Kassam, Laila MBA 2021

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EFFECT OF DONOR FUNDING IN BUILDING COMMUNITY

RESILIENCE IN RURAL COMMUNITIES IN KENYA

BY

LAILA KASSAM

UNITED STATES INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY -AFRICA

SUMMER 2021
EFFECT OF DONOR FUNDING IN BUILDING COMMUNITY
RESILIENCE IN RURAL COMMUNITIES IN KENYA

BY

LAILA KASSAM

(630794)

A Project Report to Chandaria School of Business in Partial Fulfilment of


the requirement for the Degree of Masters in Business Administration
(MBA)

UNITED STATES INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY-AFRICA

SUMMER 2021

i
STUDENT’S DECLARATION

I, the undersigned, declare that this is my original work and has not been submitted to any other
university or college institution or except the United States International University - Africa in
Nairobi for academic credit.

Signed: Date: 15-09-2021


Kassam Laila Banu (630794)

This project report has been presented for examination with my approval as the appointed
supervisor.

Signed: Date:

Dr. Scott Bellows

Signed: Date:

Dean, Chandaria School of Business

ii
COPYRIGHT

All rights reserved. No part of this report may be photocopied, recorded, or otherwise
reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form by electronic or
mechanical means without prior permission

Laila Banu Kassam 630794

iii
ABSTRACT

The main objective of this research was to determine the effect of donor funding in building
community resilience in rural parts of Kenya. The specific objectives were to establish the
degree to which fatalism among community health workers impact their resilience, the
degree to which aspiration among community health workers impact their resilience and the
degree to which social networking among community health workers impact their
resilience.

The study used a descriptive research design. A sampling frame of 33 community health
volunteers (CHVs) whom work closely with rural communities. The study used a non-
probability sampling technique specifically self-selection and convenience of 33 CHVs
based in four different counties in Kenya. For this study, the researcher used questionnaires
to collect data from the target population. The data was coded to transform qualitative data
into quantitative data. Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS Ver.24) was used to
generate correlation figures as well as means, standard deviation, and percentiles. The
information collected was analyzed and presented using figures and tables.

The study found that fatalism has a positive significant influence on resilience of
community health workers. The study also established that community health workers
know how to reach their goals for the future and that their plans for the future are possible
to accomplish. The study also established that the future of community health workers feels
promising and if they continue carrying on, they will succeed in life.

The study established that aspiration positively influences resilience of community health
workers. The study also found that for community health workers to be successful, above
all they needs to work very hard and that each one of them is primarily responsible for
his/her success or failure in life. The study also established that one’s success or failure in
life is a matter of his/her destiny.

The study found that social networking has positive and significant influence on
community health workers resilience. The study also established that community health
workers communicate with at least one person within the community as indicated. They
also listen to radio more than once a week and they search on social media for information

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more than once a week. It was also established that community health workers
communicate regularly with at least one person outside the community.

Based on the study findings, it was concluded that an increase in fatalism would result to an
increase in community health workers resilience. Also, an increase in aspiration would result
to an increase in community health workers resilience. The study further concluded that
increasing social networking would result to an increase in community health workers
resilience.

The study recommends that, there is need to improve the level of education because
education plays a big role in displaying fatalism among communities which can be a
hindrance factor for resilience. There is need to increase funding to NGOs so that they can
provide interventions to provide information, build skills, provide counseling and improving
access to health care. Through this support, vulnerable groups like street children get
involved in activities and interventions that give them a positive outlook to life and to be
resilient. NGOs should develop international and regional policies to intervene and build
resilience. There is need for policies to be reformed to accommodate individuals, community
and family members to receive the services needed especially at a time of shocks. There is
also need to focus on a wider range of factors that include social support and social networks
through supportive caregivers and service providers.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

My great thanks go to Allah for allowing me the heart of perseverance, discipline, and the
gift of hard work. I am also grateful for the crucial role played by my lecturer Dr. Caren
Ouma and supervisor Scott Bellows for her guidance and frequent advice that enabled me to
undertake this research successfully. I would like to acknowledge my husband and mother
for their unconditional belief and support in me.

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DEDICATION

To my mother who believes and made me believe that a woman is capable of doing
anything, she wishes to be despite being a mother and wife. For all the years you have
stood by me throughout my educational journey, for your belief in my abilities even when I
didn’t. For all these and so much more, I thank you.

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TABLE OF CONTENT
STUDENT’S DECLARATION ............................................................................................... ii
COPYRIGHT........................................................................................................................... iii
ABSTRACT............................................................................................................................. iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ....................................................................................................... vi
DEDICATION ........................................................................................................................ vii
LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................... xi
LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................ xii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................................ xiii
CHAPTER ONE ....................................................................................................................... 1
1.0 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Background of the study ................................................................................................. 1
1.2 Statement of the problem ................................................................................................ 5
1.3 General Objectives .......................................................................................................... 6
1.4 Specific Objectives ......................................................................................................... 6
1.5 Justification of the study ................................................................................................. 7
1.6 Scope of the study ........................................................................................................... 8
1.7 Definition of terms .......................................................................................................... 8
1.8 Chapter summary .......................................................................................................... 10
CHAPTER TWO .................................................................................................................... 11
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................................. 11
2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 11
2.2 The Degree to which Fatalism among Community Health Workers Impact Their
Resilience ............................................................................................................................ 11
2.3 The degree to which aspiration among community health workers impact their
resilience ............................................................................................................................. 15
2.4 The degree to which social networking among community health workers impact their
resilience ............................................................................................................................. 19
2.5 Chapter summary .......................................................................................................... 23
CHAPTER THREE ................................................................................................................ 24
3.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY...................................................................................... 24
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3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 24
3.2 Research design ............................................................................................................ 24
3.3 Population and Sampling Design .................................................................................. 24
3.4 Data Collection Methods .............................................................................................. 26
3.5 Research Procedures ..................................................................................................... 26
3.6 Data Analysis Method .................................................................................................. 27
3.7 Chapter Summary ......................................................................................................... 27
CHAPTER FOUR................................................................................................................... 28
4.0 RESULTS AND FINDINGS ............................................................................................ 28
4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 28
4.2 Demographic Information............................................................................................. 28
4.3 Degree to Which Fatalism among Community Health Workers Impact Resilience .... 30
4.4 Degree to Which Aspiration among Community Health Workers Impact Their
Resilience ............................................................................................................................ 33
4.5 Degree to Which Social Networking among Community Health Workers Impact Their
Resilience ............................................................................................................................ 37
4.6 Community Health Workers Resilience ....................................................................... 41
4.7 Multiple Regression Analysis ....................................................................................... 42
4.8 Chapter Summary ......................................................................................................... 44
CHAPTER FIVE .................................................................................................................... 45
5.0 DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS .................................... 45
5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 45
5.2 Summary ....................................................................................................................... 45
5.3 Discussion ..................................................................................................................... 46
5.4 Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 51
5.5 Recommendations ......................................................................................................... 52
5.6 Recommendations for Further Research....................................................................... 53
REFERENCES ....................................................................................................................... 54
Appendices .............................................................................................................................. 61
Appendix I: Consent Form ................................................................................................. 61
Appendix II: Questionnaire ................................................................................................ 63
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Appendix III: Debrief Form ................................................................................................ 66
Appendix IV: IRB Approval............................................................................................... 67
Appendix V: Nacosti Research License ............................................................................. 68
Appendix V: Work Plan and Budget .................................................................................. 69

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 4.1: Response Rate ........................................................................................................ 28

Table 4.2: Degree to Which Fatalism Impact Resilience ....................................................... 30

Table 4.3: Correlations between Fatalism and Resilience ...................................................... 31

Table 4.4: Model Summary between Fatalism and Resilience ............................................... 32

Table 4.5: Analysis of Variance for Fatalism and Resilience ................................................. 32

Table 4.6: Model Coefficients for Fatalism and Resilience ................................................... 33

Table 4.7: Degree to Which Aspiration Impact Resilience .................................................... 34

Table 4.8: Correlations between Aspiration and Resilience ................................................... 35

Table 4.9: Model Summary for Aspiration and Resilience .................................................... 35

Table 4.10: Analysis of Variance for Aspiration and Resilience............................................ 36

Table 4.11: Model Coefficients for Aspiration and Resilience .............................................. 37

Table 4.12: Degree to Which Social Networking Impact Resilience ..................................... 38

Table 4.13: Correlations between Social Networking and Resilience .................................... 39

Table 4.14: Model Summary for Social Networking and Resilience ..................................... 40

Table 4.15: Analysis of Variance for Social Networking and Resilience .............................. 40

Table 4.16: Model Coefficients for Social Networking and Resilience ................................. 41

Table 4.17: Community Health Workers Resilience .............................................................. 41

Table 4.18: Overall Model Summary ..................................................................................... 42

Table 4.19: Overall Analysis of Variance............................................................................... 43

Table 4.20: Beta Coefficients of Study Variables .................................................................. 43

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 4.1: Gender Distribution of Respondents .................................................................... 29

Figure 4.2: Age Distribution of Respondents ......................................................................... 29

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

CHWs Community Health Workers

CSOs Civil Society Organizations

INGOs International Non-Governmental Organization

NACOSTI National Commission for Science, Technology and Innovation

NGOs Non-for-profit organizations

SCDC Scottish community development

SMEs Small and Medium Enterprises

UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund

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CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the study

Over the years, there has been a rise in the transfer and accumulation of knowledge that has
been brought about by the technological advancement globally. However, this has also led to
a gap of disparity between the rich and the low income (Pallas, & Sidel, 2020). Digital
information and communications technologies have revolutionized the ways in which
knowledge and technical knowhow move around the world. The advancement of technology
has led to introduction of innovations in the field of agriculture and human health. The
innovation in financial products and entities such as social enterprises and venture capital has
converted knowledge into unprecedented wealth (Hoehn, 2018). However, like every good
thing, these innovations and advancement in knowledge has widen the gap between the high-
and low-income earners globally. Majority of the developed economies have been successful
in advancement is due to their best functioning institutions and better use of technology
(Bayalieva-Jailobaeva, 2018). As compared to developing countries, organizations are less
equipped to compete with international markets, and have the inability to respond to local
communities (Pratt, 2016).

Reducing poverty and creating sustainable wealth for low-income individuals requires
greater efforts to address the needs and maximize the contribution towards community
development (Wood, 2019). Non-for-profit organizations (NGOs), in which most impact
funds fall under undergo multiple challenges as they are private sector but are trying to fill in
the gap by supporting the government in specific areas of health, education and conservation
of natural resources (Pallas & Nguyen, 2018). NGO are private sectors however they cannot
behave as private sector as this will take away the essence of their mission. But on the other
hand, they cannot also act as a public sector as they face the risk of financial survival
(Claessen & de Lange, 2016). However, over the years international NGOs have come to be
more accepted by governments (Heideman, 2018). Firstly, non-democratic states have
tightened the regulations and protocols of local NGO. This is because in most cases, these
NGO are in the forefront of protests. Secondly, the efficacy of development policy is being
controlled by benchmarks created by policy makers that support the process (Heideman,
2018). The growth in data indicators by parastatals have reshaped the norms in how donor
organization whether -whether national agencies, international governmental organizations,
or large philanthropic foundations distribute funding to recipient NGOs (Parks, 2018). Over
the years, there is an increase demand from donors on the evidence of the effectiveness of
policies that are no longer to tolerate friendly regimes given any particular situations
(Rodriguez, Whiteside & Bennett, 2017).

