that have mass. Magnetic force is the
force of attraction between unlike poles or the force of repulsion between like poles. Electrostatic force is the
force of attraction between unlike charges or the force of repulsion between like charges.

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 Topic 10 revision

Science language activity

1. Write down the correct scientific term for each of the following statements.
a ) a push or a pull
b ) the type of force exerted when two objects are in contact (they touch each other)
c ) a force exerted by two magnetic materials over a distance
d ) a pulling force that bodies exert on each other over a distance
e ) a force that two electrically charged objects exert on each other over a distance.

Test yourself
1. Discuss the difference between mass and weight. (2)
2. Calculate the weight of the following objects on Earth:
a ) a boy with a mass of 52 kg (3)
b ) a 250 g packet of sugar. (4)
3. Identify three types of contact forces in Figure 35 below. (3)

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 35 Types of forces

4. Draw a labelled diagram of a positively charged balloon. (2)

5. Explain when the force of attraction is exerted by bar magnets, by
discussing the position of the north pole and the south pole. (3)
6. Look at Figure 36 below.
a ) Describe the difference in distance between
the two cars as compared to the distance
between the cars and the lady. (2)
b ) Explain the gravitational force between the
lady and the cars, compared to the
gravitational force exerted by the cars on
each other. (2)

Figure 36 Two cars and a lady

7. a ) How is lightning formed? (2)

b ) Describe two safety precautions during lightning and thunderstorms. (2)
Total: 25

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 Term 3: Energy and change
Topic

11 Electric cells as energy systems

Starting off
In Grade 8 you learnt that a circuit is a system that
transfers electrical energy. For a device to work, a closed
circuit and a source of electrical energy is needed. Cells
are portable sources of electrical energy.
Some everyday uses of cells in electrical devices include
the batteries in cars, cellphones, remote control devices
and torches.
A
Activity 1 Revise what you know about
cells
1. Name one device, not mentioned in the paragraph
(a) above, that uses cells or batteries as a source of
electrical energy.
2. Define an energy system.
3. How do we know which of the cells in the
photographs in Figure 1 store the most energy?
4. What happens inside a cell?
5. When a cell is connected to a circuit, to what form
of energy is the chemical energy that is stored in the
cell converted?
6. Draw the circuit symbol for a cell.
7. Draw a circuit diagram that contains a cell and a
bulb.
(b)

(c)
Figure 1 Different types of electric cells for everyday use:
(a) car battery, (b) cellphone battery and (c) torch battery

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 Unit

1 Electric cells

Key words A cell is a system that supplies electricity

An electric cell is a system that produces electricity. The cell converts chemical
• cell – device
energy to electrical energy. The chemical energy comes from a reaction that takes
that produces
place inside the cell. The reaction releases electrons that flow through an external
electricity by
circuit if the circuit forms a closed loop.
converting
chemical energy We can draw the following system diagram to represent a cell:
into electrical
energy Input: Process: Output:
• electrodes – a Chemical energy Chemical reaction Electricity is
solid substance stored in materials takes place inside available to
that cell is made of cell and releases external circuit
through which an electrons
electric current
enters or leaves a
In earlier grades you learnt that an electric cell is represented by the symbol shown
cell
in Figure 2 when we draw circuit diagrams. The long line represents the positive
• electrolytes – the terminal and the short arm represents the negative terminal.
mediums for the
movement of ions
within cells
Activity 2 Make a cell with zinc and copper plates
You will need: zinc and copper plates • zinc sulfate solution • copper sulfate
solution • sodium sulfate solution • two 250 ml beakers • U-shaped
glass tube • cotton wool • conducting wires • light-emitting diode
Figure 2 The circuit symbol (LED) bulb
for an electric cell 1. Pour 200 ml of the zinc sulfate solution into one of the beakers. Place the zinc
plate into the solution.
2. Pour 200 ml of the copper sulfate solution into the
other beaker. Place the copper plate into the solution.
3. Fill the U-tube with the sodium sulfate solution. Seal
the ends of the tube with the cotton wool. This will
stop the solution from flowing out.
4. Turn the U-tube upside down. Place it into the
beakers so that one end is in the copper sulfate
solution and the other end is in the zinc sulfate
solution.
5. Use the conducting wires to connect the zinc
and copper plates to the LED bulb. Observe what
happens.
Figure 3 A zinc-copper cell

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 In Activity 2, a chemical reaction occurs between the two beakers. The chemical
reaction makes electrons move from the zinc plate, through the conducting wire,
to the copper plate. The current makes the LED bulb shine.
The zinc plate is the negative terminal and the copper plate is the positive terminal
of this cell. We call the zinc plate and the copper plate the electrodes of this
cell. The electrodes allow current to flow. The solutions in the beakers are called
electrolytes. They help the chemical reaction take place.

Cells in practice
Obviously beakers with solutions cannot be placed in electrical devices! Therefore,
the chemical principle used in Activity 2 is applied by ‘packaging’ the chemicals in a
different way. This is done using dry or wet cells.
Dry cells cannot be recharged. Figure 4 shows what the inside of a zinc-carbon cell
looks like. Figure 5 shows another type of dry cell. It is called an alkaline cell. The
chemicals used in an alkaline cell are different from those used in a zinc-carbon cell.
metal cap
(positive terminal)

rod made of
graphite

manganese dioxide
and carbon mixture
zinc cylinder

cardboard

electrolyte paste

metal plate
(negative terminal)

Figure 4 What a zinc-carbon cell looks like inside

metal cap
(positive terminal)

alkaline electrolyte
paste
manganese dioxide
and carbon mixture

brass charge
collector

metal plate
(negative terminal)

Figure 5 What an alkaline cell looks like inside

Wet cells can be recharged, for example the cells that make up a car battery or the
cells used in cellphone batteries.

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 Key words Batteries
A battery is two or more cells connected
• battery – more
together. In earlier grades you learnt that a
than one cell
battery is represented by the symbol shown in
connected together
Figure 6 when we draw circuit diagrams.
• voltage – measure Figure 6 The circuit symbol for a
Electric cells store energy as chemical energy.
of the amount of battery
When a cell is connected to a closed electrical
potential energy
circuit, it releases its stored energy in the form of
stored in a cell or
electricity.
used by a circuit
component A car battery is a common example of a battery.
Figure 7 shows where the car battery is located in
• voltmeter – an
a car. Figure 8 shows that a car battery consists of
instrument used to
different cells connected in the same casing.
measure voltage

gang vent cap

one piece cover
battery terminal

plate strap with cell partition

cell connector

container

element (with alternate

negative and positive plates)

plate separators

Figure 7 A car battery positioned inside a car Figure 8 A car battery consists of more than one cell

We can use acidic fruit such as lemons to act as cells. In the next activity we are
going to connect a few lemons to make a lemon battery.

Activity 3 Make a lemon battery

You will need: at least three lemons • sand paper • three nails made of steel • three
nails or strips made of copper • LED bulb • conducting wires
1. Sand the steel and copper parts of the nails that will be inserted
into the fruit.
2. Insert the pair of steel and copper nails parallel to each other
into each lemon.
3. Use the conducting wires to connect the three lemons, like cells
in series, to the LED bulb.
4. Observe what happens to the LED bulb when the circuit is
complete.
Figure 9 A lemon battery

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 Voltage
Cells have a voltage marked on the side. The voltage is also called the potential
difference across the terminals of the cell. Voltage is a measure of the amount of
potential energy stored in a cell. The voltage therefore tells us how much energy
a cell can provide to push a certain amount of electrons through a circuit. It is
measured in volts (V).
The higher the voltage of a cell, the more energy each electron has available to
spend while it moves through the circuit. We measure the voltage of a cell by
connecting a voltmeter across its terminals.

Activity 4 Measure the voltage of a cell

You will need: circuit board • three cells • conducting wires • voltmeter
1. Place one cell in the cell holder of the circuit board.
2. Connect the negative terminal of the cell to the black terminal of the voltmeter.
3. There are three red terminals on the voltmeter. Connect the positive terminal
of the cell to the red terminal with the largest number written underneath it.
4. If the voltmeter shows no reading, move the wire to the red terminal with the
second highest number written underneath it. If there is still no reading, move Figure 10 Measuring the
the wire to the terminal with the smallest number written underneath it. voltage of a cell

5. Take the reading on the scale that is marked with the same number as the
terminal that is connected.
6. Repeat the steps and record the reading on the voltmeter for two cells and
three cells.
7. Compare the readings for one, two and three cells.

Connecting cells
When we connect cells so that the negative (–) terminal of one cell is connected to
Figure 11 Cells in series
the positive (+) terminal of the next cell, we say that the cells are connected in series.
When cells are connected in series, the voltage of the battery increases. Figure 11
shows a series battery.
When we connect the negative (–) terminals of two or more cells together and the
positive (+) terminals of the same cells together, we say that the cells are connected
in parallel. The voltage of a parallel battery is the same as the voltage of each cell.
Figure 12 shows a parallel battery.

Key concepts
An electric cell is a system in which a chemical reaction causes the flow of
electricity through an external circuit. A battery consists of two or more cells
connected together.
Figure 12 Cells in parallel

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 Topic 11 revision

Science language activity

Complete the crossword puzzle using the clues below.
1 2

4 5

7 8

Clues:
Across
1. Example of fruit that can be used to make a cell
3. Metal that can be used as the positive terminal of a cell
4. Input energy in an electric cell
6. Measure of the amount of energy stored in a cell
9. Output energy in an electric cell
Down
2. Solution in which ions move in a cell
5. Abbreviation for ‘light-emitting diode’
7. Metal that can be used as the negative terminal of a cell
8. Source of energy in an electric circuit

Test yourself
1. Explain the difference between a cell and a battery. (2)
2. List the resources required to make a zinc-copper cell. (2)
3. If there are no chemicals, what else could be used to make a cell? (1)
4. Draw a labelled cross-section diagram of a dry cell to show what it
looks like inside. (7)
5. Draw a labelled circuit diagram of three cells in series connected to a
voltmeter. (3)
Total: 15

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 Term 3: Energy and change
Topic

12 Resistance

Starting off
Resistors are part of the electronic circuits found in most
electrical devices. Resistors restrict the flow of current
in electrical circuits. These components may have high
resistance, which lowers current, or small resistance,
which allows electrical current to flow relatively freely.
The conducting wires in a circuit offer some resistance
to the current flow in the circuit. Factors such as the type
of material, length, thickness and temperature of the
conducting wire affect the resistance in a circuit.

Activity 1 Revise what you know about

(a) resistance
1. Explain the general meaning of the word ‘resistance’.
2. Explain the word ‘resistor’ based on your answer to
Question 1.
[Insert AW plt_nat_g09_lb_eng_zaf_12-01 and 3. Explain why conducting wires in a circuit are also
AW plt_nat_g09_lb_eng_zaf_12-02. resistors.
[AW: photos of resistors as seen in a real-life
4. List at least four factors that affect the resistance of a
electronic device such as a radio or computer
conductor.
video card and electrical household appliances]
5. List at least three electrical household appliances
and the components in them that are resistors.

(b)

(c)
Figure 1 Resistors in everyday electrical devices and appliances:
(a) a TV circuit board, (b) close up of resistors in TV and
(c) a computer circuit board

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 Unit

1 Uses of resistors
In Grade 8 you learnt that an electric current exists when charges flow along a
Key words
conductor. Resistors are made of materials that oppose the flow of electric charge
• resistance – through them. So these materials offer electrical resistance. The filament wire of
the ability of a an incandescent light bulb and the element of an electric kettle are examples of
component in an resistors.
electrical circuit to
oppose the flow of
current Conductors have some resistance
• conductor – a A conductor is made of material that allows electric current to flow through it.
component made However, even good conductors offer some electrical resistance. As electrons leave
of material that a cell or battery and move through a closed circuit, they bump into the particles
allows electric inside the conductor. The conductor heats up a little. When a conductor heats up,
current to flow some of the kinetic energy of the moving charges is wasted as heat energy.
through it
• resistor – a Resistors
component that A resistor is an electrical component that can
opposes the flow conduct electricity, but offers resistance to the flow
of current in an of current in an electric circuit. There are two circuit
electrical circuit symbols that can be used for a resistor as shown in
Figure 2 Circuit symbols for
• rheostat – a Figure 2.
resistors
component in an Figure 3 shows examples of resistors that you will
electrical circuit find in a school laboratory.
that has the ability
to change its
resistance Resistors control electric current
• diode – a Resistors are used to control the current in an
component in an electric circuit. If a resistor in a circuit
electrical circuit is connected with another electrical
that controls the component, it will maintain a safe
flow of current in a current within the component.
particular direction Special resistors are made for creating
a very specific type of resistance. They
are inserted into electronic devices
to maintain a stable resistance value,
even when the temperature of the
environment changes. You can identify Figure 3 Resistors
a resistor by looking at the computer
sound card board and finding the striped circuits (See Figure 1). Most resistors on
the sound card are colour-coded with the same shade of brown or blue.

Resistors provide useful energy

transfer
Figure 4 The element of the Resistors are also used to control the flow of current in a circuit and they provide
kettle resists current flow so useful energy transfer. For example, the element of an electric kettle turns electrical
that it can boil the water energy into heat energy that is used to boil water (see Figure 4).

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 Activity 2 Identify resistors in everyday life
Complete the table in your workbook:
Electrical Where is the What is the resistor What form/s of energy is the electricity
appliance resistor? made of? converted to?
Electric stove
Light bulb
Toaster
Electric bar heater
Electric fan
Electric iron

Variable resistors
Some resistors do not supply a fixed resistance. They have a mechanism that allows
them to change their resistance. Dimmer light switches and volume control knobs
on radios use such resistors, called rheostats (see Figure 5).
The circuit symbol for a rheostat is shown on the right:
A light-dependent resistor (LDR) is sensitive to the variable Figure 5 A rheostat is used
amount of light that shines onto it. It normally has a resistance
to increase or decrease the
higher resistance in the dark than in the light. It can be ... or ...
volume of a radio
used to automatically switch the lights outside a house
on or off as it gets darker or lighter.

Diodes
Diodes are special electric components that control the flow of electric current.
They provide a very high resistance when the current flows in one direction and a
very low resistance when the current flows in the opposite direction. Therefore they
allow the flow of current in one direction only. Figure 6 An LDR can be used
Unlike bulb filaments and the elements in kettles, toasters or hairdryers, diodes are to switch on the lights outside
not made of metals or mixtures of metals. They are made of two semi-conductors. a house when it gets dark

A light-emitting diode (LED) converts electrical energy to light energy (see Figure 7).
Traffic lights consist of many LEDs arranged in a circular shape (see Figure 8).
Light-sensitive diodes do the opposite of LEDs. When sunlight falls on them, they
can convert the light energy to electrical energy.

Activity 3 Revise terminology about resistors

Figure 7 An LED converts
Write one word for the following statements: electrical energy into light
energy
1. A special electric component that controls the flow of electric current.
2. Something used to automatically switch the lights outside a house on or off as
it gets darker or lighter.
3. Something that is responsible for the functioning of the volume in a radio.
4. Something that can be identified by stripes of brown or blue inside an
electrical device.
5. Something responsible for the functioning of traffic lights.
Figure 8 These traffic lights
6. It is abbreviated as LDR. work on LEDs

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 Skills focus: Measure voltage and current

How to measure electric current

The strength of the current in an electric circuit is measured in amperes (A).

eter Figure 10 An
tal amm analogue am
Figure 9 A digi meter

Figures 9 and 10 show a digital and an analogue ammeter. We connect an nnected

ammeter is co
Figure 11 An want to
ammeter in the part of the circuit where we want to know the strength of the current we
in the path of
the current. An ammeter is always connected in series, so in the path of the
measure
current that we want to measure.
Figure 11 shows how an ammeter is connected in a simple circuit.

Activity 4 Measure the current in a circuit

You will need: three 1,5 V cells connected in series • light

bulb • ammeter • some conducting wires

1. Connect the three cells to the light bulb so that the bulb glows.
Connect a red conducting wire from the positive terminal of the
battery to the bulb and a black conducting wire from the negative
terminal of the battery to the bulb.

Figure 12 Making space

2. Break the circuit in the desired location by disconnecting the black
for an ammeter
wire from the bulb to make a place for the ammeter in the circuit (see
Figure 12).

3. Connect the black wire to the black terminal of the ammeter and
the red wire from the red terminal on the ammeter to the bulb (see
Figure 13).

4. The bulb should glow again and the ammeter should show a
reading.
Figure 13 A simple circuit
5. Write down the reading on the ammeter. with an ammeter connected

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 How to measure voltage
(a) (b)

Figure 14 (a) A digital voltmeter and (b) an analogue voltmeter

In Topic 11 you saw that voltage is measured in volts (V). If we want to know
what the voltage or potential difference of a circuit component is, we connect a Figure 15 A voltmeter
voltmeter over the component. A voltmeter is always connected in parallel, next to is connected over the
the component. Figure 14 shows a digital and an analogue voltmeter. component of which we want
to measure the voltage

Activity 5 Measure the voltage in a circuit

You will need: three 1,5 V cells connected in series • a light bulb • a voltmeter
• conducting wires
1. Connect the three cells to the light bulb in such a way that the bulb glows.
Connect a red conducting wire from the positive terminal of the battery to the
bulb and a black conducting wire from the negative terminal of the battery to
the bulb.
2. Connect the black wire to the black terminal of the voltmeter and a red wire on
the red terminal of the voltmeter (see Figure 16).
3. Connect the black wire from the voltmeter to the crocodile clip of the black
wire on the circuit where it is connected to the bulb. Connect the red wire to
the other side of the bulb where the crocodile clip of the red wire connects to
the bulb. The voltmeter should now show a reading.
Figure 16 Voltmeter with
4. Write down the reading on the voltmeter. conducting wires

Key concepts
All conductors have some resistance. A resistor is a conducting
material that controls the current in an electric circuit, or
provides useful energy transfer.

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 Unit

2 Factors that affect resistance in a circuit

Different factors have an effect on the amount of resistance that a specific resistor
Key words
offers. In this unit we will study four of these factors.
• semi-conductor
– a substance that
conducts electric Type of material
current under Different materials offer different amounts of resistance to the flow of electric
certain conditions current. Good electrical conductors offer low resistance to the flow of charge. Silver,
copper and gold are the best electrical conductors. We use copper for conducting
• insulator – a
wires, because it is not as expensive as silver or gold. Gold wiring is used in
substance that
electronic equipment such as computers and cellphones (see Figure 17).
does not allow
electric current to Metals or mixtures of metals such as tungsten or nichrome conduct electricity, but
flow through it offer considerable electrical resistance. They are used as resistors in devices where
electrical energy has to be converted to other forms of energy.
Silicon can conduct electricity under certain conditions and is called a
semi-conductor.
Substances such as wood and rubber have such a high electrical resistance that
we say they do not conduct electricity. We call them electrical insulators (see
Figure 18).

Figure 17 Silver and gold are used in the wiring of computers Figure 18 Plastic is used to insulate copper wires in electricity
cables

Length
Suppose you are running along a road. The further you run, the more tired you will
get. In almost the same way, electric charges need more energy the further they
move. So charges need more energy to move through a longer wire than through a
shorter one – the longer the resistor connected in an electric circuit, the higher the
resistance of the circuit.

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 Thickness
Imagine a hose pipe. A thicker pipe has more space for water to flow through, so
the stream of water that emerges from it is larger than the stream coming from a
thinner pipe.

In almost the same way, it is easier for electric charges to move through a thicker
wire or resistor. The thicker the conductor, the more the space for current to flow
through, and therefore the lower its resistance.

Temperature
Electrical resistance varies with temperature. For most metals or mixtures of metals,
the resistance increases if the metals are heated. Figure 19 A thicker pipe has
When we heat a length of wire or resistor, the particles inside it get more kinetic more space for the water than
energy and move around more. This additional movement of particles inside the a thinner pipe
wire makes it more difficult for charges that are released from a battery to get
through the wire (see Figure 20).
Think of the particles in a length of wire as a crowd of people. Imagine you are an
electron that wants to move through the crowd. If everybody is standing still, it
should be fairly easy to move through the crowd. However, if everybody is running
around, it will be much more difficult to move through the crowd.

hot cold

Figure 20 A hot conductor makes it difficult for electric current to Figure 21 A colder conductor offers less or no resistance for electric
flow through it current to flow

Activity 6 Investigate the effect of the type of material on

resistance
You will need: cell or battery of at least 4,5 V • light bulb • ammeter • about 5 cm
of four types of wire, all the same thickness: copper, nichrome, steel,
aluminium
1. Explain why all four wires must have the same length and the same thickness.
2. Apart from length and thickness, what other variable is kept constant in this
investigation?
3. Name the independent variable.

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 4. The dependent variable is resistance. An ammeter cannot measure resistance.
Key words
Explain how you will know whether the resistance increases or decreases.
• data – facts or 5. Connect a circuit as shown in Figure 22. Record the ammeter reading.
information 6. Repeat Step 5 with each of the other pieces of wire.
taken from an
investigation 7. Complete the following table:

• analysing – Type of wire Ammeter reading (A) Conclusion about resistance

looking carefully Copper
at data to find Aluminium
patterns and Steel
meaning Nichrome
8. Order the wires from lowest to highest resistance.

Activity 7 Investigate the effect of thickness of a conductor

on resistance
You will need: a cell or battery of at least 4,5 V • a light bulb • an ammeter • four
pieces of copper wire, all the same length but of different thickness
1. Write a hypothesis for this investigation.
2. Identify the independent and dependent variables.
3. Identify all the constants.
4. Connect a circuit as shown in Figure 22, using the thinnest wire. Record the
ammeter reading.
Figure 22 A circuit to
investigate the resistance of 5. Repeat Step 4 with each of the other pieces of wire, from thinnest to thickest.
different types of materials 6. Complete the following table. Mark the wires 1 to 4 from thinnest to thickest.
Relative thickness of wire Ammeter reading (A)
1 (thinnest)
2
3
4 (thickest)
7. Read the Skills Focus on page 159. Now analyse the data of this experiment
and draw conclusions.

Key concepts
Resistance in a circuit is affected by the type, length, thickness and
temperature of the conductor. The higher the resistance, the lower the
current. Copper, silver and gold have less resistance than nichrome.
The longer the conductor, the higher the resistance. The thicker the
conductor, the lower the resistance.The hotter the conductor, the higher
the resistance.

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 Skills focus: Analyse data and draw conclusions
When you conduct an investigation, you record the facts or evidence that you
collect. We call this information data. You then need to look carefully at the data to
see what it means. This is called analysing data. When you analyse data, you look
for patterns and trends. From this, you can draw conclusions to explain your results.

How to analyse data and draw conclusions

Suppose you investigated the effect of the length of a conductor on its resistance.
You used the same thickness of five different lengths of copper wire. You took five
ammeter readings.

1. Record your data in a meaningful way

You need to record the data that you collect from your experiment in an
organised way. Draw a table that will help you to make sense of your data.
Here is an example:
Graph of current against resistance
6
Length of Reading on
copper wire ammeter
5
3 cm 5A
6 cm 4A
Ammeter reading (A)

4
9 cm 3A
12 cm 2A 3
15 cm 1A
2
2. Process your data
Process your data so that it will help you 1
to see any patterns.
A graph makes it easier to see patterns. 0
Figure 23 was drawn using the data in 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
the above table. Length of resistor (cm)
Figure 23 The graph of the length of a conductor versus the ammeter reading
3. Look for patterns or trends
You can identify patterns or trends by asking yourself the following questions:
• Is there a change in one or both of the variables?
• Is there is an increase or decrease in one or both of the variables?
• What does this increase or decrease tell you about the variables?
Figure 23 shows the following:
• There is a change in both variables. As the length changes, the ammeter
reading also changes.
• The ammeter reading decreases as the length of the conductor increases.
• The decrease in the ammeter reading tells you that the resistance increases.

4. Draw conclusions
Use the analysis of the data to answer your investigative question, or to decide
whether your hypothesis must be accepted or rejected.
The analysis of the data for this investigation shows that there is an increase in
the resistance of a conductor if the length of the conductor increases.

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 Topic 12 revision

Science language activity

Write one word for the following statements:
1. A special electric component that controls the flow of electric current in one
direction
2. It is used to automatically switch the lights outside a house on or off as it gets
darker or lighter
3. It is responsible for the functioning of the volume in a radio
4. It can be identified by stripes of brown or blue inside an electrical device
5. It is responsible for the functioning of traffic lights.

Test yourself
1. Explain the following concepts:
a ) resistance
b ) diode
c ) rheostat (3)
2. a ) What are resistors used for?
b ) Explain what an LDR is and what it is used for. (2)
3. Give an example of a diode. (1)
4. Write down four factors that may affect the resistance of a conductor. (4)
5. State whether the following statements are true or false:
a ) The higher the resistance, the lower the current.
b ) Copper, silver and gold have more resistance than nichrome.
c ) The longer the conductor, the higher the resistance.
d ) The thicker the conductor, the higher the resistance.
e ) The hotter the conductor, the higher the resistance. (5)
6. Label the circuit diagram below. (5)

A
V

Total: 20

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 Term 3: Energy and change
Topic

13 Series and parallel circuits

Starting off
In Grade 8 you learnt about series and parallel circuits.
In a series circuit, there is only one pathway for current
to flow through. In a parallel circuit there is more
than one pathway for current to flow through. You also
learnt how to use standard symbols to draw circuit
diagrams.
We can connect cells or resistors in series or in
parallel. The way we connect cells or resistors has an
effect on the other components in an electric circuit.
We can use measuring instruments such as ammeters
and voltmeters to give us more information about a
circuit.

Activity 1 Revise drawing circuit

diagrams of series and
Figure 1 Cells are connected in series inside a torch parallel circuits

1. Suppose there are two cells inside the torch in

Figure 1. Draw a circuit diagram of the electric
circuit inside the torch.
2. Are the bulbs in the ceiling light in Figure 2
connected in series or in parallel? Give a reason
for your answer.
3. Suppose the ceiling light in Figure 2 is connected
to a powerful battery and a switch. Draw a circuit
diagram of the circuit. Decide whether the switch
must be open or closed. Include an ammeter
that will measure the current through one
bulb only.
Figure 2 These bulbs are connected in parallel

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 Unit

1 Series circuits

Key words Connecting cells in series

In Topic 11 you learnt that cells are the source of electrical energy within an electric
• cells – devices that
circuit. We connect cells in series by connecting the negative terminal of one cell to
produce electricity
the positive terminal of the next cell (see Figure 3).
by converting
chemical energy When cells are connected in series, the total voltage of the battery is the sum of
into electrical the individual cells. This means that the more cells you connect, the higher the
energy voltage of the battery.
• voltage – amount We can measure the voltage, or potential difference, of a cell by connecting a
of potential voltmeter over the terminals of the cell. In Topic 12 you learnt how to connect a
energy provided voltmeter. A voltmeter is always connected in parallel.
by a cell or used
by an electrical
component to Activity 2 Investigate the effect of connecting more cells
move a certain in series
amount of charge
in a circuit; also You will need: circuit board or cell holders • three 1,5 V cells • two identical light
called potential bulbs or LEDs • voltmeter • conducting wires
difference
1. Set up a series circuit with one cell and the bulbs, as shown in Figure 4.
• battery – more
2. Connect the voltmeter over the terminals of the
than one cell
cell. Record the reading. Note the brightness of the
connected
bulbs.
together
3. What does the brightness of the bulbs tell you about
• voltmeter – (a)
the circuit?
instrument used
for measuring 4. Repeat Steps 1 and 2 with two cells connected in
voltage between series. Connect the voltmeter over the whole battery. (b)
two points in an Figure 3 (a) Example of
5. Repeat Steps 1 and 2 with three cells connected in
electric circuit cells that are connected
series.
in series and (b) the circuit
6. Complete this table to record you observations. symbol for the battery

Number of cells Voltmeter Brightness of Effect on circuit

reading (V) the light bulbs
1
2
3

7. Predict what would happen to the brightness of the bulbs if you connected
a fourth cell in series. Calculate what the voltage of the battery would be.
8. Draw a conclusion about the effect of the number of cells connected in series
on an electric circuit.

