Chapter 1: Introduction to Human Physiology

Physiology
The etymology (word origin) of the term Physiology comes from the 1560’s French which
comes directly from Latin physiologia, meaning “The study and description of natural objects,
natural philosophy". This is derived from ‘physios’ meaning "nature, natural, physical"; and
‘logia’ meaning "study". This gives us the fuller meaning of Physiology as the "Science of the
normal function of living things". When studying physiology, it is imperative that we also
understand the basic anatomy involved, as anatomy (structure) and physiology (function) go
hand in hand.

Anatomy

The etymology (word origin) of the term Anatomy comes from the Late 1300’s terms in both
Latin, anatomia and Greek, anatome. These words are derived from ana which means "up"; and
tomos (or temnein) which means "to cut". Together this gives "a cutting up", which is clearly
involved in dissection! In general, anatomy is considered the “Study or knowledge of the
structure (form) and function of the human body“. Courses and textbooks for anatomy and
physiology are different, but are inextricably connected to each other and thus it is important to
identify and incorporate the way these two are related. Etymology for the Language of
Physiology Another useful concept related to the importance of words in physiology (and
anatomy) is knowing the etymology (origin of the word) of the vast array of scientific terms used
in the health care field.

Since many of these words are derived from Latin and Greek, it is incredibly helpful to know the
origins and ‘translations’ of these terms. Becoming aware of the origins of words will greatly
help students to: 1) understand what the term means; and 2) assist you in predicting what a brand
new term means when you first encounter it, as it may contains a portion of a term you have
already seen before, and the meanings (from the word origin) usually do not change.

Human Physiology.

In human physiology, we attempt to explain the specific characteristics and mechanisms of the
human body that make it a living being. The very fact that we remain alive is the result of
complex control systems, for hunger makes us seek food and fear makes us seek refuge.
Sensations of cold make us look for warmth. Other forces cause us to seek fellowship and to
reproduce. Thus, the human being is, in many ways, like an automaton, and the fact that we are
sensing, feeling, and knowledgeable beings is part of this automatic sequence of life; these
special attributes allow us to exist under widely varying conditions

All aspects of human physiology evolved in the thousands of inherited units of DNA called
genes. This genetic imprint is passed from parents to children. We all inherit a mixture of genes
present in parents. There is immense genetic diversity, as a result of small spontaneous change in
individual genes, called mutation, occurring from time to time. The natural selection concept of
Charles Darwin emphasizes the predominance of the genes in the population that favors survival
of the fittest and reproduction in a particular environment. Early with life on earth cells
developed the ability to react with oxygen and carbon compounds and use the energy released by
these chemical reactions. With complexity of development cells evolved structure called
mitochondria for efficient energy production. The efficiency of oxidative phosphorylation was
maximized in natural selection of the best. The mitochondria of cells in mammals are same in
appearance and function.

Some aspects of human physiology may be rapidly changing on the evolutionary scale of time.
Homosapiens have walked on the earth for perhaps 1.5 million years, but human brain has
reached its present size only about 35,000 years back. The brain capabilities are probably still
rapidly evolving as new pressures are faced. For pain with injury, a warning signal results in
sudden withdrawal of the injured part, protecting it from further injury. But step-by-step
sequence of events starts with the injury and eventually ends with the contraction of group of
muscles that flex the injured limb - stimulus, receptor, electric signals, spinal cord, flexor
muscles. There are links between the nerve and the spinal cord, and the muscle. The circuit that
creates this response is genetically determined and is formed during early development of the
nervous system.

Levels of structural organization:

From single cell to organ system cells are the basic units of living organisms. The number of
cells is very large. For example, an adult 3 person contains approximately 100 trillion cells.
Humans have several levels of structural organizations that are associated with each other. The
chemical level includes all chemicals substances essential for sustaining life. These chemicals
are made up of atoms joined together in various ways. The diverse chemicals, in turn, are put
together to form the next higher level of organization, the cellular level. Cells are the basic
structural and functional units of life and organization. Each cell has a different structure and
each performs a different function.