Donations and grants are a critical tool that channel resources to and empower hard-to-reach
communities and groups; they not only engage in subsidized services to the community but
also a wide range of empowering, supporting and creating sustainability in the work done on
the ground (Blewitt, 2018). Donations and grants are channeled into NGOs that are located in
areas that have certain key issues that are not being addressed or are neglected by the state.
Traditional finance such as bank loans is neither suitable nor available for supporting the
community and alleviating poverty (Lavagnon, 2018).

Resilience has been defined by the OECD as the ability of the individuals, communities and
states and their institutions to absorb and recover from shocks while positively adapting and
transforming structures and means for living in long term changes and uncertainty (Wilson,
2018). There is a critical link between resilience and risk. Scholars have believed the only
way to manage risks and shocks are to break it down in layers. Research has shown that no
single individual should deal with a shock individually (Williamson, 2016). This does not
mean that the government is the solution. What is being proposed is to take a holistic
approach in to manage risk that focuses on different types of risks, and strategies designed to
manage those risks (Parks, 2018).

The role of aid in humanitarian assistance is to help, empower individuals and communities
and develop nations with the tools and conditions they need and to give them the ability to
make optimal decisions about risks they face (Wood, 2016). Some international parastatals
like the OECD is taking a lead on getting cross cutting donor efforts that are aimed at not
only supporting NGOs build resilience but at the same time create sustainable models. OECD
in particular is working with donor groups to help them understand how risks are
interconnected, how to access and advice on risk and also equip them with best practices on
at the ground level (Johannes, & Henry, 2016).

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It has been researched that recognizing capacity building as the central area to achieving
economic growth, reducing poverty and creating opportunities. The establishment of
foundations, family offices (Hancock, 2017). Multilateral and bilateral funding agencies have
taken up the spwtlight in supporting developing countries achieve goals. There is an
increased trend towards democratization, government decentralization and economic
liberalization are reshaping the world. For instance, many developing countries governments
play a smaller role in developing policy and delivering services (Esteves, Franks & Vanclay,
2018). This has been driven by less public funding, corruption and poor leadership. This led
to a gap that is being filled by public interest organizations that have the mandate to have a
greater market orientation in finance, innovation and other business-related angles. There is
now an opportunity for funding agencies and others to play a more active role in stimulating
strategic thinking and bold innovation in the field of capacity building (Aksorn &
Charoenngam, 2018). Traditionally, the type of capacity building supported by many funding
agencies has focused more on professional skills rather than on building institutional
competence. It has emphasized technical and analytical tools over problem solving and
policy relevance. It has promoted the strengthening of individual institutions over the sort of
coordination among multiple, differentiated institutions that can propel and sustain entire
professional fields (Saleh & Harvie, 2017). However, in contrast, capacity building over the
years has been contended to challenge national and global regimes but also increase the
intensity of knowledge accumulated. A systems-oriented approach needs to be adapted to
enable human and institutional development (Blewitt, 2018).

Donors and impact investors support through offering new types of training configurations.
This includes creating a linkage between broader goals of building organizations as well
incorporating stability and management. The landscape analyses were simultaneously
heartening and disconcerting (Cheboi, 2016). On one hand, there is widespread agreement
among funders about the need for and importance of capacity building. They understand, too,
that in order to achieve the challenges, solutions must be devised and executed by those most
directly affected by the problems. In both the national and international arenas, funders have
a growing taste for experimentation and boldness (Koehn, 2018).

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Impact investing was a concept that was coined in 2007 by the Rockefeller Foundation. This
term is used to highlight investing while making a change to low-income communities and
the environment at large (Pallas & Nguyen, 2018). In light of this, most investors in this
sphere look into having a blended facility that includes investment capital along with
grant/donor funding that is dominantly used for technical assistance (Wood, 2019). The
impact investing landscape in Africa has been categorized as the second largest continent to
receive impact investment capital and is predicted to only increase in the future. An impact
fund can be described when development finance institutions and philanthropic foundations
partner with private equity capital to create an impact fund (Browne, 2017). Over the past
five years, billions of dollars have been channeled into enterprises into developing countries
with the purpose to alleviate poverty, promote social/economic development through
capacity building. Most impact funds target small and medium enterprises (SMEs) as they
target the bottom of the pyramid communities (Vander Zaag, 2018).

From a global perspective, most impact creating donors take place in developing countries.
A typical impact investment fund would have a headquarter in the west most likely in North
America or Europe and field offices in developing parts of the world mainly Africa, Asia,
and Latin America. Most head offices are located in developed parts of the world because the
source of funding comes from either government agencies or family foundations (Hancock,
2017). In research from Ngaosong, Korda and Paton, (2015) impact funds have the same
vision as the source of funds which is mainly around generating impact - making a change to
low-income communities across the world.

When discussing a regional approach donor funding in Africa, it can be seen that over the
years South Africa, followed by East Africa, and then lastly West Africa have disbursed
funds that are aimed at creating impact. The main reason that South Africa has the largest
market for impact is mainly due to the development of the economy (GIIN, 2016). However,
over the coming years, there has been an increased momentum in impact investing in East
Africa prominently in Kenya. Some key features of impact investing funds in Africa are that
18% of impact funds were established between 2000 and 2004 followed by 34% between
2005-2009. These figures portray that impact funds are growing steadily and that impact

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investors' interest is growing (GIIN, 2016). According to a survey conducted by GIIN 2020,
they believe that there is a 62% probability of steady growth in the impact investing space.

1.2 Statement of the problem

Over the years the concept of resilience has grown momentum in the international stage. This
is being driven by the growing recognition of different types of risks that are connected and
cannot be looked at in isolation. The risks in these cases can be violence and conflict, climate
change, food security, pandemics, infertility among others (Balboa, 2018). In Africa there are
several risks including low literacy levels and basic technological innovations in rural areas.
This has led to communities having a minimum resilience in coping and bouncing back post
a shock. This has led to donors, governments and development actors to come together to
support these communities and regions be able to mitigate risks and build on resilience
(Fowler, 2016).

Almost a quarter of Overseas Development Assistance goes to support capacity building,


through technical assistance or through NGOs (Hu & Guo, 2016). Despite improvements in
the policy environments in many developing countries and in the ways, donors interact with
them, development outcomes are still falling short of expectations, especially in Africa.
Much of this shortfall is attributed by donors and by countries to inadequate development of
local capacities (Krawczyk, 2018).

Community development programs are the primary vehicles for social and economic change
in many developing countries. Planned community development programs are usually
multipurpose in nature and cut across a wide range of community concerns (Pallas, 2016).
The biggest challenge remains in the measurement of these donor funded projects on the
ground in relation to the impact created. The major concern for a lot of donors who channel
grants into NGOs question the sustainability and measurement of funds to the community
(Pallas & Sidel, 2020).

The diffusion theory helps in understanding the community and its level of adaptability in the
innovation that comes from international funding through local or international non-
governmental organizations. Diffusion is a process by which a new idea or a technology is

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dispersed among the individuals of a community or a social system through certain channels
over time. An innovation is an idea or creation of an object that is perceived as life changing
and new (Rogers, 2003). Research and the theory of diffusion of innovation suggest that
numerous factors affect the likelihood of the use of an innovation. Two of the factors
discussed in this article are perceived attributes of an innovation and knowledge about an
innovation. Perceived attributes at the community level taking into consideration an
individual is dependent on five main characteristics the perceived advantage of the
innovation, compatibility, complexity, availability for testing and visibility of its outcome
(Moffitt, 2007).

According to research, the aid funded to the South with the objective of development, only a
fraction of available resources is given directly to CSOs. The vast majority of aid is
distributed via multilateral organizations such as the United Nations and the World Bank, or
is given in bilateral aid to specific countries, programs and regions. The split between the
funding received is to bilateral agencies that include NGOs and CSOs but a large proportion
is dedicated to interactions NGOs. This is because the INGOs are used as a direct channel to
create impact in the South. The result of this distribution is that small, informal organizations
based in developing countries often cannot secure the resources that they need to sustain their
work.

1.3 General Objectives

The general objective of the study was to understand the effect of donor funding at the
community level in relation to building resilience

1.4 Specific Objectives

1.4.1 The degree to which fatalism among community health workers impact their
resilience
1.4.2 The degree to which aspiration among community health workers impact their
resilience
1.4.3 The degree to which social networking among community health workers impact
their resilience

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1.5 Justification of the study

This study contributes to the wealth of knowledge by focusing on donor funding building
resilience at the community level in order reduce poverty in East Africa. The research of this
study is useful to the following stakeholders

1.5.1 Donors

This information is very helpful for donors to see the scalability of their impact as well
understand the areas that they can channel their funds to build resilience. Donations in this
case would be channeled through NGOs who are on the ground to push the agenda and build
the success.

1.5.2 Investors

Investors would be keen to use this research to understand the impact investing landscape in
East Africa. This information would also be useful for them to make decisions on where and
what sectors to put in their investments in.

1.5.3 Scholars and researchers

Students who wish to further their studies in this area may find this research useful in gaining
background information on the donor funding and it’s prospects in East Africa as well as
different financial products. This study helps researchers to expand their research and
contribute to their literature review, add on to the existing knowledge, and provide more
information to researchers who may want to research this area.

1.5.4 Local Community

This information is useful for community members who have youth advancing their
education and may one day in a position to understand the importance of resilience and how
donor funding has impacted this over the years. This information is also useful for
community members who are in the diaspora and to make them understand ways in which
they can support their home country

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1.5.5 Government and policymakers

This study is useful to the Government of Kenya and associations like the Central Bank of
Kenya (CBK) may gain insights on how to better treat and support the funding received to
maximize on the benefits.

1.6 Scope of the study

This study focuses on the community in Kirinyanga, Ndaraka-nithi, Embu and Meru counties
in Kenya. The study was conducted by meeting community health volunteers (CHVs) in the
area and getting information on measuring impact and the effect of donor funding in the area
as a tool to build resilience. These CHVs are government trained volunteers who work
closely with the rural community in areas of health. This project was limited as it focused on
a descriptive survey approach, using thirty-three CHVs in Kenya with the assumption that the
respondents’ views represent views of the wider population. This study was conducted from
October 2020 to August 2021.

1.7 Definition of terms

1.7.1 Resilience

The OECD has defined resilience as the ability of the individuals, communities and states
and their institutions to bounce back from shocks while positively coping with structures and
means for living in long term changes and uncertainty (Cheboi, 2016).

1.7.2 Impact investing

According to Pandit and Tamhane from Mckinsey (2018) impact investing directs capital to
enterprises that generate social or environmental benefits.

1.7.3 Donor funding

Donor funding are the sources of funds that come from a community of bilateral and
multilateral agencies at the domestic and international levels. In most cases these funds are
channeled through the state or through Non-Governmental Organizations in the form of

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grants aimed at different projects. Donor funding in most cases is not an interest-bearing
loan. It is usually a grant that is aimed towards development (Wilson, 2017).

1.7.4 Community Development

According to the Scottish community development (SCDC), “community development


supports communities to use their own assets to improve the quality of life. Secondly, it helps
communities and public agencies work together to improve services and the way decisions
are made” (Lavagnon, 2018).