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 Connecting resistors in series Key words
In Topic 12 you learnt that a resistor
• resistor –
is conducting material that is used
component that
to control current or provide useful
resists the flow
energy transfer. The most common
of current in an
example of a resistor is a light bulb.
electric circuit
The way we connect resistors has an
• series circuit –
effect on an electric circuit. When we
electric circuit
connect resistors in series, we connect
where electrical
them one after the other so that the
components are
electric current has to pass through
connected one
all the resistors (see Figure 5). A circuit
after the other;
where there is only one pathway for
provides only one
the current to flow through is called a
pathway for the
series circuit.
current to flow
through
Voltage in a series circuit
We can measure the voltage, or
potential difference, over a resistor
by connecting a voltmeter over the
resistor. The voltage tells us how Figure 4 Example of a circuit where resistors are
much energy is needed to push a connected in series. Remember that an LED is a
certain amount of charge through resistor
the resistor.

Activity 3 Measure voltage across resistors in a series circuit

You will need: cell or battery of at least 6 V • three resistors of different, but
known, resistance • voltmeter • conducting wires
1. Connect the battery and three resistors in series with the conducting wires.
2. Draw a circuit diagram of your circuit. Write the value for the resistance of
each resistor next to their symbols on the circuit diagram.
3. Connect the voltmeter over the battery and take a reading. Write the value
next to the battery symbol on your circuit diagram.
4. Now connect the voltmeter over one of the resistors and take a reading.
Write the value next to the correct resistor symbol on your circuit diagram.
5. Repeat Step 4 for the other two resistors.
6. Add the voltages of all the resistors together. How does this compare to the
voltage of the battery?
7. Write down the resistance values from highest to lowest. Underneath, write
down the corresponding voltage values. What do you notice?

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 Figure 5 shows an example of a circuit diagram drawn by a learner who completed
Activity 3. You should be able to conclude the following:
• The total voltage across all the resistors in a series circuit is equal to the voltage
over the battery.
• The higher the resistance of a resistor, the higher the voltage across it. The
lower the resistance of a resistor, the lower the voltage across it.
6V • The total voltage in a series circuit is the same as the sum of the voltages
across all the resistors in the circuit.
We can explain the results of Activity 3 by thinking of a computer game. Suppose a
0,5 V 0,25 Ω warrior princess has to save a captured prince. She only has a certain ‘bag’ of energy
2Ω 0,75 Ω to complete each course, almost like the amount of energy that a battery has
available to get a certain amount of charge through the circuit. Every time that she
4V 1,5 V
encounters a monster, she uses some of her energy to conquer the monster, just as
Figure 5 Example of a circuit
electrical energy is changed to other forms of energy by a resistor. At the end of the
diagram drawn for Activity 3
course, all her energy is used up by the different monsters. In almost the same way,
resistors divide the voltage of the battery.

Activity 4 Revise voltage in a series circuit

V1
1. For the circuit diagram in Figure 6:
a ) Give the reading on voltmeter V1.
b ) Which voltmeter is connected over the resistor with the highest
V2 3 V
4 V V4 resistance?
2. For the circuit diagram in Figure 7:
a ) Give the reading on voltmeter V3.
5V b ) Choose the value that you think is most correct for that resistor:
V3 1 Ω, 2 Ω or 3 Ω.
3. Study the circuit diagram in Figure 8 carefully. Give the readings on
Figure 6 Circuit diagram for
voltmeters V3 and V4.
Question 1

12 V
V1
V1

3 V V2 1,5 Ω 2,5 Ω V5 5 V
8 V V2 2Ω
1Ω 1Ω

V3 V4
V3
Figure 8 Circuit diagram for Question 3
Figure 7 Circuit diagram for
Question 2

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 Current in a series circuit Key words
Current is the flow of electric charge through an electrical conductor such as
a copper wire. We can measure the strength of the current by connecting an • current – flow
ammeter in the circuit. In Topic 12 you learnt how to connect an ammeter. An of electric
ammeter is always connected in series. The current strength tells us how much charge through
electric charge flows in the circuit in a certain time. an electrical
conductor
• ammeter –
Activity 5 Measure current in a series circuit instrument used
for measuring
You will need: cell or battery of at least 6 V • three resistors of different, but the strength of
known, resistance • ammeter • conducting wires electric current in
1. Connect the battery, ammeter and three resistors in series with the an electric circuit
conducting wires.
2. Draw a circuit diagram of your circuit. Take the ammeter reading. Write the
value next to the ammeter symbol on your circuit diagram.
3. Now move the ammeter so that it is connected between two of the resistors.
4. Repeat Step 2.
5. Move the ammeter to any other position in the circuit. Repeat Step 2 again.
6. What do you notice about the ammeter readings you took so far?
7. Remove one of the resistors from the circuit and repeat Step 2 again.
8. Remove another resistor from the circuit and repeat Step 2 again.
9. Predict what would happen to the ammeter reading if there were no resistors
in the circuit.
10. Draw a conclusion about the effect of the number of resistors connected in
series on the electric circuit.

From Activity 5 you should have concluded that:

• The current is the same at any point in a series
circuit.
• The total current decreases if the number of
resistors in a series circuit increases.
We can explain the results of Activity 5 by thinking
of a hose pipe with water flowing in it. If you make
a knot in the pipe, it is more difficult for the water
to flow and the stream of water becomes thinner.
This is almost like a resistor that resists the flow of
electric charge. If you make another knot in the
hose pipe, the stream of water will become even
thinner. In the same way, the current in a conductor
decreases if you add more resistors in series. Figure 9 A knot in a hose pipe makes the stream of water thinner,
almost like a resistor that makes the current in a series circuit smaller

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 Activity 6 Revise current in a series circuit
1. In the circuit diagram below, the reading on ammeter A1 is 2 A. Give the
readings on ammeters A2, A3 and A4.
3Ω
A4

A1 2 A
1Ω

2Ω

A2 A3
1Ω

2. In the circuit diagrams below, all the resistors are identical.

a ) Which ammeter(s) will have the highest reading?
b ) Which ammeter(s) will have the lowest reading?

A1 A2 A3 A4

Key concepts
When cells are connected together in series, the total voltage is the sum of
the voltages of the individual cells.
The total voltage across the battery is the same as the sum of the voltages
across each of the resistors connected in a series circuit.
A resistor with a higher resistance will have a higher voltage across it;
a resistor with lower resistance will have a lower voltage across it.
The current is the same when measured at any point in a series circuit.
The total current decreases with each resistor added in series to the circuit.

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 Unit

2 Parallel circuits

Connecting cells in parallel

We connect cells in parallel by connecting all the negative terminals together and
all the positive terminals together (see Figure 10).
When cells of the same voltage are connected in parallel, the total voltage of the
battery is the same as for one cell only. Connecting more cells in parallel does not
increase the voltage of the battery. It does, however, make the battery last longer.
(a)

Activity 7 Investigate the effect of adding more cells

connected in parallel
You will need: circuit board or cell holders • three 1,5 V cells • two identical light
bulbs or LEDs • voltmeter • conducting wires
1. Set up a series circuit with one cell and the bulbs.
2. Connect the voltmeter over the terminals of the cell. Record the reading. Note
the brightness of the bulbs.
3. What does the brightness of the bulbs tell you about the circuit? (b)
4. Connect another cell in parallel with the first one. Connect the positive Figure 10 (a) Example of cells
terminals of the cells together and connect the negative terminals together. that are connected in parallel
Then connect the battery to the rest of the circuit. and (b) circuit symbol for the
battery
5. Repeat Step 2. Connect the voltmeter over the whole battery.
6. Repeat Steps 1 and 2 with three cells connected in parallel.
7. Complete this table to record you observations.

Number of cells Voltmeter Brightness of Effect on circuit

reading (V) the light bulbs
1
2
3

8. Predict what would happen to the brightness of the bulbs if you connected a
fourth cell in parallel. Calculate what the voltage of the battery would be.
9. Draw a conclusion about the effect of the number of cells connected in parallel
on an electric circuit.

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 Key words Connecting resistors in parallel
When we connect resistors in parallel, we connect them next to each other so that
• parallel circuit –
electric charges can pass through any one of the resistors. A circuit where there is more
electric circuit
than one pathway for the electric current to flow through is called a parallel circuit.
where electrical
components are
connected next Voltage in a parallel circuit
to each other; In a parallel circuit, we can measure the voltage over each resistor, but also over all
provides more the resistors together.
than one pathway
for the current to Activity 8 Measure voltage across resistors in a parallel circuit
flow through
You will need: cell or battery of at least 6 V • three resistors of different, but
known, resistance • voltmeter • conducting wires
1. Use the conducting wires to connect the resistors in parallel and then connect
them to the battery.
2. Draw a circuit diagram of your circuit. Write the value for the resistance of each
resistor next to their symbols on the circuit diagram.
3. Connect the voltmeter over the battery and take a reading. Write the value
next to the battery symbol on your circuit diagram.
4. Now connect the voltmeter over one of the resistors and take a reading. Write
the value next to the correct resistor symbol on your circuit diagram.
5. Repeat Step 4 for the other two resistors.
6. Compare the voltages of the resistors. How does this compare to the voltage
of the battery?
7. Connect the voltmeter across all the resistors together and take a reading.
What do you notice?

Figure 11 shows an example of a circuit diagram drawn by a learner who completed

Activity 8. You should be able to conclude the following:
• For resistors connected in parallel, the voltage measured across each of the
resistors is equal to the voltage of the battery.
• For resistors connected in parallel, the voltage measured across each resistor
has the same value for all the resistors. This is also equal to the voltage
measured over all the resistors together, that is, between A and B in Figure 11.
6V

0,25 Ω 6 V

2Ω 6V

A 0,75 Ω 6 V B

voltage between A and B: 6 V

Figure 11 Example of a circuit diagram
drawn for Activity 8

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 We can explain the results of Activity 8 Top level
by thinking of potential energy. Suppose
you have to get from one level in a
building to the next. From earlier grades
you know that there is a difference in
gravitational potential energy between Difference in
potential energy
the two levels. It does not matter which
staircase you take, that difference
remains the same (see Figure 12). In
almost the same way, it does not matter
which path a charge follows between A Ground level

and B in Figure 11. The potential difference Figure 12 Your difference in potential energy is the same, regardless of which
between those points remains the same. staircase you take. This is almost like the potential difference over resistors in parallel

Activity 9 Revise voltage in a parallel circuit

Study the circuit diagram carefully. Then give the readings on voltmeters V2 and V3.
12 V
V1

V2

1Ω

2Ω
V3

Current in a parallel circuit

In a parallel circuit the electric current splits. We can measure the strength of the
current in every branch of the parallel connection.

Activity 10 Measure current in a parallel circuit

You will need: cell or battery of at least 6 V • three resistors of different, but
known, resistance • ammeter • conducting wires
1. Use the conducting wires to connect the resistors in parallel. Then connect
them to the battery and the ammeter.
2. Draw a circuit diagram of your circuit. Write the value for the resistance of
each resistor next to their symbols on the circuit diagram.
3. Take the ammeter reading and write the value next to the ammeter symbol
on your circuit diagram. This reading gives the strength of the main current
from the battery.
4. Now move the ammeter so that it is connected in one of the parallel
branches only.
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 5. Take the ammeter reading and write it next to the correct resistor symbol on
your circuit diagram.
6. Move the ammeter to another branch in the parallel connection. Repeat
Step 5.
7. Move the ammeter to the third branch in the parallel connection. Repeat
Step 5 again.
8. Add the ammeter readings in the parallel branches together. How does this
compare to the ammeter reading you took in Step 3?
9. Write down the resistance values from highest to lowest. Underneath, write
down the corresponding ammeter readings. What do you notice?
10. Repeat Steps 1 to 3, but with only two resistors.
11. Repeat Steps 1 to 3 again, but with only one resistor.
12. Draw a conclusion about the effect of the number of resistors connected in
parallel on an electric circuit.

From Activity 10 you should have concluded that:

• The total current supplied by the battery is the same as the sum of the currents
through all the resistors in a parallel circuit.
• The higher the resistance of a resistor, the smaller the current through it. The
lower the resistance of a resistor, the larger the current through it.
• The more resistors we connect in parallel, the larger the current in the circuit is.
We can explain the results of Activity 10 by thinking of the tills in a supermarket.
Each customer that wants to pay for groceries will move through one till only.
So when we want to know how many customers paid for groceries in
a certain time, we can add the number of customers that went through
the different tills together. In almost the same way we can add the
current in each branch of a parallel circuit together to get the main
current.
The quicker a cashier works, the more customers will go through that till.
This is almost like a resistor with a low resistance that lets through more
current.
If the supermarket manager opens more tills, more customers will move
through the tills in a certain time. Similarly, when we connect more
Figure 13 Resistors in parallel can be resistors in parallel, we are providing more paths for the electric charges
represented by the tills in a supermarket to follow. Because it is easier for charges to move through the circuit, the
strength of the current increases.

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 Activity 11 Revise current in a parallel circuit
1. Study the circuit diagram alongside. Then give the readings on
ammeters A1, A2 and A3.
1Ω 1Ω
A4 4 A
A1 A2

A3

Figure 14 Circuit diagram for

Question 1
12 V
2. For the circuit diagram alongside: V1
a ) Give the readings on ammeter A1 and voltmeter V2.
b ) Which ammeter is in the branch with the highest resistance? A1

0,5 A
A2
1,5 A
A3

V2

Figure 15 Circuit diagram for

Question 2

3. For the circuit diagram alongside:

a ) Give the readings on ammeters A3 and A4. A1 3 A A4
b ) Which ammeter is in the branch with the highest resistance?
1A
A2

A3

Figure 16 Circuit diagram for

Question 3

Series and parallel circuits in the home

Whether we connect resistors in series or in parallel depends on what we
want to use a specific circuit for. One of the circuits in a television set, for
example, is a series circuit. The monitor is connected in series with the
‘on/off’ switch. When you move the switch to the ‘off’ position and break
that circuit, the television monitor goes off.

Figure 17 There are many circuits inside

a television set. In one of them the
monitor is connected in series with the
‘on/off’ switch

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 Lighting system in a house
The lighting system in a house is usually connected in parallel. If
one light bulb fuses, that is, its filament breaks, the rest of the lights
can remain on. This is because each bulb is connected in a parallel
pathway to the mains electricity. If all the lights were connected in
series, there would only be a single pathway for the current to flow.
One broken or removed bulb would mean that all the lights in the
house would go out (see Figure 18).

Activity 12 Identify series and parallel circuits

Figure 18 A simple example of how the lights in a

1. Figure 19 shows the basic circuits involved in the alarm system
house can be connected. Note that each light bulb of a car. The sensors can be sensitive to pressure or motion, or
is connected in its own branch they can be simple switches. When the circuit from a sensor to
the processor is closed, the processor closes switches in circuits
leading to the headlights, interior lights, a special speaker or
the car’s horn.
a ) Explain why each sensor must be connected in its own
parallel pathway to the processor.
sensors b ) Will the alarm still work if one of the headlights has a
processor broken bulb? Explain your answer.
sensors
c ) Explain how the alarm system will be affected if both
mercury
tilt/shock headlights have broken bulbs.
sensor d ) The headlights are also connected to the light switch and
battery of the car. Why is it important that the voltage
across the headlights is equal to each other?
2. Battery-operated toys all have electric circuits inside them.
door Figure 20 is an x-ray of a toy robot dinosaur.
sensor a ) Are the cells connected in series or in parallel? Give
speaker a reason for your answer.
for sound b ) Do you think the ‘legs’ of the dinosaur are connected to the
remote
control battery in series or in parallel? Explain your answer.
lights c ) Suppose there are small bulbs in the eyes of the dinosaur
sensor
that shine when a switch is closed. Draw a possible circuit
Figure 19 Basic circuits involved in the alarm system diagram to show the connection of the ‘eyes’ to the switch
of a car
and the battery.

Figure 20 X-ray of a toy robot dinosaur

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 The importance of accurate resistances
in a parallel circuit
The total current in a parallel circuit increases as the number of 220 V
V1
resistors increases. This means that there is a risk of creating a
dangerously high current if you connect too many resistors in
parallel in the same circuit. Especially in a home, where many
4,4 A
appliances are connected in big parallel circuits, this poses a real 10 Ω 25 Ω 15 Ω
A1
danger. To help control this risk, resistors are manufactured to
have a very specific resistance. In this way the total current can be
determined accurately. You will learn more about safety measures 6,3 A 10 Ω 25 Ω
for the wiring of a house in Topic 14. A2
Current can also be controlled by connecting resistors in series 220 V
V2
in certain branches of the circuit. Figure 21 shows that, for two
branches with the same total voltage: Figure 21 For two branches that have the same
voltage, the current is smaller in the branch were the
• the current is bigger if the resistance is lower
resistance is higher
• the current is smaller if the resistance is higher.

Activity 13 Identify relationships between current and

resistance
Look at Figure 21 again.
1. Calculate the total resistance in each of the parallel branches.
2. Calculate the current in the main circuit.
3. State whether your answer to Question 2 will increase or decrease if:
a ) a resistor is connected in series between the battery and the parallel
branches
b ) a resistor is added to the parallel connection so that there are three
branches.
4. State the relationship between current and resistance in a:
a ) series circuit
b ) parallel circuit.

Key concepts
When cells of the same voltage are connected together in parallel, the total
voltage is the same as for one cell.
For resistors connected in parallel, the voltage measured across each
resistor is equal to the voltage of the battery.
The total current supplied by the battery is the same as the sum of the
currents through all the resistors in a parallel circuit. The total current
increases with each resistor added in parallel to a circuit.
For two circuits with the same total voltage, the current will be bigger in a
circuit with low resistance and smaller in a current with high resistance.

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 Topic 13 revision

Science language activity

Define each of the following terms:
1. voltage 2. resistance 3. electric current 4. series circuit
5. parallel circuit 6. ammeter 7. voltmeter

Test yourself
1. Draw a circuit diagram that contains the following: a series battery with four
cells, two light bulbs connected in parallel, a voltmeter across each light bulb,
an ammeter that measures the main current. (6)
2. Copy and complete the table to describe current and voltage for resistors
connected in different ways. (3)
Series connection Parallel connection
Current Equal at all points
Voltage Same across each resistor
Relationship between Current decreases if
resistance and current resistance increases

3. In the following circuits in Figure 22, all the bulbs are identical.
A B C

V1

Figure 22
a ) Arrange the circuits from the one with the brightest bulbs to the one
A1 2 V A2
with the faintest bulbs. (2)
b ) Explain your arrangement. (2)
4. Study the circuit diagram in Figure 23 and answer the questions: V2 V3
a ) Give the readings on ammeter A1 and voltmeter V1. (2) 8V 4V

b ) Calculate the voltage of one of the cells. (2) Figure 23

c ) Which voltmeter is connected over the resistor with the highest V1
resistance? (1)
5. Study the circuit diagram in Figure 24 and answer the questions:
a ) Give the readings on ammeter A1 and voltmeter V1. (2) A1
1A
b ) Calculate the voltage of one of the cells. (2)
A2
c ) Which ammeter is in the branch with the highest resistance? (1) 2A
d ) What will happen to the reading on A1 if another resistor is A3
connected in parallel? Give a reason. (2) V1

Total: 25 12 V
Figure 24

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 Term 3: Energy and change
Topic
Safety with electricity and the
14 national electricity grid
Starting off
Figure 1(b) shows the basic structure of a coal power
station, which you may remember from earlier grades.
Most of the electricity in South Africa is produced in
coal power stations like this one. The electricity is then
fed into the national electricity grid. Many other sources
can be used to produce electricity. In this topic, you will
explore these resources, as well as the use of nuclear
power in South Africa, and how the national electricity
grid works.

Activity 1 Revise knowledge about

electricity generation
Use what you know and refer to Figure 1 to help you
(a) answer the questions.
1. Where are the majority of coal power stations
located in South Africa?
2. Explain why coal power stations are located in these
areas.

C D
3. Label the parts of a power station marked A to D in
Figure 1(b).
4. Give the function of each of the parts A to D in
Figure 1(b).
5. Explain the function of the national electricity grid.
B 6. Discuss why some areas of South Africa are not
connected to the national electricity grid.
(b) A 7. Give two possible impacts on local communities of
not having electricity.
Figure 1 (a) A coal power station and (b) the basic structure of a
coal power station

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 Unit

1 Safety practices

Key words Problems with parallel connections

The previous topic dealt with series and parallel circuits. The electrical circuits in
• overload – excess
houses are always connected in parallel to ensure that lights and plugs can be
electrical current in
operated independently. However, parallel connections are not without problems.
a circuit
Every branch in a circuit that is added in parallel receives the full 240 volts from the
• fuse – a safety power source. This means that the current from the source increases every time
device in a circuit another load is added to the circuit in parallel.
that melts and
It is therefore very easy to overload a circuit by requiring more current to flow than
breaks if the
which the circuit can safely handle. This can lead to a fire as the wires get too hot, or
current exceeds a
to a short circuit as the wires melt and break the circuit. It is very important not to
safe level
plug too many devices into a single power point.
• circuit breaker
– a safety device
that will open the
Circuit breakers, fuses and earth leakages
circuit if too much A number of devices can be used in electrical circuits to protect them against
current flows in possible problems.
the circuit
Fuses
• earth leakage – a
The circuits that are wired into a house by an
safety device used
electrician all start with wires coming in from power
to protect people
lines outside. These lines are connected to a fuse box. Figure 2 The circuit symbol for
from electric shock
Fuse boxes contain safety devices called fuses, which a fuse
by redirecting the
are designed to prevent too much electric current
current into the
from entering a house.
ground
A fuse is a safety device consisting of a thin strip of metal that melts and breaks if
the current exceeds a safe level (Figure 3). It stops higher than normal current flow
and so protects equipment and electronic components from overheating, which
could cause a fire.

Figure 3 Examples of typical fuses

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 Circuit breaker
A circuit breaker is a safety device, similar to a fuse, which is used to prevent too
much current from flowing in an electrical circuit. Modern mains circuit boards use
circuit breakers instead of fuses. The diagram in Figure 4 shows how most circuit
breakers work.

contacts
N S

electromagnet that
controls switch
current from
live wire power supply

spring
current into
home

Figure 4 Diagram of a circuit breaker

• The current from the power supply enters the circuit through the live wire
(see the arrow on the right).
• The current flows through a coil of wire with a soft iron core inside it.
• When current flows through the coil an electromagnet is formed. The strength
of the electromagnet is directly related to the amount of current flowing
through the coil.
• If the amount of current becomes too large, the electromagnet becomes
strong enough to attract the side of the contacts closest to it. As this happens,
the contacts are broken and the current stops flowing. On a circuit board in a
house, that circuit on the board will trip and the switch will turn off.
• Someone has to reset the circuit breaker before current can flow again. Figure 5 The circuit symbol
for earth leakage

Earth leakage
Circuit breakers and fuses are designed
to protect the power distribution system.
Earth leakages are safety devices installed
in mains circuit boards. They protect
people from electric shock by redirecting
the current in the circuit into the ground.
The amount of current entering a device
through an active wire should equal the
amount of current leaving the device
down the neutral wire. If there is a
difference between these amounts, it
means that current is flowing somewhere
else – usually where it should not be
going. In this case, the earth leakage path
will be activated and current will flow Figure 6 Diagram of the earth leakage system. The red wire is the power supply,
down the earth leakage wire away from the blue wire is the neutral wire and the yellow/green wire is the earth leakage wire
that is connected to every appliance and feeds into the ground
the circuit.

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 Activity 2 Identify electrical components in a circuit diagram
Refer to the diagram of a mains circuit board in Figure 7 and answer the questions that follow.
1. Identify which wire brings power into a house from the outside.
2. Where are the circuit breakers located in the diagram?
3. What is the function of a circuit breaker?
4. Why are there different current values written on each circuit breaker?
5. Give the symbol for an earth leakage.
6. How many earth leakages are shown on the diagram?
7. Explain why there is this number of earth leakages.
8. Discuss the purpose of an earth leakage device and how it functions.

Activity 3 Draw a plan for wiring a house

Use Figure 7 to help you draw the plan for wiring a three-roomed house. Each room must have its own light with a
switch. The house must have a mains switch and a fuse.
power supplied
by transformer circuit breakers
live fuse L 20A
watt L
15A N main circuit
hour 20A E

neutral meter N spare L

N lights
E

L
N
E
geyser
neutral
neutral connection to
ground at transformer
earth

mains board
earth leakage

Figure 7 Basic wiring for a house

Three-pin plugs
All appliances need a plug to connect them to the power mains. The most basic
plug has only a live wire and a neutral wire, but this is unsafe. Modern appliances
have a three-pin plug as a safety device which connects to the mains board via the
earth live wall plug socket. A three-pin plug is safer, as it has a live wire, a neutral wire and an
wire wire earth wire (Figure 8).
neutral fuse The earth wire in the cord of an appliance, such as a kettle, is connected to the
wire metal case of the appliance. The earth wire from the appliance is connected to an
earth cable in the ground through the wall plug. The earth cable has almost no
outer cable resistance. This means that if the metal casing of the appliance becomes electrically
insulation grip charged due to a fault, the charge is safely discharged into the ground. Without an
Figure 8 Wire connections in a earth wire the appliance would become charged with electricity when there is a
three-pin plug fault. Someone who then touches the appliance could be electrocuted.

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 Activity 4 Practise wiring a three-pin plug
You will need: plug • screwdriver • electric cable to practise connecting the wires,
as shown in Figure 8
1. Each member of the group should practise connecting the wires. First loosen
the screws in the plug so that the wires will fit in under them. Remove the
plastic coating from that portion of the wire that will be inserted under the
screw. When a wire has been placed under a screw, tighten the screw so that
the wire cannot pull out again. The other learners in your group will assess how
well you connected the plug.
2. Draw the plug with the wires connected. (Follow scientific drawing rules.)
3. Add a heading and labels to the drawing.

Illegal connections to Eskom mains supply

When an electrical cable is connected to an Eskom power supply without
permission it is an illegal connection. Illegal connections to a mains supply can
be very dangerous (see Figure 9) as wires are not connected properly and safely.
Because the voltage in the power lines is much higher than what is needed inside
a house, people can be electrocuted while making or using an illegal connection.
Also, these live wires with their very high voltage can come loose and be touched
by mistake. Illegal connections are regarded as energy theft, as the electricity used
is not being paid for.