Basic Functions of a Complex Organism

The basic functions are listed below:

Differentiation

Responsiveness

Metabolism

Growth and Repair

Movement

Excretion

Reproduction

COMPOSITION OF THE BODY

At an average, 60% of the body weight of young adult male is water. The remaining is composed
of minerals, fat and proteins. The human body contains organic compounds such as lipids,
proteins, carbohydrates and nucleic acids. The lipids are important forms of storage fuel in
addition to providing insulation of the body as a whole or essential component in the structure of
plasma membranes, myelin and other membranes. Carbohydrates serve as a lesser form of fuel
storage (400-500 gms). Proteins serve as the structural basis for all enzymes, contractile muscle
proteins, connective tissue, such as collagen and elastin and in addition as a fuel (about 15%), or
precursor for carbohydrate in the process of gluconeogenesis. Ingested glucose is converted to
glycogen and stored in the liver, muscle and adipose tissue.

Elements in the Human Body

Element Body weight % Hydrogen, H 9.5 Carbon, C 18.5 Nitrogen, N 3.3 Oxygen, O 65.0
Sodium, Na 0.2 Magnesium, Mg 0.1 Phosphorus, P 1.0 Sulfur, S 0.3 Chlorine, Cl 0.2 Potassium
0.4 Calcium 1.5

System Components

Circulation: Heart, blood vessels, blood

Digestive system: Mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small & large ` intestine, salivary
glands, pancreas liver, and gallbladder

Respiratory system: Nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs

Urinary system: Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra

Skeletal system: Bones, cartilage, joints

Muscle system: Skeletal muscle

Integumentary system: Skin, hair, nails

Immune system: Leukocytes, thymus, bone marrow, tonsils, adenoids, `` lymph nodes, spleen,
appendix, gut-associated lymphoid ` tissue, skin-associated lymphoid tissue muscosa ` associated
lymphoid tissue

Nervous system: Brain, spinal cord, peripheral nervous system. ` Special sense organs

Endocrine system : All hormone-secreting tissues including hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid,

parathyroids, adrenals, endocrine pancreas, kidney, intestine, heart, thymus, pineal

Reproductive system: Male: testis, prostate, seminal vesicles, bulbourethral glands, ` associated
ducts ` Female: ovary, oviduct, uterus, vagina, breast.

HOMEOSTASIS

Homeostasis is a delicately balanced state. Large part of physiology is concerned with regulation
mechanisms that act to maintain the constancy of the internal environment. Many of these
regulatory mechanisms operate on the negative feedback. Homeostasis is the dynamic steady
state of the internal environment. Departures from the steady state are opposed by negative
feedback regulation. The structure and chemical 7 reactions of living organisms are sensitive to
the chemical and physical conditions within and around cells. Cells must be wet and surrounding
fluid must be fresh or salty seawater. For multicellular organisms, the surrounding fluid is the
interstitial fluid: a component of the extracellular fluid. The intracellular fluid has a high
concentration of potassium and low concentration of Na+ Cl- , Mg++, and Ca+ . In addition,
cells need a ready supply of nutrients, that serve as structural building molecules, and source of
energy as ATP (chemical energy). Body temperature is very crucial for intracellular
physiological processes; enzymatic events need a very narrow range of temperature, within the
physiological range of temperature compatible with life, cooler temperature favors preservations
of cellular structure but slows the rate of chemical reactions carried out by cells. The higher
temperature enhances chemical reactions, but may also disrupt the structure of the proteins and
other macromolecules within cells All organ systems have regulatory processes for maintaining a
delicate balance in a dynamic steady state. If external environment stresses are very severe
beyond the homeostatic processes, the balance can be overwhelmed. Prolonged exposure to cold
may lead to an intolerable reduction in the body temperature. Exercise in very hot environment,
may result in fluid depletion and an increase in the core temperature, resulting in heat stroke. The
cells are much adapted to a regulated core temperature that even a few degree of temperature
variations may have fatal consequences. Without clothes and proper protection humans can
tolerate only a narrow differences between body temperature and environmental temperature.