1.7.5 Small and Medium enterprises

The most commonly used definition of an SME is that SMEs are non-subsidiary, independent
firms that employ fewer than a given number of employees. This number varies across
countries. The EU defines an SME as organization that works/employs at least 250
employees. However, the definition of an SME varies by region (OECD, 2015).

1.7.6 Poverty

Poverty has been defined by different scholars in the field of academia; that is relative and
absolute poverty. The universal standard definition of poverty is the state where one lacks
necessities for survival commonly referred to as absolute poverty. Relative poverty is aligned
to inequality in a state or locality where individuals feel isolated to equal access to public
utilities. The World Bank report of 2016 estimated that about 9.6% of the world population
by 2015 lived in extreme poverty making this a major global challenge. Additionally,
UNICEF (2016), estimated that about 1.1 billion of the world's children are born and live in
poverty situations. From academia, academicians have argued that world neoliberal policies
have amplified inequality and extreme poverty trends through the adoption of some pro-
capitalism policies from giant global financial organizations.

1.7.7 Investor

The definition of an investor in impact investing is a person, organization, or entity that lends
capital to business entities that want to grow or expand their businesses (Hoehn, 2018).

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1.7.8 Capital

Capital in financial literature is referred to as an asset that can be held in deposit or obtained
through a non-traditional source. Capital can also be referred to as the value that a company
requires to finance or expand its value base. Capital can be raised through debt or equity. A
business can focus on three types of business capital which are working capital, equity
capital, and debt capital (Hoehn, 2018).

1.7.9 Grants

A grant is a quantity of money, i.e., financial assistance, given by a government,


organization, or person for a specific purpose. Unlike a loan, you do not have to pay back the
money. In some cases, the receivers of study grants who abandoned their courses have to pay
back the money (Parks, 2018).

1.7.10 Donors

A donor is a person, institution or entity that offers an asset to another party directly or
indirectly with the main aim to create an improvement in the current situation While many
donors give out of the goodness of their hearts, many do so to avoid taxes, especially when
donating through a trust (Lavagnon, 2018).

1.8 Chapter summary

The introduction looks at the background of the study, the gaps, the purpose of the study, and
the scope. The background of the study is based on the topic which is to understand the
impact of donor funding for building resilience at the community level. The general
objectives are to understand the effect of donor funding in building resilience. The study will
help us to identify how donor funding can make a difference to low-income communities in
Africa through investments and grants. The research explored the community through the
lens of community health volunteers.

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CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

This chapter reviews relevant information that is consistent and relevant to the specific
objectives of the study. Important issues and practical problems are brought out, critically
examined to examine and determine current facts. This chapter is crucial as it gathers
information that links this study to past studies and will bridge the gap to future studies as
researchers sought to understand and improve knowledge. The support that donor funding
has on building resilience at the community level which in turns reduces poverty can be
measured in three main areas. This chapter focused on these areas. This chapter reviewed
already existing literature and past studies conducted that relate to building resilience in
African communities.

2.2 The Degree to which Fatalism among Community Health Workers Impact Their
Resilience

NGOs employ a wide array of strategies and interventions to build resilience capacity. The
strategies highlight NGO efforts to enhance the resilience capacity of a specific vulnerable
population to a specific shock. Others highlight programs that do not address resilience per se
as an overarching goal but instead integrate, sequence, and layer activities such that they
support and protect core programming goals (for example, food/nutrition security, poverty
reduction) and contribute overall to building resilience through improved absorptive,
adaptive, and transformative capacity of chronically vulnerable populations (Wood, 2019)..

Fatalism has been defined as one’s belief that destiny is determined by external parties and
environment. Fatalism has been classified as being witchcraft, taboo, mysterious and
superstitious therefore it was a concept that wasn’t researched much. However, this was an
area that was intensively looked at in the field of psychology and looks at the locus of
control. This was then expounded and is defined in the lines of fatalistic control. The need to
understand the role of fatalism in resilience is a critical aspect that needs to be understood

11
(Maercker, Ezra, Esparza & Augsburger, 2019). Fatalism can also be defined as when
individuals or groups strongly believe that their destinies are controlled by a power that is
above themselves. Fatalism has been closely connected to religion and philosophical fields.
This leads to fatalism being defined differently across religions and history. There are several
types of fatalism – neutral or nonjudgmental (not being able to influence), pessimistic
fatalism (no good thing lasts for long, sooner or later it will all fail) (Maercker et al., 2019).

Literature has suggested that fatalism has been closely linked with religion and philosophical
school of thought. Previous studies have shown that human value is the basic orientation that
influence how to deal with trauma or a shock. It has also been studied that the traditional
forms of value orientations increase post-traumatic stress. However, the world has been
primarily focusing on the trauma (Maercker et al., 2019). In theory, fatalism has been
categorized as a global belief system. This means that this belief system has external factors
that play a role in developing the cognitive and emotional state of an active person in their
environment. This explanation supports in making this a meaningful reason and a bigger
matrix construct. There are very few studies that have linked trauma and fatalism however in
the recent years there is a lot on fatalism and the fields of health (Maercker et al., 2019).
While resilience building should be a holistic approach, donors should focus on resilience
measures that address the sustainability of NGOs to survive unprecedented times and
capacity developments to ensure more funds reach the local community.

Costello, Maslin, Montgomer, Johnson and Ekins (2011), states that the effects of shocks like
that of climate change have had relatively little attention from climate scientists and
governments. It is said that climate change will be a major threat to population health in the
21st century that will lead to diseases, heat stress, food security, water security and extreme
weather conditions. The future means controlling climate change and adapting technology to
deal with greenhouse gas emissions. The roadmap to better health is through better
information, poverty reduction, technological innovation and social change by national and
international institutions. To strengthen health system there must be an increases investment
in equipment and resources. Mitigation and adaptive strategies need to be adapted to be able
to see the success of reduction of health issues in the near future (Costello et al., 2011). The

12
need to build population resilience to the global health threat from already unavoidable
shocks is real and uncertain.

From a global perspective, many people who have experience a shock, do not interpret it as
traumatic memories instead it is considered as the continued deterioration of their health that
is immutable fate. There has been research that shows that the level of fatalism differs across
states and that the level of modernity across these regions plays a crucial role. There is a
mutually exclusive relationship between fatalism and modernity (Costello et al., 2011).
Despite the different levels of the meaning of fatalism, there is however one angle that is
similar for all. This means that majority of societies use fatalism in the meaning of life and
death. A book that was published by Orient Longman labelled Fatalism and Development,
has enough literature based on a case study in Nepal that states that fatalism has been one of
the restraining factors within the society that has hindered development (Costello et al.,
2011). This is because the strong belief of fatalism in the community has interfered with
work ethic, motivation and achievement. Fatalism and dependency have been one of the
reasons that has been pervasive to international donor funding for development. This is
because fatalism makes the community manifests that are divinely instigated redistribution
(Bista, 2001). The geo-political nature of Nepal helped elites take up donor funding and
accept ideas from outside. However, the sense of equanimity has helped the country build
resilience in them being an independent sovereign state. This disconnect in the situation of
Nepal has made foreign funding just a mere resource rather than something that is to support
the ecosystem. Some of the external factors that play an integral part in building resilience is
education of the society. From the findings of Nepal study, it was clear that education is
regarded as a status symbol rather than a development tool. Education was just one of the
elements that are in the hierarchy of fatalism in the Nepal community (Bista, 2001).

There are two international studies by World Value Survey in 2001 and 2000 that were used
to examine fatalism in several countries. The findings included that there was no clear patter
between the meaning of fate in developed vs. developing countries. The other finding was
that fatalism was categorized as either structural fatalism or cosmological fatalism. The
World Value Surveys engaged in looking at fatalism in relation to the predictors. The two
facets that were measured and that were strongly dependent was socio-demographic, income,

13
education and social class. The study concluded that fatalism can be of different forms and
not a single one affiliation affects it more than another. Religious people apart from Hindus
showed an elevated type of fatalism than non-believers (Bista, 2001).

Other studies that have been conducted and researched previously have established that the
influence of post trauma consequences is a basic value. The value orientations increase post-
traumatic stress that is exhibited by factors that include lower trauma disclosure and low
acknowledgement of being a victim. However, in modern times these value orientations are
gradually changing. There have been a number of findings between the association between
value orientations and PTSD severity. The value orientations are what has been earlier
referred to as the guiding principles in the life of groups. In relation to this, fatalism has been
theoretically proposed as a type belief system that is established between the environment
construct of individuals. Fatalism being described in this way seems to be meaningful
because it links together the value orientation and the personality dimension (Pratt, 2016).

Fatalism branches out from the increasing awareness and recognition that not all trauma
affected people seek help, in most cases they remain passive with no expectations. From
reviewing different researchers, there is a bigger problem with people in the global north than
the south. However, it is important to note that majority of these people migrated in from the
south. Looking at the society in the north, many individuals who have experienced some sort
of shock do not easily find assess to healthcare support systems. The ones who have access
are the ones who are educated and have disposable income. The feeling that people feel
broken after a shock is not only felt in the US or in the North, it is something that can be
related in all parts of the worlds including Africa. A study that was conducted across
Germany, Kenya and Mexico by Maercker et al., (2019) revealed that from their sample in
Germany the facets of fatalism were higher in comparison with Mexico and Kenya. This is
because the sample in Germany had a strong representation of low literacy levels as
compared to the samples in Kenya and Mexico. This illustrates that education plays a big role
in displaying fatalism among communities which can be a hindrance factor for resilience. In
disaster risk reduction research, which is close in content to psych traumatology, fatalistic
belief is already a goal of intervention. In different linguistic and cultural areas, different sub-
constructs can be distinguished from each other (Maercker et al, 2019).

14
The concept of aspirations as mentioned above encompasses beliefs, preferences and
capacities that are future oriented. Fatalism and aspiration are intertwined. This is because
fatalism looks at the perspective at which people think that their future is determined by
external parties. Fatalism has been used in resilience to measure concepts of aspirations.
However, there are other measures that can be used to look at aspiration like locus of control,
depression scales and self-efficacy. Four studies on aspiration in different regions of
Nicaragua, Ethiopia, India and China show the interconnectedness of how aspiration is
factored by education, health and future planning. It is also been shown in research that
aspiration influences the relationship between community members however this is also
influenced by the literacy levels (Wood, 2019).

Majority of NGO efforts focus on short‐ term, stand‐alone projects rather than on longer‐term
programs—those that comprise multiple, integrated, complementary, and often sequential
projects, all working toward a cohesive goal. Much of this short‐term project focus can be
traced to funding mechanisms, which are still geared toward demonstrating impact in the
short term. Short funding cycles, such as those that typify humanitarian responses and
initiatives focused on disaster risk reduction, often do not allow the time required to
effectively promote and improve adaptive and transformative capacities, particularly those
that address longer‐term enabling conditions necessary to remove structural causes of
vulnerability. Resilience programming is best funded through a combination of short‐,
medium‐, and long‐term funding streams that allow programs the flexibility to adapt to an
evolving risk landscape (Wood, 2019).