Figure 9 Dangerous electrical connections

Key concepts
Circuit breakers, fuses and earth leakage systems are used as safety
devices in buildings that have electricity. Many appliances are connected
to the main circuit by a 3-pin plug that acts as a safety device. Illegal
connections are not only dangerous; they are also against the law.

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 Unit

2 Electricity generation

Key words Power stations

The electricity we use every day is produced
• power station – a
in power stations located in different
system used to
areas of South Africa. A power station is a
generate electricity
system that generates electricity from a fuel
• hydroelectric source. South Africa has coal, nuclear and
power – power hydropower stations. Coal power stations
generated by (as seen in Figure 10) produce about 90%
falling water of the electricity in South Africa. More than Figure 10 A coal power station
released from 90 million tonnes of coal are burnt every
dams directly onto year to produce electricity.
a turbine
In a coal power station, coal (figures 10 and 11) is used to heat water and convert it
• pumped storage into steam at high temperatures and pressures. At a temperature of about 500 °C,
– water that is the very hot steam is released from the furnace and shot onto the blades of a large
stored in large turbine through a nozzle. The force of the steam makes the wheel turn (see Figure 11).
reservoirs is
The turbine is like a windmill. The kinetic energy from the steam is changed into
released onto
mechanical energy as the wheel turns. The shaft of the turbine is connected to a
turbines in a lower
rotating magnet in a generator that produces the electricity.
reservoir and then
pumped back nozzle
blade
again for reuse high
velocity
• heliostats – giant steam
mirrors that focus
the sun’s energy in
order to heat water

wheel
shaft
Figure 11 A basic steam turbine
wheel

Alternative sources of energy to produce

electricity
Coal is not the only energy source that can be used to drive turbines and generators.
There are alternative sources of energy that can be used. These alternatives are
important, because coal is a non-renewable fossil fuel. This means the coal supply will
run out in the future if we don’t start reducing our use of it.

Wind
Wind can be an excellent renewable source of energy to produce electricity.
Advanced wind turbines are aerodynamic, with large blades to capture the wind
as efficiently as possible. An inflow of wind activates the blades and the rotor. This
Figure 12 Structure of a wind spins the main shaft, which is connected to a gearbox and a generator. The generator
turbine blade and its generator transforms the kinetic energy of the rotating blades into electrical energy (Figure 12).

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 Falling water
In a hydroelectric power station the water stored in dams is released directly
onto a turbine at the base of the dam wall (Figure 13). The turbine is connected to a
generator, and the energy of the falling water is converted into electricity.
A pumped storage plant releases water from a large dammed reservoir
into a reservoir situated lower down. The water is pumped back up into the Figure 13 Water energy is used
higher reservoir at night, when electricity is cheaper and is not being used to drive turbines to produce
that much. electricity at hydroelectric plants

Sun-heated steam
The sun’s energy can be used to produce steam that will drive a turbine and
so generate electricity. A sun-heated steam system uses flat, movable mirrors
called heliostats to focus the sun’s rays on a collector tower (Figure 14).
The focused rays heat water in the tower and the resulting steam is used to
power a turbine. Figure 14 A sun-heated
steam power plant
Nuclear fission air is forced back and
forth through turbine
Nuclear fission and nuclear power will be
discussed further in the next unit.

Sea waves incoming waves make water turbine

waves rise and fall in chamber and
Renewable energy can be produced generator
using ocean waves (see Figure 15).
The up and down motion of the
waves can be converted into
electrical energy. A wave power
device is used to convert the wave
motion into power.
Figure 15 A wave power plant

Activity 5 Research alternative sources of energy

1. Work in pairs and choose two of the alternative sources of energy discussed.
2. Each of you must research information on how these resources can be used to
drive generators for the national grid.
3. Evaluate and compare the chosen resources in terms of their sustainability
and environmental impact. Think about how long the resource can last,
as this affects its sustainability. High running costs and the availability of
building materials also influence the sustainability of a project. Consider the
environmental impact on land, people, animals and plants in the area when
considering a particular type of energy. For example, wind farms require a lot
of land, make a lot of noise and can harm birds.
4. Present your information in the form of a poster. Your teacher will provide you
with the assessment tool that will be used to mark your poster.

Key concepts
A power station is a system that generates electricity. Most power stations in
South Africa use coal to generate electricity. There are other energy sources
that can be used to turn turbines that generate electricity.

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 Unit

3 Nuclear power in South Africa

Key words Nuclear fission

Nuclear fission is the release of energy that occurs when a radioactive element
• nuclear fission
such as uranium is split into other atoms (see Figure 16). When a uranium atom is
– the release of
split, energy and high-speed neutrons are released. Large amounts of energy are
energy from a
released in this process. The heat that is released is used to produce electricity.
atom when its
nucleus is split neutron
and the atom (thermal)
divides into two
smaller atoms
• nuclear waste – 235
nuclear fuel that U
fission product 1: fission product 2 :
is no longer viable
light nucleus heavy nucleus
and needs to be
disposed of
,

Figure 16 Nuclear fission: a neutron strikes the uranium atom and causes it to split into two other
atoms, releasing energy and neutrons from its nucleus at the same time

Location of nuclear power plants

South Africa’s main coal reserves are concentrated in
Mpumalanga. Because moving coal or electricity over long
distances is inefficient, it was decided in the mid-1970s to
build a nuclear power station at Koeberg (Figure 17) near
Cape Town in the Western Cape. Koeberg is South Africa’s only
nuclear power station and has two nuclear reactors. Currently
Koeberg produces about 5% of the country’s electricity but
this is expected to increase to around 13% by 2030.
South Africa plans to increase the amount of nuclear power
it produces. Before construction can begin at a favourable
location, environmental impact assessment (EIA) studies
must be carried out. This is done to evaluate the positive or
Figure 17 The Koeberg power plant
negative impacts that the project could have on the natural
environment.

Operation of a nuclear power plant

A nuclear power station uses radioactive fuel, usually uranium-235, which is placed
in a reactor. Low-speed neutrons are fired into the uranium in the reactor. When
a uranium atom captures such a neutron under the right conditions, the atom
destabilises and splits into two smaller atoms. It also gives off two or three neutrons
of its own (Figure 16). This process releases enormous amounts of heat, as well as
radiation.

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 The splitting of uranium atoms is known as nuclear fission. The energy that is
released is used to heat water until it changes into steam. The steam drives a
turbine that is connected to a generator, which converts the mechanical energy
into electrical energy. The electricity is then fed into the national grid. Nuclear
power stations therefore operate similarly to coal power stations, the difference
being the kind of fuel used to heat the water.

Nuclear waste
The fuel used in nuclear power stations is still radioactive for hundreds of years
after it has been used. This spent nuclear fuel is called nuclear waste (Figure 18).
It is radioactive because the splitting of uranium atoms also releases gamma
radiation. These gamma rays are similar to x-rays and can cause burns, cancer and
genetic mutations in living things. They can only be slowed or stopped with thick
walls of concrete, lead, or packed dirt. It is therefore very important that nuclear
waste is disposed of correctly, so that it does not contaminate the environment or
harm people.
Low-level and intermediate-level nuclear waste in South Africa is transported Figure 18 Nuclear waste
on trucks to Vaalputs in the Northern Cape where it is buried underground. The
Northern Cape was selected as a safe area for disposal as it has a low annual rainfall.
The nuclear waste is buried in large concrete vaults underground. This is done to
ensure that no waste can leak out into the surrounding soil. Used fuel is also stored
at Koeberg.

Activity 6 Revise nuclear power

Read through the information in this unit and answer the questions that follow.
1. Explain why the Koeberg power plant was built in the Western Cape.
2. Which element is used in nuclear reactors?
3. Use a flowchart to show how a nuclear power plant produces electricity.
4. What health problems are associated with nuclear waste?
5. Explain how nuclear waste is handled in South Africa.

Key concepts
A nuclear power station uses radioactive fuel to produce electricity.
Nuclear waste remains radioactive for hundreds of years and therefore
needs to be disposed of properly.

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 Unit

4 National electricity grid

Key words National electricity grid

Power stations all over South Africa are linked by transmission lines and towers
• national
called pylons. The transmission lines transmit (send) electricity from one place
electricity grid
to another through thick aluminium and copper wires. The network of all the
– the network of
transmission lines in South Africa is called the national electricity grid (Figure 19).
all the electrical
Because the national grid is a network of interconnecting parts, a change in one
transmission lines
part can affect other parts of the grid.
in South Africa
• power surge
– a surplus of
thermal hydroelectric
electricity when power station power station
voltage is 110%
interconnection future interconnection
above the normal substation substation
voltage in the Makhado
nuclear future hydroelectric
power line power station power station
• blackout – short town
or long-term loss Pretoria
of electrical power
to an area Johannesburg

Kimberley
Bloemfontein Richard’s Bay

Durban

East London
Cape Town

Mossel Bay Port Elizabeth

Figure 19 The national electricity grid in South Africa, showing the main power stations

Power stations feed electrical energy into the national grid at high voltages. The
electricity in transmission cables needs to be at a high voltage and a low current. If
the current is too high, the cables could melt; if the voltage is too low, insufficient
energy would reach your home. Some 15% of energy is wasted due to heating of
transmission lines and transformers. For this reason, a high voltage is transmitted
to ensure that there is still enough electricity in the cables when it reaches its
destination.
Power stations produce electricity at about 20 000 volts. This is transformed to even
Figure 20 Warning sign of higher voltages by a step-up transformer. Power lines often carry a sign warning of
high voltage the high voltage (Figure 20).

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 Power surges and grid overload
The national grid is constantly connected to every part of the grid. If a problem occurs
in one part of the grid, the effects are felt all over the grid. The two main problems that
disrupt power supply in the national grid are power surges and grid overload.

Power surges
If there is a breakdown in one part of the grid, the electricity is redirected to the
other parts of the grid. For each lost branch of the grid, the remaining branches
take on more power and experience an excess of electricity. This results in what is
known as a power surge. A power surge occurs when voltage is 110% above the
normal voltage in the power line. This means that too much power is experienced
at one time. Power surges are either caused by a breakdown in one area of the grid,
or by power coming back on again after a power outage.
Many electrical appliances in the home can be damaged by power surges. Any
appliance or device that contains a microprocessor can be damaged by a spike
in electricity. Even a small change of 10 V can damage the digital components in
microprocessors. Microprocessors are found in TVs, cordless phones, computers,
microwaves, fridges and washing machines. Large power surges can cause immediate Figure 21 A circuit board
damage and melt wires and plastic in the electrical circuit of the appliance (Figure 21). damaged by a power surge

Grid overload
If too much electricity is used at the same time, there is an increased load on the
supply grid. When this happens, the national grid becomes overloaded from too
much electricity flowing through it. This can cause a breakdown in a substation. If
this happens the power supplied in that area will be cut off and a blackout (power
failure) will occur.
A blackout is the short or long-term loss of electrical power to an area. Depending
on the cause of the blackout, restoring power is often a difficult process. The power
station must first locate the problem and repair the damage. The location of the
electrical network and the extent of the damage also affects the time it takes to restore
the power.

Activity 7 Evaluate the national electricity grid

Write a one page essay and discuss the structure of the national electricity grid.
Indicate how the national electricity grid has improved the life of most people
living in South Africa. Include in your essay an explanation of how some people’s
lives have not been improved and why there are sometimes problems with the
national electricity supply.
Remember to have an introduction and conclusion to your essay and write the
body in paragraphs.

Key concepts
The national grid is a network of interacting parts. Power stations feed
electrical energy into the national grid at high voltage. Transformers step
down the voltage for use by consumers. Power surges and grid overload
can disrupt the power supply.

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 Topic 14 revision

Science language activity

Match the term in Column A with the most suitable definition in Column B.
Column A Column B
a ) Uranium A. A nuclear power station
b ) Fuse B. Electricity generated by falling water
c ) Earth leakage C. Splitting atoms by bombarding them with neutrons
d ) Power station D. A device to prevent too much current in a circuit
e ) Nuclear fission E. A device that can change voltage in cables
f ) Hydroelectricity F. A system that generates electricity
g ) Koeberg G. A wire connection in circuits to remove variations in current
h ) Transformer H. A radioactive element

Test yourself
1. Refer to the diagram below and answer the questions that follow.
3
4

2 5

Figure 22

a ) Label parts 2 to 5 in the diagram. (4)

b ) Explain the purpose of part 3. (3)
c ) Name two other safety devices that should be used in the home to
ensure the safe use of electricity. (2)
d ) Joseph connected five appliances to the same multi-plug and the power
tripped. Explain why this happened. (4)
2. Draw a flow diagram to explain how a coal power station works. (7)
3. Explain the difference between the two types of power plants that use falling
water. (4)
4. Explain why damage in one part of the national grid affects other parts
of the grid. (3)
5. Write down one similarity and one difference between a coal power station
and a nuclear power station. Do so in a table format. (4)
6. Explain the difference between a power surge and grid overload. (4)
Total: 35

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 Term 3: Energy and change
Topic

15 Cost of electrical power

Starting off
Without electricity, society would come to a stand-still.
Almost everything that we use depends on electricity
– cellphones, computers, the electrical components in
cars, our homes, trucks, aeroplanes and factories.
Electrical power is measured as the rate at which
electricity is supplied to an electrical device. It is
measured in watts or kilowatts. A powerful motor uses
electricity at a higher rate than a less powerful motor.
You will look at the power needs of different appliances
and devices. This knowledge helps us use energy
carefully and not wastefully.
Meters, accurate readings and bills are very important in
modern society.
Figure 1 shows an electricity meter reader at work.
It is important to measure how much electricity
consumers use.

Activity 1 Explore issues around

electricity usage
1. Discuss what the world would be like if we did not
have electricity.
2. Look at Figure 1. Now find an electricity meter and
work out from it what units the meter reader in this
picture is recording.
3. Why is it important for us all to use electricity wisely
and not wastefully? How many reasons can your
group come up with?
Figure 1 A meter reader at work. Keeping records of consumers’
electricity consumption is very important

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 Unit

1 The cost of power consumption

Key words Electrical power is the rate at which electricity

• power – the rate at is supplied
which work can be What do we mean if we say something is ‘powerful’? Imagine two cars driving up a
done hill. One is a very powerful car. It can go up the hill with no difficulty, and even go
• rate – speed or faster and faster up the hill. The other car is less powerful. It struggles to go up the
how quickly or hill and cannot get to the top as quickly as the more powerful car.
slowly something
takes to happen or
to be done
• appliance
– electrical
household machine
or device like a
fridge or stove,
floor polisher or
vacuum cleaner
• watts (W) – the
unit used to
measure how (a) (b)
much energy Figure 2 These two electrical motors do the same kind of work, but the more powerful one in (a) does
is required to it much faster and requires electricity to be supplied to it at a faster rate than the one in (b)
do work. In
electricity, it is Do you understand from Figure 2 what power is?
the rate at which Power is the rate at which work can be done. In the example above, both cars could
electrical energy is go up the hill. However, the rate at which the first car went up was much greater
transferred to an than the rate at which the second car went up. Also, powerful people can chop
appliance trees down very quickly. Less powerful people can also chop trees down, but it will
• power rating – take them a bit longer. We therefore say that the rate at which they do the work is
the amount of different.
electrical power
needed to operate
an appliance Activity 2 Explain the meaning of power
correctly
1. Use scientific language to explain the main difference between two machines
if they do the same work, but one is more powerful than the other.
2. What do we mean in science if we say one appliance is more powerful than
another?

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 Electrical power
Electrical power is the rate at which electricity is supplied to an electrical device or
appliance. A powerful motor can drive a machine fast and do heavy work. It needs
a lot of electrical power, therefore the rate at which electricity is transferred to the
motor is high.
A less powerful motor might be able to do the same work, just a bit slower.
It will not use electricity quite as quickly. Power is about the rate at which energy Figure 3 Power rating of a
is transferred. A bright light bulb will have electricity supplied to it faster than an kettle: 2 000 W
energy-saving light bulb.

Electrical power is measured in watts

Power has to do with how much time it takes to do certain work. We measure
electrical power in units called watts (W) or kilowatts (kW). This unit of
measurement indicates how much electrical energy is being used every second.
So, a 100 W light bulb will use a lot more energy each second than a 20 W light bulb
– it will use five times more energy than a 20 W light bulb.
If an appliance uses a lot of electricity, we measure the power consumption in
thousands of watts, or kilowatts (kW). Look at the power rating label from a kettle
in Figure 3. It indicates that this kettle is rated at 2 000 W, which is 2 kW.
i i

A very bright outside security light might be rated as a 500 W light. This will use five
times more electrical energy than a 100 W light bulb. It will also cost five times as Figure 4 Power rating of an
much as the 100 W light bulb for energy used. oil-filled radiator: 1 200 W

Activity 3 Investigate power ratings, convert W to kW

You will need: a collection of different light bulbs brought from home
1. a ) Bring a collection of different light bulbs to class. Be careful that they don’t
break.
b ) Examine their power ratings – you will find this information stamped on
the glass of the light bulb.
c ) Compare the power ratings of each light bulb in order from lowest rating
to highest rating.
2. This table below shows different ratings in watts. Convert each one to
kilowatts.

Power rating in Power rating in

watts (W) kilowatts (kW)
3 000
2 200 Did you know?
One watt of power
1 500
is equal to one joule
800 of energy supplied
12 000 in a second (1 watt =
1 joule/second)

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 Key word Consumers pay for the power they use
While a household appliance is working, it will be using electricity at a certain rate
• tariff – schedule (measured in watts). The power ratings in Figures 4 and 5 only tell you what the
of prices or fees appliance is rated at. To calculate how much that costs, we measure how many
used to charge for watts are used over a period of one hour. We call this a kilowatt hour, abbreviated
services as kWh. This means that if you run an appliance rated at 1 000 W or 1 kW for one
hour, then you will have used 1 kWh of electricity.

How much does electricity cost?

When your local municipality charges you for electricity that you use, they
measure the consumption in kilowatt hours. So if you were asked how many “units
of electricity” you use in a month, the question is how many kilowatt hours of
electricity you use.
The cost to the consumer is calculated in the following way:
cost = power rating of the appliance × the number of hours it was used × the unit
price of electricity
Municipalities use a sliding scale, or stepped tariff, as the ‘unit price of electricity’.
This means that the more electricity you use, the higher the rate that you will pay
per unit. This is to encourage consumers to save electricity.
Figure 5 shows a section of a municipal electricity account with the calculation of
the total cost that month.

Electricity VAT No.: 4710191182 Subtotal Total Amount

(Reading period – 2012/08/02 to 2012/09/20 = 49 days)

Energy meter readings and consumption: Meter no #00886314 start reading 93,334.000
and end reading 94,809.180 = 1,475.180 kWh – Estimated Reading
Energy meter readings and consumption: Meter no #00886144 start reading 97,348.000
and end reading 97,950.000 = 602.000 kWh – Estimated Reading
Daily average consumption 42.392 kWh
Charges for 2,077.181 kWh are based on a sliding scale for a 49-day period
Step 1 804.928 kWh @ R0.8952 (Billing period 2012/09)
Step 2 804.928 kWh @ R0.9113 1,887.08
Step 3 467.326 kWh @ R0.9265
Extended Social Package Grant 0.00
Service charge 253.41
Network charge 68.98
Demand side management levy 41.54
VAT: 14.00% 315.14 2,566.15

Figure 5 An example of an electricity account

Did you know?

The cost of a unit of electricity increases over time, as the cost of producing it increases.
You can find out what the current cost of a unit of electricity is by asking your local
municipality.

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 Activity 4 Calculate power ratings and electricity costs

1. Here is the table you filled in for Activity 3. In this table the correct kWh
values have been filled in for you. This time you need to calculate the cost
to run an appliance with the power ratings in Column 2. Work it out like this:
power rating in kW × number of hours × cost per kilowatt hour (kWh). Use a
unit of cost of R0,8952 per kWh. The first one has been done for you.

Power rating in watts Power rating in

Cost for one hour
(W) kilowatts (kW)
3 kW × 1 hour × R0,8952
3 000 3
= R2,6856
Fill in your
2 200 2,2
answers here

1 500 1,5

800 0,8

12 000 12

2. Look at Figure 5 again. The metering period covers 49 days (meter reading is
not always done exactly once a month).
a ) Write down the meter number.
b ) Write down the number of kWh recorded by the meter for that 49-day
period.
c ) The cost per kWh for Step 1 is given as R0,8952 (89,52 cents). What is the
cost per kWh for Step 2 and Step 3?
d ) Calculate the cost of electricity used for those 49 days like this:
Step 1: 804,928 kWh @ R0,8952 =
Step 2: 804,928 kWh @ R0,9113 =
Step 3: 476,326 kWh @ R0,9265 =
Total =

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 The energy consumption of different appliances varies
Every time you use an electrical appliance such as a stove, a hairdryer, a fridge, it
uses electricity. Some appliances use more than others. Appliances that produce
heat usually use more electricity than other appliances.
Appliances that do not use heat usually do not use as much energy as those
that produce heat, unless it is a very powerful appliance, for example, a very big
electrical motor.
Look at the examples of electrical appliances on this page. Read the power
requirements on the data labels of each of the appliances. Notice how their
wattage ratings differ significantly.

Figure 6 Electric drill: 380 watts Figure 7 Kettle: 2 000 watts

Figure 8 Energy-saving bulb: 11 watts Figure 9 TV: 85 watts

Did you know?

Normal bulbs are also Figure 10 Heater: 2 000 watts Figure 11 Normal light bulb: 60 watts
called incandescent
light bulbs.

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 Activity 5 Draw a bar graph of appliances and their energy
requirements
You learnt how to draw a bar graph in earlier grades. Use your knowledge to
complete this activity.
1. Draw a bar graph of the appliances in the photographs on the opposite page,
showing the type of appliance along the horizontal axis (x-axis) and the power
rating in watts on the vertical axis (y-axis).
2. Draw each bar in order from highest wattage rating on the left to the lowest
wattage rating on the right.
3. What do you notice about the types of appliances on the left of your bar graph
compared to the types of appliances on the right?
4. What does this say to you about using energy sparingly?
5. Look closely at the label of the energy-saving light bulb in Figure 8. Do you
notice that the 11 W energy-saving bulb produces the same amount of light
as a 60 W normal light bulb shown in Figure 11? What is the difference in their
power ratings? What does this tell you about using energy carefully?
6. How much money would it cost to use the kettle in Figure 7 continuously
for two hours? (Note: Assume the unit cost of electricity is R0,8952 per kilowatt
hour (kWh). Remember that the cost = power rating in kW × number of
hours × unit price of electricity in KWh.)

Careers in the energy sector

There are many varied and interesting careers in the energy sector. Examples
include electricians, artisans, computer and information specialists, electrical
engineers, management specialists, planners, solar water-heating contractors, and
many more.

Figure 12 There are many interesting and challenging careers in the energy sector

Activity 6 Discuss careers in the energy sector

1. Talk in class groups about the different careers in the energy sector that you
know about.
2. Discuss what those careers involve and what you need to study to follow those
careers.

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 Key words Alternative appliances or systems
Read the following points, and think about what you have read.
• infrastructure
– physical items High-wattage appliances such as heaters and stoves use a lot of electricity.
such as roads, • Leaving appliances on all the time also uses a lot of electricity.
drains, water • The more we use electrical appliances, the more electricity we use.
supply, electricity
• The more electricity we use, the more coal we burn.
power lines and
power stations • The more coal we burn, the more air pollution we cause.
that a modern • The more air pollution there is, the more unhealthy the environment we live in.
country or • Also, the more coal we burn, the more money we need to spend to build new
community needs power stations, putting up power lines and other new equipment.
• electrical Do you agree, looking at these cause-and-effect statements, that we must find
infrastructure ways to use energy more carefully and sparingly?
– infrastructure
used to generate Ways to use energy more carefully
electricity and We can save energy, thereby reducing pollution and having healthier
distribute it along environments. It also means saving on the expenses of creating new electrical
power lines to infrastructure on an on-going basis.
users
Each and every one of us can do this by using low-wattage appliances such as
• solar – to do with energy-saving light bulbs, by having solar-panel water heaters instead of electric
the sun geysers, by drying washing in the sun rather than in a tumble dryer and by just
switching appliances off when we aren’t using them.

Solar water heaters

The Sun is our most important source of energy. The Sun provides Earth with a
continuous supply of energy and is a renewable source of energy. We can use that
energy cleverly to heat water, for example by using solar water heaters that collect
energy using solar panels on roofs.
Figure 13 shows solar panels that have been
installed on low-cost houses. They are part of the
government’s attempts to increase the use of solar
energy and to reduce poorer people’s costs to heat
water.
Solar panels work by collecting the heat energy of
the Sun. The sun rays heat some water or a special
liquid inside the solar panel. From here, pipes take
the heated water or liquid into and through the
geyser. Cold water is continuously pushed on and
out into the solar panel, where it gets heated. This
is a convection cycle that continues heating up
the water in the geyser. The heating cycle stops
when the sun sets at night, and starts again the
following morning when the sun rises.
Figure 13 Solar panels being used to supply energy for use in
the home

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 Activity 7 Interpret a solar water heater diagram

Figure 14 is a labelled diagram of how a simple solar water heater works.

sun
heated water
goes to hot tap

2. hot water
rises into tank

cold water inlet

3. cool water
sinks to bottom
of solar collector
1. solar energy collector

Figure 14 How a simple solar water heater works

1. Write down the three numbered labels.

Did you know?
2. Choose two of these words (radiation, conduction, convection) to help you To save energy, you
write a sentence for each label explaining how energy is being transferred. could insulate your
geyser. If you insulate
3. Explain why you think it is a good thing if the government promotes the use of
your house and stop
solar water heaters.
cold air coming in, you
4. Write down ways in which you could save electrical energy. would need to use the
heater less.

Key concepts
Electrical power is measured in watts (W) or kilowatts (kW).
Consumers pay for the quantity of power that they use.
Different appliances use different amounts of energy.
There are alternative systems of generating energy such as heating panels.

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 Practical Task
Compare the cost of running different
household appliances for a month
Background information
You would like to reduce the monthly household expenses for your family. You
have decided that it would be very useful for your family if you could find out how
much electricity each appliance in your home uses and how you could possibly
reduce electricity usage.

