1. Define the body's immune system.

The immune system is a set of lymphoid

organs, tissues and cells, the work of which is
aimed at combating foreign influences and
maintaining the constancy of the internal
environment of the body.
2. Characterise the immune system. 1. Generalized throughout the body.
2. Cells of the immune system circulate
continuously through the bloodstream.
3. They have the property of specific
recognition.
3. List the functions of the immune system in 1. Anti-infective immunity.
the body. 2. Antitumor immunity.
3. Immunological control of fertilization and
pregnancy.
4. Transplantation immunity.
5. Autoimmune reactions.
6. Allergic reactions.
7. Control over differentiation, renewal,
elimination and utilization of cells in various
organs and tissues.
5. Name the peripherall organs of the immune Spleen, lymph nodes and lymphoid tissue
system and their function associated with skin and mucous membranes:
elimination and presentation of antigen,
antigen-dependent differentiation of
lymphocytes - immune response.
6. List the cellular and humoral factors of Neutrophils (phagocytosis), macrophage
innate immunity. monocytes (phagocytosis, antigen
presentation), dendritic cells (antigen
presentation), natural killer cells (natural
cellular cytotoxicity)
Complement proteins, interferons, acute
phase proteins.
7. What is PRR? PRR – pattern-recognition receptor –
receptors of innate immunity cells that allow
recognition of conservative structures of
pathogens.
8. What are PAMP and DAMP? PAMP – pathogen-associated molecular
patterns- infectious agent antigens.
DAMP – danger associated molecular
patterns (endogenous biohazard signals), for
example: heat shock proteins, defensins -
activate inflammation, innate immunity cells.
9. Name the functions of the proteins of the 1. Cytolysis of a cell using a membrane attack
complement system. complex.
2. Antigen opsonization.
3. Degranulation of mast cells and basophils.
10. Name and briefly describe the pathways 1. Classic - with the participation of
of complement activation. antibodies.
2. Alternative - attachment of gram-negative
bacteria to lipopolysaccharide.
3. Lectin - binding of bacterial wall mannose
by lectin.
11. List the cellular and humoral factors of Subpopulations of T- and B-lymphocytes.
adaptive immunity. Antibodies (immunoglobulins).
12. List the types of adaptive immunity. 1. Natural.
2. Artificial.
3. Active.
4. Passive.
13. What are antigens? Give examples. Antigens are substances that carry signs of
genetically hostile information. Antigens of
viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, parasites,
proteins, altered body cells.
14. List the properties of antigens. 1. Genetic Foreignness (determined by the
presence of protein in the chemical structure).
2. Immunogenicity - the ability to cause
immune response (determined by the
structure and large molecular weight).
3. Antigenicity - the quality of an antigen,
determined by the ability to cause the greatest
production of antibodies.
4. Specificity.
15. List the types of antigens on the basis of 1. Xenoantigens.
foreignness. 2. Alloantigens.
3. Isoantigens.
4. Autoantigens.
16. What are thymus-dependent antigens? Thymus-dependent antigens - antigens that
cause immune response involving T-
lymphocytes. Build adaptive immunity.
17. What are thymus-independent antigens? Thymus-independent antigens trigger immune
Give examples. response without the participation of T-
lymphocytes due to the activation of B-
lymphocytes. For example, the
lipopolysaccharides of the cell wall of Gram-
negative bacteria.
18. Describe the general structure of 4 polypeptide chains: two light (of two
immunoglobulin. domains - homologous regions) and two
heavy (four-five domains), constituting two
parts - constant and variable. The chains are
connected by disulphite bridges, in the center
there is a hinge region.
19. How is the Fab fragment of an End sections of two light and two heavy
immunoglobulin formed? What is its role? chains. It is the active center of antibodies,
providing complementary attachment to the
antigenic determinant.