2.3 The degree to which aspiration among community health workers impact their
resilience

NGO approaches to resilience programming are as diverse as the regional, national, and local
contexts in which they are implemented, and they typically either focus on a specific
vulnerable population and a specific shock or on integrating, sequencing, and layering
activities so that they support and protect core programming goals (for example, food and
nutrition security, poverty reduction) that contribute to building resilience through improved
absorptive, adaptive, and transformative capacity (Bottrell, 2019).

15
The concept of aspirations encompasses beliefs, preferences, and capacities relevant to the
future and future-oriented behavior. Some of the concepts that are used as measurable
include locus of control, self-efficacy and depression scales. A study that was conducted
globally across Nicaragua, Ethiopia, India and China concluded that aspiration influences
future orientation and motivation to have better lives. The study also comes out with the
influence of the community on aspiration. These ideas and findings support the literature that
there are many other factors that influence aspiration. Those factors need to be focused on
during donor funded project. This is because those factors are what will determine the
willingness of low-income communities to come out of poverty (Kaiser & Sinanan, 2019).

Another study was According to new research (Kaiser & Sinanan, 2019) focused on looking
at the street children across the globe with a focus on Bangladesh to understand how different
shocks like physical abuse, rape, and neglect influenced their aspiration and resilience. The
study focused on female street children who left their home due to several incidents that are
considered shocks. The study entailed collecting data on the violent experience and the
feedback their received from donor funded projects in the form of NGOs. It also aimed to
explore their hopes, aspirations, resilience and thoughts on living despite their tough
conditions. The findings from this research included the street children still looking forward
to their future with dreams (Kaiser & Sinanan, 2019).

A study that was conducted in South Africa also focused on a vulnerable group of children
whom were homeless. These children left their homes due to their intolerable situations. The
push factors for these children were domestic violence, abuse and poor family relationships
(Gale, Kenyon, MacArthur, Jolly & Hope, 2018). A study in the same line of thought was
carried out in Ankara, Turkey, where students were interviewed and they claimed that 50%
experienced verbal, 50% physical and 65% sexual abuse. This study showed that the
vulnerable children who faced verbal abuse felt more shame than those who experienced
sexual abuse. This was because their verbal abuse was infront of people as compared to
sexual abuse (Bottrell, 2019). The World Vision’s Secure the Future project in Tanzania
offers a good example of a cross‐sectoral, long‐term approach to building resilience to
economic and climatic shocks that focuses on three critical pillars of rural livelihoods:
smallholder farming, natural resource management, and social safety nets (Bottrell, 2019).

16
Donor funded NGOs across the globe have missions and visions that are aligned in
supporting vulnerable groups in areas that are prone to different experiences. Most donor
funds are channeled in international and local NGOs with the aim to alleviate poverty, create
sustainability and build resilience (Gale, Dowswell, Greenfield & Marshall, 2017). For
instance, the NGOs in Bangladesh are playing an important role in fending and supporting
the street children. These NGOs have learnt that it is a challenge for them to support these
children as they are independent, mature and nomads (Gale et al., 2018). They say that it is
problematic and often unsuccessful. There are various types of programs that the state has
been attempting to support with other international donor funded projects. The advantage of
the government working with donor funded NGOs is that they has been able to train these
children on self-dependent (Kaiser & Sinanan, 2019). As a result, many of the children who
receive and accept help are better equipped to take care of themselves, which boosts their
confidence and giving them a clear ability to aspire.

Interventions have been used to provide information, build skills, provide counseling and
improving access to health care. These areas have only been successful in developing
countries through supplemented funding by donors. Through this support, vulnerable groups
like street children get involved in activities and interventions that give them a positive
outlook to life and to be resilient (Kaiser & Sinanan, 2019)

Taking another regional study that was conducted in Ethiopia during their 2014/15 drought.
It was revealed that there were different responses to crisis among individuals who had a
lower sense of control over their lives (Vertovec, 2017). People who felt they had more
control over their lives were less likely to engage in activities that were negatively
associated. They also had a better coping ability to recover from shocks. Aspirations also
increased household resilience to drought. However, several recent studies have identified
the need to identify determinants of resilience. Additionally, the need to go beyond the
conventional factors like assets, capacities, governance (Vertovec, 2017). Factors that is
intangible like risk perception, self-efficacy and aspiration would be a better analysis factor.
There is a need to understand the role of what donor funded organizations have on building
resilience in communities and focusing on the intangible factors more (Mathers, Taylor &
Parry, 2016).

17
Another angle that can be used to understand the degree that aspiration plays on resilience is
exploring the behavioral orientation of students (Sanders, Munford & Boden, 2017). The
study was conducted to see how students in rural areas think of themselves and what
behaviors they adopt in learning. The findings included that there are several factors that play
a role including self-efficacy, goals, helplessness and aspirations. For instance, hope was
positively connected to other motivational constructs as well as personal factors like self-
esteem. Factors like hope, aspiration and achievement have been tagged along to education
and poverty status of individuals. The capacity of an individual to cope with resilience
depends upon the resources available to them. One of these resources is the ability to get
education as this has been proven to create positive development (Sanders et al., 2017).
When looking at resilience in this perspective, it means that the efforts increase the capacity
of marginalized or vulnerable groups use their resources to build individual capacities
(Tavory & Timmermans, 2018).

A common strategy employed in NGO resilience enhancing programs is to emphasize


improving the absorptive, adaptive, and transformative capacity of households, communities,
and higher-level systems affected by shocks and stresses. NGO programming to strengthen
absorptive capacities at the household or community level promotes initiatives that minimize
exposure to shocks and stresses (ex ante) where possible and assist with quick recovery after
exposure (ex post), in essence preserving the stability of livelihood systems (Béné, Wood,
Newsham, & Davies, 2012).

The important factor to consider of majority of the vulnerable groups in developing countries
is poverty. Due to poverty families are forced to dump their children on their streets, disasters
displace people and climate change create food security concerns globally. These shocks if
managed create resilience and in turns fulfill individual’s desire of aspiration. With all the
above cases this shows that resilience is the ability to cope shocks. Institutional support is a
critical factor in safeguarding them. Resilience is recognized as the natural buffer that
individuals protect themselves in conditions of shock (Kyle & Blair, 2018). There is a lot of
evidence that shows that there is connection between resilience and development which has
played a role in shaping the interactions that take place in an environment. The various
studies on street children show that they were resilient and had a strong willpower of coping

18
with a negative environment. The NGOs and institutional organizations played as a
protective buffer. Similar to how resilience and development are related so is vulnerability
and resilience. In the process of building resilience among the vulnerable group enhances
their ability to cope with future unknown shocks (Tavory & Timmermans, 2018). .

According to research, there is a direct link between vulnerability and resilience. This is
because the environment affects the interactions between individuals and environment. This
also extends in showing the influence between positive interaction with the environment
especially in childhood tends to have a positive outcome for individuals. Therefore, it is very
important to understand the role of children in their environments and what type of life they
have. Donor funded organizations support creating a positive outcome for these vulnerable
communities (Maher & Cometto, 2016). Donors are committed to new and more flexible
funding mechanisms that link humanitarian and development activities to support building
resilience. Further, to strengthen absorptive capacities at the household or community level,
NGO resilience capacity–building initiatives help households and communities learn from
past experiences and make adjustments that reduce their vulnerability to future shocks.

2.4 The degree to which social networking among community health workers impact
their resilience

NGO programs for enhancing resilience capacity are often shaped by donor‐ government
relationships. Donor support is often geographically determined by government priorities,
which can limit programming efforts by NGOs. The separation of humanitarian and
development efforts into non-overlapping geographic regions means recurrent humanitarian
crises are more likely to occur in highly vulnerable areas, which in turn makes needed
private‐sector investment less likely to occur. Governments may be hesitant to acknowledge
crises (and thereby admit the need to invest in infrastructure, policies, and systems to prevent
them). The capacity of governments to develop, implement, coordinate, and monitor
resilience programming often needs strengthening and differs at different levels of
government. Lower levels of government (local, district) often do not have the capacity or
resources to implement national‐level strategies for enhancing resilience or reducing risk
(Agarwal, 2016).

19
Resilience can be measured by looking at social networking. There have been several studies
that have been done to show the degree at which social networking affects resilience. A
recent study by Park, Kim, Choi, Lee, Jung and Hong, (2019) in Hong Kong among the
elderly community. The study claimed that resilience played an important role in easy going
ageing and related to the well-being in later life. It was found that old people who lived alone
were less resilient to shocks that came across and that there was a high need to have some
degree of social networking. Social networking could be in the form of digital or face to face.
The study looked at 295 elderly people who had minimum health care accessibility (Park et
al., 2019). Collaborations and partnerships between donors and governments help promote
the integration of humanitarian and development strategies.

Another study done by Lindborg (2016) in Wyoming. This study’s objective was to look at
how health and social networks among older adults-built resilience in rural areas. The study
looked at 600 registered voters in Wyoming county and collected data of 225 adults over the
age 65 years. Their findings concluded that larger family networks and social interactions
among the sample led to higher resilience with a lower mental health challenge. The efforts
to have access to family, friends, peers, caregivers and/or any other form of social
interaction-built resilience. NGOs are working to ensure the growth of these networks so that
to get more donors to support the building of community resilience.

Several other studies have been done under the field of psychology where the researchers
have tried to see the effect resilience has on reducing mental health problems. Resilience in
this perspective is defined as the ability to maintain a balanced mental state when dealing
with an unforeseen shock. Several studies have had the hypothesis that states the more
supportive the social network may limit the impact of a threat. A study was carried out in the
US where the sample was 9,633 African American to see the ethnic paradox in aging where
this group reported a greater mental health issues later in adulthood compared to Caucasians
(“psychosocial resilience and the ethnic paradox: effects of social networks and cumulative
trauma (Agarwal, 2016). The study examined whether social network was associated with
higher psychological resilience after an exposure to trauma or a shock. The findings
concluded with social network not buffering the effects of trauma and that trauma did not
affect the resilience among the African Americans (Agarwal, 2016).

20
A study was conducted by Sigalit, Sivia and Michal (2017) to explore the association
between student personal and group resilience to their utilization of social networking
through the digital transfect. Data was collected from 149 nursing students in Israel. The
results demonstrated positive correlations between social media networking to their group
resilience. The learning lesson for this is that the social networking should be used as a tool
to promote resilience. An NGO can use social media to increase donations and improve its
visibility by successfully employing comprehensive social networks.

A concept that is very linked to the degree of social networking on resilience is the concept
of social resilience which has been defined as the social network’s provision of psychological
content and resources that are targeted towards improving the individual’s capacity to cope
with stress (Sippel, Pietrzak, Charney, Mayes & Southwick, 2015). Social support can take
many forms including structural, functional and emotional support. The structural form looks
at family relations, community support, donor funded programs. This concept goes beyond to
look at the impact of the social network by looking at the magnitude in terms of size and
frequency of interactions. Referring to a case study that focused on social support offered to
war and the displaced personnel through donor and state funded projects. The literature on
military veterans provides an illustrative example of the link between social support and
mental resilience. The data concludes that veterans are resilient in nature and had more
control of their mental state for those who had a social support system via family or
technological interactions than veterans who were distressed (Sippel et al., 2015). Additional
in most militaries, the post deployment social support that is usually funded by grants, state
and other angels has shown to be a buffer against posttraumatic stress disorder. In the same
literature it was shown that poor social interaction was one of the strongest forces behind low
resilience during a shock. There was a study that was conducted of the Vietnam veterans and
concluded that social support was a mitigator of risk for posttraumatic depression (Kamal-
Yanni, 2015).