Figure 15 Boy climbing into ceiling to check what the power rating of the electric geyser is

Do research and record the following information

1. Make a list of all the electrical appliances in your home or school. Don’t
forget the geyser, which is usually inside the ceiling, as this is one of the
highest users of electricity in any home. (6)
2. Do research on each appliance and record the following information.
• power rating
• how often it is used
• how many hours a day it runs
• how important or necessary it is to have and use that appliance
• whether this is an energy-efficient appliance. (10)

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 3. Now select two appliances that you will compare over the
next month. (2)

Record and interpret the data

4. Calculate the approximate quantity of kWh that each of your two selected
appliances uses in a month. Hint: Calculate a monthly average over a year,
because a heater might be used a lot in winter and not at all in summer. (4)
5. What do your answers in Question 2 tell you about energy wastage
and energy efficiency in these two appliances? (4)
6. Are there any ways that you can improve the energy efficiency of
your appliances? (4)

Draw conclusions
7. For each of your two appliances, decide whether:
• you should continue using it in the way that you do or change it
• you need to use another appliance to do the same job
• you need to improve the appliance itself. (6)

Evaluate your investigation

8. Was the method that you followed for this investigation effective?
Did it get you the data you needed to make a good decision? Explain your
answer.
9. Is there anything that you could have done differently in this
investigation? (4)

[40 ÷ 2 = 20]
Total: 40

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 Topic 15 revision

Science language activity

Match the correct definition in Column B with the word in the Column A.
Column A Column B
a ) Power A. A schedule of prices or fees used to charge for services
b ) Watt B. An electrical machine or device like a fridge or stove, floor polisher
or vacuum cleaner
c ) Appliance C. The amount of electrical power needed to operate an appliance
correctly
d ) Power rating D. The rate at which work can be done
e ) Tariff E. The rate at which electrical energy is transferred

Test yourself
1. Write down a definition of electrical power and give real-life examples to
illustrate this. (4)
2. a ) Complete this table by filling in the power rating
(in watts or kilowatts) for each appliance. (5)
Appliance Expected power rating
electric geyser
energy-saving light bulb
electric drill
normal (incandescent) light bulb
kettle
b ) Draw a bar graph to represent the data in the table. (Use the higher
figures in each case.) (5)
3. The information on this packet tells an important story. Explain the importance
in terms of energy saving and the environment. (3)
4. a ) Municipalities charge electricity consumers for the units they use.
What do they mean by ‘units’? (2)
b ) Explain what a stepped tariff is that municipalities use when they Figure 16 Energy saver packet
calculate electricity bills. (2)
5. Explain how a solar water heater works. Use two of the words radiation,
conduction, convection in your explanation. (4)
Total: 25

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 Term 3: Practice test

1. Choose the correct answer and write down the number and the letter of your choice.
a ) Which of the following is an example of a contact force?
A Frictional force
B Gravitational force
C Electrostatic force
D Magnetic force (1)
b ) What is a simple device that opens and closes a circuit?
A Discharge
B Cell
C Ammeter
D Switch (1)
c ) What is the difference between a series circuit and a parallel circuit?
A A series circuit has one path; and a parallel circuit splits into branches.
B A series circuit must have a fuse.
C A parallel circuit must have a circuit breaker.
D A parallel circuit has one path; and a series circuit splits into branches. (1)
d ) Electricity generation by falling water is called:
A Nuclear power
B Hydroelectricity
C Transformer
D Earth leakage (1)
e ) Which of the following home appliances uses more power than the others?
A Television
B Very loud radio
C Geyser
D Fridge (1)

2. Give the correct scientific term for:

a ) a non-contact force (1)
b ) the rate at which electrical energy is transferred to an appliance (1)
c ) a safety device in a circuit that melts and breaks if the current exceeds a safe level (1)
d ) the flow of electric charge in a circuit (1)
e ) a component that opposes the flow of current in an electrical circuit (1)

3. Explain the difference between contact and non-contact forces. (2)

4. Differentiate between mass and weight. (4)
5. Apply your knowledge to explain how lightning occurs. (2)

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 6. State which type of contact or non-contact force is represented in the following photos. (4)
a) b) c)

d)

7. Look at the circuit diagrams A, B and C and use your knowledge of circuits to answer the questions that follow.

A B C

4
1 2 3

Identify the circuit with:

a ) cells connected in series. (1)
b ) two bulbs connected in series. (1)
c ) two bulbs connected in parallel. (1)
d ) What will happen to bulb 2 if bulb 3 is removed? (1)
e ) What will happen to bulb 4 if bulb 5 is removed? (1)

8. Discuss the difference between a parallel and series circuit by referring to the voltage and current in the
series circuit. (4)
9. Discuss why electrical circuits in houses are usually parallel circuits. (2)
10. Draw a circuit diagram that shows two cells connected in series (with a voltmeter across them), and two
bulbs in parallel (with a switch for each bulb). (4)
11. Calculate how much you will pay in electricity per month for a geyser of 4 500 watts that runs for
24 hours a day, if the municipal charges are fixed at R0,76 per kWh. Show your working. (3)
Total: 40

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 Term 4: Planet Earth and beyond
Topic

16 Earth as a system

Starting off
Earth is a system with four main parts: the air, rock
(A) and soil, water and living things. These parts are called
spheres, and they all interact with each other in many
different ways on or close to the surface of Earth. These
interactions among all the parts are needed for Earth’s
(B) system to work.
(D)

Activity 1 Identify the four spheres of

Earth’s system
Look at Figure 1, the Drakensberg, which shows four
parts of Earth – rock and soil, water, air and life.
(C)
1. Identify the natural features in the photo (labelled
A to E). Then state which one of the four spheres of
Earth each of these is part of.
2. What form of life is shown in the picture?
(E) 3. How do all the parts affect each other? Give some
examples.
4. Would life on Earth be possible without the air,
water, soil and rock? Explain your answer.
5. What is a system?
6. Explain why the rock and soil, the air, the water and
the living things form a system.
Figure 1 The Drakensberg

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 Unit

1 Spheres of Earth

Key words The four spheres of Earth’s system

The Earth can be understood as a system. A system is made of many parts. The
• spheres of Earth
parts are all different, but they are interconnected and interact with each other.
– one of four
Each part is essential for the whole system to function properly.
interacting parts of
Earth A bicycle is a good
example of a system.
• atmosphere – the
It has parts like
sphere of Earth
wheels, pedals,
that is a layer of
handlebars, gears and
gases around Earth
brakes. These parts are
• hydrosphere – the all connected to each
sphere of Earth other. Each part is
that consists of needed for the bicycle
water in all its to function properly –
forms to move, to change
• biosphere – the direction and to stop.
sphere of Earth The parts of Earth’s
that consists of all system are called
living things and Figure 2 A bicycle is an example of a system spheres. Earth has
their interactions four spheres, as shown
with the rocks, soil, in Figure 3.
air and water of
Earth
• lithosphere – the
sphere of Earth
that consists of
solid rock and soil

(a) (b)
AIR: the atmosphere – a layer of gases WATER: the hydrosphere – water in all its
around Earth forms on Earth’s surface, underground, in the
air and in the sea

(c) (d)
LIFE: the biosphere – all living plants and ROCK AND SOIL: the lithosphere – the solid
animals and their interactions with the rocks rock and soil of the land and the sea floor
and soil, air and water of the other three
spheres
Figure 3 The four spheres of Earth

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 All the spheres of Earth’s system interact with each other, as you can see in Figure 4.

atmosphere lithosphere
biosphere

hydrosphere

Figure 4 How Earth’s spheres interact with each other

Figure 4 shows that there are areas of interaction between the lithosphere,
hydrosphere and atmosphere.
Examples of interactions between these spheres include:
• The lithosphere and the hydrosphere interact when water erodes soil and
carries it down to the sea where it forms sedimentary rock.
• The atmosphere interacts with the hydrosphere when water evaporates from
the oceans, forming water vapour, a gas in the atmosphere.
• The atmosphere interacts with the lithosphere when volcanoes erupt,
shooting gases and dust into the air.
Figure 4 also shows that the biosphere only exists where all three of the other
spheres interact together. Life on Earth needs energy from the sun as well as
interactions with the lithosphere, the atmosphere and hydrosphere to survive.
Photosynthesis is one of many good examples of how all four of Earth’s spheres
need to interact in order for Earth’s system to work properly as a whole.
In photosynthesis, plants form food in their leaves using light energy from the sun,
carbon dioxide, and water which their roots take up from the soil. As part of the
process, the plant gives off oxygen. The spheres interact as follows:
• carbon dioxide and oxygen are gases in the atmosphere
• water in the soil is part of the hydrosphere
• soil is made of broken-down rock, and is part of the lithosphere
• the plant is part of the biosphere.
All four of Earth’s spheres only interact where life is found. Where there is no life,
only three or fewer of the spheres can interact (in other words, where there is no
life there is no biosphere). Life is found on or close to the surface of Earth, so this is
where all four spheres of Earth interact.

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 The atmosphere extends for hundreds of kilometres
from Earth, but life only exists in its lowest layers,
mostly in the lowest thirty metres. Higher up it is
cold, and there is little oxygen. Most birds live within
about two hundred metres of the surface, which is
about as high as a fifty-storey building, although some
occasionally fly up to greater heights. They all spend
time on the surface of Earth.

Figure 5 Ruppell’s griffon vultures sometimes rise up as high as

11 000 m to get a good view of possible food supplies; namely
dead animals on the ground

In the oceans, plants can only survive in the upper

layers of water where there is light from the sun for
photosynthesis. Many animals that depend directly
on these plants for food live here too, but others
live at greater depths, on the floor of the ocean (the
lithosphere) where it is darker and colder. Some even
survive in deep ocean trenches. The deepest of these,
the Mariana trench, is almost eleven thousand metres
deep.

Figure 6 Life on the sea floor

The lithosphere has an average thickness of about

fifty-five kilometres. Nothing much lives far beneath
the surface. Most life lives within three meters of the
surface, especially in the soil. There is some life below
this, such as in caves deep underground. All caves are
dark, but have openings to the surface, near which
plants might grow, and which let in air and water.
Some animals leave the cave to look for food; others
rely on food that is washed or blown into the cave, or
prey on other animals that live there.

Figure 7 Many animals that live in caves are blind and

colourless because they are always in the dark

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 Activity 2 Read and write about Earth’s four parts (spheres)
Look at Figure 8 and answer the questions that follow.

1. Name the spheres indicated by the letters A, B and C.

6 000 m

3 000 m
C

sea level
200 m B depth to which
A sunlight penetrates
4 000 m the water

11 000 m

Figure 8 Earth’s four parts

2. Name the sphere where A, B and C interact and support life.

3. Use the information on the y-axis in Figure 8 to find out:
a ) the height above sea level of the highest soaring bird in the figure
b ) the depth of the ocean trench
c ) the depth in the ocean below which no plants can grow
d ) what limits the depth to which plants can grow
e ) which sphere forms the bottom of the ocean.
4. Read the information below. Identify the interactions between Earth’s spheres
that are described in each sentence. In your notebook, write your own ideas
down next to each sentence.
a ) Caves form in limestone rock when the rock is dissolved by rain water that
has become a weak acid.
b ) Rain water becomes a weak acid when it absorbs carbon dioxide from the
air while falling through it.
c ) As caves form, large spaces develop underground.
d ) Water often flows as an underground river along the bottom of the cave.
e ) Different animals live in the cave, as well as in lakes and rivers within it.
f ) Plants grow only in the light near the cave entrance.

Key concepts
Earth is a system with four important parts, called spheres.
These spheres all interact with each other on or near the surface of Earth.

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 Topic 16 revision

Science language activity

Use the information provided below to match the words and their definitions in the table.
Hydra comes from the Greek word for water.
Bio comes for the Greek word for life.
Litho comes from the Greek word for stone.
Atmos comes from the Greek word for vapour (gas).
The suffix ‘-ology’ indicates that the word is about an area of study.
1. Match the words in Column A with the descriptions in Column B.
Column A Column B
a ) Hydrosphere A. Part of Earth that consists of all living things, and their
interactions with rocks, soil, air and water
b ) Lithology B. The branch of science that studies life, including what living
things need to survive, what makes life possible, how living
things evolve and change, and how living things interact with
one another
c ) Atmosphere C. Part of Earth that consists of solid rock, stones and soil
d ) Lithosphere D. Part of Earth that consists of water in all its forms
e ) Biology E. The branch of science that studies the distribution, quality and
movement of water on Earth
f ) Hydrology F. The branch of geology that studies the origin, formation, mineral
composition and classification of rocks
g ) Biosphere G. Part of Earth that consists of a layer of gases around Earth’s
surface

Test yourself
1. Copy the diagram in Figure 9 into your workbook. (3)
2. Name each sphere. (4)
3. Use double-ended arrows to show the interactions between the spheres. One has
been done as an example. (5)
4. Give an example of an interaction between each of the spheres joined by a double-
ended arrow in your diagram. (2 3 6 5 12) solar energy

5. What does this diagram tell you about Earth as a

system? Give three important points. (2 3 3 5 6)
Total: 30

Figure 9 Diagram of Earth’s spheres

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 Term 4: Planet Earth and beyond
Topic

17 Lithosphere

M OC IC C Starting off
Earth has four main layers, which you can see in Figure 1.
The outermost layer is the thin crust we walk on. At
the centre of Earth is the core, which has two parts, an
inner and outer core. Between the core and the crust is
the mantle. The crust has many minerals in it, formed
by elements and compounds. The rocks of the crust
continuously form, change and re-form as part of a
process known as the rock cycle. In this topic you will
find out more about the layers of Earth, its minerals and
rocks, and about the rock cycle.

Activity 1 Find out what you know

about Earth’s layers
Read the information above and look at Figure 1.
1. Complete the labels for each layer of Earth shown
on the diagram.
C____
M_____
Figure 1 The layers of Earth
I____C____
0____C____
2. Name the three types of rock in Earth’s crust, and
give an example of each.
3. Give an example of a mineral found in Earth’s crust.

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 Unit

1 Lithosphere

Key words Layers of Earth

From space, we see planet Earth as a huge round ball.
• concentric
We can see the surface of the ball, but not what is
– having the
inside it. In this way, the Earth is a bit like the apple in
same centre as
Figure 2.
something else
In order to see what is inside the apple, you have to
• section drawing
cut into it. In Figure 3 you can see an apple cut in half
– a drawing that
from top to bottom.
shows what
something would
look like if cut in
half
• crust – the
Figure 2 You can see the
outermost layer of
surface of the apple – its skin
Earth
– but not what is inside
• mantle – the layer
of Earth between
the outer core and
the crust
• outer core – the
liquid layer of
Earth surrounding
the inner core
• inner core – the
innermost solid
layer of Earth
• magma – rock
that is so hot it has
melted
• lithosphere – the
part of Earth made
up of soil and solid
rock; the crust and
outer layer of the Figure 3 Layers inside an apple
mantle The apple in Figure 3 shows that there are three main parts to the apple: the outer
skin, the middle fleshy part and the inner core, where the seeds are. These parts are
like ‘layers’ in the apple. The centre of the apple is in the middle of the core. This is
the centre for each layer. Because each layer has the same centre, we say that the
layers are concentric.
If you could cut Earth in half in the same way as you can cut an apple, you would
see that it too has several layers. Because Earth is a sphere, it looks the same inside
whether you cut it in half along the equator or from pole to pole. A drawing of the
inside of Earth cut in half is called a section drawing.

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 Figure 4 shows the four main layers of Earth. From the continental crust
outermost layer to the innermost layer they are the 35 km

crust, mantle, outer core and inner core. The centre of

ocean crust
Earth is the centre of each layer, so Earth’s layers are also 5 km
concentric.
Earth’s layers are all different thicknesses, and differ from
each other in the following ways:
• The crust: This is the thinnest layer, made of solid
rock and soil. The land and the sea floor under the inner core outer core mantle
water are part of the crust. Wherever you walk on 1 100 km 2 400 km 2 900 km
Earth, you are walking on the crust.
• The mantle: This is the thickest layer of Earth. Rock
in the innermost part, closest to the core, is so hot it
has partially melted into a thick, sticky liquid called
magma. Magma can flow very slowly (a bit like tar
on a hot day). The outermost part of the mantle,
closest to the crust, is cooler, and here the rock is
solid.
• The core: This is the innermost part of Earth, Figure 4 Section view of the four main layers of Earth
consisting mainly of iron. It has two parts:
— the outer core: this is liquid and very hot
— the inner core: this is solid and the hottest layer,
with temperatures as high as the Sun’s surface.

Layers in the lithosphere

The word litho comes from the Greek word for rock. The
lithosphere is the crust together with the outermost
part of the mantle. The lithosphere therefore consists crust
of three parts: the soil of the crust, the rock of the crust, lithosphere
upper mantle
and the rock of the upper part of the mantle. You can lower mantle
see the lithosphere in the enlarged view of a wedge of outer core
the Earth in Figure 5. inner core

Figure 5 Earth’s lithosphere is made of the crust and

upper mantle

Activity 2 Draw, label and annotate a diagram of Earth’s layers

1. Draw a neat diagram showing the layers of Earth. Include both layers of the
mantle. Label all the layers clearly. Also label the lithosphere.
2. Annotate your diagram. In other words, use the information in the text above
to add some of the important information about each layer in the form of
extended labels on your diagram.

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 Key words Minerals in the crust of Earth
In Grade 7 and 8, and this year in term 2, you learnt about elements and
• element – a compounds. You found out that an element is a material that consists of atoms
material that of only one kind, such as hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), carbon (C), sodium (Na) and
consists of atoms chlorine (Cl). A compound is a material that consists of atoms of two or more
of only one kind different elements chemically bonded together, such as water (H2O), carbon
• compound – a dioxide (CO2) and salt (NaCl).
material that Elements and compounds made of two or more elements occur in all of Earth’s
consists of atoms spheres. When they occur naturally in Earth’s crust they are called minerals. All
of two or more minerals have names. Each mineral also has a chemical formula that shows which
different elements elements are found in it.
chemically
bonded together Just eight elements make up almost all of the elements found in Earth’s crust, as
shown in the table below.
• minerals –
Table 1 The main elements in Earth’s crust
elements or
compounds of Element name Symbol Percentage by weight of Earth’s crust
elements that
Oxygen O 47
occur naturally in
Earth’s crust Silicon Is 28
Aluminium Al 8
Iron Fe 5
Calcium Ca 3,5
Sodium Na 3
Potassium K 2,5
Magnesium Mg 2
Total 99
Source: <http://www.rsc.org/education/teachers/resources/jesei/minerals/students.htm>

Some of the metal elements occur as minerals in the crust in their pure form. Two
examples are gold (Au) and copper (Cu). Pure gold and copper can be seen in
Figures 6 and 7. Most elements, however, are found as compounds. Haematite, or
iron oxide, (Fe203) is an example of a compound mineral that has a metal as one
of its elements (Figure 8). Gold and copper also occur in compounds. Gold occurs
in the mineral calverite (AuTe3), and copper occurs as part of a compound in the
mineral malachite (Cu2CO3OH2). Minerals such as these are valuable resources.

Figure 6 The mineral gold Figure 7 The mineral copper Figure 8 The mineral haematite

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 As well as being important resources, minerals are the building blocks
of rocks. All rocks are made of a number of minerals. Each mineral that
builds rock is a compound of elements. Let’s look at a very common rock
– granite – as an example.
Figure 9 shows a piece of granite. You can see the three different
minerals that make up granite clearly. They are quartz, mica and feldspar.
Quartz is made up of the elements silicon and oxygen, combined in the
compound silicon dioxide (SiO2). Feldspar and mica are also compounds
of silica and oxygen, but have some other elements as well: mica Figure 9 Granite is made of three minerals
contains iron, aluminium and potassium, while feldspar contains some
calcium and aluminium.

From rock to soil

When rocks break down to form soil, the elements that the rocks are made of form
part of the soil. They provide nutrients for plants, and for the animals and humans
that eat the plants.

Activity 3 Research and read about the elements and

compounds we get from the crust
Read the information on elements and compounds found in Earth’s crust.
1. Make a list of the elements that make up 99% of the crust.
2. Make a list of the minerals mentioned in the text that are compounds of
metals, and state which valuable resource we get from each.
3. Give two ways in which minerals in the crust are important other than for the
extraction of metals.
4. For the minerals in the table below, do some research to find out:
a ) the names of the elements in each mineral
b ) why the mineral is useful.

Mineral Elements
Galena PbS
Pyrite FeS2
Bauxite Al2O3
Halite NaCl
Fluorite CaF2

Key concepts
Earth is made up of different layers. The main layers are the crust, the mantle,
the inner core and the outer core. The upper mantle and the rock and soil
of the crust form the lithosphere. Various elements and combinations
of elements (compounds) form minerals in the crust. Some of these are
valuable resources, and some are important for forming the rock of the crust.

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 Unit

2 The rock cycle

The rocks of Earth’s crust do not stay the same forever. Rocks form, are broken
Key words
down and re-form over long periods of time in a natural and continuous process,
• rock cycle – called the rock cycle. In this process, three different types of rock are formed.
the natural,
continuous
process in which
Three types of rock
rocks form, are The three types of rock on Earth are: igneous rocks, metamorphic rocks and
broken down and sedimentary rocks which you have learnt about in earlier grades. The three types
re-form over long of rock form in different ways and in different steps in the rock cycle.
periods of time
Steps in the rock cycle
• igneous rocks –
rocks that form Step 1: Igneous rock forms from magma that cools and hardens
when magma The word igneous comes from the Latin word for ‘fire’. Igneous rock has this name
cools down because it forms from hot magma. Refer to the diagram in Figure 10 as you read
about the steps in the rock cycle in which igneous rock forms:
• metamorphic
rocks – rocks that a ) Molten rock from the mantle, called magma, pushes up through the crust.
form when the b ) Pools of magma cool down slowly within the crust to form igneous rock, such
chemical structure as granite.
of existing rocks is
changed by heat c ) Some magma escapes to the surface as a volcano.
• sedimentary d ) This magma cools down rapidly to form igneous rocks, such as pumice stone.
rocks – rocks
that form from
particles of rock
deposited in layers igneous
lava
sedimentary
• granite – an
igneous rock metamorphic
formed from a
large mass of
magma that sediments
cooled slowly
deep inside Earth magma
• pumice stone – magma pool
an igneous rock
that formed as
magma emerged
and cooled
quickly on the Figure 10 Igneous rock forms from magma that cools and hardens
surface of Earth

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 Figure 11 Pumice stone forms on the surface of Earth

Granite and pumice stone are both types of igneous rock as they both form from
magma. However, as you read on page 212 granite forms inside Earth’s crust, and
pumice forms on the surface. This leads to differences between the two.
Rocks, like granite, that cool inside Earth’s crust, cool slowly. As a result, the minerals
they are made of have time to grow into large crystals that can be seen quite easily
(as you saw in Figure 9).
Rocks, like pumice stone, that cool on Earth’s surface cool quickly. As a result, they
harden fast, and the minerals in them do not have time to grow large crystals.
Minerals in rock like pumice stone cannot be seen without the use of a magnifying
glass, or even a microscope. In rock like pumice, gas gets trapped in bubbles inside
the magma. When the rock cools the gas escapes, leaving spaces in the rock, as
shown in Figure 11. Pumice stone is therefore very light. You might have a piece of
pumice stone at home. Many people rub the dry skin on their feet with this pale
grey stone to make their feet feel smooth.

Activity 4 Draw and label a diagram to show how igneous

rock forms
1. Copy the diagram in Figure 10 into your workbook.
2. Add the letters (a), (b), (c) and (d) as labels in your diagram to show the
processes discussed above in Step 1 of the rock cycle.
3. Indicate with arrows and labels where in Earth’s layers granite forms and where
pumice stone forms.

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 Key words Step 2: Sedimentary rock forms from particles of weathered rock
deposited in layers
• weathering – the
Sedimentary rock forms from pieces of broken rock that have been deposited in
process during
layers. You can see clear layers of sedimentary rock in Figure 13.
which rock is
broken up into Read the steps below to find out about the formation of sedimentary rocks.
smaller particles a ) Rocks on the surface of Earth are weathered by heat, cold, wind and water to
• erosion – the form smaller particles. This process is called weathering. Weathering happens
process during in different ways, including the following:
which weathered • Chemicals in the water and air react with elements in the rock, weakening
material is carried the rock and causing it to crumble.
away by wind and • Water in cracks in rocks freezes and expands, forcing the cracks to widen.
water Water fills the enlarged cracks, and when it freezes and expands again, it
• sediments – widens the crack further. Eventually pieces of rock break off along the cracks.
particles of rock b ) Wind and water transport the weathered particles to flood plains and the sea
that have been by erosion.
deposited by wind
and water When wind and water flow over the surface of Earth, they pick up pieces of
weathered rock and carry these away with them. This process is called erosion.
• shale – a Rivers transport the eroded material to their floodplains near the sea, and into
sedimentary rock the water itself when they flow into the sea.
formed from fine
particles of clay c ) The particles are laid down as sediments.

1. Rock is weathered into smaller pieces

2. Wind and water transport the weathered

rock to floodplains and the sea
3. The particles are laid down as
sediments on land and water

4. The sediments are covered by more layers

Figure 12 Sedimentary rock

is made in layers
Figure 13 Diagram showing how sedimentary rock forms

When a river reaches low-lying land or enters the sea, the flow slows down
and the river deposits the particles of rock that it was carrying. The deposited
particles are called sediments.
d ) The sediments are covered by more layers.
Over time, the sediments that were laid down first are covered by layers of
newer sediments.
e ) The pressure of many layers turns the lower layers into sedimentary rock, such
as sandstone.

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 Each layer of sediment is very heavy and therefore presses down on the layers
beneath it. Over time, the lowest sediments are squashed together, or compacted.
They harden to form sedimentary rock. Depending on the kind of particles of
weathered rock that has formed it, sedimentary rock has different names; for
example, rock that has formed from grains of sand is called sandstone. You can
see the original grains of sand in a piece of sandstone, such as the example in
Figure 14. Rock that has formed from finer particles of clay is called shale, as shown
in Figure 15.

Figure 14 Sandstone is a sedimentary rock formed from sand Figure 15 Shale is a sedimentary rock made from grains of clay

Activity 5 Make a model of sedimentary rock layers

You will need: at least two slices of white bread and two slices of brown bread
• at least one sandwich filling, such as peanut butter, jam, cheese,
lettuce or tomato
1. Place a piece of brown bread on a clean surface.
2. Cover it with a layer of filling.
3. Place a piece of white bread on top of your filling.
4. Continue with more bread slices and more fillings until you have used all the
slices of bread.
5. Answer these questions:
a ) How many layers do you have in your model of sedimentary rock?
b ) What do the bread slices and fillings represent?
c ) Are all the layers the same? What are some of the similarities and
differences between them?
d ) Which slice represents the oldest layer and which slice represents the
youngest layer in your model?

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 Key words
• slate – a
metamorphic rock
formed from shale
• marble – a
metamorphic
rock formed from
limestone Figure 16 Metamorphic rock Figure 17 Slate is a Figure 18 This statue
with bands of different minerals metamorphic rock that forms has been carved from
• limestone – a
from shale marble, which is a
sedimentary rock
metamorphic rock
formed from
the bones and
shells of small sea Step 3: Heat causes rocks to change into metamorphic rock
creatures In Figure 10 you saw that hot magma sometimes moves up through Earth’s crust.
This means that it pushes through existing rock. The heat from the magma heats
the rock that it is in contact with, and causes the chemical structure of the rock
to change. A new type of rock forms. This rock is called metamorphic rock, from
the Greek word for ‘change’. Igneous and sedimentary rock can both change
into metamorphic rock. Existing metamorphic rock can also change if it is again
subjected to heat.
There are often bands of different minerals in a metamorphic rock. These bands
form when heat causes the minerals in the rock to melt and then rearrange
themselves within the rock. Figure 16 shows bands of light and dark minerals in a
rock.
Slate is a metamorphic rock that forms from shale. It is harder than shale but can
be split quite easily into layers, as shown in Figure 17. Many kinds of metamorphic
rock have this characteristic. Marble is a metamorphic rock that forms from
limestone.