Many diseases impair homeostasis. Factors homeostatically maintained include:

• Concentration of nutrient molecules

• Concentration of oxygen and carbondioxide

• Concentration of waste products

• pH • Temperature

• Concentration of water, salt, and other electrolytes

• Volume (fluids), osmolality, and pressure

Homeostasis is essential for survival of cells in that :

• Cells need homeostasis for their own survival and for performing specialized function essential
to survival of the whole body.
• Cells need a constant supply of nutrient and oxygen and ongoing elimination of acid-forming
carbon dioxide, to generate energy needed to power life sustaining cellular activities as follows:
Food + Oxygen = Carbondioxide + water + Energy

ROLE OF BODY SYSTEM IN MAINTAINING HOMEOSTASIS

Body systems are made up of cells organized according to specialization to maintain

homeostasis. Nervous System: Information from the external environment relayed through the
nervous system. Nervous system acts through electrical signals to control rapid responses for
higher functions e.g., concentration, memory, and creativity

Endocrine System: Acts by means of hormones secreted into the blood to control processes
that require duration rather than speed, e.g., metabolic activity and water and electrolytes
balances Circulatory system: Transports nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide, wastes, electrolytes,
and hormones throughout the body

Respiratory system: Obtains oxygen from and eliminates carbon dioxide to the external
environment; helps regulate pH by adjusting the rate of removal of acid-forming carbon dioxide
Urinary system: Important in regulating the volume, electrolyte composition, and pH of the
internal environment; removes waste and excess water, salt, acid, and other electrolytes from the
plasma and eliminates them into the urine.

Digestive system: Obtains nutrients, water and electrolytes from the external environment and
transfers them into the plasma; eliminates undigested food residues to the external environment

Muscular and Skeletal system: Supports and protects body parts and allows body movements;
heat generated by muscular contraction are important in temperature regulation; calcium is stored
in the bones

Immune system: Defense against foreign invaders and cancer cells; paves way for tissue repair

Integumentary system: 10 keeps internal fluids in and foreign materials out serves as a
protective barrier between the external environment and the remainder of the body; the sweat
glands and adjustment in blood flow are important in temperature regulation.

Cellular physiology Cells are the link between molecules and human. They have many molecules
in a very complex organization and have the feature of interaction and represent a living entity.
Cells are the living building blocks for the immense multicellular complicated whole body. Cells
making the body are too small to be seen by the unaided eyes. About 100 average-sized cells
placed side by side would be only about 1mm. Many cells share some common features despite
diverse structure and functional specialization. Most cells have 3 subdivisions: the plasma
membrane, the nucleus, and the cytoplasm. Plasma membrane/cell membrane: It is very thin
membrane structure that enclose each cell, separating the cell’s contents from the surrounding.
The fluid contained inside the cell is ICF, and the fluid outside the cell is extracellular fluid
(ECF). The plasma membrane holds the cell contents, but has the ability in selectively
controlling movement of molecules between the ECF and intracellular fluid (ICF)

The nucleus:

This is distinctly oval or spherical shaped central structure surrounded by a double-layered

membrane. Within the nucleus is DNA which directs protein synthesis and serves as a genetic
blueprint during cell replication. DNA gives codes, or “instruction” for directing synthesis of
specific structure and enzymes proteins within the cell. By monitoring these protein synthesis
activity, the nucleus indirectly governs most cellular activities and serves as the cell’s master.
Three types of RNA are involved in protein synthesis. First, DNA’s genetic code for a particular
protein synthesis. First, DNA’s genetic code for a particular protein is transcribed into a
messenger-RNA, which leaves nucleus through the nuclear pores of the nuclear membrane.
Within the cytoplasm, m-RNA delivers the coded message to the ribosomal RNA, which “reads”
message/code and translates it into the appropriate amino acids sequence for the designated
protein being synthesized. Finally, transfer-RNA transfers the appropriate amino acids within the
cytoplasm to their designated site in the protein under 11 production. During cell replication,
DNA ensures that the cell produces additional cells just like itself thus continuing the identical
types of cell line within the body. Furthermore, in the sperm and ova, the DNA blueprint serves
to pass the genetic characteristics to future generation- from parents to offsprings.

The Cytoplasm: The cytosol is the material of cell interior not occupied by the nucleus,
containing a number of distinct, highly organized membrane-enclosed structures- the organelles-
dispersed within a complex jelly – like marrow called the ‘cytosol’. All cells contain six main
types of organelles- the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex, lysosomes, peroxisomes,
mitochondria, and vacules. They are similar in all cells, but with some variations depending on
the cell specialization. Each organelle is a separate compartment, containing different chemically
setting for fulfilling a partial or cellular function. These organelles occupy about half of the total
cell volume. The remaining part of the cytoplasm is cytosol.