Individuals and their levels of support operate in cultural contexts which include ideas and
beliefs and values that people hold about their social relationships (Sippel et al., 2015). These
factors affect the reciprocity of receiving any social support especially during times of
shocks/traumas. Social capital refers to the investment, access to and use of resources fixed

21
in social networks. These resources include donor funded programs that have a social aspect
and participation of organizations, sense of community and attachment to one’s
neighborhood. Research has shown that the health of one person is tied to many factors but
mostly to their social interactions (Sippel et al., 2015, p. 4).

Community resilience is seen as an important factor in national health security as several


resilience models are being developed. Over the years several disasters have occurred like
terrorism attacks, natural disasters and other shocks that disrupt the system. Community
resilience recognizes the importance of coping strategies including the social interaction
among the community to be able to react positively. When there are problems there must also
be solutions which could be emergency and ongoing services. As such, interventions that
include predicate must be mobilized (Kruk, Myers, Varpilah & Dahn, 2015). The recovery at
a time of a shock takes time for states to recover. This highlights the importance of
considering support provisions at a timed and targeted time. The role that NGOs and the
government can focus is providing efficient healthcare, housing, education facilities boosts
the resilience for a larger number of individuals especially in rural areas. The role of schools
would be considered one of the most important areas. This is because schools offer a place
for future generations to experience challenges, master failure and succeed (Lindborg, 2016).
This offers a platform for children to build resilience at an early stage and progress with it as
different situations arise. Several NGOs across the globe engage in improving family
engagements within communities through educational programs with young children and
their parents. These programs have helped individuals feel proud of their backgrounds. In
theory, once there is some level of intervention, the community becomes more engaged with
the health of its members. This leads to the families feeding back to the community. This is a
circular relationship. This shows that individual intervention efforts have a synergetic effect
across the entire system that promotes the skills, resilience and interactions (Kruk, Myers,
Varpilah & Dahn, 2015). Learning and knowledge management consortia help NGOs
identify and replicate activities that have proven effective in enhancing resilience capacity.

International and regional policies play a role in intervention and building resilience. Policies
especially in developing countries need to be reformed to accommodate individuals,
community and family members to receive the services needed especially at a time of shocks.

22
Several public health models are believed to be universal similar to those in the military
(Sippel et al., 2015). It is important to recognize that several military offerings are not
provided for civilians. Similarly, there are several military social programs that are underway
for families however there are some gaps that need to be filled as the implementation and
monitoring are not in place. With the current advancements of social network factors, it is
important to understand the impact and resilience large populations of individuals bring out.
Political and social policies address issues such as poverty, housing and food instability could
have a great impact on the resilience of individuals affected by these policies. On the flip
side, given evidence is that large scale interventions are often ineffective and harmful
(Bonanno & Diminich, 2013). As mentioned earlier the resilience in one community is
different from other due to the role that culture, religion and belief plays.

In conclusion of this, individuals have potential to adapt in the face of adversity. However,
this adaptability requires the functioning of systems within and around individuals.
Numerous factors play a role in resilience however it is a relatively small proportion. What
needs to be considered is to focus on a wider range of factors that include social support and
social networks through supportive caregivers and service providers. This is of course
dependent on the source, type and timing of social support (Witter, Bertone & Chirwa, 2017).
In the US, the government has increased its military family needs. In addition, they also
engage with programs that are donor funded to stimulate creating the awareness of mental
health and its impact on resilience. Further research on the complex relationships between
social support, social networks, and resilience is needed to develop effective strategies to
enhance resilience in individuals, families, and communities (So & Witter, 2016).

2.5 Chapter summary

This chapter provided a literature review as per the research questions. The study discussed
the effects of impact investing on SMEs, effects of foreign investments into impact funds in
Kenya, and the effects of impact investing on poverty alleviation. The next chapter covers the
research methodology, research design, population size, sample size, data collection
instruments, and methods of data analysis are discussed.

23
CHAPTER THREE

3.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This chapter covers the research methodology. This chapter entails the research design, the
target population, sample and sampling design, method of data collection, research
procedures, and data analysis methods. This project was qualitative research and is an
effective and qualitative work in finding the impact by donors both local and international in
building resilience. This research utilizes quantitative methods to get the statistical results
from respondents.

3.2 Research design

A research design according to Sileyew (2019), is an appropriate framework for any study or
research being undertaken. Selecting the right decision design ensures the relevance of
information collected based on the study topic. This study adopted a descriptive research
design. The descriptive research design is a type of research study design that is used to
collect information on the current status of a person or on object (Akhtar, 2016). Information
is collected without altering anything in the environment; also known as observational
studies. It can be either qualitative or quantitative in nature. This design will be preferable for
this study because it enables the researcher to undertake a breadth of observations on
phenomenon under study. Besides, it provides accurate descriptive analysis of the
characteristics of the population from which the study sample is drawn to make
inferences about it. This study sought to establish the effect of donor funding at the
community level in relation to building resilience.

3.3 Population and Sampling Design

3.3.1 Population

According to Ngechu (2011) target population is a well-defined or specified set of people,


group of things, households, firms, services, elements or events which are being investigated.
Target population should suit a certain specification, which the research is studying and the
population should be homogenous. This study population was community health workers in
24
Kenya. The community health workers work closely with the state and international NGOs to
implement several projects one including building resilient communities. According to
Kaisha (2020), there are 86, 000 CHWs in Kenya. Therefore, the study respondents were 86,
000.

3.3.2 Sampling Design

A sampling design is a framework, or road map, that serves as the basis for the selection of a
survey sample and affects many other important aspects of a survey as well (Saunders, Lewis
& Thornhill, 2016). A sampling design is also a mathematical function that gives you the
probability of any given sample being drawn (Glen, 2018)

3.3.2.1 Sampling Frame

A sampling frame is a master list used to define a study’s population of interest and it gives
the complete list of all members of the population to be studied (Saunders, Lewis &
Thornhill, 2016). Sampling frames must be as accurate and current as possible to be able to
have credible information. For the purposes of this study, the sample frame was the list of
community health workers in Kenya.

3.3.2.2 Sampling Technique

This is the technique adopted to select the study sample size. The simple random sampling
method will be used in this study.

3.3.2.3 Sampling size

A sample size is obtained from the study population. When choosing sample size, scientific
means need to be used. The sample size was calculated using Yamane‘s (1967) as follows

n= N/ (1+N (e) ^2

Where: - n is the sample size, N symbolizes the population size, and the level of precision is
symbolized with e (0.05). When the formula is applied we then get our sample size as:

n= N/(1+N(e)^2

25
=86000/1+86000(0.05) ^2

The sample size was 398 respondents

3.4 Data Collection Methods

This study used questionnaires to collect data from CHWs in Kenya. The questionnaire was
used because it enables the researcher to collect a large amount of information over a short
period and saves time. The questionnaire was structured in lien with the study objectives. The
five-point Likert scale method was used. The questionnaire had five sections. Section one
covered questions on the respondent’s general information, section two covered questions on
fatalism, section three covered questions on aspiration, section four covered questions on
social networking and section five covered questions on resilience of community health
workers. The questionnaires were administered through emailing.

3.5 Research Procedures

The researcher will obtain an introduction letter from the University. A research permit will
also be obtained from NACOSTI. The questionnaires were administered to the sampled
population. The emailing method was used in administering the questionnaires. The study
carried out a pilot study to pretest and validate the questionnaire. The aim of the pilot study
was to test for validity and reliability of the questionnaires. Content validity was adopted to
determine the validity of the instrument. Content validity is the notion that a test should
sample the range of behaviour represented by the theoretical concept being tested. In the
validation process of this study, copies of the questionnaire and copies of the research
questions were given to experts in this field of research and the supervisors. These experts
went through the research questions and the questionnaire carefully to ascertain the
appropriateness and adequacy of the instrument. This helped in detecting questions that
needed editing and those with ambiguities. The researcher made corrections in the
questionnaire ready for data collection.

Reliability of the questionnaire was evaluated through Cronbach’s Alpha which measures the
internal consistency. Cronbach’s alpha was calculated by application of SPSS for reliability
analysis. The value of the alpha coefficient ranges from 0-1 and may be used to describe the

26
reliability of factors extracted from dichotomous and or multi-point formatted questionnaires
or scales. A higher value shows a more reliable generated scale. Cooper and Schindler (2019)
have indicated 0.7 to be an acceptable reliability coefficient.

3.6 Data Analysis Method

Data collected from the field was checked for completeness, cleaned and edited. The SPSS
(version 23) was utilized in this study. Quantitative data was analyzed using the descriptive
statistics which include percentages, means, standard deviations and frequencies. The
information will be displayed by use of bar charts, graphs and pie charts and in prose-form.
The study conducted a correlation analysis to establish the strength of the relationship
between the independent and dependent variables. Multiple regressions were done to show
the relationship between the independent and dependent variables.

The regression equation is:

Y= β0+ β1X1+β2X2+ β3X3 + ε

Where:

Y is the dependent variable (resilience), β0 is the regression constant, β1, β2, β3 and β4 are the
coefficients of independent variables, X1 is fatalism, X2 is aspiration ate, X3 is social
networking. ε is the error term which captures the unexplainable variations in the model.

3.7 Chapter Summary

This chapter has presented the research methodology that was adopted to conduct this study.
The study adopted a descriptive research design. Questionnaires were used for data
collection. Data analysis was by use of descriptive and inferential statistics. Chapter four
covers the research findings in the form of tables and charts as per the specific objectives.

27
CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 RESULTS AND FINDINGS

4.1 Introduction

This chapter discusses the interpretation and presentation of the findings obtained from the
field. The chapter presents the background information of the respondents and findings of the
analysis based on the objectives of the study. Descriptive analysis and inferential statistics
were used to analyze the data and discuss the research findings. In this study, a sample of 398
community health workers (CHW) in Kenya was selected. Only 314 of the respondents filled
in and returned the questionnaires making a response rate of 78.9 percent, as represented in
Table 4.1. Based on Mugenda and Mugenda (2008), the response rate was considered to
excellent.

Table 4.1: Response Rate


Gender Frequency Percent

Filled and Returned 314 78.9

Unreturned 84 21.1

Total 398 100.0

4.2 Demographic Information

This section analyzed the general information of the respondents. These include gender and
age of respondents.

4.2.1 Gender of the Respondents

The study sought to determine the gender category of the respondent, and therefore requested
the respondents to indicate their gender category. From the research findings, the study
established that majority of the respondents to be as shown; 58% were females whereas 42%
of the respondents were males. This is an indication that both genders were fairly involved in
this research and thus the findings of this study did not suffer from gender biasness.