Step 4: Some rock is pushed below the crust, melts, and

becomes magma again
In some places on Earth, large pieces of Earth’s crust are pushed downwards,
back into the mantle. Higher temperatures within the mantle melt the rock, and it
becomes magma again.
At the end of Step 4, the rock cycle is complete, and another cycle can start, as
the magma is available to move up through the crust again, forming new igneous
rock. Of course the steps of the rock cycle do not occur in sequence, one at a time
as described here. Each step is happening all the time, in many places in Earth’s
lithosphere.

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 Activity 6 Draw and write about the rock cycle and
collect rocks
1. Copy the diagram in Figure 20 into your workbook. Include all the labels.

melting igneous
rock

heat and compaction

magma pressure and
cementation

sedimentary
rock
pressure

Figure 19 A partly labelled diagram of the rock cycle

2. Write in the following labels where they are missing from the diagram:
melting; sediments; metamorphic rock; cooling; heat; weathering and erosion
3. a ) At which two places on Earth does igneous rock form?
b ) How does rock that is formed in each of these two locations differ?
c ) Why are there these differences?
4. Explain how rock that is in the Earth’s solid crust can melt again to form magma.
5. Collect samples and pictures of different kinds of rock. Try to identify these
rocks as either igneous, metamorphic or sedimentary. Show what you find to
the other learners in your class.

Key concepts
Three types of rocks form, are broken down and re-form over long periods
of time in a continuous natural process called the rock cycle. In this cycle,
magma from the mantle rises though the crust and cools to form igneous
rock. Rocks are broken down by the processes of weathering and erosion,
and rock particles are carried by wind and water, and then deposited in
layers where they harden and form sedimentary rock. As magma pushes
though the crust, it heats existing rock, causing changes in the chemical
structure of the surrounding rock, forming metamorphic rock. In some
places in the crust, rock is pushed back into the mantle where it melts and
becomes magma again.

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 Topic 17 revision

Science language activity

Give the terms that could be used instead of each of the descriptions below:
1. Elements or compounds of elements that occur naturally in Earth’s crust
2. Layers that all have the same centre
3. The innermost layer of Earth
4. The part of Earth made up of soil, crust and the upper layer of the mantle
5. Rock that is so hot it has melted
6. Rock name that comes from the Latin word for ‘fire’
7. The natural continuous process in which rocks form, are broken down and
re-form over long periods of time
8. The process in which rock is broken down into smaller particles
9. The process in which weathered material is carried away by wind and water
10. Particles of rock that have been deposited by wind and water

Test yourself
1. Choose the correct underlined alternative in each of the sentences below
to describe the rock cycle correctly. Copy the correct sentences into your
workbook.
Sedimentary/igneous/metamorphic rock forms when magma pushes through
the crust and cools down. If it cools deep underground, it cools slowly/quickly,
and the rock will have large/small crystals. An example of this kind of rock
is pumice stone/granite. If the magma reaches the surface of Earth, it will
cool quicker/slower and have large/small crystals. Pumice stone/granite
is an example of this kind of rock. (7)
Rocks on the surface of Earth are weathered/eroded to form smaller particles.
Erosion/weathering by wind and water carry these particles away. The particles
of rock are deposited as sediments/elements on flood plains and in the sea.
Sediments form layers and, over time, pressure from the upper/lower layers
turns the older/younger sediments into sedimentary/igneous/metamorphic
rock. Shale/slate is an example of this kind of rock. (7)
Sedimentary/igneous/metamorphic rock forms when existing rock is heated
and changes its chemical structure. Shale/slate is an example of this kind of
rock. (2)
In some places in Earth’s lithosphere, rock is pushed below the mantle/crust
where it is heated/cooled and melts/solidifies to form magma again. (2)
2. Give the name of one mineral in the crust that is:
a ) an element
b ) a compound (2)
Total: 20

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 Term 4: Planet Earth and beyond
Topic

18 Mining of mineral resources

Starting off
South Africa has huge mineral resources. Examples of
these minerals include gold, platinum, chrome, coal, iron,
diamonds and many others. As a result South Africa has
a highly developed mining industry that has sustained
our economy and promoted technical expertise and
development in the field.
These riches come with a cost. Mining mineral resources
has major social and environmental impacts. Often the
environmental impacts caused in previous decades only
become apparent much later. Society today has to bear
the costs of the environmental damage of the past.

Activity 1 Discover what you already

know about mining
1. List up to ten minerals obtained by mining.
2. Describe some of the benefits South Africa has
enjoyed because of the mining industry.
3. Explain why these benefits come at a cost.

Figure 1 Mining brings benefits, but at a cost

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 Unit

1 Extracting ores

Key words People extract valuable minerals from the

• mineral – a lithosphere
naturally occurring The lithosphere contains many different minerals. We extract valuable minerals,
inorganic such as gold, platinum, diamonds, coal, lead, copper, potash and even sand from
substance that the lithosphere. Some of the minerals mined are classed as elements, for example
has the same gold and silver. Other minerals are called compounds.
properties
throughout.
Minerals are
normally
considered to
be valuable
substances
• extract – remove
or take out of Figure 2 Rough diamonds extracted from a mine in Angola
• veins – thin lines Some valuable minerals are found in igneous rock, for example, platinum, chrome and
of solidified lava diamonds. Others, such as gold, are found in sedimentary rock. Gold forms in igneous
that have formed rock, deep inside the earth’s crust. The gold is pushed to the surface with molten rock
in cracks in other and forms cracks in the earth’s surface. We call the thin lines of gold in these cracks
rock veins. Gold can be mined from these veins, but usually the particles of gold are eroded
• ore – rock with a and washed away, depositing sedimentary layers which form the gold reef.
high concentration Rock that contains high concentrations of a valuable mineral is called ore. The
of a valuable process of extracting the mineral from rock is expensive and is only worth the effort
mineral when mineral concentration is high.
Gold is dense (nearly fourteen times denser than water). When the gold particles
were carried by water into an ancient lake (Witwatersrand) they settled quickly
around the edges of the lakes. The sedimentary rock formed very rich gold ore near
the shallow areas of the lake, but less concentrated deeper down.

Figure 3 A gold mine

The process by which the ore is removed from the crust is called mining. There are
many types of mining. Some involve removing the material from the surface, for
example, sand mining in river beds. Most often the ore has to be removed from the
parent rock and taken away for further processing. This rock has to be mined either

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 by making tunnels and shafts with drills and explosives, or by digging huge pits in
the ground which we call opencast mining.

Figure 4 A drill in a mine shaft

Figure 5 Opencast mining

Some minerals can be used in their natural form, such as diamonds, which only
need to be cleaned and shaped. Sand is another example as it can be removed
from a river bed and washed and used immediately. However, most minerals need
to be mined and processed to be usable.

Activity 2 Understand mining terminology

Work on your own.
1. From which part of Earth do we extract valuable minerals?
2. What do we call rock that contains high concentrations of valuable minerals?
3. Choose the correct word: Ore is removed from Earth’s crust by (mining/sorting/
sieving/extracting).
4. Give examples of minerals that are used in their natural form.

Key concepts
Some minerals are valuable to us so we have found ways to extract them
from the lithosphere. We remove these minerals from Earth’s crust by
mining. Rock with valuable minerals in it is called ore. Some minerals can
be sorted by hand or mechanically and used in their natural form. Others
have to be processed.

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 Unit

2 Refining minerals
Most minerals are extracted from the Earth’s crust in the form of ore. While some
Key words
minerals, such as diamonds, can be used in their natural form, other minerals
• physical process require chemical or physical processes to extract the minerals from the ore.
– using physical
methods to extract Physical methods of extraction
minerals from ore Gold found in alluvial deposits is extracted by physical processes. These methods
or sediment were used mainly in the early days of gold discoveries when the gold was easy to
• alluvial – material find and separate. Gold sluicing and panning are two such methods that are still
deposited by a used today. Sluicing involves shovelling river sand and gravel into a sluice box, the
river dense material is washed down the sluice and the fine gold particles stay behind.

• sediment – small Panning involves taking sand and gold dust from a sluice box, or sometimes gravel
particles like sand, directly from a river alluvial sediment, into a wash basin or pan and swirling
mud, stones or it around. The gold drops to the bottom. The gold dust and flakes can then be
pebbles that have collected from the bottom of the pan.
been deposited
somewhere
• chemical process Riffle tray with expanded metal sheets
– the use of
chemicals to
extract minerals
from ore Ribbed matting for quick inspection

• refining – making Flared flat sluice

a natural product
pure by removing
unwanted
Figure 6 A gold sluice
substances

Figure 7 Gold panning

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 Activity 3 Illustrate physical extraction processes used
in mining
Work in groups.
You will need: cup of soil from the garden • small handful of uncooked popcorn or
other small round objects • bowl • sieve • colander • water
1. Make a mixture of the soil and popcorn.
2. Devise a method of washing the soil particles away and sieving the popcorn
kernels out. Keep the popcorn kernels for hand sorting.
3. Test your system for physical sorting of popcorn kernels from a soil mixture.
4. What have you learned that might help you to find gold particles in river sand?

Chemical methods of extraction

Many minerals are mined through chemical methods of extraction. Chemical
processes often involve dissolving the ore using a suitable chemical, and then
removing the mineral from the chemical solution. Heat and oxygen can also be
used to remove impurities from minerals (refining).
The rock in Figure 8 is called banded iron stone. It was an important source of iron
ore for some of the first iron-using people in South Africa. They devised a chemical
process using charcoal, oxygen from the air and intense heat to extract the iron.
You can replicate this process in Activity 4.

Figure 8 Banded iron stone in Johannesburg

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 Key words Activity 4 Investigate how lead is extracted from its ore
• archaeologist –
You will need: lead oxide • charcoal powder • teaspoon • good quality test tube
a scientist who
• test tube holder • thin rod • safety goggles • Bunsen burner or
studies ancient
other gas flame • heat proof surface
people
1. Put half a teaspoon each of lead oxide and charcoal powder into the test tube.
• smelting – to
process an ore 2. Mix the mixture well with a thin rod.
using heat to 3. Hold the test tube in the test tube holder and heat the mixture strongly for
extract the mineral five minutes. (Move the test tube back and forth over the flame to ensure even
that is in the ore heating.)
• steel – a mixture 4. Allow the mixture to cool down.
(alloy) of iron and
other materials, 5. Tip out the mixture onto a heat-proof surface.
mainly carbon 6. Examine the mixture closely.
• alloy – a mixture 7. What do you find? What do you think the new substance is?
of different metals
to produce a new
type of metal with Activity 4 uses a chemical method to produce lead metal. When you heated lead
better qualities oxide with charcoal powder (actually carbon) the oxygen combined with the
than any of the carbon and made carbon dioxide gas. The gas went into the air. What was left
components in the behind was metallic lead, plus various impurities and some of the original powder
alloy that did not fully react. This is how lead is extracted from lead ore.
• coke – is a fuel
made from coal in Traditional knowledge of iron and copper extraction
the same way that People have known how to extract metals like iron and copper from ore for
charcoal is made thousands of years. For example, iron ore was heated with charcoal to make lumps
from wood. So you of iron. There is lots of evidence that has been collected by archaeologists from
can think of it as across South Africa, particularly from archaeological sites in KwaZulu-Natal and
‘coal charcoal’. It is Limpopo.
high in carbon
Smelting iron ore using furnaces was first carried out in South Africa about 1 700
years ago in parts of Limpopo. There is evidence that these people then moved
southward and eastward into KwaZulu-Natal. Iron-working people settled at
Broederstroom near Hartbeespoort Dam about 1 150 years ago and at Melville
Koppies in Johannesburg about 800 years ago. Mapungubwe in the northern
Kruger National Park was settled by a group of iron workers about 1 000 years ago.
It did not take long for iron smelting skills to spread through most of South Africa.
Smelting is the process whereby heat is used to extract a mineral from its ore.
People chose sites that had trees to make charcoal from, iron ore in the rocks, water
nearby and grazing for their cattle.

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 bellows bellows
compressed extended
excavated
working level
platform

slag level

clay walls

Figure 9 Old iron smelting furnace

When early iron smelting people needed to get iron to make implements like hoes,
spears or cutting blades they used a special furnace like the one shown in Figure 9.
Their furnaces had a small chimney and side openings for blow pipes. (These
did exactly the same job as the ones you used for the lead oxide activity – they
increased the flow of oxygen and increased the temperature of the flames.) Layers
of charcoal and crushed iron ore in the ratio 1 to 10 were laid inside the furnace and
this was set alight. The fire was lit in the late afternoon on a full moon night. This
was for visibility and also for ritual reasons.
Two assistants worked the goatskin bellows to pump air into the furnace to raise
the temperature. A team of smelters would work through the night. Each smelter
had two bellows, which he would pump at up to 120 beats per minute. After a
whole night, a small lump of iron might be produced.
It took considerable skill to get the balance of oxygen, carbon and the temperature
just right and to keep it like that over time for the chemical changes to take place.

Modern processes mix coke and other metals with iron to

produce steel
Steel is an alloy (a mixture) of iron and carbon. Steel is iron that has had most of
the impurities removed. The properties of steel are superior to iron on its own. Steel
is stronger, harder and lighter than iron.
Iron must first be extracted from the iron ore. After that the molten iron is treated
to remove carbon from the iron, resulting in steel. To extract the iron a blast furnace
is loaded with iron ore, coke and small quantities of other materials to assist the
process. It is called a blast furnace because air is blasted into it during the smelting.
Air that has been heated to about 1 200 °C is blown into the furnace. The pumped
air heats the furnace enough to melt the iron. Coke is very high in carbon, like the
charcoal in the Iron Age smelting furnaces. The coke burns and reacts chemically
with the iron ore to release the iron from it. This iron has about 4 to 5% carbon in it
which makes it brittle and not useful for very much.

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 In a modern steel factory the molten iron is then poured into another furnace
where it is blasted with pure oxygen. This causes the carbon in the iron to burn
and make the furnace hotter. This process removes many of the impurities from
the iron, including reducing the carbon content to between 1 and 2,5%. This lower
amount of carbon turns it into good quality steel. The properties of steel can be
improved by the addition of other metals such as nickel, tungsten, chrome or
vanadium. Depending on which metals are added, the steel can be made stronger,
lighter, less likely to rust or easier to weld. For example, stainless steel contains
between 10% and 30% chrome.

Activity 5 Answer questions based on what you read

1. Describe the chemical process that early iron smelters used to obtain iron. Use
what you learned in your lead oxide activity to help you.
2. Explain why iron smelting people chose particular sites to live in.
3. Describe how the old methods of making iron are the same as those used to
make steel, and what is different in modern times.
4. What percentage of carbon is required in good quality steel?
5. Read the text and also do some calculations to fill in the missing percentages:
Stainless steel has about ___ to ___% chrome, between ___ and ___% carbon
and about ___ to ___% iron.

Key concepts
Most minerals need a physical or a chemical extraction process. Metals
like lead, iron or copper are usually heated with carbon (coke, charcoal
powder). The oxygen in the lead oxide combines with the carbon and
forms carbon dioxide, leaving the metal behind.
Knowledge of iron and copper extraction is thousands of years old. Early
iron smelters in Africa and South Africa used the same chemical process
as above to extract iron from iron-rich rock. They did this in clay furnaces,
evidence of which can still be found today.
Modern processes mix coke and other metals to produce steel from iron.

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 Unit

3 Mining in South Africa

Mining is important for our economy and has helped our country form an extensive
Key word
infrastructure. South Africa is rich in both minerals and fossil fuels. Approximately 60
minerals are extracted from about 700 mines and quarries around the country, with • infrastructure –
some of these being exported to100 countries across the world. South African mines the constructed
directly employ nearly 500 000 workers, with another 400 000 workers employed in networks of
industries that are associated with mining. However, there are social and environmental a country, for
costs attached to this industry, some of which we have only recently become aware of. example, roads,
South Africa’s mining industry has the fifth largest economic value in the world. electricity
That wealth has been built on the country’s vast resources. We have nearly 90% of generation and
the platinum metals on Earth, 80% of the manganese, 73% of the chrome, 45% of distribution
the vanadium and 41% of the gold. Even though gold mining is not as active as structures,
in the past, South Africa is still a world leader in gold mining technology and gold harbours, railways
production. We produce about 12% of the world’s gold. Platinum is becoming more
important and we are currently producing about 60% of the world’s platinum. There is
still huge potential for discovery of other major deposits of minerals in certain areas.

Coalfield ( mine)
Goldfield (mine)
Fe - Iron
P - Phosphate Polokwane Phalaborwa
Pt - Platinum Cr Fe
Cu P
D - Diamond Cu Cr
Fe
Cr Cu Cr
Cu - Copper Fe
Zn - Zinc Mn
Cr - Chrome Pt Cu Pretoria
Rustenburg Cr
Mn - Manganese Mn Mn
Sasolburg Swaziland
Mn Klerksdorp

Sishen Fe D
Mn Fe
D D D D
Fe D Kimberley D Dundee
D D Richards Bay
D Zn D
D Cu
Okiep Cu
D Durban

D Fe

Cape Town Port Elizabeth

Mossel Bay

Figure 10 South Africa’s mineral deposits

Activity 6 Analyse South Africa’s mineral wealth

Read the text on this page and study Figure 10 to answer the following questions.
1. Which provinces have deposits of more than one mineral?
2. Which minerals will South Africa’s mining future be based on?
3. Which minerals has South Africa’s mining past been based on?
4. What percentage of world reserves of platinum and gold are in South Africa?
5. What percentage of the world’s platinum group metals and gold does South
Africa produce?

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 Key words Environmental impacts of mining activity
Mining poses many threats to the environment and our health. It can scar the land,
• pollutant – destroy natural habitats, pollute water and air and produce large amounts of waste,
something that dust and poisonous chemicals.
causes pollution
• radioactive – Mine dumps
material that emits When mines excavate and process ore there is a large amount of crushed rock
radiation energy, material left over. This is normally stored in huge piles, called mine dumps. Cyanide
particles or rays and other hazardous chemicals are used in gold processing, and these chemicals
– all of which can are left behind in the mine dumps. Water that soaks into the dumps dissolves these
damage living hazardous chemicals and takes them into streams and into groundwater. People
tissue living near mine dumps may have significant health risks as a result of inhaling
• decanting – mine dump dust and coming into contact with polluted water.
pouring out Mine dumps can contain another very dangerous pollutant: radioactivity. Dust
• acid mine fallout from the mine dumps can be contaminated with radioactive waste. It can
drainage – water contaminate the air, soil and water. This is according to a report by the Gauteng
polluted with Department of Agriculture and Rural Development completed in 2011. The
acidic chemicals situation is serious enough that the National Nuclear Regulator recommended that
draining into people living near an old radioactive mine dump in Krugersdorp be relocated.
natural water
systems Pollution of water resources
• hazardous – Mining takes place in direct contact with nature. It is very difficult to prevent
dangerous chemicals coming into contact with water, plant life, the soil and in that way with
all the cycles of nature and human lives as well. The next few sections explain how
this happens.

Acid mine drainage

When mines fill up with water and that water begins decanting or seeping out
of the mine, acid mine drainage occurs. When a mine is active any water in the
mine would be pumped to the surface before it could become contaminated,
and released into streams without causing harm. The problem now is that many
mines have closed down and these mines are slowly flooding as the groundwater
Figure 11 Dust from a mine
is restored. Underground mine workings are interlinked. This means that acid mine
dump
water decanting from one mine is likely to come from many mines in the region. This
water is heavily polluted with various minerals and other chemicals that have been
dissolved from rock that was exposed by mining operations. What might have taken
thousands or even millions of years naturally, has now been concentrated into mere
decades. This water has many dissolved substances in it, mostly highly hazardous.
Acid mine drainage causes devastation to the water bodies entered. The stream
in the photo alongside is totally lifeless – there are no living things in it. Acid mine
drainage is also affecting our groundwater. People use groundwater for drinking
purposes and for irrigation. Once it has been polluted it is almost impossible to
clean. It might be hazardous and unusable for thousands of years.
Many of our tourist sites and sites with high cultural value are in beautiful parts
of our country. Most of the minerals that we have already mined are where the
Figure 12 Acid mine drainage cities developed, so the remaining mineral resources are also often in places
of great natural beauty. This means that these beautiful places and important
cultural heritage sites are being negatively affected by mining. Mine dumps, water
pollution, acid mine drainage, smoke and smells in the air and destruction of

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 natural vegetation by surface mining are all reasons why our places of natural and
cultural value are being damaged now and for the future.
One very famous site that is affected in this way is the Mapungubwe National
Park. Mapungubwe is in Limpopo on our northern border with Botswana and
Zimbabwe. Mapungubwe is home to one of the nation’s oldest cultural treasures,
the 1 100-year-old Kingdom of Mapungubwe World Heritage Site. There are only
eight sites of such value in South Africa. The Mapungubwe National Park contains Figure 13 Opencast mining at
evidence of an Iron Age trading kingdom, including palace sites and related Vele Colliery (Mapungubwe)
settlement areas. Archaeological artefacts collected from royal graves include a
golden rhino, gold bowls and a royal sceptre. These suggest that the kingdom once
enjoyed trading relations with China, India and Arabia.
Sadly, an opencast, coal strip-mine is being operated in the area and there are plans
to extend it. The damage from the existing mining, which is on a limited basis at
the moment, has already been called ‘irreversible’, yet the company’s application to
expand operations has been approved. The proposed mine will eventually cover
8 500 hectares, most of which will be an opencast coal mine. The Department of
Water Affairs granted a licence to the mine to extract 2,4 billion litres of water from
the Limpopo River, despite warnings that this area does not have enough water.
Mining can cause direct damage to farmland and wildlife environments. It can
do this through strip or opencast mining, or by dumping waste material onto
land in the form of mine dumps and slime dams. Less direct damage is caused by
pollution and acidic mine water that gets into surface and groundwater. This can
make huge areas unsuitable for farming and destroy natural habitats. Animals
cannot drink badly polluted water. In some cases, mines use a lot of water. They
often draw this from rivers. This can reduce the flow of rivers making less water
available for downstream farm use. Reduced water flow in rivers can also kill
wildlife that depend on the rivers.

Activity 7 Discuss the negative impact of mining activity

1. Describe four ways in which mining can have a negative environmental impact.
2. Describe three direct impacts mining can have on human health.
3. Conduct a class debate on this topic: “If we compare the wealth that has been
gained from gold mining to the health and environmental damage it has
caused – might we have been better off if we had left the gold in the ground?”

Key concepts
South Africa has large-scale mining activity. We are world leaders in many
aspects – from mineral reserves to levels of production and technical
expertise. The country is more developed as a result and has a good
infrastructure, mostly because of the economic base provided by mining.
Mining activity has significant environmental impacts. These range
from the destruction of natural habitats as well as tourist and natural
heritage sites, to the creation of mine dumps and pollution. Air and water
pollution affect the health of people and animals and reduce agricultural
production.

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 Project

Research and write about a mining activity in South Africa

In this project you will conduct your own research in order to find out more about mining in South
Africa. You will also write a report based on your research.

Choose a topic
You can choose either a specific mine or a type of mineral to research. If there is a mine fairly close by,
or one that is of particular interest to you, choose that. Alternately, you could choose a type of mineral.
This could be one of the better known types, for example, gold, platinum, chrome, diamonds or coal. Or
you might choose a type of mining that is more unusual, for example, sand mining, salt mining, heavy
mineral sand ore mining, or potash mining.
Before you make your decision about which mine or type of mineral to choose make sure that you can
find out about:
• the elements and compounds being mined
• the chemical or physical separation methods used
• the environmental impacts.

Research and find the information

Look for information in the following places:
• This Learner’s Book is a good starting point but you will also need to use reference books, the
Internet, newspapers and magazine articles
• Interview people who know about your topic (your teacher, miners and geologists)
• Mines – you might be able to phone or visit mines
• Contact mining and environmental organisations such as:
Earthlife Africa: http://www.earthlife.org.za;
Wildlife and Environment Society: http://www.wessa.org.za/;
Save Mapungubwe: http://www.savemapungubwe.org.za/mine.php;
Chamber of Mines: http://www.bullion.org.za/; Department of Mineral Resources: http://www.dmr.
gov.za/;
Department of Environmental Affairs: http://www.environment.gov.za/

Plan and write your report

Your report must include the following:
• Introduction (6)
• Discussion and relevant graphics (38)

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 • Conclusion (4)
• References (2)

Report structure, content and mark allocations

Introduction (Why and Where?)
1. State the purpose of the report, the topic you have chosen and reasons for your choice. (2)
2. Insert a map showing the location of your chosen mine or the areas where deposits of your
mineral can be found. Label the urban areas closest to your mine or mineral deposits. (4)

Discussion (What and How?)

3. Describe the elements and compounds being mined. (3)
4. Describe the processes and machinery required to extract the mineral from the lithosphere.
(Opencast or underground mining) (6)
5. Describe and explain the physical and/or chemical methods used to refine the mineral. (8)
6. Discuss the uses and economic value of the mineral. Estimate South Africa’s global reserves and
production of this mineral. (4)
7. Assess the environmental impact of your chosen mining activity. Include a list of waste products
and explain how they are stored or disposed of. (4)
8. Suggest and explain three negative environmental impacts that may result from this type of
mining. (6)
9. Describe the environmental protection programmes that mines may already have in place, or
make some suggestions of steps they could implement to minimise environmental damage. (3)
10. Make use of appropriate graphics (graphs, photographs, sketches) to support your discussion. (4)

Conclusion
11. Summarise your findings and add a personal comment about this research
project. (4)

References
12. List the references you used to complete this research project. (2)

[100 ÷ 2 = 50]
Total: 50

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 Topic 18 revision

Science language activity

Use full sentences to differentiate between the five sets of mining terms below:
1. Underground mining / opencast mining
2. Ore / vein
3. Extraction / refining
4. Smelting / sluicing
5. Steel / coke

Test yourself
1. Copy and complete this table by inserting a yes or a no in the correct blocks
to show what extraction method it requires. Think carefully because some of
these might have a yes in both columns.

Type of mineral Physical Chemical

Coal
Diamonds
Gold
Iron
Ilmenite (heavy minerals)
(5)
2. a ) Explain the difference between physical and chemical
extraction of minerals (4)
b ) Give one example of each type. (2)
3. Describe what early iron smelters packed in their iron smelting furnaces,
how they arranged these materials and why they did it like this. (4)
4. Give five reasons why South Africa’s mining industry has had benefits
for the country and has caused us to be a world leader in mining. (5)
5. Give four different ways in which mining has a negative environmental
impact. (4)
6. ‘Minerals, a blessing or a curse?’ Write a paragraph discussing this statement.
Give reasons for each of your main points. (6)

Total: 30

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 Term 4: Planet Earth and beyond
Topic

19 The atmosphere

Starting off
The atmosphere is one of the four parts of Earth’s system
you were introduced to in Topic 17. Its gases surround
Earth, held to it by gravity. It has four layers. Each of
these layers has its own characteristics, and is important
in its own way. In this Topic you will find out more about
atmosphere and its layers, how it protects Earth from
harmful radiation from the Sun and other ways in which
it is important for life on Earth. You will also find out how
people’s activities impact on the atmosphere, and how
this can lead to changes which are harmful to life on
Earth.