20. List the types of immunoglobulin heavy 5 isotypes: μ-mu (IgM); γ1,2,3,4-gamma
chains. What do they determine? (IgG1, IgG2, IgG3, IgG4); α1,2-alpha (IgA1,
IgA2); δ-delta (IgD); ε-epsilon (IgE).
They determine classes and subclasses of
immunoglobulins.
21. Name the main biological functions of 1. Neutralization of the antigen.
antibodies. 2. Antigen agglutination.
3. Complement activation
4. Activation of phagocytosis.
5. Antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity.
22. What is epitope and paratope? Epitope (antigenic determinant) - the site of
binding of an antigen to an antibody or
antigen-recognizing receptor.
A paratope is the region of an antibody that
binds to an antigen.
23. Give a brief description of IgA – has 2 fractions: serum (monomer) and
immunoglobulin A. secretory (dimer), forms the first line of
defense against pathogens.

24. Give a brief description of IgM – pentamer, has the highest molecular
immunoglobulin М. weight, participates in the primary immune
response, binds antigens, activates
complement proteins.
25. Give a brief description of IgG – monomer of classical structure with
immunoglobulin G. low molecular weight; prevails in terms of the
amount in the blood serum, which mainly
provides a secondary immune response;
penetrates into tissues, passes through the
placental barrier.
26. Give a brief description of IgE – monomer, with the lowest presence in
immunoglobulin E. serum; binds to globulin receptors of
eosinophils, basophils, mast cells and causes
their degranulation in case of allergies,
helminthiases, autoimmune reactions.
27. Give a brief description of IgD – present on the membrane of B-
immunoglobulin D. lymphocytes, increases during pregnancy,
functions are not fully known.
28. List methods for identifying antibodies. 1. Enzyme immunoassay (ELISA).
2. Radioimmunoassay (RIA).
3. Immunofluorescence reaction (RIF).
4. Immunoblotting.
29. Subpopulations of T-lymphocytes. 1. Т-helpers (Th1, Th2).
2. Cytotoxic T-lymphocytes (СTL).
3. Т-regulatory (Treg, FoxP3-клетки, Тh3).
4. Т-memory cells.
30. Functions of immunoregulatory T- Regulation of the functional activity of
lymphocytes. macrophages, B-lymphocytes, NK and other
cells (regulation of the immune response)
through cytokines.
31. Functions of T-helpers. Recognition of the antigen on the surface of
the APC and triggering the immune response.
32. Functions of cytotoxic T-lymphocytes Contact cytolysis of tumor and virus-infected
cells.
33. The structure of the antigen-recognizing T-cell receptor (TCR): the outer globulin part
complex of the T-lymphocyte. is a dimer of two polypeptide α-alpha and β-
beta chains and the cytoplasmic part is a
dimer of two polypeptide ζ-zeta chains in
complex with CD3, CD4/CD8 molecules.
34. Subpopulations of B-lymphocytes. В1, В2, В-memory cells.
35. Functions of В1- lymphocytes. 1. Recognition of thymus-independent
antigens.
2. Secretion of immunoglobulin M.
36. Functions of В2- lymphocytes. 1. Recognition of thymus-dependent antigens.
2. Production of all types of
immunoglobulins.
3. Differentiation into memory B cells.
The result is a fast and effective secondary
immune response.
37. The main markers of mature B- CD19, CD 20, CD 21, CD 22.
lymphocytes.
38. The function of plasma cells. Immunoglobuline secretion.
39. The structure of the antigen-recognizing 1. B-cell receptor (BCR): a specific
complex of the B-lymphocyte. immunoglobulin molecule of two heavy and
two light chains in complex with two co-
receptor molecules formed by
immunoglobulins α and β.
40. Name the antigen-presenting cells. 1. Macrophages.
2. Dendritic cells.
3. B-lymphocytes.
41. Name the cells capable of phagocytosis. 1. Monocytes/macrophages.
2. Neutrophils.
3. Eosinophils.
4. Basophils.
5. Mast cells.
The main function of eosinophils, basophils
and mast cells is mediator, phagocytic is
poorly expressed.