ORGANELLES

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

The endoplasmic reticulum is a fluid-filled membrane system extensively present throughout the
cytosol. The two different types are smooth endoplasmic reticulum and the rough ER (See figure
2). The smooth ER is a meshwork of interconnected tubules, whereas the rough ER projects
outwards from the reticulum as stacks of flattened sacs. Though different in structure and
function, they are continuous with each other. The ER is one continuous organelle with many
communicating channels.

The rough Endoplasmic Reticulum: The outer surface of the rough ER contains dark particles
called ribosomes, which are ribosomal RNA protein complexes that produce protein under the
direction of nuclear DNA. Messenger-RNA carries the genetic message from the nucleus to the
ribosomes “workshop” where proteins are synthesized. Some ribosomes are “free” dispersed
throughout the cytosol.

The rough ER in association with ribosomes produces and releases a variety of proteins, into the
fluid-filled space enclosed by the membrane. Some proteins for export as secretory products
(hormones or enzymes). Other proteins are transported to sites within the cell for use in the
construction of new plasma membrane or new organelle membrane.

Cellular membrane contains predominantly fats and proteins. ER membrane also contains
enzymes required for the synthesis of almost all the lipids needed for the production of new
membranes. These lipids enter the ER lumen along with the proteins. This structure is well
developed in cells producing digestive enzymes or in rapidly growing cells.

Each ribosome is involved in producing only one type of protein. The free ribosomes synthesize
enzyme protein that are used intracellularly within the cytosol.
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum: It does not have ribosomes hence looks ‘smooth’. It serves a
variety of other functions that differ in cell types; it does not produce proteins. In most cells, the
smooth ER is sparse and serves packaging and discharge site for protein molecules that are to be
transported from the ER. All new proteins and fats pass from ER to gather in the smooth ER.
Portions of the smooth ER then “bud off/pinch off”, giving rise to ‘transport vesicles’, they
contain the new molecule wrapped in a membrane derived from the smooth ER membrane.
Transport vesicles move to the Golgi complex for further processing of their cargo. Some
specialized cells have an extensive smooth ER, which has additional functions as follows:

• The smooth ER is well developed in cells specialized in lipid metabolism- cells that synthesize
steroid hormones. The membrane wall of the smooth ER contains enzymes for synthesis of
lipids. This is an additional site for synthesis in addition for ER to keep pace with demands for
hormone secretion.

• In liver cells, the smooth ER contains enzymes involved in detoxifying harmful endogenous
substances produced within the body by metabolism or exogenous substances entering the body
from outside as drugs or other foreign compounds. The detoxifying enzymes alter toxic
substances so that they could be easily eliminated in the urine. But unfortunately, in some
instances the same enzyme transforms otherwise harmless substance into carcinogens that play a
role in cancer development.

• The smooth ER has a special role in skeletal muscle cells. They have an elaborate network of
smooth ER, which stores ionic calcium and plays a crucial role in the process of muscle
contraction

The Golgi Complex

• The Golgi complex is a refining plant and directs molecular traffic.

• The Golgi complex is elaborately associated with the ER and contains sets of flattened, curved,
membrane- enclosed sacs, or cisternae, stacked in layers. Number of stacks vary in cells; cells
specialized for protein secretion have hundreds of stacks, whereas some have only one
The majority of newly formed molecules budding off from the smooth ER enter a Golgi complex
stacks. It performs the following important functions.

1. Processing the raw material into finished products. In the Golgi complex, the “raw” protein
from the ER are modified into their final state mainly by adjustment made in the sugar attached
to the protein. This is a very elaborate, precisely programmed activity, specific for each final
product.

2. Sorting and directing finished product to their final destination. According to their function
and destination, different types of products are segregated by the Golgi complex, i.e., molecules
that are destined for secretion to the exterior, molecules that will eventually become part of the
plasma membrane, and the molecules that will become incorporated into other organelles.

3. The smooth ER of the liver and kidney cells are responsible for the detoxification and
inactivation of drugs. Enzymes within the smooth ER can inactivate or destroy a variety of
chemicals including alcohol, pesticides, and carcinogens.

