Object Oriented Programming

and Design (CS 204)

CO1
Programming Paradigm – to – String Class

Prepared by –
Dr. Soumen Moulik
Department of Computer Science & Engineering
National Institute of Technology Meghalaya
Programming Paradigms
 What is Programming Paradigm ?
◦ Fundamental style of programming that defines how the structure and
basic elements of a computer program will be built.
 Classification:
◦ Monolithic programming, Ex – Assembly, BASIC
 Emphasizes on finding a solution
 Consist of only global data and sequential code
 Change of sequence of instructions need „goto‟ statements
 No support of the subroutine concept
◦ Procedural programming, Ex – FORTRAN, COBOL
 Lay stress on algorithms
 Better abstraction, global data items, concept of subroutines
 Program controls are through jumps (gotos) and calls to subroutines
 Global data is shared and therefore may get altered

2
Programming Paradigms
 Classification (contd.):
◦ Structured programming, Ex – Pascal, C
 Focuses on modules – may contain more than one subroutine
 Controlled scope of data, concept of user-defined data types
 Emphasis on algorithm rather than data; top-down approach
 Global data is shared and therefore may get altered
◦ Object-oriented programming, Ex – C++, Java
 Encapsulation of data and functions – Objects
 Data is hidden and not accessible by external functions
 Emphasis on data rather than algorithm; bottom-up approach
◦ Logic-oriented programming, Ex – Prolog
 Focusing on goals usually expressed in predicate calculus
◦ Rule-oriented programming, Ex – ELAN
 Makes use of „if-then-else‟ rules for computation

3
Timeline

4
 Procedural Programming

 Many important data items are placed as global so that they may be
accessed by all the functions
 But, global data are more vulnerable to inadvertent changes
 In large program it is hard to find what data is used by which function
 Procedural approach does not model real world problems very well
5
Object-Oriented Programming

6
Properties of OOP
 Data and associated operations are unified into a single unit,
which is known as an object
◦ An object is a partitioned area of computer memory that stores data,
and set of operations that can access the data
 In Function Oriented Programming (FOP) problem is divided
into functions
 In Object Oriented Programming (OOP) problem is divided
into objects
 OOP can be referred to as the superset of FOP
 Data is hidden and cannot be accessed by external functions
 OOP protects data from accidental modification from
outside functions
 Objects communicate with each other through functions
7
Objects

 An object can be any entity – a person, a place, or a thing

 Decomposition of a problem into objects depends on
judgement and nature of the problem

8
Classes
 The objects with the same data structure (attributes) and
behaviour (operations) are grouped into a class

9
Classes
 Every object is associated with data and functions which
define meaningful operations on that object

 The declaration is similar to

the structure declaration in C
 It enables the creation of class
variables called objects
 Ex –
account savings_account
account current_account
account FD_account
 What about class student ?

10
Classes
 A class is a template that unites data and
operations
 A class is an abstraction of the real world
entities with similar properties
 A class identifies a set of similar objects
 Ideally, the class is an implementation of
abstract data type

11
Inheritance
 Inheritance is the process by which objects of one class
acquire the properties of objects of another class
 Ex – Rectangle gets all the features of polygon, and all
the features of closed figure

12
Polymorphism
 Polymorphism, a Greek term, means the ability to take
more than one form
 An operation may exhibit different behaviours in
different instances
 Different types ways of achieving polymorphism –
 Operator overloading –
◦ When operands are numbers, then result is sum
◦ When operands are strings, then result is concatenated string
 Function overloading –
◦ Using a single function name to perform different types of tasks

13
Dynamic / Late Binding
 Binding refers to the linking of a procedure call to the
code to be executed in response to the call
 In case of dynamic / late binding –
◦ The code associated with a given procedure call is not known
until the time of the call at run-time
 Ex – Class: Shape; Function: Draw ()
◦ Object: Circle; Function: Draw (circle)
◦ Object: Box; Function: Draw (box)
◦ Object: Triangle; Function: Draw (triangle)