Activity 1 Find out what you know

about the atmosphere
Figure 1 Layers of the atmosphere extending into space
Look at the picture in Figure 1.
1. How many layers of atmosphere can you see?
2. Which layer do we live in?
3. What are the names of any gases you know to be
found in the atmosphere?
4. Why are each of these gases important?
5. How would things be different on Earth if there were
no atmosphere?
6. What lies beyond the atmosphere?

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 Unit

1 Atmosphere

Key words Gases of the atmosphere other gases

1%
The atmosphere is the mixture of gases held
• atmosphere – the
around Earth by gravity. This mixture of gases is
mixture of gases
known as air. It is one of the four parts of Earth’s oxygen
held round Earth
system and is essential for many processes on 21%
by gravity
Earth. Without the atmosphere there would be
• air – the mixture no life on Earth.
of gases that nitrogen
make up the Air consists mainly of nitrogen (78%) and oxygen
78%
atmosphere (21%). These two gases alone make up 99%
of the air, and are always present in the same
• density – the
proportions. The other 1% is made up of many
amount of mass in
different gases, including carbon dioxide and
a given volume of Figure 2 Air is a mixture of gases
water vapour. The amounts of these two gases
a material
in the air varies slightly, but each is less than 1% of the air. Figure 2 shows you the
• troposphere – proportions of each of the main gases, and the small proportion of all the others
the lowest layer of together.
the atmosphere,
closest to the
Density of the atmosphere
space
350 km
surface of Earth
In Grade 8 you learnt that the density of a material
• stratosphere –
describes the amount of mass in a given volume
the second layer
of that material. In the atmosphere, most of the
of the atmosphere
mass of the atmosphere lies less then 10 km above
from Earth’s
Earth’s surface, so it is densest here. The density of
surface
gas particles decreases with distance from Earth,
• mesosphere – the and the air gets thinner and thinner. This means 10 km
Earth
layer third layer of that there are more gas particles in a volume of air
the atmosphere close to Earth, and fewer in the same volume further Figure 3 The density of the
from Earth’s from Earth. Eventually, the density is so low that the atmosphere decreases with distance
surface atmosphere just blends into space. Figure 3 shows from Earth
• thermosphere – how the density of the atmosphere changes with distance from Earth.
the fourth layer of
the atmosphere Layers in the atmosphere
from Earth’s
Earth’s atmosphere has four layers. They are named the troposphere, the
surface and the
stratosphere, the mesosphere and the thermosphere. You can see where these
one furthest from
layers are in Figure 7 on page 237.
it
• altitude – height Activity 2 Record information in a table and answer
above sea level
questions about Earth’s layers
• temperature
gradient – how Refer to Figure 7 on page 237, showing the atmosphere’s layers.
much temperature 1. Copy the table below into your workbook. Write the name of each layer in
changes with order, starting with the layer closest to Earth, which we have done for you.
altitude
Name of layer Distance of lowest level of Distance of upper level of
this layer from Earth this layer from Earth
Troposphere 0 km 10 km

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 2. How far does the atmosphere extend from Earth?
3. In which layer will the density of the air be:
a ) greatest
b ) lowest?

Temperature in the atmosphere

Temperature gradient in each layer
The temperature of the atmosphere is not constant. In some layers
it increases with height above sea level, in other layers it decreases.
Height above sea level is called altitude, so we can say that the

Altitude
temperature of the atmosphere changes with altitude. How much
the temperature changes with altitude is called the temperature
gradient.
In Figure 4, the blue line shows how temperature changes
with altitude in each layer of the atmosphere. The changes in
temperature gradient mark the boundaries between each of the Temperature
layers of the atmosphere. Altitude is shown on the y-axis, and
temperature on the x-axis. Notice that temperature increases to Figure 4 The temperature gradient of the atmosphere
the right.

Activity 3 Read a graph to find out about the atmosphere’s temperature gradient
1. Copy the table below into your book. For each layer in the atmosphere, record whether temperature
increases or decreases with altitude.

Layer Temperature change

with altitude
Troposphere
Stratosphere
Mesophere
Thermosphere
2. Does the graph in Figure 5 on the next page slope to the left or to the right when
a ) temperature increases with altitude?
b ) temperature decreases with altitude?
3. In which two layers does temperature:
a ) increase with altitude?
b ) decrease with altitude?
4. In which layer is the:
a ) highest temperature?
b ) lowest temperature?

Key concepts
The atmosphere is the mixture of gases, known as air, held around Earth by gravity. It consists mainly
of nitrogen and oxygen, with small amounts of other gases. Density of the atmosphere decreases with
altitude. The atmosphere is divided into four layers. The temperature gradient changes in each layer.

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 Skills focus: Drawing to scale
What is meant by ‘drawing to scale’? Thermosphere
Drawing to scale means making a drawing in which all parts
of the object drawn have been made bigger or smaller by the Mesosphere
same amount. The scale tells you how much bigger or smaller
the drawing is than the real object. A map is an example of a Stratosphere
scale drawing.
Troposphere

How to draw to scale

Figure 5 Section through the
Figure 6 shows a section through the atmosphere. The layers atmosphere
have not been drawn to scale. Here are the steps to follow to
make a scale drawing of these layers. You can use the same steps to make any other
scale drawing.
Step 1: Choose a suitable scale. The drawing must fit on the page, and must not be
too small. To help you make the best choice, work out what the longest and
shortest lengths of your drawing will be at different scales.
• The longest length in Figure 6 is 350 km and the shortest is 10 km.
Using a scale of 1 cm to 10 km, these distance would be 35 cm and
1 cm.
• A distance of 35 cm is too long to fit on an A4 page. We will have to use
a scale of 1 cm to 20 km.
• The distance from Earth to the top of the troposphere will be only
Thermosphere 0,5 cm – but this is big enough to show this layer.
Step 2: Calculate the lengths of all the parts of the object you will have to draw
according to your chosen scale. Record the measurements. We have done
this in the table below.

Layer Troposphere Stratosphere Mesosphere Thermosphere

Distance of 10 50 80 350
upper limit from
Earth (km)
Length 0,5 2,5 4 17,5
according to
scale (cm)

Step 3: Draw your object, measuring each length carefully. Figure 6 shows what
each length in the drawing of Earth’s layers should be.

Mesosphere

Stratosphere
Figure 6 Drawing showing
what the altitude of each layer’s
Troposphere upper surface would be if
Surface of Earth drawn to a scale of 1 cm : 20 km

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 Step 4: Provide a scale line so anyone looking at your drawing can work out the
actual lengths.

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 km

Figure 7 A scale line

Activity 4 Draw and label a scale drawing of the layers of

the atmosphere
1. Follow the steps above to make your own scale drawing of the layers of the
atmosphere.
2. Draw a scale line to show the scale you have used.
3. Label the surface of Earth and each layer in the atmosphere clearly.
4. Use a pair of compasses to draw Earth (not to scale). Then draw all its layers to
scale around it. The layers will appear as concentric circles.

Thermosphere

Mesosphere

Stratosphere

Troposphere
10 km

50 km

80 km

350 km

Figure 8 The atmosphere has four layers

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 Unit

1
2 Troposphere

Key words The extent of the troposphere

The troposphere is the lowest of the atmosphere’s four layers. It extends from sea
• precipitation –
level to about 10 km above the surface of Earth. This is illustrated in Figure 9. Earth’s
water in any form
highest mountain, Mount Everest, reaches a height of nearly 9 km, so all land on
that falls to Earth’s
Earth lies entirely within the troposphere.
surface from
clouds
ozone layer
20 km

Stratosphere 15 km

Altitude
Tropopause 10 km

Troposphere
5 km

0 km

Figure 9 The extent of the troposphere

Mass and density in the troposphere

The troposphere contains more than 70% of the mass of the atmosphere. This
means that 70% of all the gas particles of the atmosphere are located within 10 km
of Earth’s surface. The particles of gas are closest together in this layer, and so the
troposphere has the greatest density of all the layers of the atmosphere. Density
decreases with height within the troposphere, too.

The temperature gradient of the troposphere

Temperature in the troposphere decreases as the distance
from the surface of Earth increases. In other words, the
further away from Earth you travel in the troposphere, the
colder the air. This explains why there is often snow on the
top of a mountain, as you can see in Figure 10, but no snow
at its base. The top of Mount Kilimanjaro is 4 600 m above
its base, enough to cause a big difference in temperature. It
also explains why temperatures are generally higher at sea
level in South Africa than they are on the plateau.

Figure 10 There is snow on the top of Mt Kilimanjaro but not

at its base 4 600 m below

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 Weather occurs in the troposphere
The troposphere is the only layer in which clouds form and
different kinds of precipitation – like rain, hail and snow –
fall to Earth. These processes are part of the water cycle.
The water cycle only occurs in the troposphere because:
• Almost all the water vapour in the atmosphere is found
in the troposphere. There can be no condensation,
clouds or precipitation in other layers without it.
• Water vapour is carried upwards by rising air. As it
rises, it cools and condenses to form clouds. Air that
rises through the troposphere stops rising when it
reaches the stratosphere. As a result, clouds and rain
cannot develop beyond this layer. Clouds form at
many altitudes in the troposphere, but not beyond it. Figure 11 Earth’s weather occurs in the troposphere

All animals and plants live in the

Mass
troposphere Density

Plants and animals live only in the troposphere, though some birds
do fly higher than its upper limit occasionally. The troposphere is the
only layer in contact with the hydrosphere and the lithosphere and Plants and Troposphere Extent
so can be part of the biosphere. Even within the troposphere, life animals

is mainly found in the lowest 2 km, closest to sea level. Above this,
it is too cold and the air is too thin for most plants and animals to
survive.
Weather Temperature
gradient
Activity 5 Draw a mind map of the key facts
about the troposphere Figure 12 Mind map – the troposphere

1. Copy the mind map bubbles into your book, leaving space
to add key words around each one.
2. Use the information in the text in this unit to add the key
facts about each topic in the bubbles.

Key concepts
The troposphere extends from sea level to about 10 km above the surface
of Earth. It contains more than 70% of the mass of the atmosphere and
has the greatest density of any layer. Weather occurs in this layer, and all
animals and plants on Earth live in it. Temperature in the troposphere
decreases with increasing distance from Earth. We can calculate the
temperature at a given altitude if we know the temperature at another
altitude. To do this, we use the knowledge that temperature changes by
1 °C for every 100 m change in altitude.

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 Practical task
Calculate the temperature at different heights
above sea level in the troposphere
Background information and support
In Figure 5, you saw that temperature decreases with altitude in the troposphere.
It decreases at a rate of 1 °C per 100 m. This means that for every 100 m that the
height increases above sea level, the temperature decreases by 1 °C. Similarly, for
every 100 m decrease in altitude, temperature increases by 1 °C.
Using this information, you can work out the temperature at a given altitude
provided you are also told the temperature at another. Look at the example below:
The temperature at 1 500 m is 23 °C. What is the temperature at 1 700 m?
Answering the questions below will lead you to the answer.
1. What is the difference in altitude? In this example it is 200 m
(1 700 m 2 1 500 m).
2. How many sets of 100 m is this? In this example it is two.
(2 3 100 m 5 200 m)
3. How many degrees difference is this? It is two. (Remember there is a one
degree change in temperature for every 100 m; calculate the difference as
200
follows: ___
100
5 2 °C).
4. Will the temperature you are trying to find be higher or lower than
the temperature you know? Lower (temperature decreases with altitude;
1 700 m is higher than 1 500 m).
5. Must you add or subtract the difference in temperature? Subtract.
6. Calculate the answer. In this case it is 21 °C (23 °C 2 2 °C).
7. A sketch will also help you. Look at the one opposite.
You should always show your working, and remember to give all the 1 700 m ? Higher so
units of measurement. cooler
Difference in altitude 5 1 700 m – 1 500 m 5 200 m
200
Difference in temperature 5 ___
100
5 2 °C
200 m 2° C
Temperature at 1 700 m is lower, so 5 23 °C 2 2 °C
5 21 °C

1 500 m 23° C

Figure 13 A sketch helps you to

calculate the change in temperature

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 Measuring temperatures in the troposphere
In order to measure the temperature at different altitudes in the atmosphere,
meteorologists make use of weather balloons. A weather balloon is large, about
1,5 m in diameter, and filled with helium gas. Helium is very light, so the balloon
rises easily. Within an hour it can reach 30 000 m. A small cardboard box containing
weather sensors is attached to the balloon. The sensors carried upward by the
balloon measure such things as altitude, temperature and humidity as the balloon
rises, and transmit the data collected back to Earth.

Figure 14 A weather balloon rising. Note Figure 15 A closer view of the box
the box with sensors attached to it attached to a weather balloon

Apply your knowledge

The table below shows some data recorded by a weather balloon. Unfortunately
not all the information about temperature was received. Calculate the temperature
at each altitude noted in the table, showing all your working.

Reading Altitude (m) Temperature (°C)

1 2 000
2 3 000 15
3 4 000
4 8 000
5 8 500
6 10 000

Total: 20

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 Unit

1
3 Stratosphere

Key words The extent of the stratosphere

The stratosphere is the layer of the atmosphere above the troposphere. It extends
• ozone – a form
from 10 km to about 50 km above Earth’s surface. The air in the stratosphere is very
of oxygen found
thin compared to the air in the troposphere. Some aeroplanes, like commercial jets,
mainly in the
are able to fly in the stratosphere. They use less fuel flying here because they can
stratosphere
pass through the air of lower density more easily than through air of higher density
• ozone layer – lower down. It is also safer to fly in the stratosphere as it is above the stormy
the band in the weather of the troposphere.
stratosphere in
which most of
the atmosphere’s Ozone in the stratosphere
ozone is found
The ozone layer
• ultraviolet The stratosphere includes a band of ozone gas
radiation – known as the ozone layer. Ozone is a form of
radiation from oxygen in which the molecules have three atoms
the Sun that (O3), instead of the usual two (O2). The ozone layer
has a shorter occurs at about 10–40 km above Earth’s surface
wavelength than – in the lowest part of the stratosphere. You can
the violet light in see the ozone layer within the stratosphere in
the visible light Figure 16.
spectrum
Ozone absorbs ultraviolet
radiation
Ozone is a very important gas in the
atmosphere because it absorbs ultraviolet
radiation from the Sun. In Grade 8 you
learnt about the spectrum of visible light.
You will remember that this consists of light
of different wavelengths. The light at the
red end of the spectrum has the longest
wavelength and the light at the violet end
Figure 16 The ozone layer in the stratosphere
the shortest. Ultraviolet radiation (also
known as UV radiation) is radiation that has a
shorter wavelength than the violet light of the
visible light spectrum. As this shortwave radiation
passes through the atmosphere toward Earth, a
lot of it is absorbed by ozone in the stratosphere.

The absorption of ultraviolet radiation warms the

stratosphere
The absorption of ultraviolet radiation increases the temperature of the
stratosphere. As a result, the further away from Earth, the warmer the air becomes.
You saw this in Unit 1 when you did Activity 3. In this activity you looked carefully
at Figure 5 and noted that temperature increases with distance from Earth in the
stratosphere.

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 The absorption of ultraviolet radiation protects life on Earth
Too much ultraviolet radiation interferes with life on Earth in several ways. It affects:
• Human health: Exposure to short amounts of UV radiation can cause sunburn.
Exposure to larger amounts over a longer time is more serious because it can:
• cause skin cancer, which can spread and lead to death
• cause a clouding condition, called a cataract, to develop in the lens of the
human eye, leading to loss of vision
• suppress the human immune system, increasing the risk of illness.
• Photosynthesis: Photosynthesis is the process in which the Sun’s light energy is
converted into food in plants. The light energy is absorbed by chlorophyll in the Safety
leaves. Ultraviolet radiation can damage the chlorophyll and hence the plant’s
Protect yourself
ability to produce food and grow.
from UV radiation
• Life cycles and sizes of populations: UV radiation can damage fish, amphibian by wearing a hat,
and other animals in their early stages of development, and can affect their ability sunscreen and
to reproduce. This has an impact on the life cycle of these animals, and leads to a sunglasses with a UV
reduction in the size of their populations. filter. Keep out of the
Sun in the middle of
By absorbing some of the ultraviolet radiation, ozone protects Earth from its harmful the day, and never look
effects on life on Earth. Although the stratosphere is more than 10 km above Earth, directly at the Sun.
human activities can affect it. You will find out how in the next activity.

Activity 6 Find out how human activities affect the ozone in the stratosphere
Read the extract below and then answer the questions that follow.
In the 1970s, scientists discovered that the amount of ozone in the atmosphere
was decreasing. In some places, such as above Antarctica, there was so little
ozone in the ozone layer that it was said to have a hole in it. They found
that certain chemical substances, called chlorofluorocarbons (or CFCs for
short), can destroy ozone. CFCs are used in refrigerators, air conditioners, fire
extinguishers and spray cans. Many governments across the world have agreed
to stop using CFCs. Alternative chemical compounds have been developed, and
the concentrations of CFCs have started to decrease. You should always check
the product’s packaging and only use products that are ozone friendly!
1. What is the ozone hole, and what is causing it to form?
2. Write a paragraph explaining why the development of the ozone hole
is a problem.
Figure 17 Most spray cans are now ozone
3. What has been done to reduce damage to the ozone layer? friendly

4. What can you do to ensure you are not causing the ozone layer harm?

Key concepts
The stratosphere extends from 10 to 50 km above Earth. Air is thinner here
than in the troposphere. Some aeroplanes fly in this layer as they can use less
fuel and avoid weather that occurs in the troposphere. Ozone (O3) is found
in a band in the stratosphere. Ozone absorbs ultraviolet radiation, thereby
warming the stratosphere and protecting Earth from UV’s harmful effects.

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 Unit

1
4 Mesosphere and thermosphere

Key words Mesosphere

The mesosphere is the third layer of atmosphere from Earth. It extends from about
• shooting star –
50 to about 80 km above Earth’s surface. The remarkable photograph in Figure 18
dust or small
shows the lowest three layers of Earth’s atmosphere, and the space shuttle
rocks that burn up
Endeavour. The space craft appears across the boundary between the stratosphere
when entering the
and the mesosphere. It was taken by an astronaut in space.
mesosphere

Figure 18 The lowest three layers of the atmosphere, seen from space

The air is extremely thin in the mesosphere, and also very cold. Temperatures
decrease with altitude in this layer of the atmosphere, as you saw when you looked
at the graph showing temperature gradients in Unit 1 (Figure 5). The top of the
mesosphere is the coldest part of the atmosphere, with temperatures as low as –90 °C.
Although the density of gases in this layer is very low, there is still enough air to
burn up small rocks and dust entering the mesosphere from space. These pieces of
rock and dust range in size from tiny grains of dust to pieces of rock about the size
of a golf ball. From Earth, we see the burning dust or small rock as a shooting star
moving across the sky before it burns out completely. Millions of pieces of rock and
dust burn up in the mesosphere daily, but we can only see them at night. If you
look carefully, you can usually see about one shooting star every fifteen minutes.

Figure 19 A shooting star is

Activity 7 Interpret information in a picture
rock or dust burning up in the
mesosphere
Look at Figure 18.
1. Identify the layers in the photograph that are coloured
a ) orange
b ) whitish.
2. Which layer is the mesosphere?

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 Thermosphere
The thermosphere starts at 80 km from Earth. The amount of gas in
this layer gets less and less, diminishing slowly until space begins at
about 350 km from Earth’s surface.
Satellites orbit much further away from Earth. There are thousands
of artificial satellites in orbit around Earth. They are used to study
Earth, and to aid navigation and communication. A very important
satellite is the International Space Station (ISS). This orbits Earth
at a height of about 370 km, and completes one orbit of Earth
approximately every 90 minutes. Astronauts spend time living on
the space station in order to conduct research in space. Figure 20 Astronauts arriving at the International
Space Station
The lowest part of the thermosphere absorbs ultraviolet
radiation and dangerous x-rays from the Sun. In this way, like the
stratosphere, the thermosphere protects life on Earth. It also reflects radio waves
back to Earth for TV and radio broadcasts. This is very useful as these waves only
travel in straight lines, and so cannot pass around the curved Earth. When they are
sent up to the thermosphere, they can be returned to a point on Earth they would
not otherwise have reached. The temperature of gas particles in this layer is very
high because they absorb shortwave radiation and x-rays from the Sun.

Activity 8 Answer questions about the thermosphere

1. How does Earth benefit from the thermosphere?
2. Why do small rocks and dust entering the atmosphere burn up in the
mesosphere rather than the thermosphere, which is the first layer they pass
through?

Key concepts
The mesosphere extends from about 50 km to 80 km above Earth’s surface.
The air is extremely thin and cold, but is sufficient to burn up small rocks
and dust from space, which we see from Earth and call shooting stars. The
thermosphere extends from 80 km to 350 km above Earth’s surface. Space
lies beyond the thermosphere, and satellites orbit there. The lowest part of
the thermosphere absorbs ultraviolet radiation and dangerous x-rays from
the Sun. It also reflects radio waves back to Earth for TV and radio broadcasts.

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 Unit

1
5 Greenhouse effect
A greenhouse is a structure made of glass
Key words
in which plants are grown. You can see a
• greenhouse – a picture of a greenhouse in Figure 21.
structure made The glass allows the Sun’s energy to pass
of glass in which through it, but does not allow energy
plants are grown out again. The energy is trapped inside
• greenhouse the glass house. As a result, air inside the
effect – a warming greenhouse is warmer than air outside it.
effect caused The greenhouse has a warming effect on
by the trapping the air. Figure 21 A greenhouse is made of glass
of energy in the that traps energy inside it
atmosphere On Earth, there is a natural greenhouse
effect. This warms the atmosphere sufficiently to sustain life. Without the
• greenhouse greenhouse effect, the atmosphere would be so cold that nothing could survive.
gases – gases that
absorb Earth’s Certain gases in Earth’s atmosphere, together with clouds, are responsible for the
outgoing energy, greenhouse effect. The gases are known as greenhouse gases. The most common
trapping it in the greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide, water vapour and methane.
atmosphere The greenhouse effect on Earth happens as follows. Look at Figure 22 as you read
• global warming the points below.
– an increase • Energy from the Sun passes through the atmosphere, and warms the surface
in the average of Earth.
temperature of the
• The warmed Earth radiates energy back to space.
atmosphere
• The greenhouse gases absorb most of this energy, warming the atmosphere
• fossil fuels – are
closest to Earth’s surface. Without the greenhouse gases, most of the energy
coal, oil and gas
would pass out to space and the atmosphere would be much colder. The
made from the
gases of the atmosphere are similar to the glass of the greenhouse – they trap
remains of plants
energy, making the air warmer than it would otherwise be.
and animals that
lived long ago
• climate change
– long term Energy from the Sun
changes in Earth’s passes through the
temperature and atmosphere
precipitation Earth radiates
patterns energy back
to space
• mass extinctions
– the extinction
of one or more
species in a short Greenhouse gases
period of time absorb energy
• extinct – when a and warm Earth’s
atmosphere
species dies out
completely and
there are no living
members left it is
Figure 22 The greenhouse effect
said to be extinct

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 Global warming
Greenhouse gases help to warm the atmosphere. If the amount of these gases in
the atmosphere increases, so does the amount of warming, leading to an increase
in temperature. An increase in the average temperature of the atmosphere is called
global warming.
For the last 150 years or so, the average annual temperature of Earth has risen. The
graph in Figure 23 shows that, although temperatures increased and decreased
from year to year, they were noticeably higher in 2012 than they were in 1880.
390 14,5
380

global average temperature (oC)

14,4
CO2 concentration (ppmv)

370
360 14,3

350 14,2
340
14,1
330
14,0
320
310 13,9
300 13,8
290
13,7
280
1880
1890
1900
1910
1920
1930
1940
1950
1960
1970

1980
1990
2000
2010

year
global temperature CO2 concentration

Figure 23 Global average temperature and amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere 1880–2010

Scientists believe that the global warming shown by the graph in Figure 23 is
caused by increased amounts of greenhouse gases. The graph shows that the
amount of carbon dioxide in a volume of air (ppmv – parts per million by volume)
has increased over time. The amounts of methane have also increased.
Carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere by natural processes. However, it
is also released by the burning of fossil fuels like coal and oil in people’s homes,
in factories and to generate electricity. Methane is released by animals when they
digest their food. Scientists believe that as the number of people on Earth has
increased, the amount of fossil fuels burnt and the number of animals reared for
food has also increased. They believe these increases lead to global warming.

Activity 9 Interpret graphs

Refer to the graph in Figure 23 and answer the questions below.
1. How much did the global average temperature rise between 1880 and 2010?
2. By how many units (ppmv) did the amount of carbon dioxide in a given
volume of air rise in the same time?
3. Complete this sentence to state what the graph shows: The amount of carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere and global temperatures have both …
4. Does the graph show that the increase in carbon dioxide causes global
warming? Explain your view.

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 Global warming is a potentially life threatening problem
on Earth
Global warming can have serious consequences. It can lead to:
• Climate change: Scientists believe global warming is causing the climate
patterns we have today to change. Some places that are now mild and wet
are expected to become hotter and drier; deserts are expected to grow larger.
Thunderstorms and tropical cyclones will become more severe.
• Rising sea levels: Increased temperatures cause the polar ice caps
and glaciers in high mountains to melt. This causes sea levels to rise. If
temperatures continue to rise, many low lying parts of the world will have
serious floods each year. Some could remain permanently under water.
Climate change and rising sea levels can lead to:
• Food shortages: Climate change and rising sea levels
affect agriculture. Crops that are presently grown in one
place may no longer be able to grow there because of
changed climatic conditions, or flooded land. Already
there are food shortages on Earth. If crop production
decreases, many more people will face food shortages
and hunger.
• Mass extinctions: Earth’s ecosystems are a delicate
balance between living and non-living parts of an
environment. When climate changes and sea levels rise,
these delicate balances are disturbed and plants and
animals find it difficult to survive. Some are able to move
Figure 24 With less ice on which to live and fish for food,
this polar bear has a long swim to the next piece of ice
to more suitable places. Already, in some mountainous
regions, animals like foxes and butterflies have moved to
higher slopes where it is cooler. However, a move is not
possible for all species, and they risk extinction. If one or
more species become extinct in a short period of time,
decreasing Earth’s biodiversity dramatically, we say there
have been mass extinctions.
All these possible effects of global warming are serious. Because there seems to
be a link between global warming and increased amounts of greenhouse gases in
the air, many countries have taken steps to reduce these amounts. For example,
restrictions are placed on the burning of fossil fuels by industry. Everyone is
encouraged to use less electricity and to use public transport, cycle or walk to
reduce the amount of coal and oil used in their daily lives.

Activity 10 Investigate the effects of global warming and

report on your findings
1. Do some research to find out more about the effects of global warming. Refer
to books, magazine articles, and/or websites and videos on the Internet.
2. Present the information you find in the way your teacher asks you to, and
dicuss your findings with your class.

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 Activity 11 Make a model to show the greenhouse effect

What you need: two thermometers • one large clear plastic bag • string or
similar to seal the bag

Preparation
1. Read through the instructions below.
2. Draw up a table to record your temperature readings.