42. Name the stages of phagocytosis. 8 stages: chemotaxis, opsonization,
membrane activation, immersion
(envelopment), phagosome formation,
phagolysosome formation, killing and
digestion, removal of degradation products.
43. List the bactericidal systems of Oxygen-dependent bactericidal activity -
phagocytes. "respiratory burst" (oxidative stress).
2. Oxygen-independent bactericidal activity -
lysozyme, esterase, acid protease and other
enzymes.
44. List the functional methods for diagnosing 1. Рhagocytic index.
phagocytic cells. 2. Phagocytic number.
3. NBT-test spontaneous and stimulated.
4. Determination of the secretion of
cytokines.
45. Name two forms of immune response 1. Humoral immune response - thymus-
(types of immune response). dependent and thymus-independent.
2. Cellular cytotoxicity.
46. What are the main reactions involved in 1. Delayed type hypersensitivity.
the cellular immune response? 2. Cytotoxic reactions.
3. Transplant reactions.
47. Name the stages of the immune response. 1. Afferent (inductor) - processing and
presentation of the antigen.
2. Immunoregulatory - activation,
proliferation and differentiation of Th0 into
Th1 and Th2, CTL.
3. Effector - development of effector
 reactions of cellular and humoral immunity -
antibody production, cytolysis.
4. Formation of immunological memory.
48. Which cells have class I and class II I - on all nucleated cells. Not found on
antigens? erythrocytes, platelets, trophoblast cells,
tumor cells.
II - on all immunocompetent cells - antigen-
presenting cells, lymphocytes
49. List the types of cytokines.
50. Name the properties of cytokines. 1. Redundancy: The same cytokines are
produced by different cells.
2. Pleiotropy: the same cytokines can act on
different target cells, regulating their
functions.
3. Cascading: cytokines work on the
principle of a network - they induce each
other's secretion.
4. Synergy.
5. Antagonism.
51. List the ways in which cytokines act on 1. Autokrine.
target cells. 2. Parakrine.
3. Endocrine.
52. Name the main pro-inflammatory Interleukins 1, 6, 8, 17, Tumor Necrosis
cytokines. Factor.
53. List the biological functions of gamma- 1. Immunoregulatory: activates phagocytes,
interferon (INF-γ). NK cells, enhances the differentiation of Th0
into Th1
2. Antiproliferative: inhibits the proliferation
of Th2, the production of IgE., the expression
of MHC molecules of classes I and II on the
surface of various cells.
3. Antiviral.
54. Name the stages of the cytolytic action of 1. Specific binding of CTL to the target cell.
CTL. 2. Lethal strike by exocytosis of perforin and
granzymes
3. An increase in the volume of the target cell
due to the entry of water through the damaged
membrane, membrane rupture and cell death.
55. Describe the cytotoxic activity of 1. Contact induction of apoptosis,
neutrophils. 2. Secretion of toxic products (lysosomal
enzymes, oxygen explosion metabolites,
cytokines, etc.).
3. Antibody-dependent and complement-
dependent cytotoxicity.
56. Name the types of cytolysis carried out by 1. Contact.
phagocytes. 2. Intracellular.
3. Extracellular.
57. List the main components of antibody- 1. Effector killer cell.
dependent cellular cytotoxicity. 2. Target cell (modified body cell).
3. Antibodies with specificity for target cell
antigens.
58. The mechanism of complement-mediated 1. Activation of the complement system along
cytolysis. the classical or alternative pathway.
2. Formation of a C5-C9 membrane attack
complex, leading to the formation of a
hydrophilic channel in the target cell
membrane, through which water and salts
begin to pass.
59. The sequence of structural changes in Necrosis: death of intracellular structures,
cells during necrosis and apoptosis. destruction of the cell membrane.
Apoptosis: fragmentation of the cell nucleus,
phagocytosis of the cell along with the
membrane.