4. In skeletal muscle cells, a modified form of smooth ER stores Ca++to be released for muscle
contraction.

Lysosomes

Lysosomes serve as the intracellular “digestive system”. Lysosomes are membrane-enclosed sacs
containing powerful hydrolytic enzymes capable of digesting and removing unwanted cellular
debris and foreign materials such as bacteria that have been internalized within the cell.
Lysosomes vary in size and shape, and about 300μm in a cell. Surrounding membrane confines
these enzymes, preventing from destroying the cell that houses them. Extrinsic material to be
attacked by lysosomal enzymes is brought into the interior of the cell through the process of
endocytosis. If the fluid is internalized by endocytosis, the process is called pinocytosis.
Endocytosis is also accomplished by phagocytosis. In pinocytosis, ECF and a large molecule
such as protein is engulfed. Dynamin, a molecule forms rings wrapping around, severing the
vesicle from the surface membrane in pinocytosis. In phagocytosis, large multimolecular
particles are internalized by endocytosis; this is achieved by only a few specialized cells- white
blood cells that play an important role in the body’s defense mechanism.

Lysosomes can take up old organelles such as mitochondria and break down into their
component molecules. Those molecules that can be released are reabsorbed into the cytosol, and
the rest are dumped out of the cell. The process by which worn-out organelles are digested is
called autophagy a human liver cell recycles about half its content every week.

the inherited condition known as lysosomal storage disease (Tay-Sachs disease) lysosomes are
not effective because they lack specific enzymes. As a result, harmful waste products accumulate
disrupting the normal function of cells, often with fatal results.

Peroxisome

• Peroxisome has oxidative enzymes that detoxify various wastes.

• Is shorter and smoother than lysosome; several hundreds present in one cell

• Is membrane-enclosed sacs containing enzymes

• Contains several powerful oxidative enzymes and catalase

• Oxidative enzymes need oxygen to remove hydrogen from specific substance/molecule; such
reactions are important in detoxifying various waste products within the cell or foreign
compounds that have entered in, such as ethanol consumed in alcoholic drinks.

• The major product generated is hydrogen peroxide; hydrogen peroxide itself is a powerful
oxidant. • Also contain catalase, and antioxidant enzyme decomposing hydrogen peroxide into
harmless water and oxygen. This reaction is an important safety reaction that destroys deadly
hydrogen peroxide, at the site of production, thereby preventing possible devastating escape into
the cytosol.

• Peroximal disordersdisrupt the normal processing of lipids and can severely disrupt the normal
function of the nervous system by altering the structure of the nerve cell membrane
Mitochondria

Mitochondria are the “power houses” of the cell; they extract energy from nutrients in food and
transform it into to usable form to energize cell activity. Their number varies with the cell,
depending on the energy needs of each particular cell type. A single cell may have few hundreds
or thousands. Mitochondria are rod or oval shaped about the size of a bacterium. Each is
enclosed by a double membrane - a smooth outer that surrounds the mitochondria, and an inner
membrane that forms a series of enfolding or shelves called cristae, which project into an inner
cavity filled with a jelly-like matrix. These cristae contain proteins that convert much of the
energy in food into a usable form (the electron transport protein). The enfolding increase the
surface area available for keeping these important proteins the matrix contains a mixture of
hundreds of different dissolved enzymes (Citric acid cycle enzymes) that are important in
preparing nutrient molecules for the final extraction of usable energy by the cristae proteins.

Carbon-hydrogen bonds in ingested food are the source of energy stored in the chemical forms.
Body cell can extract energy from food nutrients and convert it into energy form that they can
use. The high energy phosphate bonds of ATP contain adenosine with 3 phosphate groups. When
high energy phosphate bond is split, a substantial amount of energy is released. ATP is the
universal energy carrier the common energy “currency” of the body. Cells can “cash in” ATP to
pay the energy “price” for running the cellular machine. To get immediate usable energy cells
can split terminal phosphate bond of ATP, which yields ADP with phosphate group attached -
plus inorganic phosphate (Pi) plus energy.

Mitochondria are unusual organelles in two ways:

1. In the matrix they have their own unique DNA called mitochondrial DNA.

2. Mitochondria have the ability to replicate themselves even when the cell to which they belong
is not undergoing cell division

Cytosol

The cytosol is semi-solid portion of the cytoplasm, surrounding the organelles and occupies
about 5% of the total cell volume. The cytosol is important in intermediary metabolism,
ribosomal protein synthesis, and storage of fat and glycogen. Dispersed throughout the cytosol is
a cytoskeleton that gives shape to the cell, provides a framework, and is responsible for various
cell movements.