14
Introduction to C++
 C++ developed by Bjarne Stroustrup in 1979
 It supports all features of C and adds other new
features such as classes, objects etc.
 A C++ program is composed of the following elements
◦ Preprocessor‟s directive section
◦ Global declaration section
◦ Class declaration and method definition section
◦ Main function
◦ Method definition section
 Example C++ program:

15
Compilation of a C++ program

16
Tokens
 Tokens are smallest individual units in a program
 Most of the C++ tokens are basically similar to the C tokens
with the exception of some additions and minor modifications

17
Tokens
 Keywords –
◦ Reserved words that cannot be used as identifiers / variable names
◦ 32 keywords from ANSI C + Additional keywords

18
Tokens
 Identifiers –
◦ Refer to the names of variables, functions, arrays, classes etc.
◦ Only alphabetic characters, digits and underscores are permitted
◦ The name cannot start with a digit
◦ Uppercase and lowercase letters are distinct
◦ A declared keyword cannot be used as variable name
◦ C++ allows unlimited length for variable name
 ANSI C recognizes only 32 characters in a name
◦ Example – abc, my_name, a_123, retVal
 Constants –
◦ Refer to fixed values that do not change during the execution
◦ Example – 123 (decimal), 12.34 (float), “C++” (string), „A‟ (character),
037 (octal), 0X2 (hexadecimal)

19
Data Types
C++ Data
Types

User-
Built-in Derived
defined

structure Integral Void Floating array

union int float function

class char double pointer

enum reference
SIZE:
20
Implicit Type Conversion
 Implicit –
◦ When compiler encounters an expression, it divides it into sub-
expressions consisting of one or two operands
◦ In case of a binary operator, the „smaller‟ type is converted to the
„wider‟ type
◦ If one operand is an int and the other is a float, then the int is
converted into a float because a float is wider than int
◦ Integral widening conversion
◦ EXAMPLE:

 Explicit – (type) expression; (type) variable_name

◦ EXAMPLE:

21
Inline Functions
 When a program executes general function call instructions –
◦ CPU stores the memory address of the instruction following the function call
◦ Copies the arguments of the function on the stack
◦ Then transfers control to the specified function
◦ Executes the function code
◦ Stores the function return value in a predefined memory location
◦ Then returns control to the calling function
 This is overhead if the execution time of function is less than the
switching time from the caller function to the called function
 C++ provides the feature of inline function to reduce this overhead
◦ Inline functions are expanded in line, i.e., gets inserted or substituted, at the time
of inline function call EXAMPLE:
◦ This is only a request to the compiler, not a command
◦ Compiler may not perform inlining if a function contains loop, static variables,
recursion, switch or goto statements, or returns something other than void

22
String Class
 length() / size()  no. of characters in a string, including
white space
 at(index)  character at a particular index
 append(str)  adds the argument string at the end
 replace(a, b, str)  replaces b characters from index a by str
 erase(a, b)  deletes b characters at index a
 find(str)  returns index where pattern is found. If pattern is
not found then returns predefined constant npos (= -1)
 substr(a, b)  returns a substring of b length starting from
index a

EXAMPLE:

23
Moving from C to C++
 Scope resolution operator  ::
 Variable definition at any point of use
 Reference variable  enjoys the simplicity of value variable and
power of the pointer variable
 Function overloading
 Default arguments are allowed
 Functions are allowed as a part of a structure
 Argument passing by reference is allowed
 Dynamic / Run-time memory management

Some C programs that won‟t compile in C++

[https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/write-c-program-wont-compiler-c/]

24
Reference Variable
 References vs. Pointers:
◦ Pointer is a variable that holds memory address of another
variable, while Reference is an alias or another name for an
already existing variable
◦ A pointer can be declared as void but a reference can never be.
◦ Pointer variable has multiple levels of indirection, i.e. single-
pointer, double-pointer etc., but reference variable has only one
level of indirection.
◦ C and C++ support pointers; whereas C++, Java, Python, Ruby,
Perl and PHP support references
 Applications:
◦ Modify the passed parameters in a function
◦ Avoiding a copy of large structures

25