28
Gender of respondents

42%
58%

Male Female
Figure 4.1: Gender Distribution of Respondents

4.2.2 Age of Respondents

The study sought to establish the age distribution of selected respondents. The findings
obtained were as presented in Figure 4.2. Findings of the study show that 10% of respondents
were between 30 and 35 in age, 19% between 36 and 40, 41-45 of age, 23% in 46-50, 51-55
years of age and 3% between 56 and 60, 61 and 65 years of age

Respondent Age
8
23 23
7
19 19
6
5
4
10
3
2
3 3
1
0
30-35 36-40 41-45 46-50 51-55 56-60 61-65
Figure 4.2: Age Distribution of Respondents

29
4.3 Degree to Which Fatalism among Community Health Workers Impact Resilience

4.3.1 Descriptive Statistics on Degree to Which Fatalism among Community Health


Workers Impact Resilience

The study sought to establish the respondent level of agreement on degree to which fatalism
among community health workers impact their resilience. The findings show that the
respondents agreed that they know how to reach their goals for the future as shown by a
mean of 3.99 (SD=0.84), their plans for the future are possible to accomplish as shown by a
mean of 3.97 (SD=0.86). Respondents also agreed that their future feels promising as shown
by a mean of 3.96 (SD=0.86), and that they will succeed in life if they carry on as shown by a
mean of 3.70 (SD=0.82).

Table 4.2: Degree to Which Fatalism Impact Resilience


Moderate

Deviation
Standard
Disagree

Disagree
Strongly

Strongly
Agree

Agree

Mean
I will succeed in life if I 5.9 7.6 7.9 45.7 32.9 5.9 0.82
carry on

I know how to reach my 2.6 7.9 13.2 40.8 35.5 3.99 0.84
goals for the future

My future feels promising 3.9 3.9 14.5 47.4 30.3 3.96 0.86

My plans for the future are 5.3 6.6 11.8 38.2 38.2 3.97 0.86
possible to accomplish

4.3.2 Correlation on Degree to Which Fatalism among Community Health Workers


Impact Resilience

The study computed correlation analysis to establish the strength and direction of relationship
existing between fatalism and resilience of community health workers. The results were as
presented in Table 4.3. From the findings, fatalism and resilience of community health
workers had a correlation coefficient of 0.739 and significance value of 0.000. This therefore

30
suggests that fatalism had a strong positive relationship with resilience of community health
workers. Also, the relationship between the two variables was significant because the p-value
is less than selected significance level (i.e. 0.000<0.01)

Table 4.3: Correlations between Fatalism and Resilience


Resilience Fatalism
Pearson Correlation 1
Resilience Sig. (2-tailed)
N 314
Pearson Correlation .739** 1
Fatalism Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 314 29
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

4.3.3 Simple Linear Regression on Degree to Which Fatalism among Community


Health Workers Impact Resilience

The study computed simple regression analysis to show the degree to which fatalism among
community health workers impact their resilience. The findings were presented in three
tables; model summary, analysis of variance and coefficients.

Model Summary

Model summary is used to show the amount of variation in dependent variable that can be
explained by changes in independent variable. From the findings, the value of adjusted R2 is
0.745 which suggests that 74.5% variation in resilience of community health workers can be
explained by changes in fatalism. The remaining 25.5% suggest that other than fatalism,
there are other factors that can be attributed to changes in resilience of community health
workers. Correlation coefficient denoted by R usually shows the strength of the relationship
existing between the two variables being investigated. From the findings, the correlation
coefficient was 0.881 which is an indication that the variables and strongly and positively
related.

31
Table 4.4: Model Summary between Fatalism and Resilience
Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the
Estimate
1 .881a .776 .745 .047182
a. Predictors: (Constant), fatalism

Analysis of Variance

ANOVA is computed to determine significance of the model. From the ANOVA table, the p-
value obtained was 0.000 which is less than the selected significance level of 0.05 which
suggests that the model was significant and therefore the data was idea for making a
conclusion on the population parameters. F-critical value (4.210), obtained from F-
distribution tables, was less than the F-calculated value (147.82) i.e. 4.210<147.82. Since the
F-calculated value was greater than the F-critical value, it suggests that innovation capacity
can significantly influence performance of commercial banks.

Table 4.5: Analysis of Variance for Fatalism and Resilience


Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

Regression 6.652 1 6.652 147.82 .000b

1 Residual 14.067 312 0.045

Total 20.719 313

a. Dependent Variable: Resilience


b. Predictors: (Constant), fatalism

Beta Coefficients of the Study Variable

The regression equation was:

Y = 0.629 + 0.335 X1

The above regression equation shows that holding Fatalism to a constant zero, resilience of
community health workers will be at a constant value of 0.629 units. The findings also
suggest that a unit increase in fatalism would lead to an increase in resilience of community
health workers by 0.335 units.

32
Table 4.6: Model Coefficients for Fatalism and Resilience
Model Unstandardized Standardized t Sig.
Coefficients Coefficients

B Std. Error Beta

(Constant) 0.629 0.102 6.167 .000


1
Fatalism 0.335 0.066 0.329 5.076 .000

a. Dependent Variable: Resilience

4.4 Degree to Which Aspiration among Community Health Workers Impact Their
Resilience

4.4.1 Descriptive Statistics on Degree to Which Aspiration among Community Health


Workers Impact Their Resilience

The study sought to determine degree to which aspiration among community health workers
impact their resilience. Respondents gave their level of agreement with various statements
and the findings were as presented in Table 4.7. From the findings, the respondents agreed
that to be successful, above all one needs to work very hard as shown by a mean of 3.96
(SD=0.81), each person is primarily responsible for his/her success or failure in life as shown
by a mean of 3.82 (SD=0.75), and that one’s success or failure in life is a matter of his/her
destiny as shown by a mean of 3.78 (SD=0.77). Respondents also agreed that thinking about
their own household circumstances; they would describe their household as low income as
shown by a mean of 3.62 (SD=0.65) and that to be successful, above all one needs to be
lucky as indicated by a mean of 3.57 (SD=0.56).

33
Table 4.7: Degree to Which Aspiration Impact Resilience

Standard Deviation
Strongly Disagree

Strongly Agree
Moderate
Disagree

Agree

Mean
Each person is primarily responsible 6.6 9.2 17.1 30.3 36.8 3.82 0.75
for his/her success or failure in life

One’s success or failure in life is a 6.6 6.6 15.8 31.6 36.8 3.78 0.77
matter of his/her destiny

To be successful, above all one needs 3.9 5.3 17.1 38.2 35.5 3.96 0.81
to work very hard

To be successful, above all one needs 6.6 7.9 32.9 27.6 25.0 3.57 0.56
to be lucky

Thinking about your own household 10.5 10.5 15.8 32.9 30.3 3.62 0.65
circumstances, would you describe
your household low income

4.4.2 Correlation on Degree to Which Aspiration among Community Health Workers


Impact Their Resilience

The study computed correlation analysis to establish the strength and direction of relationship
existing between aspiration and resilience of community health workers. The results were as
presented in Table 4.8. From the findings, aspiration and resilience of community health
workers had a correlation coefficient of 0.724 and significance value of 0.000. This therefore
suggests that aspiration had a strong positive relationship with resilience of community
health workers. Also, the relationship between the two variables was significant because the
p-value is less than selected significance level (i.e. 0.000<0.01)

34
Table 4.8: Correlations between Aspiration and Resilience
Resilience Aspiration
Pearson Correlation 1
Resilience Sig. (2-tailed)
N 314
Pearson Correlation .724** 1
Aspiration Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 314 314
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

4.4.3 Simple Linear Regression on Degree to Which Aspiration among Community


Health Workers Impact Their Resilience

The study computed simple regression analysis to show the degree to which aspiration
among community health workers impact their resilience. The findings were presented in
three tables.

Model Summary

Model summary is used to show the amount of variation in dependent variable that can be
explained by changes in independent variable. From the findings, the value of adjusted R2 is
0.521 which suggests that 52.1% variation in resilience among community health workers
can be explained by changes in aspiration. The remaining 47.9% suggest that there are other
factors that can be attributed to changes in resilience among community health workers in
Kenya that were not included in the model. Correlation coefficient denoted by R shows the
strength of the relationship existing between the variables being investigated. From the
findings, the correlation coefficient was 0.724 which is an indication that aspiration and
resilience among community health workers are strongly and positively related.

Table 4.9: Model Summary for Aspiration and Resilience


Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the
Estimate
1 .724a .524 .521 .22413
a. Predictors: (Constant), Aspiration

35
Analysis of Variance

ANOVA is computed to determine significance of the model. From the ANOVA table, the p-
value obtained was 0.000 which is less than the selected significance level of 0.05 which
suggests that the model was significant and therefore the data was ideal for making a
conclusion on the population parameters. F-critical value (4.210), obtained from F-
distribution tables, is less than the F-calculated value (370.727) i.e. 4.210<370.727. Since the
F-calculated value is greater than the F-critical value, it suggests that aspiration can
significantly influence resilience among community health workers.

Table 4.10: Analysis of Variance for Aspiration and Resilience


Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

Regression 8.156 1 8.156 370.727 .000b

1 Residual 6.993 312 0.022

Total 15.149 313

a. Dependent Variable: Aspiration


b. Predictors: (Constant), Resilience

Beta Coefficients of the Study Variable

The regression equation was:

Y = 0.880 + 0.346 X2

The above regression equation shows that holding aspiration to a constant zero, resilience
among community health workers will be at a constant value of 0.880 units. The findings
also suggest that a unit increase in aspiration would lead to an increase in resilience among
community health workers by 0.346 units.

36
Table 4.11: Model Coefficients for Aspiration and Resilience
Model Unstandardized Standardized t Sig.
Coefficients Coefficients
B Std. Error Beta
(Constant) 0.880 0.136 6.471 .000
1
Aspiration 0.346 0.044 0.324 7.864 .000
a. Dependent Variable: Resilience

4.5 Degree to Which Social Networking among Community Health Workers Impact
Their Resilience

4.5.1 Descriptive Statistics on Degree to Which Social Networking among Community


Health Workers Impact Their Resilience

The study sought to establish the degree to which social networking among community
health workers impact their resilience. Respondents were therefore asked to indicate their
level of agreement with various statements and the findings presented in Table 4.12. Based
on the findings, the respondents were in agreement that they communicate with at least one
person within the community as indicated by a mean of 3.76 (SD=0.76), they listen to radio
more than once a week as indicated by a mean of 3.68 (SD=0.70), and that they search on
social media for information more than once a week as shown by a mean of 3.66 (SD=0.68).
The respondents further agreed that they communicate regularly with at least one person
outside the community as shown by a mean of 3.66 (SD=0.68), and that they search on the
internet for information more than once a week as shown by a mean of 3.64, (SD=0.67).

37
Table 4.12: Degree to Which Social Networking Impact Resilience

Standard Deviation
Strongly Disagree

Strongly Agree
Moderate
Disagree

Agree

Mean
Communicate regularly with at least one 9.2 11.8 13.2 35.5 30.3 3.66 0.68
person outside the community

Communicate with at least one person within 7.9 9.2 11.8 40.8 30.3 3.76 0.76
the community

Listen to radio more than once a week 9.2 10.5 13.2 36.8 30.3 3.68 0.70

Search on the internet for information more 10.5 9.2 15.8 34.2 30.3 3.64 0.67
than once a week

Search on social media for information more 9.2 10.5 14.5 36.8 28.9 3.66 0.68
than once a week

4.5.2 Correlation on Degree to Which Social Networking among Community Health


Workers Impact Their Resilience

The study computed correlation analysis to establish the strength and direction of the
relationship between social networking and resilience among community health workers. The
results were as presented in Table 4.13. From the findings, social networking and resilience
among community health workers had a correlation coefficient of 0.833 and significance
value of 0.000. This therefore suggests that social networking had a strong positive
relationship with resilience among community health workers. Also, the relationship between
the two variables was significant because the p-value is less than selected significance level
(i.e. 0.000<0.01)

38
Table 4.13: Correlations between Social Networking and Resilience
Resilience Social
Networking
Pearson Correlation 1
Resilience Sig. (2-tailed)
N 314
Pearson Correlation .833** 1
Social Networking Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 314 314
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

4.5.3 Simple Linear Regression on Degree to Which Social Networking among


Community Health Workers Impact Their Resilience

The study computed simple regression analysis to show the degree to which social
networking among community health workers impact their resilience. The findings were in
three tables; model summary, analysis of variance and coefficients.