Cytoskeleton

The cytoskeleton is a complex protein network that act as the “bone and muscle” of the cell. This
necessary intracellular scaffoldings supports and organizes cellular components arrangements
and to control their movements; this provides distinct shape, size to the cell. This network has at
least four distinct elements:

1. Microtubules

2. Microfilaments

3. Intermediate filaments

4. Microtubular lattice

The different parts of the cytoskeleton are structures linked and functionally coordinated to
provide integration of the cell. The microtubule is the largest of the group; slender, long, hollow
tubes composed of a globular protein molecule (6 nm diameter) tubulin. They provide
asymmetrical shape to the cell, such as a neuron with cell body and long axon. They coordinate
numerous complex cell movements in transport of secretory vesicles from region to region of the
cell, movements of cilia and flagella, distribution of chromosomes during cell division,
microfilaments are important to cellular contractile system and as mechanical stiffeners.

Plasma Membrane

The plasma membrane is extremely thin layer of lipids and proteins forming outermost boundary
of living cell and enclosing the intracellular fluid (ICF). It serves as a mechanical barrier that
traps needed molecules within the cell; plasma membrane plays an active role in determining the
composition of cell by selective permeability of substances to pass between the cell and its ECF
environment. There are some differences in the composition of plasma membrane between cell
types, which permits the cell to interact in different ways with essentially the same extracellular
fluid (ECF) environment. The plasma membrane is a fluid lipid bilayer embedded with proteins.
It appears as ‘trilaminar’ layer structure having two dark layers separated by a light middle layer
as a result of specific arrangement of the constituent molecules.

All plasma membrane are made up of lipids and proteins plus small amount of carbohydrate.
Phospholipids are most abundant with a lesser amount of cholesterol. Phospholipids have a polar
charged head having a negatively charged phosphate group and two non-polar (electrically
neutral) fatty acid tails. The polar end is hydrophilic (water loving) because it can interact with
water molecule which is also polar, the non polar end is hydrophobic (water fearing) and will not
mix with water. Such two-sided molecule self assemble into a lipid bilayer, a double layer of
lipid molecules when in contact with water. The hydrophobic tails bury themselves in the center
away from the water, while the hydrophilic heads line up on both sides in contact with water.
The water surface of the layer is exposed to ECF, whereas the inner layer is in contact with the
intracellular fluid (ICF). The lipid is fluid in nature, with consistency like liquid cooking oil.
Cholesterol provides to the fluidity as well as the stability; cholesterol lies in between the
phosphate molecules, preventing the fatty acid chain from packing together and crystallizing that
could decrease fluidity of the membrane. Cholesterol also exerts a regulatory role on some of the
membrane proteins. On account of fluidity of the membrane it gives flexibility to the cell to
change its shape; transport process are also dependent on the fluidity of the lipid bilayer.

The plasma membrane is actually asymmetrical; the two surfaces are not the same; carbohydrate
is only on the outer surface; different amount of different proteins are on the outer and inner
surfaces and even the lipid structures of the outer and inner half isnot the same. The plasma
membrane is highly complex, dynamic, regional differentiated structure. The lipid layer forms
the primary barrier to diffusion, whereas proteins perform most of the specific membrane
functions. Lipid bilayer serves three functions: Forms the basic structure of the membrane Its
hydrophobic interior/inner side is a barrier to passage of water-soluble substances between the
ICF and ECF; water-soluble cannot dissolve in and pass through lipid bilayer. Responsible for
the fluidity of the membrane.

Membrane Proteins Functions

Membrane proteins are variety of different proteins within the plasma membrane; serve the
following special functions:
Some form water-filled passage ways or channels, across the lipid bilayer; such channels allow
ions to pass through without coming in direct contact with lipid interior. The channels are highly
selective; they can selectively attract or repel particular ions. This selectively attracts or repels
particular ions

. 2. Other proteins serve as carrier molecule that transport specific molecule that cannot cross on
their own. They differ in cells, e.g., thyroid epithelial cell possesses carriers for iodine.