Time Temperature Temperature Difference between the

in bag (°C) next to bag (°C) two temperatures (°C)
1.
2.
3.
Difference (1 or 2 (°C))
in temperature between
Reading 1 and Reading 3

3. Find a sunny place with enough space for a bag and two thermometers to rest
on the same surface (for example, both on grass or both on cement).

Instructions
1. Place one thermometer in the bag and seal the bag.
2. Place the bag on the surface.
3. Place the second thermometer next to the bag.
4. Read and record the temperatures on both thermometers.
5. Wait 15 minutes. Read and record the temperature on both thermometers.
6. Wait another 15 minutes. Read and record the temperatures again.
7. Calculate the information you need to complete the last column and row of
your table, and record it. Safety
Never leave a small
Consider your findings and draw conclusions child or an animal
1. How did temperature change in each place? locked in a car with all
2. Were the changes the same in each place? Explain in what ways they were the the windows closed.
The greenhouse
same or different.
effect will cause
3. What could explain any differences you observed? temperatures in the car
4. How did this investigation model the greenhouse effect on Earth? to rise rapidly, causing
them to die.

Key concepts
Earth’s atmosphere is warmed by a natural process called the greenhouse effect. Solar energy passes
though the atmosphere and warms Earth. Energy is radiated back to space from Earth. Greenhouse gases,
especially carbon dioxide, water vapour and methane trap this outgoing energy, warming the air closest
to the surface of Earth. An increase in greenhouse gases leads to an increase in the average temperature
of Earth’s atmosphere. This is called global warming. Global warming can threaten life on Earth as it can
lead to climate change, rising sea levels, food shortages and mass extinctions.

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 Topic 19 revision

Science language activity

Write out the table below so that the words and the descriptions are correctly matched.

Ozone Height above sea level

Air An increase in the average temperature of the atmosphere
Global warming The amount of mass in a given volume of a material
Altitude A form of oxygen
Density The mixture of gases that make up the atmosphere

Test yourself
1. Draw a diagram to show the layers of the atmosphere, and name each layer. (5)
2. a ) Briefly describe how density changes in the atmosphere. (2)
b ) Where would you find more oxygen in a cubic metre of air – at sea level
or on the plateau? (2)
3. Look at the graph in Figure 25.
a ) In which layer is the lowest
temperature reached? (2)
b ) Why is the temperature so low in this
Altitude

layer? (2)
c ) Why are temperatures so high in the
thermosphere? (2)
d ) In which layer of the atmosphere is
the ozone layer? (1)
e ) How does ozone affect temperature
in this layer? (2)
f ) If the temperature at 1 000 m is 20 °C, Temperature
what is the temperature at 1 500 m? Figure 25 Temperature
Show all your working and your answer. change with altitude (4)
4. Write down the name of the layer for which the following statements are true:
a ) Weather occurs here. (1)
b ) Shooting stars occur here. (1)
c ) X-rays are blocked by gas here. (1)
d ) All plants and animals live here. (1)
e ) Most ultraviolet radiation is absorbed here. (1)
f ) Greenhouse gases are mainly found here. (1)
5. a ) Write a paragraph in which you explain what global warming is and what is
causing it. (2 3 3 5 6)
b ) List three reasons why global warming is a ‘potentially life threatening problem
on Earth’. (2 3 3 5 6)
Total: 40

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 Term 4: Planet Earth and beyond
Topic

20 Birth, life and death of stars

Starting off
The Milky Way galaxy contains several hundred billion
stars of all ages, sizes and masses. A star is a massive,
luminous sphere of plasma held together by gravity far
out in space. Our nearest star is the Sun, and it is the
source of most of the energy on Earth.
The birth, life and death of stars cannot be studied by
observing the life of a single star, as most changes occur
too slowly to be detected, over many centuries. We have
come to understand how stars evolve by observing
numerous stars at various points in their lifetime.
Astrophysicists can simulate stellar structure by using
computer models.
The colour of a star is an important factor in judging at
what stage of life a star is. Generally, the newer stars are
blue to white and older stars will appear yellow to red in
colour.

Activity 1 Observe different coloured

stars
Binoculars will make this task easier. If you are unable
to detect different star colours you can view stars using
other resources, such as planetariums, books and the
Internet.
1. Choose a night when there is a new moon to go
stargazing, and choose a viewing point that is away
from any other light sources.
2. Do you recall how to tell the difference between
stars and planets?
3. Wait for your eyes to adapt to the dark and then see
if you can identify stars having different colours.
4. Is age the only factor that affects the colour of the
stars?
Figure 1 Image taken using the Hubble Space Telescope – note
the different colours of the stars

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 Unit

1 Birth of a star

Key words Stellar evolution

Stars exist for a finite period of time. Stellar evolution is the process by which a
• stellar evolution
star undergoes a sequence of radical changes during its lifetime. Depending on the
– the birth, life and
mass of the star, this lifetime ranges from a few million years for the largest stars, to
death of stars
trillions of years for the smallest.
• gravitational
contraction –
process where by
Nebulae
a nebula’s gravity A star is born inside a huge cloud
overcomes its of gas and dust known as a nebula
internal pressure, (plural: nebulae). Stars need fuel for
causing a collapse stellar evolution, but they only have
a limited amount. The fuels or gases
• nuclear fusion – of the nebulae are mostly hydrogen
process in which and helium, as well as smaller
atoms combine amounts of carbon, nitrogen and
to create larger oxygen.
atoms and
massive amounts
of energy

Figure 2 NASA image of nebulae

Gravity and contraction
Part of the nebula starts to shrink and collapse under the pull of its own gravity,
Did you know? forming a protostar. As the protostar begins to take shape during this gravitational
As the nebula heats contraction, it heats up. Its gravitational potential energy is converted to the
up it rotates faster kinetic energy of individual gas particles falling inward. These particles crash into
and faster and shrinks
one another, converting their kinetic energy into thermal energy. Temperatures will
in radius. It will
then flatten into a
continue to rise until nuclear fusion begins to take place.
disk because of the
collisions between
particles in the
spinning cloud.

Figure 3 NASA image of the birth of a star within a nebula

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 Activity 2 Provide definitions for stellar formation
1. Explain what stellar evolution is and why it is a finite process.
2. Work with a partner and write short definitions for the following terms:
a ) Star
b ) Stellar formation
c ) Nebula

Nuclear fusion
The nuclear fusion reaction changes hydrogen to
helium. In order for nuclear fusion to take place,
there must be tremendous amounts of pressure
and heat. This pressure crushes together elements
to create larger elements and more energy. The
element that begins fusing first is hydrogen
because it is the least dense and the easiest to fuse.
Four hydrogen nuclei will fuse together to form
one nucleus of helium. By-products of this are the
production of two positrons, two neutrinos and
the release of energy. The nuclear fusion reaction
radiates large amounts of energy into space.
pressure Figure 4 A protostar is not considered a star until it gets its
gravity energy from nuclear fusion instead of gravitational contraction

The outward
push of
pressure
precisely
balances
the inward
pull of
gravity

Figure 5 Nuclear fusion

Activity 3 Explain how a star is born

Explain how a star is born. Use diagrams to illustrate your explanation.

Key concepts
Stars exist for a finite period of time and form far out in space inside huge
clouds of gas and dust called nebulae.
These nebulae are pulled together by gravity and slowly collapse.
As the nebulae contract they heat up, and once the temperature is high
enough a nuclear-fusion reaction begins that changes hydrogen to helium.
This nuclear fusion reaction radiates large amounts of energy into space.

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 Unit

2 Life of a star

Key words The main sequence in the life of a star

Stars shine as a result of nuclear fusion reactions deep within their interiors, or
• kelvin –
cores. As a star forms, the rate of nuclear fusion increases until the amount of
temperature
energy produced in the core equals the amount of energy radiating from the
scale used in
surface. This outflow of energy from the core provides the pressure necessary to
science. The unit
keep the star from collapsing under its own weight. Pressure from inside the star
is kelvin (K) and
finally equalises the gravity pushing in, and the star stops contracting.
1 K difference in
temperature is Stars that are in this state of equilibrium are known to be in the main sequence
the same as 1 ˚C phase. They spend most of their life (approximately 90%) in the main sequence,
difference changing hydrogen to helium through fusion. Stars change their appearance over
billions of years, but the rate of stellar evolution and the ultimate fate of a star will
• solar mass –
depend on its mass.
standard unit
of mass in
astronomy, equal Different colours of stars
to the mass of the Stars that look blue are hotter, and usually younger, than stars that appear red
Sun in colour. However, the larger the mass of the star the faster it will move through
• magnetic field – stellar evolution. A way of classifying stars is according to their colour or spectral
region around class, as this gives an indication of their temperature. For example, a red dwarf is a
magnetic material, small and relatively cool star during its main sequence.
or a moving
electric charge, Class Surface temperature Conventional Mass
where the force of (kelvin) colour (solar mass)
magnetism acts O > 33 000 K blue > 16 M
A 7 500–10 000 K white 1,4–2,1 M
G 5 200–6 000 K yellow 0,8–1,04 M
K 3 700–5 200 K orange 0,45–0,8 M
M 2 000–3 700 K red < 0,45 M
Table 1 A segment of the Harvard spectral classification system

Activity 4 Explain the life of stars

Figure 6 A perfect balance 1. Why does a star not collapse under the weight of its own gravity when in the
between energy produced main sequence of its life?
and energy released stops
2. Briefly explain how stars can be classified according to their colour, mass and
further collapse
surface temperature.

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 Our sun
Our sun is about half way through its life cycle. It is a medium-sized yellow dwarf
star that was formed about 4, 6 billion years ago. The term ‘dwarf’ is used to contrast
main sequence stars like our sun from giant stars, which have the same surface
temperatures but are brighter and have a larger radius. The Sun is the star at the
centre of the solar system. It consists of hot plasma interwoven with magnetic fields.
The Sun has a spectral classification of G, which means it has
a surface temperature of approximately 5 778 K (5 505 °C).
Each second, it fuses approximately 600 million tonnes of
hydrogen to helium, converting about four million tonnes
of matter to energy. About three quarters of the Sun’s mass
consists of hydrogen, while the rest is mostly helium. The
remaining 1,69% is made up of heavier elements, including
oxygen, carbon, neon and iron. It is interesting to note that
this remainder percentage still equals 5 628 times the mass of
Earth!
Once regarded by astronomers as a small and relatively
insignificant star, the Sun is now thought to be brighter than
about 85% of the stars in the Milky Way galaxy, most of which
are red dwarfs.
Towards the end of its life, the Sun will start to swell up to
form a red giant. A star becomes a giant star after all the
Figure 7 The Sun
hydrogen available for fusion at its core has been depleted;
as a result, it is no longer in the main sequence. Our sun has a
remaining lifespan of about nine billion years.

Activity 5 Draw a timeline for the stellar evolution of the Sun

1. What is the plasma of our sun made of?
2. Briefly explain what a red dwarf is.
3. Use an illustrated timeline to describe the stellar evolution of the Sun on its
way to becoming a red giant. Be sure to indicate at what point on the timeline
we are now.

Key concepts
Stars change in their appearance over billions of years.
Stars that look blue are hotter, and usually younger, than stars that appear red in colour.
Our sun is about half way through its life cycle – it is a medium-sized yellow star with a lifespan of about
nine billion years.
For most of their life, stars change hydrogen to helium through nuclear fusion.
Towards the end of their lives, stars, like the Sun, will swell up to form red giants.

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 Unit

3 Death of a star

Red giant
Running out of fuel and contracting
A star will eventually use up most of its hydrogen and fusion will slow down. Nuclear
reactions stop inside the star, and because there is no longer any outward moving
pressure from fusion to counteract the force of gravity, the star begins to collapse
upon itself. This is when the star leaves the main sequence and starts to die.

Brightening and swelling

As the star contracts, the temperature and pressure in its centre increases until it
is sufficient to have the fusion process in the core begin with helium, while some
of the remaining hydrogen in a layer surrounding the core ignites into fusion. This
causes the outer layers of the star to expand, forming a red giant. Helium burns in
Figure 8 Without the
the core of the red giant, producing oxygen and carbon. The red giant will begin to
outward pressure generated
by the fusion of hydrogen to
brighten between 1 000 and 10 000 times.
counteract the force of gravity
the core contracts.

Figure 9 Red giant BP Piscium devouring its solar system

Activity 6 Explain the sequence of events for a red giant

Use your illustrated timeline from Activity 5 on page 255 to sequence and explain
how a star like the Sun will become a red giant towards the end of its life.

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 Death of a star
Planetary nebula
Because there is so little pressure now in the outside areas of the star, the surface
temperature drops. Most of this hydrogen covering is blown away by the radiation
coming from below, and by strong solar winds. All that is left is a long-period
variable star. The shed material is known as a planetary nebula. A nebula consists of
the outer gases of the star, which are ejected into space. Nebulae can get as big as
one light year across.

White dwarf
The centre of the star has now met
its demise. During the formation
of the planetary nebula, the star
ceases all nuclear reactions and
collapses. The star is still very hot,
but over a few hundred million
years, it cools and becomes a white
dwarf.
The white dwarf is composed of
carbon (produced from the fusion
of helium) and oxygen. Surrounding
this is a thin layer of helium,
which is sometimes surrounded
by hydrogen. The star will be very Figure 10 Planetary nebulae are lit up by their central white dwarf
star and are beautiful objects to observe
compact or dense. Although only
about the size of Earth, a white
dwarf’s mass can be anything from
a little less than half a solar mass to
a little more than one solar mass.
Did you know?
Activity 7 Make a poster As the white dwarf
cools further, it will
Work in groups of three. You will be required to create an information poster in become dark and
which you sequence and explain the birth, life and death of a star the size of our barely detectable. It is
own sun. Present your poster to the class. then known as a black
dwarf.

Key concepts
At some point the nuclear reaction runs out of fuel.
For stars like the Sun, the core of the star contracts to become a white
dwarf.
For stars like the Sun, the outer gases of the star are ejected into space,
where they form an expanding cloud around the white dwarf called a
planetary nebula.
Planetary nebulae are lit up by their central white dwarf star and are
beautiful objects to observe.

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 Topic 20 revision

Science language activity

Provide short definitions for the following:
1. Stellar evolution 2. Nuclear fusion
3. Gravitational contraction 4. Nebula
5. Solar mass 6. Magnetic field
7. Red giant 8. Yellow dwarf
9. Planetary nebula 10. White dwarf

Test yourself
1. Use these photos to briefly sequence and explain how a star is born. (10)

Figure 11 Figure 12 Figure 13

2. Describe the life of a star like the Sun. (5)

3. Use these photos to briefly sequence and explain the death of
a star like the Sun. (10)

Figure 14 Figure 15 Figure 16

Total: 25

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 Practice exam: terms 1 and 2

1. Various options are provided as possible answers to the following questions. Choose the correct answer and
write only the letter next to the question number.
a ) The following is an example of an acid:
A H2
B H2SO4
C NaCl
D MgCO3

b ) Metal + oxygen → .
A metal hydroxide
B metal carbonate
C non-metal oxide
D metal oxide

c ) The sequence of the four processes in the alimentary canal is:

A Ingestion, egestion, absorption, digestion.
B Digestion, absorption, ingestion, egestion.
C Ingestion, digestion, egestion, absorption.
D Ingestion, digestion, absorption, egestion.

d ) Inhalation is the process when …

A the muscles of the diaphragm contract, the intercostals muscles contract and air is forced out of the
lungs.
B the muscles of the diaphragm contract, the intercostals muscles contract and air flows down the air
passages into the lungs.
C the muscles of the diaphragm relax, the intercostals muscles relax and air is forced out of the lungs.
D the muscles of the diaphragm relax, the intercostals muscles relax and air flows down the air pas-
sages into the lungs.

e ) The colour of red litmus in a neutral substance is:

A blue
B red
C colourless
D green

f ) The pathway of air from the lungs to the outside is:

A alveolus, bronchus, bronchiole, trachea
B alveolus, bronchiole, trachea, bronchus
C alveolus, trachea, bronchiole, bronchus
D alveolus, bronchiole, bronchus, trachea

g) You can test for carbon dioxide gas with:

A universal indicator
B clear limewater
C a burning splint
D a glowing splint

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 h ) The removal of waste products from the cells of the body is called …
A excretion
B osmoregulation
C metabolism
D absorption

i ) The main components of the excretory system are …

A kidney, bladder and uterus
B kidney, ureter and vagina
C kidney, bladder and ureter
D kidney, uterus and ureter

j ) Chromium is used in the process of electrolysis to cover steel. The reason for this is because:
A the chromium protects the steel from bugs
B the chromium keeps the steel from rusting
C it makes the steel stronger
D it makes the steel more expensive (10)

2. Give the correct term for each of the following descriptions.

a ) The name of the compound made from potassium, nitrogen and oxygen.
b ) A tube that carries semen and urine but never both at the same time.
c ) A substance that contains dyes that will change colour in acids and bases.
d ) The ability to move from one place to another.
e ) The flow of air in and out of the lungs. (5)

3. Select from Column B the description which best suits the term in Column A.
Write only the letter of Column B next to the question number.

Column A Column B
a ) Carbon dioxide gas A. A gas with no colour or smell that is lighter than air
b ) Penis B. Carries the egg to the uterus
c ) Antacid C. Metal carbonate + acid → salt + water + ________
d ) Oviduct D. A bag of skin that holds the testes outside the body
e ) Hydrogen gas E. A substance with a pH below 7
f ) Uterus F. Make the eggs and release one each month
g ) Acid G. An acid + base produces this type of substance
h ) Scrotum H. A hollow cavity with a thick muscular wall
i ) Neutral I. A base that neutralises stomach acid
j ) Ovaries J. Places sperm inside the female
K. Makes the sperm
(10)

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 4. Study the diagrams below and answer the questions.
A

Figure 1 Cells

a) Which diagram, A or B shows a plant cell? (1)

b) Support your answer to (a) with two reasons. (2)
c) Select the number of the organelle where respiration takes place. (1)
d) Suggest which cell, A or B will have more of these organelles mentioned in the previous
question. Explain. (3)

5. Look at the element in the box and answer the following questions.
3

Li
7
a) State the name of the element. (1)
b) State the atomic number of the element. (1)
c) Write down the group number for this element on the periodic table. (1)
d) This element can react with hydrochloric acid in the following reaction:
e) Li + HCl → LiCl + H2
i) Balance the equation. (2)
ii) Name the two products that form. (2)
iii) One of the products is a gas. Describe how you can test for this gas. (1)

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 6. Study the diagram below and answer the questions.

2 B
3

a ) State one structural difference between the blood vessels numbered 2 and 3. (2)
b ) State the process that takes place in the part numbered 4. (1)
c ) Explain how carbon dioxide leaves the cells and enters the blood. (3)

7. The photo shows magnesium metal burning in air.

a) State the gas that the magnesium reacts with. (1)

b) Write down the name of this type of rapid chemical reaction that produces heat and light. (1)
c) Write a word equation for this reaction. (2)
d) Non-metals can also react with the gas mentioned in a) above. Write a balanced chemical equation to
show the reaction between this gas and sulfur. (2)
e ) Predict the name of the product formed in d) above. (1)

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 8. Study the diagram below and answer the questions.
Immune B
system

D E

Human
body
systems
Integumentary
C system

F A
G

Endocrine system
a) In which part of the system numbered B is water absorbed back into the blood? (1)
b) State one other function of the system mentioned in question (a). (1)
c) Identify the system numbered D. (1)
d) Explain how stimuli from the environment reach the brain. (3)
e) Identify the system numbered C. (1)
f ) Explain how the two parts in the system mentioned in question (e) work together. (2)
g) Name the process in which excess water is removed by the system numbered F. (1)
h) Identify the system numbered G. (1)
i ) Apply your knowledge to explain how it is possible that a new individual inherits characteristics from
both parents. (2)
j ) Predict the process that will take place after an egg has not been fertilised. (1)

9. A learner used blue litmus paper to test the liquid inside an orange. Use the photo to answer the following
questions.

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 a) Describe what the learner observed. (1)
b) Explain why this happened. (1)
c) Suggest if the liquid in the orange is very strong. Give a reason for your answer. (2)
d) Suggest a possible pH value for the liquid inside an orange. (1)

10. Vusi investigated the reaction between hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide solution. He put 5 ml sodium
hydroxide solution into a beaker and added a few drops of universal indicator. He then added hydrochloric
acid slowly until he was sure the pH of the solution was 7.
a ) Predict the colour of the solution after he first added the universal indicator. Support your answer with a
reason. (2)
b ) Name the reaction that occurs between an acid and an alkali. (1)
c ) Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction. (2)
d ) Suggest how Vusi would know when the pH was 7. (1)
e ) In this reaction a salt is produced. Apply your knowledge to name the salt. (1)
f ) Vusi wanted a dry sample of the salt produced after the reaction. Suggest how he would do this. (1)
Total: 80

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 Practice exam: terms 3 and 4

1. Choose the correct answer and write down the number and the letter of your choice.
a ) When like poles of a magnet are brought together
A they attract one another
B they repel one another
C nothing occurs
D the force of attraction increases
b ) An object that loses electrons becomes
A positively charged
B neutral
C negatively charged
D lighter in mass
c ) Which of the following is NOT one of the atmosphere’s layers?
A the thermosphere
B the hydrosphere
C the stratosphere
D the mesosphere
d ) Which of the colours below indicates the hottest star?
A red
B blue
C yellow
D white (4)

2. Give the correct scientific term for each of the following:

a ) The process in which impurities are removed from a mineral
b ) The gravitational force that a moon or planet exerts on an object on its surface
c ) The force between two electrically charged objects
d ) A contact force that squeezes an object into a smaller space
e ) Branches in the electricity grid experience an excess of electricity (5)

3. Look at the components given below:

cell

switch buzzer
a) Draw a circuit diagram of the circuit formed when the components are connected in series. (2)
b) What happens to the buzzer when the switch is open? (1)
c) What happens to the buzzer when the switch is closed? (1)
d) Explain what would happen to the sound of the buzzer if three cells are:
i ) connected in series (1)
ii ) connected in parallel? (1)

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 4. Look at the diagram below.
Graph of current against resistance
6

5
Ammeter reading (A)

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Length of resistor (cm)

a) Provide a hypothesis for this investigation. (2)

b) Name the independent variable and the dependent variable. (2)
c) How is the dependent variable measured? (1)
d) Explain how you would ensure that the test was fair. (2)
e) Analyse the data shown in the graph and decide if it supports your hypothesis or not. (2)
f ) Explain how the information gained from this investigation could be useful to people. (2)
5. Look at the circuit diagram below:

3A

resistor 1 A1

resistor 2 A2

a ) The two resistors are equal. Calculate the reading on ammeter 1 and ammeter 2. (3)
b ) In the diagram below, calculate the readings on the meters X, Y and Z. (5)
12 V

Y 6A

4V

4A

X
Z

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 6. Study the figure below and answer the questions:
2 3

4
1

a ) Explain the purpose of the part labelled 2. (3)

b ) Explain why damage in one part of the national grid affects other parts of the grid. (2)
c ) Two light bulbs are marked 11 kW and 15 kW respectively and connected to the mains supply. Calculate
the cost (in Rand) of electricity used by the 15 kW bulb for 30 days non-stop at R0,97 per unit. (3)
(Use the formula Cost = P 3 t 3 Cost per unit, P is the power rating in kW, t is the time in Hrs)

7. Read the extract below and answer the questions which follow:
Conflict over proposed mine
A large mining company plans to open a new opencast copper mine near the Kruger National park. The area in
which the mine will be is a dry area, mostly used for cattle rearing, but in which some crops are also grown. There
are many villages in the area, but not much work. A mine will be very close to a main road leading to a busy tourist
entrance to the park. Environmental action groups are opposed to the opening of the mine. They are planning to
write a letter urging the minister not to allow the mine to be opened.
a ) Briefly explain what an opencast mine is. (2)
b ) Is copper an element or a compound? (1)
c ) In which layer of the Earth is the copper ore found? (1)
d ) Suggest two reasons the environmentalists could use in their letter to support their opposition to the
mine. (2 × 2 = 4)
e ) Suggest one reason why the government might want to support the opening of the mine. (2)

8. Some igneous rocks have small crystals, and some have large crystals.
a ) What is an igneous rock? (2)
b ) Give an example of an igneous rock with large crystals. (1)
c ) Give an example of an igneous rock with small crystals. (1)
d ) Explain fully why there is a difference in the crystal size of igneous rocks. (6)

9. Calculate the temperature at 1 500 m above sea level if it is 25 ⁰C at 1 300 m above sea level. Show all your
working. (4)

Practice exam: terms 3 and 4 267

mml_9780636140929_plt_nat_g09_lb_eng_zaf.indb 267 06/06/13 3:02 PM

 10. The atmosphere’s different layers all play a role in supporting life on Earth.
a ) Match the layers in column A with their role in column B. Write down only the numbers and their
corresponding letter in your answer book. (1 × 4 = 4)
Column A: Layers of the atmosphere Column B: Role in supporting life on Earth
1) Thermosphere a) Layer where small rocks burn up instead of reaching
Earth
2) Stratosphere b) Provides oxygen and carbon dioxide for life processes
3) Mesosphere c) Absorbs dangerous x-rays from the Sun
4) Lithosphere d) Contains the ozone layer which protects life from
harmful ultraviolet radiation
e) Layer that does not help to keep the Earth warm

b ) Global warming can lead to climate change and rising sea levels
i ) Explain what is meant by global warming. (2)
ii ) What changes in the composition of the atmosphere do scientists think might be causing global
warming? (1)
iii ) Explain what is meant by ‘climate change’. (2)

11. Describe and explain what will happen to the Sun toward the end of its life. (5)
Total: 80

268 Practice examinations

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 Glossary
A blackout Short or long-term loss of electrical
power to an area
acids Substances with a pH between 0 and 7
breathing The inflow and outflow of air in the
acid mine drainage Water polluted with acidic lungs
chemicals draining into natural water systems
acid rain Rain water that is more acidic that natural
rain water, because of gases that are released into C
the atmosphere by industries cell The smallest unit of all living organisms
air The mixture of gases that make up the cell (electrical) Device that produces electricity by
atmosphere converting chemical energy into electrical energy
alkali Base that can dissolve in water chemical process The use of chemicals to extract
alloy A mix of different metals to produce a new minerals from ore
type of metal with better qualities than any of the chemical reaction A chemical process in which
components in the alloy two or more substances react to form new
alluvial deposits Material deposited by a river substances
altitude Height above sea level chlorophyll A green pigment found in chloroplasts
analysing Looking carefully at data to find patterns that gives plants their green colour
and meaning circuit breaker A safety device that will open the
appliance Electrical household machine or device circuit if too much current flows in the circuit
like a fridge or stove, floor polisher or vacuum circulation The flow of blood through the body
cleaner cells and organs of an animal
Archaeologist A scientist who studies ancient circumcision The removal of the foreskin
people climate change Long term changes in Earth’s
astrophysics Branch of astronomy that deals with temperature and precipitation patterns
the physical properties of celestial objects Coke Is a fuel made from coal in the same way that
atmosphere The mixture of gases held round Earth charcoal is made from wood. So you can think of it
by gravity as ‘coal charcoal’. It is high in carbon
atoms Smallest units that elements are made of combustion Rapid chemical reaction with oxygen
atrium Heart chamber which receives blood that produces heat and light
compounds Pure substances formed by a
chemical reaction between two or more different
B elements
balanced forces Two forces that have no visible compression Contact force that pushes or
effect because they are exactly equal and squeezes something into a smaller space
opposite concentric Having the same centre as something
bases Substances with a pH between 7 and 14 else
battery More than one cell connected together conductor A component made of material that
biosphere The sphere of Earth that consists of all allows electric current to flow through it
living things and their interactions with the rocks, contact force Force that is exerted when two
soil, air and water of Earth objects touch each other