Model Summary

Model summary is used to show the amount of variation in dependent variable that can be
explained by changes in independent variable. From the findings in Table 4.14, the value of
adjusted R2 is 0.742 which suggests that 74.2% variation in resilience among community
health workers can be explained by changes in social networking. The remaining 25.8%
suggest that there are other factors that can be attributed to changes in resilience among
community health workers that were not included in the model. Correlation coefficient
denoted by R shows the strength of the relationship existing between the variables being
investigated. From the findings, the correlation coefficient was 0.870 which is an indication
that social networking and resilience among community health workers are strongly and
positively related.

39
Table 4.14: Model Summary for Social Networking and Resilience
Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the
Estimate
1 .870a .757 .742 .11700
a. Predictors: (Constant), Social Networking

Analysis of Variance

ANOVA is computed to determine significance of the model. From the ANOVA table, the p-
value obtained was 0.000 which is less than the selected significance level of 0.05 which
suggests that the model was significant and therefore the data was idea for making a
conclusion on the population parameters. F-critical value (4.210), obtained from F-
distribution tables, is less than the F-calculated value (148. 5) i.e. 4.210<148. 5Since the F-
calculated value is greater than the F-critical value, it suggests that social networking can
significantly influence resilience among community health workers.

Table 4.15: Analysis of Variance for Social Networking and Resilience


Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

Regression 6.534 1 6.534 148. 5 .000b

1 Residual 13.797 312 0.044

Total 20.331 313

a. Dependent Variable: Resilience


b. Predictors: (Constant), Social Networking

Beta Coefficients of the Study Variable

The regression equation was:

Y = 0.657 + 0.281 X3

The above regression equation shows that holding social networking to a constant zero,
resilience among community health workers will be at a constant value of 0.657 units. The
findings also suggest that a unit increase in social networking would lead to an increase in
resilience among community health workers by 0.657 units.

40
Table 4.16: Model Coefficients for Social Networking and Resilience
Model Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficients t Sig.
B Std. Error Beta
(Constant) 0.657 0.097 6.773 .000
1
Social Networking 0.281 0.031 0.273 9.065 .000
a. Dependent Variable: Resilience

4.6 Community Health Workers Resilience

The study sought to establish the respondent level of agreement on resilience among
community health workers. From the findings the study revealed that majority of the
respondents agreed that thanks to their resourcefulness, they know how to handle unforeseen
circumstances as shown by a mean of 4.08 (SD= 0.92), it is easy for them to stick to their
aims and accomplish their goals as shown by a mean of 4.01 (SD=0.88). Respondents also
agreed that they are confident that they could deal efficiently with unexpected life events as
shown by a mean of 3.92 (SD=0.83), and that they can solve most problems if they invest the
necessary effort as indicated by a mean of 3.74 (SD=0.72).

Table 4.17: Community Health Workers Resilience

Standard Deviation
Strongly Disagree

Strongly Agree
Moderate
Disagree

Agree

Mean

It is easy for me to stick to my aims and 3.9 6.6 10.5 42.1 36.8 4.01 0.88
accomplish my goals
I am confident that I could deal efficiently with 5.3 7.9 11.8 39.5 35.5 3.92 0.83
unexpected life events
Thanks to my resourcefulness, I know how to 2.6 5.3 10.5 44.7 36.8 4.08 0.92
handle unforeseen circumstances
I can solve most problems if I invest the 7.9 9.2 14.5 38.2 30.3 3.74 0.72

41
necessary effort

4.7 Multiple Regression Analysis

In this study, a multiple regression analysis was conducted to test the effect of donor funding
at the community level in relation to building resilience. The findings were presented in three
tables discussed here-under.

Model Summary

Adjusted R squared is coefficient of determination which tells us the variation in the


dependent variable due to changes in the independent variable. From the findings in the
Table 4.18 the value of adjusted R squared was 0.701 an indication that there was variation
of 70.1% on resilience among community health workers due to changes in fatalism,
aspiration and social networking at 95% confidence interval. This shows that a 70.1 %
change in community health workers resilience could be accounted for by changes in
fatalism, aspiration and social networking. R is the correlation coefficient which shows the
relationship between the study variables, from the findings, there was a strong positive
relationship between the study variables as shown by 0.849.

Table 4.18: Overall Model Summary

Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the Estimate

1 .849a 0.721 0.701 0.0349

Analysis of Variance

From the ANOVA statistics in the Table 4.19, the processed data, which is the population
parameters, had a significance level of 0.004 which shows that the data is ideal for making a
conclusion on the population parameters as the value of significance (p-value) is less than
5%. The F calculated value was greater than the F critical value (137.86>2.991) an
indication that there was a significant relationship between community health workers
resilience and fatalism, aspiration and social networking. The significance value was less
than 0.05 indicating goodness of fit of the model.

42
Table 4.19: Overall Analysis of Variance
Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

1 Regression 12.408 3 4.136 137.86 .004b

Residual 9.2 310 0.030

Total 21.608 313

Beta Coefficients of the Study Variables

The established regression equation was;

Y = 0.847 + 0.486 X1 + 0.568 X2 + 0.521 X3

From the above regression equation, it was revealed that holding fatalism, aspiration and
social networking to a constant zero, community health workers resilience would stand at
0.847. Therefore a unit increase in fatalism would lead to an increase in community health
workers resilience by a factor of 0.486, a unit increase in aspiration would lead to increase in
community health workers resilience by factors of 0.568. A unit increase in social
networking would lead to an increase in community health workers resilience by a factor of
0.521.

The study further revealed that fatalism, aspiration and social networking were statistically
significant to community health workers resilience, as all the p values (sig) were less than
0.05. The study also found that there was a positive relationship between community health
workers resilience and donor funding strategies; fatalism, aspiration and social networking.

Table 4.20: Beta Coefficients of Study Variables


Model Unstandardized Standardized t Sig.
Coefficients Coefficients
B Std. Error Beta
1 (Constant) 0.847 0.354 2.393 0.016
Fatalism 0.486 0.102 0.118 4.765 0.005
Aspiration 0.568 0.098 0.124 5.796 0.003
Social networking 0.521 0.074 0.099 7.041 0.001

43
4.8 Chapter Summary

Chapter four has mainly described the research findings on the survey on to understand the
effect of donor funding at the community level in relation to building resilience. The study
established fatalism, aspiration and social networking were statistically significant predictors
of community health workers resilience. The study also found that there was a positive
relationship between community health workers resilience and fatalism, aspiration and social
networking. The next chapter will be the discussion, conclusion and recommendations.

44
CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Introduction

This chapter endeavors to delineate usefulness and applicability of the research through a
summary, discussion, conclusions, and recommendations. This chapter sums up the research
conducted on the effects of effect of donor funding in building community resilience in rural
communities in Kenya. The research looked at the rural communities in Northern part of the
Mount Kenya region. The chapter specifically presents discussion, conclusion and
recommendation of the study. Discussions of the study findings were done in line with
study’s specific objectives. Conclusions were based on findings of the study and
recommendations were made there-to.

5.2 Summary

The main objective of this research was to study the effect of donor funding in building
community resilience in rural parts of Kenya. The research was guided by the specific
research objectives which are to investigate different measures of resilience and how donor
funding has aided in this. The specific objectives were to establish the degree to which
fatalism among community health workers impact their resilience, the degree to which
aspiration among community health workers impact their resilience and the degree to which
social networking among community health workers impact their resilience.

The study used a descriptive research design. A sampling frame of 33 community health
volunteers (CHVs) whom work closely with rural communities. The study used a non-
probability sampling technique specifically self-selection and convenience of 33 CHVs based
in four different counties in Kenya. For this study, the researcher used questionnaires to
collect data from the target population. The data was coded to transform qualitative data into
quantitative data. Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS Ver.24) was used to generate
correlation figures as well as means, standard deviation, and percentiles. The information
collected was analyzed and presented using figures and tables.

The first objective of the study was to establish the degree to which fatalism among
community health workers impact their resilience. The study found that fatalism has positive
45
significant influence on resilience of community health workers. The study also established
that community health workers know how to reach their goals for the future and that their
plans for the future are possible to accomplish. The study also established that the future of
community health workers feels promising and if they continue carrying on, they will
succeed in life.

The second study objective was to establish the degree to which aspiration among
community health workers impact their resilience. The study established that aspiration
positively influences resilience of community health workers. The study also found that for
community health workers to be successful, above all they needs to work very hard and that
each one of them is primarily responsible for his/her success or failure in life. The study also
established that one’s success or failure in life is a matter of his/her destiny. In addition,
community health workers thinking about their own household circumstances they describe
their household as low income and that to be successful, above all one needs to be lucky as
indicated.

The third objective of the study was to establish the degree to which social networking
among community health workers impact their resilience. The study found that social
networking has positive and significant influence on community health workers resilience.
The study also established that community health workers communicate with at least one
person within the community as indicated. They also listen to radio more than once a week
and they search on social media for information more than once a week. It was also
established that community health workers communicate regularly with at least one person
outside the community and that they search on the internet for information more than once a
week.

5.3 Discussion

5.3.1 Degree to Which Fatalism among Community Health Workers Impact Resilience

The study found that fatalism has positive significant influence on resilience of community
health workers. The findings from Maercker (2019), aligns with the finding of the study
conducted. According to the recent research that was done by Costello (2011) that clearly
states there is a mutually exclusive relationship between modernity and fatalism. As

46
mentioned above that fatalism has a weak relationship with resilience, the relationship with
modernity and fatalism play a role. The more modern and educated the society gets, the more
in control do the society feel they are in.

The study also established that community health workers know how to reach their goals for
the future and that their plans for the future are possible to accomplish. According to Costello
et al., (20110, mitigation and adaptive strategies need to be adapted to be able to see the
success of reduction of health issues in the near future. The need to build population
resilience to the global health threat from already unavoidable shocks is real and uncertain.
The roadmap to better health is through better information, poverty reduction, technological
innovation and social change by national and international institutions. To strengthen health
system there must be an increases investment in equipment and resources.

The value orientations increase post-traumatic stress that is exhibited by factors that include
lower trauma disclosure and low acknowledgement of being a victim. However, in modern
times these value orientations are gradually changing. This is in line with the findings of the
study that the future of community health workers feels promising and if they continue
carrying on, they will succeed in life. This agrees with Maercker, Ben-Ezra, et al., (2019) that
education plays a big role in displaying fatalism among communities which can be a
hindrance factor for resilience. In disaster risk reduction research, which is close in content to
psych traumatology, fatalistic belief is already a goal of intervention.