3. Many proteins on the outer surface serve as ‘receptor sites’ that recognize and bind with
specific molecules in the cell environment.

4. Another group of proteins act as membrane-bound enzymes that control specific chemical
reactions on either side of the plasma membrane e.g., outer layer of the

Membrane Carbohydrate

Short-chain carbohydrate on the outer membrane surface serves as self-identity marker enabling
cells to identify and interact with each other in the following ways:

• Recognition of “self” and cell-to-cell interactions. Cells recognize each other and form tissues;
complex carbohydrates act as a “trademark” of a particular cell type, for recognition.

• Carbohydrate-containing surface markers are important in growth. Cells do not overgrow their
own territory. Abnormal surface markers present in tumor cells, and abnormality may underline
uncontrolled growth.

• Some CAMS have carbohydrate, on the outermost tip where they participate in cell adhesion
activity.

Membrane Transport

Lipid-soluble substances and small ions can passively diffuse through the plasma membrane
down their electro-chemical gradients. The plasma membrane is selectively permeable. Highly
lipid-soluble particles are able to dissolve in the lipid bilayer and pass through the membrane.
Uncharged/non-polar molecules oxygen, carbon dioxide and fatty acids are highly lipid-soluble
and readily permeate the membrane. Charged particle sodium/potassium ions and polar
molecules such as glucose and proteins have low lipid solubility, but are very soluble in water.
For water-soluble ions of less than 0.8 nm diameter, protein channels serve as an alternate route
for passage. Ions for which specific channels are available can permeate the plasma membrane.
Particles with low lipid-permeability and too large for channels, cannot permeate the membrane
on their own. Some force is needed to produce movement across the plasma membrane.

Two forces are involved:

1. Forces that do not require the cell to expend energy for movement - passive force

2. Forces requiring energy (as ATP) to be expended to transport across the membrane - active
force

Movement along electrical gradient

Movement of charged particles is also affected by their electrical gradient. Like charges repel
each other, whereas opposite charges attract each other. If a relative difference in charges exist
between two adjacent areas, the cations tend to move towards more negatively charged area,
whereas the anions tend to move toward the more positively charged areas. The simultaneous
existence of an electrical and concentration (chemical) gradient for a particular ion is referred to
as an electro-chemical gradient.

Osmosis

Osmosis is the net diffusion of water down its own concentration gradient. Water can readily
permeate the plasma membrane. The driving force for diffusion of water is its concentration
gradient from area of higher water concentration (low solute) to the area of lower water (high
solute) concentration. This net diffusion of water is known as osmosis.

Facilitated Diffusion

Facilitated diffusion uses a carrier protein to facilitate the transfer of a particular substance across
the membrane “downhill” from higher to lower concentration. This process is passive and does
not require energy because movement occurs naturally down a concentration gradient. Active
transport, on the other hand, requires the carrier to expend energy to transfer its passenger
“uphill” against a concentration gradient from an area of lower concentration to an area of higher
concentration.

Na+ -K+ -pump plays three important roles

1. It establishes sodium and potassium concentration gradients across the plasma membrane of
all cells; these gradients are important in the nerve and muscle to generate electrical signals.

2. It helps regulate cell volume by controlling the concentration of solutes inside the cell and
thus minimizing osmotic effects that would induce swelling or shrinking of the cell.

3. The energy used to run the pump also indirectly serves as the energy source for the co-
transport of glucose and amino acids across the membrane (intestine and kidney cell).

Vesicular Transport

The special cell membrane transport system selectively transports ions and small polar
molecules. But large polar molecules and even multimolecular material may leave or enter the
cell, such as hormone secretion or ingestion of invading microbe by leukocytes. These materials
cannot cross the plasma membrane but are to be transferred between the ICF and ECF not by
usual crossing but by wrapped in membrane. This process of transport into or out of the cell in a
membrane-enclosed vesicle is - vesicular transport. Transport into the cell is termed endocytosis,
whereas transport out of the cell is called exocytosis. In endocytosis, the transported material is
wrapped in a piece of the plasma membrane, thus gaining entrance to the interior of the cell.
Endocytosis of fluid is called pinocytosis cell (drinking), whereas endocytosis of large
multimolecular particle is known as phagocytosis (cell eating).