Glossary 269

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 copulation The process where the erect penis is electroplating To use electrolysis to cover one
placed in the vagina metal with a layer of another metal
corrosion Process where a metal is damaged or electrostatic force Force that two electrically
weakened by a chemical reaction charged objects exert on each other over a distance
corrosive Substance that dissolves or eats away at element Pure substance, made up of only one
metals and other strong materials type of atom, that cannot be split up into simpler
crust The outermost layer of Earth substances
embryo Early developmental stage
D epithelial tissue A tissue that covers the organs
and internal surfaces of the body
data Facts or information taken from an investigation
Decanting Pouring out erosion The process during which weathered
material is carried away by wind and water
density The amount of mass in a given volume of a
material exert To apply by pushing, pulling or twisting
deoxygenated blood Blood that is rich in carbon extinct A species that has died out
dioxide Extract Remove or take out of
diaphragm A muscular plate that divides the
thorax (chest) from the abdomen F
differentiation To develop a particular shape
usually in order to perform a particular function fertilisation Fusion of the egg and the sperm
diffusion gradient A difference in the concentrations foetus The human embryo after eight weeks of
of substances between a region with a high development
concentration of particles and a region with a low force Action that can be described as a push or
concentration of particles, for example oxygen a pull
diode A component in an electrical circuit that force of attraction Pulling force that two objects
controls the flow of current in a particular direction exert on each other
dissection The act of cutting something into parts force of repulsion Pushing force that two objects
for scientific examination exert on each other
DNA The material found in cells that carries the forceps A pair of tweezers used in dissection
hereditary information fossil fuel Coal, oil and gas made from the remains
of plants and animals that lived long ago
E friction Contact force that a surface exerts on an
earth leakage A safety device used to protect object
people from electric shock by redirecting the fuse A safety device in a circuit that melts and
current into the ground breaks if the current exceeds a safe level
ejaculation The rapid release of semen from the
penis
G
electrical infrastructure Infrastructure used to
generate electricity and distribute it along power galvanise To cover steel or iron with a layer of
lines to users a more reactive metal such as zinc
electrodes A solid substance through which an gametes The sex cells or sperm cells and egg cells
electric current enters or leaves a cell gaseous exchange The transfer of oxygen and
electrolytes The medium for the movement of carbon dioxide between an organism and its
ions within cells environment

270 Glossary

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 genetic information Inherited information that is inner core The innermost solid layer of Earth
passed on from parents to the young insulator A substance that does not allow electric
granite An igneous rock formed from a large mass current to flow through it
of magma that cooled slowly deep inside Earth
gravitational contraction Process where a nebula’s
K
gravity overcomes its internal pressure, causing a
collapse kelvin Used in measuring the colour temperature
gravitational force Pulling force that bodies exert of light sources
on each other over a distance due to their masses
greenhouse A structure made of glass in which L
plants are grown
like charges Similar electric charges, that is,
greenhouse effect A warming effect caused by
positive and positive or negative and negative
the trapping of energy in the atmosphere
like poles Similar magnetic poles, that is, north and
greenhouse gases Gases that absorb Earth’s
north or south and south
outgoing energy, trapping it in the atmosphere
limestone A sedimentary rock formed from the
global warming An increase in the average
bones and shells of small sea creatures
temperature of the atmosphere
lithosphere The part of Earth made up of soil and
group A column in the Periodic Table
solid rock; the crust and outer layer of the mantle

H M
hazardous Dangerous
macroscopic Large enough to be seen with the
heliostats Giant mirrors that focus the sun’s energy naked eye
in order to heat water
magnifying lens A piece of glass that is specially
hormones Chemicals that are made by glands and curved to produce an enlarged image of an object
they speed up or slow down the activities of an
magma Rock that is so hot it has melted
organ
magnetic field Region around a magnetic material,
hydroelectric power Power generated by falling
or a moving electric charge, within which the
water released from dams directly onto a turbine
force of magnetism acts
hydrosphere The sphere of Earth that consists of
magnetic force Force that two magnetic materials
water in all its forms
exert on each other over a distance
magnifying lens A piece of glass that is specially
I curved to produce an enlarged image of an object
igneous rocks Rocks that form when magma cools mantle The layer of Earth between the outer core
down and the crust
implantation Embryo sinks into the blood layer of marble A metamorphic rock formed from
the uterus limestone
indicator Dye that has different colours in acids and mass A measure of the amount of matter that a
bases body is made of
infrastructure Physical items such as roads, drains, mass extinctions The extinction of one or more
water supply, electricity power lines and power species in a short period of time
stations that a modern country or community menstrual cycle A series of changes that happen
needs in the female reproductive organs

Glossary 271

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 menstruation The breakdown of the thick layer of O
blood that lines the uterus
ore Rock with a high concentration of a valuable
mesosphere The layer third layer of the mineral
atmosphere from Earth’s surface
organelle Specialised structures found inside living
metal carbonates Compounds consisting of a cells that perform specific functions for the cell
metal and a carbonate, for example, CaCO3
outer core The liquid layer of Earth surrounding
metal hydroxide Compound consisting of a metal the inner core
and a hydroxide, for example Mg(OH)2; can be
overload Excess electrical current in a circuit
formed when a metal oxide reacts with water
ovulation The release of a ripe egg from the ovary
metal oxide Compound formed when a metal
reacts with oxygen oxide Compound formed when a substance reacts
with oxygen
metamorphic rocks Rocks that form when the
oxygenated blood Blood that is rich in oxygen
chemical structure of existing rocks is changed by
heat ozone A form of oxygen found mainly in the
stratosphere
microscope An instrument that uses a lens or
a combination of lenses to produce magnified ozone layer The band in the stratosphere in which
images of small objects most of the atmosphere’s ozone is found
microscopic Something that is so small that it can
only be seen when using a microscope P
mineral A naturally occurring inorganic substance period A row in the Periodic Table
that has the same properties throughout.
pH Number between 0 and 14 that tells us how
Minerals are normally considered to be valuable
acidic or basic a water soluble substance is
substances
photosynthesis The process by which plants use
multicellular Consisting of many cells chlorophyll to convert radiant energy into food
physical process Using physical methods to
N extract minerals from ore or sediment
national electricity grid The network of all the pituitary gland Structure found at the base of the
brain which starts to make hormones
electrical transmission lines in South Africa
placenta Structure that provides the embryo
neutral Substance that is not an acid or a base,
with food, water and oxygen and removes waste
with a pH of 7
materials
neutralisation Chemical reaction in which an acid
plasma A state of matter created when gas is heated
and a base react to produce a salt and water and the particles become ionised, increasing or
newton Unit in which force is measured reducing the number of electrons in them
non-contact force Force that is exerted over a pollutant Something that causes pollution
distance; also called a field force power The rate at which work can be done
non-metal oxide Compound formed when a power rating The amount of electrical power
non-metal reacts with oxygen needed to operate an appliance correctly
nuclear fission The release of energy from an atom power station A system used to generate
when its nucleus is split and the atom divides into electricity
two smaller atoms power surge A surplus of electricity when voltage
nuclear waste Nuclear fuel that is no longer viable is 110% above the normal voltage in the power
and needs to be disposed of line

272 Glossary

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 precipitation Water in any form that falls to Earth’s sediments Particles of rock that have been
surface from clouds deposited by wind and water
puberty Stage in the human life cycle when the semi-conductor A substance that conducts
sexual organs mature for reproduction electric current under certain conditions
pumice stone An igneous rock that formed as sex hormone Chemical that carries messages in
magma emerged and cooled quickly on the the body
surface of Earth
shale A sedimentary rock formed from fine
pumped storage Water that is stored in large particles of clay
reservoirs is released onto turbines in a lower
reservoir and then pumped back again for reuse shooting star Dust or small rocks that burn up
when entering the mesosphere
simulate To create particular conditions that exist
R in real life using computers and models
radioactive Material that emits radiation energy, slate A metamorphic rock formed from shale
particles or rays – all of which can damage living
smelting To process an ore using heat to extract
tissue
the mineral that is in the ore
rate Speed or how quickly or slowly something
solar To do with the sun
takes to happen or to be done
refining Making a natural product pure by solar mass Standard unit of mass in astronomy,
removing unwanted substances equal to the mass of the Sun
reproduction To make more organisms or living specialisation To take on a particular function and
things only perform that function
resistance The ability of a component in spheres of Earth One of four interacting parts of
an electrical circuit to oppose the flow of current Earth
resistor A component that opposes the flow of steel A mixture (alloy) of iron and other materials,
current in an electrical circuit mainly carbon
rheostat A component in an electrical circuit that stellar evolution The birth, life and death of stars
has the ability to change its resistance stratosphere The second layer of the atmosphere
rock cycle The natural, continuous process in from Earth’s surface
which rocks form, are broken down and re-form summary Short way of stating the most important
over long periods of time points
rusting Slow chemical reaction of iron with oxygen
in the air, in the presence of water
T
S tariff Schedule of prices or fees used to charge for
services
scalpel A small knife with a thin sharp blade used
in dissection temperature gradient How much temperature
changes with altitude
secondary sexual characteristics Changes in the
bodies of males and females that happen during tension Contact force in a rope or cable when it is
puberty used to carry a load
section drawing A drawing that shows what thermosphere The fourth layer of the atmosphere
something would look like if cut in half from Earth’s surface and the one furthest from it
sedimentary rocks Rocks that form from particles troposphere The lowest layer of the atmosphere,
of rock deposited in layers closest to the surface of Earth

Glossary 273

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 U voltmeter An instrument used to measure
voltage
ultraviolet radiation Radiation from the Sun that
has as shorter wavelength than the violet light of
the visible light spectrum W
unbalanced forces Two forces that have a visible watts (W) The unit used to measure how much
effect because they are not exactly opposite and energy is required to do work. In electricity, it is
equal the rate at which electrical energy is transferred to
unicellular Consisting of a single cell an appliance
unlike charges Different electric charges, that is, weathering The process during which rock is
positive and negative broken up into smaller particles
unlike poles Different magnetic poles, that is, weight The gravitational force that a celestial body
north and south such as a moon or a planet exerts on an object on
its own surface
V wet mount A glass slide holding a specimen
suspended in a drop of water and covered with a
veins Thin lines of solidified lava that have formed cover slip
in cracks in other rock
ventricle Heart chamber which pumps blood
X–Z
voltage Measure of the amount of potential energy
stored in a cell or used by a circuit component zygote Fertilised egg

274 Glossary

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 Index
A layers 233, 234, 235, 250 chalk 118
temperature gradient 235 charges
abortion 47
atomic number 76 like 142
absorption 20, 21, 28, 71
atoms 76, 84, 141 unlike 142
acid
atrium 52, 53 cheek cells 11
mine drainage 228–230, 229
chemical
rain 113
equations 83, 86, 92, 123
acid-base reactions 120–121 B balancing 86–87
applications 121
formulae 83
acidity 106, 107 balanced
indicators 101
acids 99, 100–102, 103, 108, 109, diets 62, 64
household 101
110, 114, 115, 116, 118, 119, equations see chemical
laboratory 102
122, 124 equations
universal 102–103, 108
applications 122 meals 64
industry 123
acquired immunodeficiency bases 99, 100, 103, 108, 109,
reactions 75, 83, 84–85, 97,
syndrome see HIV/AIDS 110, 122
108, 124
additives 65 applications 122
symbols 76, 83
agricultural lime 121 batteries 148, 150, 162
chlorophyll 5
AIDS see HIV/AIDS bicarbonate of soda see sodium
chloroplasts 5
air 234 bicarbonate
cholesterol levels 57
alcohol 46, 57 biosphere 202, 203
circulation 50, 52–53, 56
alimentary canal 68, 71 blackouts 184
circuit
alkali 100, 102 bladder 29
breakers 176, 177, 177
alkalinity 106 infections 29
diagram 168–169, 168, 178
alloy 224 blindness 31
circulatory system 18, 22, 34, 49,
alluvial deposits 222 blood 56
56, 57, 60
altitude 234, 235 breathing 23, 50, 57
function 22, 22,
amoeba 36 bronchitis 24, 25
health issues 22
ammeter 154, 165, 170
processes 22
animal 5
cells 5 C structure 22
circumcision 40, 41
anorexia nervosa 21
capillaries 22, 55, 55 climate change 246, 248
anus 69
carbon 96 coal power plants 175, 175
appliances 188, 192, 193,
dioxide 49, 50, 55, 56, 57, 96, coke 224, 225–226
196–197, 198
96, 247 colour 106
see also household
gas 119, 126 changes 106
appliances
carbonate 119 indicators 106
energy consumption 192, 193
reactions 122 combustion 90, 90, 96, 98
archaeologist 224
cells 1, 2, 4, 15, 16, 49, 56 compounds 75, 79, 81, 82, 83,
arteries 22, 55, 55
animal 6, 14 99, 210
arthritis 27
membrane 2 common names 81
asbestosis 24, 25
model 4 formulae 79
asthma 24
organs 12 naming 81
astrophysics 251
plant 6, 14 names 81
atmosphere 202, 203, 204,
structure 2, 2 perfixes 82
233–234, 249, 250
systems 12 compression 134, 135
density 234
tissues 12 concentric 208
gases 234
types 1 condom 47

Index 275

mml_9780636140929_plt_nat_g09_lb_eng_zaf.indd 275 31/05/13 9:28 PM

 conductors 155, 160 Earth (system) 201, 206, 246, 249 diatomic 84
constipation 65 layers 207, 207, 208, 209, 209, symbols 76
contraception 47 221, 233, 235 embryo 36
copper plates 146 crust 208, 209, 210, 211 energy 56, 57, 62, 124, 129,
copulation 44, 45, 45 inner core 208, 209, 211 194, 246
corrosion 93 magma 208 alternative sources 180, 181
current see electric current mantle 208, 209 release 57
cytoplasm 2, 4 outer core 208, 209, 211 sector 193
life 243 transfer 152, 155
D spheres 201, 202, 202, 205, 206 environmental impact 228–230
egestion 20, 21 enzymes 68
dairy products 62 egg 43, 45 epithelial tissue 14
data analysis 159 movement 45, 45 equations 84, 86
deafness 31 ejaculation 40 excretion 28, 29
decanting 228 electric excretory system 18, 28–29
deoxygenated blood 52, 56 cells 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, function 28
density 124, 234 150, 162, 166, 167 health issues 29
diabetes 64 charges 156 processes 28–29
diaphragm 50, 51 connection 149 structure 28
diarrhoea 21, 65 geyser 196, 198 exercise 54
diatomic electrical exert 130
elements see elements circuits 151, 154, 154, 155, exhalation 51, 51
molecules 124 156, 158, 160, 161, 162, extinct 35, 36, 246
differentiation 12 172–173, 174
diffusion 29 parallel 161, 167, 169–170, F
gradient 52, 55 171, 172, 173, 174
digestion 20, 21, 68, 70, 71 series 161, 162, 166, 171, faeces 20
chemical 70, 71, 72 172, 174 falling water 181
mechanical 70, 71 current 151, 152, 154, 155, family planning 47
digestive 158, 160, 161, 165, 166, fats 62
organs 68 173, 174 fertilisation 36, 46
system 18, 20, 21, 61, 64, 69, 72 measurement 154, 169 fibre 63
function 20 energy 145 filtration 28
health issues 21 infrastructure 194 food 62, 65, 66–67
processes 21 power 188, 189, 191 shortages 248
structure 20 consumption 188, 189, 190 foetal alcohol syndrome 33
diodes 152, 153, 160 measurement 189 foetus 46
dissection 58 electricity 152, 175 forceps 58
heart 58–59 account 190 force of repulsion 140
lung 59 costs 187, 190, 191 forces 129, 142
DNA 2, 37 generation 175, 180, 181 act in pairs 132–133
draw conclusions 159 usage 187 balanced 132
drawing to scale 236–237 electrodes 146 contact 132, 133, 134,
drugs 31, 46 electrolytes 146 135, 144
dry cells 147 electroplating 93, 95 description 130
electrostatic effects 130–131
E field 141 field 133, 136
forces 140, 141, 142, 143 non-contact 143
earth potential energy 143 types 130
leakage 176, 177, 186 elements 76, 77, 82, 99, 210, 211 unbalanced 132, 132
system 177, 177 classification 78 fossil fuel 246

276 Index

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 friction 134–135 hydroelectric power 180 liver 69
see also forces station 181 cirrhosis 21
fuses 176 hydrogen gas 124–125, 124, 126 living organisms 4
fuel 124 locomotion 27
testing 124, 125 lungs 50, 52
G hydrosphere 202, 203 cancer 24, 25
hydroxides 114, 115, 116
galvanise 93, 95, 98
hypothesis 67
gametes 35, 36
gaseous exchange 24, 50, 52 M
genetic information 36, 37
I macroscopic 12
global warming 246, 247,
magnesium 91, 92
248, 250 illegal electrical
oxide 112
glucose 5, 56 connections 179, 179
reaction 92
gold 220 implantation 46
magnets 139, 141
grains 62 indicator 101
attraction 141
gravitational infertility 33, 47
repulsion 141
contraction 252 infrastructure 194, 227
magnetic
force 136, 138, 143, 144 ingestion 20, 21
fields 139, 140, 255
size 137, 138 inhalation 51, 51, 57
of Earth 140–141
grease 66–67 insulator 156
force 138, 139, 140, 143
greenhouse 246 International Space
see also forces
effect 246, 249 Station 245, 245
types 140
gases 246, 250 interpret graphs 247
materials 140
gypsum 118 intestines 69
magnetite 91
large 69
magnifying lens 7, 10
small 69
H malnutrition 64
investigation 67
mass 137, 138, 144
plan 67
habitats 230 extinctions 246, 248
iron 91, 95, 226
hazardous 228 number 76
healthy materials
diet 62 type 156
J–K
food 61 matter 99
heart 50, 53, 53 kelvin 254 meat 62
attack 22 kidney menstrual cycle 44, 45
rate 54 failure 29 menstruation 44, 56
heliostats 180 stones 29 mesosphere 234, 244
high blood pressure 22 extent 244
HIV/AIDS 47 temperatures 244
transmission 47 L metabolism 28
hormones 38 metal
household laboratory 110–111 carbonates 118
appliances 196 life 203 neutralisation 118
products 107 light bulbs 192 hydroxides 114, 115, 116
human/s 12 lightning 143, 144, 172 oxides 90, 92, 98, 112, 116
body 1, 17, 18, 19 system 172 metals 80, 88, 89, 90, 92, 109,
systems 17, 19 like poles 140 124, 225
activities 233, 243 limewater 122 reactions 89, 90, 109, 124
reproduction see lithosphere 202, 203, 206, 207, micrographs 3, 14
reproduction 209, 220 microscopes 1, 7, 7, 9, 16
hydrochloric acid 110, 115 layers 209 compound light 7

Index 277

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 use 7–8 nitric acid 110 mass number 80
discovery 9 non-metal/s 80, 88, 89, 97 periods 77
electron 9 oxides 96, 97, 98, 112 peristalsis 20, 68, 70
microscopic 2 reactions 89, 96 pH 100, 103, 108, 110, 111, 121
mine dumps 228 nuclear meters 103
minerals 63, 210–211, 218, fission 181, 182, 182, 186 scale 100–101, 100
220, 232 fusion 252, 253 values 101, 101
extraction 220, 222–223, power 182, 183 photosynthesis 5, 14, 203
226, 232 plants 182–183 pituitary gland 38, 38
processed 221, 222–223 waste 182, 183 placenta 46, 48
refining 222 nucleus 3 plants 5, 204, 211
resources 219 nutrients 20, 61, 62, 63, 63 plasma 251
wealth 227 nutrition 65 pollutant 228
mining 219, 227, 228, 232 problems 65 pollution 228, 230
activity 230 population control 47
environmental impact O power 188, 198
228, 230 grid overload 185
industry 219 obesity 64, 64 rating 188, 198
terminology 221 oesophagus 68 stations 180, 184, 186
in South Africa 227, 230, 232 oils 62 surges 184, 185
mitochondria 56 open-cast mining 221, 221, 232 pregnancy 46
mixtures 99 ore 220–221, 224, 232 process 222
models 83, 85, 97 copper 224 chemical 222
molecules 124 iron 223, 224 physical 222
mouth 68 lead 224 protein 62
multicellular 12 organelles 2, 3, 4 protons 76
organisms 1 organs 13 puberty 38, 48
musculoskeletal system 18, osmoregulation 28 emotional changes 39
26, 27 osteoporosis 27 process 39
function 26 ovary 42–43 pulse 54
health issues 27 overload 176 pumped storage 180
processes 27 oviducts 43
structure 26 ovulation 44
oxygen 49, 50, 57, 89, 90, 90, 91, Q–R
92, 96, 97
N molecule 84 radiation 242
reactions 90–91, 92 see also ultraviolet
national electricity grid 175, 184, oxide 90 radiation
184, 185 oxygenated blood 52, 53, 55 radioactive 228
nebulae 252, 252, 253 ozone 242, 243 radio waves 245
nervous system 18, 30 layer 242 rate 188
function 30 rectum 69
health issues 31 P reproduction 35, 36, 39, 47
processes 30 asexual 36
structure 30 paint 95 processes 35, 37
neutralisation 110, 115, 126 parallel circuit 168 purpose 36
reaction 111, 113 Periodic Table of elements 75, sexual 36, 36
neutralised solution 116 76, 78, 79, 80, 88 stages 44, 47
newton 130 arrangement 77 reproductive system 32–33, 34
Newton, Sir Isaac 137 groups 77 function 32

278 Index

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 health issues 33 secondary sexual research 15
organs 40–43 characteristics 38–39 stomach 68
female 42, 42, 43, 43 section drawing 208 stratosphere 234, 242, 243
functions 42 semen 41 extent 242
male 40, 40, 41 semi-conductor 156 ozone layer 242, 243
functions 40 semi-metals 80, 88 temperature 242
processes 32–33 oxides 112 ultraviolet radiation 242–243
structure 32 series circuit 163, 163, 164, 165 stroke 22
research report 31, 230–231 current 165 substances 99
resistance 151, 152, 156, 158, sex hormone 40 sulfur 97, 97
173, 174 sexually transmitted sulfuric acid 110
type of material 158 diseases 33 summary 123
resistors 151, 152, 153, 156, 166, shooting stars 244, 244 sun 194, 254–255
168, 173 short-sightedness 31 evolution 255
length 156 silicon 156 sun-heated steam 181
in parallel 168, 173 simulate 251 surrogacy 47
in series 163 smelting 224–225 systems 13, 17, 18
temperature 157 smoking 46, 57
thickness 157 sodium bicarbonate 111,
variable 153 121, 121 T
respiration 24, 49, 56, 57 soil 211
table salt 116
respiratory system 18, 23, 24, 25, solar
temperature
34, 49, 50, 57, 60 mass 254
gradient 234
components 25 panels 195
tension 134, 135
function 23 water heaters 194–195
testable question 117
health issues 24 diagram 195, 195
thermosphere 234, 245
processes 23, 25 solution 116
extent 245
structure 23, 50 solvent 62
gas 245
rheostat 152, 160 specialisation 12
temperature 245
rickets 27 specimen 58
three-pin plugs 178, 178, 179
rising sea levels 248 sperm 41, 48
earth wirw 178
rock cycle 207, 212–216, 217, 218 spinal cord 31
live wire 178
igneous rock 217 starch 66
neutral wirw 178
magma 217, 218 stars 251
tissues 13
metamorphic rock 217 birth 251, 258
troposphere 234, 238, 241
sedimentary rock 217, 218 colours 251, 254
density 238, 241
steps 212 death 256
extent 238, 238, 241
rocks 207, 211, 217, 220 contracting 256, 258
life 239, 241
rust 89, 91, 94–95, 98 planetary nebula 256,
mass 238
rusting 93, 94–95 256, 257
temperature gradient 238,
prevention 94–95 swelling 256
240–241
white dwarf 257
weather 239, 241
S equilibrium 254
turbine 180
evolution 255, 258
saliva 68 formation 253
scalpel 58 life 254 U
scientific mass 254
names 82 steel 95, 225, 226 ulcers 21, 65
report 104–105 stellar evolution 252 ultraviolet radiation 242
sea waves 181 stem cell/s 15 unicellular 12

Index 279

mml_9780636140929_plt_nat_g09_lb_eng_zaf.indb 279 06/06/13 3:02 PM

 organisms 1 vinegar 82, 108, 111 pumped storage plants 181
universal indicator see chemical vitamins 63 resources 228
indicators voltage 148, 149, 155, 162, 164, watts 188
unlike poles 140 166, 174 weight 138–139, 144
ureters 29 measurement 149, 154, 155, wet mount slide 10, 11
uterus 43, 48 163–164, 168 wildlife 229
voltmeter 148, 155, 162, 174 wind 180
V turbines 180
W
vacuoles 5
vagina 43 wastes 62 X–Z
vegetables 62 water 56, 62, 82, 93, 95, 206
veins 22, 55, 55, 220 falling 181 zinc 146
ventricle 52, 53 molecule 79 zygote 35, 46

280 Index

mml_9780636140929_plt_nat_g09_lb_eng_zaf.indb 280 06/06/13 3:02 PM

mml_9780636140929_plt_nat_g09_lb_eng_zaf.indb 281 06/06/13 3:02 PM
 Group
1
semimetals 18
non-metals
1 2

1 H metals non-metals He
semimetals

Period
Hydrogen Helium
1 2 13 14 15 16 17 4
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
metals
2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon

mml_9780636140929_plt_nat_g09_lb_eng_zaf.indd 282
7 9 11 12 14 16 19 20
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
23 24 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 27 28 31 32 36 40
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36

4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
39 40 45 48 51 52 55 56 59 59 64 65 70 73 75 79 80 84
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54

5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
86 88 89 91 93 96 (98) 101 103 106 108 112 115 119 122 128 127 131
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86

6 Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
Caesium Barium Lanthanum Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
133 137 139 179 181 184 186 190 192 195 197 201 204 207 209 (209) (210) (222)
87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118

7 Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Uut Uuq Uup Uuh Uus Uuo

Francium Radium Actinium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Ununtrium Ununquadium Ununpentium Ununhexium Ununseptium Ununoctium
(223) (226) (227) (267) (268) (271) (272) (277) (276) (281) (280) (285) (284) (289) (288) (293) (294) (294)

group
number 13
58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
atomic
6 Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu number 5
Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium symbol
140 141 144 (145) 150 152 157 159 163 165 167 169 173 175
period 2 B
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 number
name Boron
7 Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr 11
Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium
232 231 238 (237) (244) (243) (247) (247) (251) (252) (257) (258) (259) (262)
atomic mass

31/05/13 9:28 PM