Fatalistic was found to explain 74.5% variation in resilience. This is in line with Maercker,
Ben-Ezra, et al., (2019) who explained that fatalism has been used in resilience to measure
concepts of aspirations. However, there are other measures that can be used to look at
aspiration like locus of control, depression scales and self-efficacy (Bista, 2001). Four studies
on aspiration in different regions of Nicaragua, Ethiopia, India and China show the
interconnectedness of how aspiration is factored by education, health and future planning. It
is also been shown in research that aspiration influences the relationship between community
members however this is also influenced by the literacy levels.

In my opinion, rural communities in developing countries have lower literacy levels leading
to the belief that destiny are determined by the external parties and environment. Therefore
improving the level of education will result to improved resilience. This is in line with
47
Maercker, Ben-Ezra, et al., (2019) who illustrates that education plays a big role in
displaying fatalism among communities which can be a hindrance factor for resilience.

5.3.2 The degree to which aspiration among community health workers impact their
resilience

The study established that aspiration positively influences resilience of community health
workers. A study that was conducted globally across Nicaragua, Ethiopia, India and China
concluded that aspiration influences future orientation and motivation to have better lives
(Kaiser & Sinanan, 2019) which agrees with this study findings. The study also established
that aspiration explained only 52.1% variation in resilience of community health workers.
This also agrees with Kaiser and Sinanan (2019) that the study ideas and findings support the
literature that there are many other factors that influence aspiration.

Donor funded NGOs across the globe have missions and visions that are aligned in
supporting vulnerable groups in areas that are prone to different experiences. Most donor
funds are channeled in international and local NGOs with the aim to alleviate poverty, create
sustainability and build resilience. To achieve this, employee commitment is fundamental.
The study also found that for community health workers to be successful, above all they
needs to work very hard and that each one of them is primarily responsible for his/her
success or failure in life. Kaiser and Sinanan (2019) explained that the children who receive
and accept help are better equipped to take care of themselves, which boosts their confidence
and giving them a clear ability to aspire.

The study also established that one’s success or failure in life is a matter of his/her destiny. In
addition, community health workers thinking about their own household circumstances they
describe their household as low income and that to be successful, above all one needs to be
lucky as indicated. This disagrees with Sanders et al., (2017) that interventions have been
used to provide information, build skills, provide counselling and improving access to health
care. These areas have only been successful in developing countries through supplemented
funding by donors. Through this support, vulnerable groups like street children get involved
in activities and interventions that give them a positive outlook to life and to be resilient
(Kaiser & Sinanan, 2019).

48
Another angle that can be used to understand the degree that aspiration plays on resilience is
exploring the behavioral orientation of students. According to Sanders et al., (2017) hope is
positively connected to other motivational constructs as well as personal factors like self-
esteem Therefore, the capacity of an individual to cope with resilience depends upon the
resources available to them. One of these resources is the ability to get education as this has
been proven to create positive development (Sanders et al., 2017). When looking at resilience
in this perspective, it means that the efforts increase the capacity of marginalized or
vulnerable groups use their resources to build individual capacities.

The important factor to consider of majority of the vulnerable groups in developing countries
is poverty. Due to poverty families are forced to dump their children on their streets, disasters
displace people and climate change create food security concerns globally. These shocks if
managed create resilience and in turns fulfill individual’s desire of aspiration ((Sanders et al.,
2017). NGOs and institutional organizations play the role of protective buffer. Similar to how
resilience and development are related so is vulnerability and resilience. In the process of
building resilience among the vulnerable group enhances their ability to cope with future
unknown shocks.

According to research, there is a direct link between vulnerability and resilience. This is
because the environment affects the interactions between individuals and environment. There
is influence between positive interaction with the environment especially in childhood tends
to have a positive outcome for individuals. In my opinion, it is very important to understand
the role of children in their environments and what type of life they have. Donor funded
organizations support creating a positive outcome for these vulnerable communities.

5.3.3 The degree to which social networking among community health workers impact
their resilience

The study established a positive relationship between social networking and resilience. A
study by Park et al. (2019) in Hong Kong claimed that resilience played an important role in
easy going ageing and related to the well-being in later life which is in line with the findings
of our present study. Another study done by A.E. Slosser, L. Zander, A.A. Lee, C.P. Carrico,
C.L. McKibbin (2015) concluded that larger family networks and social interactions among

49
the sample led to higher resilience with a lower mental health challenge. The efforts to have
access to family, friends, peers, caregivers and/or any other form of social interaction-built
resilience.

The study examined whether social network was associated with higher psychological
resilience after an exposure to trauma or a shock. The findings concluded with social network
not buffering the effects of trauma and that trauma did not affect the resilience. A study was
conducted by Sigalit et al. (2017) demonstrated positive correlations between social media
networking to their group resilience. The learning lesson for this is that the social networking
should be used as a tool to promote resilience. This is in line with the study findings that
community health workers communicate regularly with at least one person outside the
community and that they search on the internet for information more than once a week.

Sippel et al. (2015) concluded that social support was a mitigator of risk for posttraumatic
depression. This is in line with study findings that community health workers communicate
with at least one person within the community as indicated. Individuals and their levels of
support affect the reciprocity of receiving any social support especially during times of
shocks/traumas. The role that NGOs and the government can focus is providing efficient
healthcare, housing, education facilities boosts the resilience for a larger number of
individuals especially in rural areas. The role of schools would be considered one of the most
important areas. This is because schools offer a place for future generations to experience
challenges, master failire and succeed. This offers a platform for children to build resilience
at an early stage and progress with it as different situations arise. These programs have
helped individuals feel proud of their backgrounds.

International and regional policies play a role in intervention and building resilience. In my
opinion, policies especially in developing countries need to be reformed to accommodate
individuals, community and family members to receive the services needed especially at a
time of shocks. Individuals have potential to adapt in the face of adversity. However, this
adaptability requires the functioning of systems within and around individuals. What needs to
be considered is to focus on a wider range of factors that include social support and social
networks through supportive caregivers and service providers. Further research on the

50
complex relationships between social support, social networks, and resilience is needed to
develop effective strategies to enhance resilience in individuals, families, and communities

5.4 Conclusion

5.4.1 The degree to which fatalism among community health workers impact their
resilience

The study found that fatalism has significant relationship with community health workers
resilience. The study also established that fatalism has a positive significant relationship with
community health workers resilience. From the findings, the study concluded that an increase
in fatalism would result to an increase in community health workers resilience.

5.4.2 The degree to which aspiration among community health workers impact their
resilience

The study findings showed that aspiration has significant relationship with community health
workers resilience. The study also established that aspiration has a positive significant
relationship with community health workers resilience. From the findings, the study
concluded that an increase in aspiration would result to an increase in community health
workers resilience.

5.4.3 The degree to which social networking among community health workers impact
their resilience

It was established that social networking has significant relationship with community health
workers resilience. The study also established that social networking has a positive
significant relationship with community health workers resilience. From the findings, the
study concluded that an increase in social networking would result to an increase in
community health workers resilience.

51
5.5 Recommendations

5.5.1 The degree to which fatalism among community health workers impact their
resilience

Fatalism positively influenced resilience among community health workers. There is need to
improve the level of education because education plays a big role in displaying fatalism
among communities which can be a hindrance factor for resilience. Rural communities in
developing countries have lower literacy levels leading to the belief that destiny are
determined by the external parties and environment

5.5.2 The degree to which aspiration among community health workers impact their
resilience

Aspiration improves resilience. Children who receive and accept help are better equipped to
take care of themselves, which boosts their confidence and giving them a clear ability to
aspire. Therefore, there is need to increase funding to NGOs so that they can provide
interventions to provide information, build skills, provide counseling and improving access
to health care. Through this support, vulnerable groups like street children get involved in
activities and interventions that give them a positive outlook to life and to be resilient.
Children interaction with the environment tends to have a positive outcome for individuals. It
is therefore important to understand the role of children in their environments and what type
of life they have. The study thus recommends donor funded organizations to support creating
a positive outcome for the vulnerable communities.

5.5.3 The degree to which social networking among community health workers impact
their resilience

Social networking was found to have positive influence on resilience. The study thus
recommends NGOs to develop international and regional policies to intervene and build
resilience. There is need for policies to be reformed to accommodate individuals, community
and family members to receive the services needed especially at a time of shocks. There is
also need to focus on a wider range of factors that include social support and social networks

52
through supportive caregivers and service providers. Further research on the complex
relationships between social support, social networks, and resilience is needed to develop
effective strategies to enhance resilience in individuals, families, and communities.

5.6 Recommendations for Further Research

The main objective of this study was to understand the effect of donor funding at the
community level in relation to building resilience. The study was limited to rural
communities in Northern part of the Mount Kenya region; this study thus recommends a
study to be conducted in other parts of Kenya to facilitate comparison and generalization of
research findings. The study explained 70.1% variation in community health workers
resilience. The study thus recommends a study to be conducted on other donor-related factors
that influence community health workers resilience.

53
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Appendices

Appendix I: Consent Form

CONSENT FOR PARTICIPATION IN THE STUDY

You are being asked to take part in a research study on the effect of Donor Funding in
Building Community Resilience in Rural Communities in Kenya. Please read this form
carefully and ask any questions you may have before agreeing to take part in the study.

What the study is about: The purpose of this research is to study the effect of donor funding
in building community resilience in rural parts of Kenya. The research will be guided by the
specific research objectives which are to investigate different measures of resilience and how
donor funding has aided in this.

Risks and Benefits:

I do not anticipate any risks to you participating in this study other than those encountered in
day-to-day life.

Your answers will be confidential. The records of this study will be kept private. In any sort
of report, we make it available online, but we will not include any information that will make
it possible to identify you.

Taking part is voluntary: Taking part in this study is completely voluntary. You may skip
any questions that you do not want to answer. If you decide not to take part or to skip some
of the questions. If you decide to take part, you are free to withdraw at any time. You will be
given a copy of this form to keep for your records.

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Statement of Consent: I have read the above information and have received answers to any
questions I asked. I consent to take part in the study.

Subject’s Signature: ________________________________________________

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Appendix II: Questionnaire

63
64
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Appendix III: Debrief Form

Dear Respondent,

RE: INTRODUCTION LETTER FOR DATA COLLECTION

Am pleased to inform you that I am a student at United States International University –


Africa pursuing Master of Business Administration and Finance. I have chosen you to
participate in this research on the assessment of the “Effect of Donor Funding in Building
Community Resilience in Rural Communities in Kenya”. Kindly respond sincerely to the
issues in the questionnaire. Please read and answer the questions by ticking the correct
answer (choice) to the questions given.

Thanking you for your support.

Kassam Laila Banu

United States International University-Africa,

P.O. Box 14634-00800, Nairobi Kenya.

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Appendix IV: IRB Approval

67
Appendix V: Nacosti Research License

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Appendix V: Work Plan and Budget

Work Plan

Feb March April May June


Activity July 2021
2021 2021 2021 2021 2021

Update proposal

Come up with questionnaire

Submit proposal for approval

Questionnaire Pilot test

Send questionnaires to
respondents

Collect data

Analyze data

Conclude report

Submit report

Research Budget

NACOSTI Fee 1000

One research assistant 20000

Pilot testing 1000

Transport expense 6000

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Printing 2000

Internet cost 15000

Total Direct cost 45000

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