Thematic Brief 5

Water Use Efficiency

Brief prepared for the Entry phase of the project:
Strengthening Agricultural Water Efficiency and Productivity on the African and Global Level
The Project
The GCP/INT/166/SWI “Strengthening Agricultural Water Efficiency and Productivity on the African
and Global Level” has the aim to improve Agriculture Water Management (AWM) practices and
mainstream AWM in national frameworks and processes on the African and global level. The
project is funded by the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC) and is composed
of three phases: Entry Phase, First and Second Implementation Phases.
The overriding goal of the entry phase is to share the project document with a broad range of
stakeholders and beneficiaries in each of its countries, in order to refine it in accordance to their
interests and priorities, and to ensure that the final document is endorsed by the concerned
parties. The First Implementation Phase will focus on Africa and will be implemented in the three
countries – Burkina Faso, Morocco and Uganda - within three years. The Second Implementation
Phase will have a global focus and will expand to other three countries in Africa, the Middle East
and South East Asia. The purpose of this phase is to develop country cooperation to promote
knowledge transfer and experience sharing in improving AWM practices and mainstreaming them
into national frameworks and processes.
This thematic brief is part of the Entry Phase work and relates to the proposed outcome of the
project - Enhanced capacity for increased water use efficiency in small scale irrigation. This will be
achieved by applying an FAO Water Tool, known as the Water-Downed MASSCOTE (WD-
MASSCOTE), in project countries.

Water Use Efficiency

In irrigation, Water Use Efficiency (WUE) represents the ratio between effective water use and
actual water withdrawal. It characterizes, in a specific process, how effective is the use of water.
Efficiency is scale and process dependent.
Along a canal, the conveyance efficiency is the ratio between the volume of water at delivery
points and inflow at entrance. At field level, effective water use is the water transpired by the crop
and some other special requirements (land preparation, salt leaching). Runoff, deep percolation
and evaporation from bare soil or standing water in paddy fields, are losses.

Water-Downed MASSCOTE
The WD-MASSCOTE is an adaptation of the FAO’s tool Mapping System and Services for Canal
Operation Techniques, also known as MASSCOTE, that is used to assess the performance of canal
operation and field application efficiency in large irrigation schemes. WD-MASSCOTE was adapted
to fit the characteristics of small-scale irrigation schemes. The methodology will include baseline
system analysis through Rapid Appraisal Procedures and proposes improved field operations and
water services to users.
 Water Use Efficiency

Burkina Faso
Types of irrigation schemes
• Total irrigated area is 40 000 ha, which corresponds to 17% of Table 1 – Typology and size of
the total irrigation potential. Irrigation Schemes

• Irrigation schemes are commonly categorized according to size Type Size

(Table 1). Large systems > 300 ha
• Nowadays irrigation development is mostly led by the private Medium systems 50 - 300 ha
sector.
Small scale irrigation < 50 ha
• Irrigation use varies between seasons: in the dry season
irrigation is the only water supply, in the wet season it is Wetlands ---
supplemental.
Irrigation practices
• Furrow irrigation (Length < 200 m) and border irrigation (Length = 10 m) is used for vegetables.
• Basin irrigation is used for water intense crops, such as rice.
• Sprinkler irrigation is applied in large sugar systems.
• Low pressure drip irrigation is used to grow vegetables.
• Rotation distribution is the main practice: irrigation turn is frequent, every 3-4 days.

Water use in irrigation schemes

• Since 1980, successive performance assessment studies (EIER, PMI-BF, APPIA) have shown that
performance is lower than expected and irrigation infrastructure is rapidly deteriorating, mostly
due to lack of maintenance and, in some cases, because of construction issues.
• Water management efficiency: in storage, evaporation is about 2 m/year or 5 mm/day, infiltration
is 2 mm/day. Water available for irrigation is between 60-65% of the total storage capacity.
• WUE at system level has been measured at 60% and decreases with time.

Irrigation water policies

• The National Strategy for economic growth (2011) states that irrigation should contribute to 50%
of agriculture production in 2015.
• Policy at national level is well developed, examples: Politique Nationale de l’Eau (PNE), Plan
d’Actions pour la Gestion Intégrée de la Ressource en Eau (PAGIRE), Stratégie Nationale de
Développement Durable de l’irrigation (SNDDI).

Institutional set-up of different types of irrigation systems

• There is a big variety of expertise at national level Table 2 - Management of irrigation schemes
with several consultant firms, engineering schools,
Type Management
research institutes, professional organizations and
NGOs Large State agency management (Bagré and
Sourou); farmers associations (Kou
• There are several irrigation development constraints,
Valley, Banzon, Karfiguéla) with state
such as: local expertise is lagging behind; intervention; private: sugar based
landholding issues; high investment costs; and local systems (SN-SOSUCO) and agro-
conflicts between old agriculture associations and business in part of Bagré and Sourou.
newly created irrigation associations.
Medium farmers associations
• Management set-up of irrigation schemes varies with
size (Table 2). Small village associations or individual

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 Water Use Efficiency

Morocco
Types of irrigation schemes
• Irrigation contributes to 75% of agriculture exports and to 45% of the agri-production (higher
during dry years).
• Total irrigated area is over 1,4 million ha characterized by:
− Large irrigation systems (GH), covering about 0,7 million ha and are managed by public
agencies;
− Private irrigation for agro-business farming, covering more than 0,4 million ha; and
− Small and medium scale systems (PMH), covering approximately 0,3 million ha with 2927
systems.
• PMH systems can be subdivided into 2 types: permanent/semi-permanent supply and
intermittent supply. They can be traditional (e.g. oasis, mountain, Khettaras, flood irrigation) or
recent/modern (e.g. built by the state).
• Private small scale systems are becoming important either as isolated schemes with groundwater
supply or as part of PMH and GH, supplementing surface water service with groundwater.
• Main sources of water are surface (60%) and groundwater (40%).
• In conclusion, extreme diversity of small scale systems does exist, having implications on water
resources, rights, access to markets, management set up, water fees, etc.

Irrigation practices
• Gravity irrigation is the main technique used.
• Land levelling degradation, water distribution at field head, and non optimized technique for flow
and length are the main reported problems.
• Robta is the mostly used small basin technique (40 m2) that is labour intense with low efficiency.

Water use in irrigation schemes

• Water efficiency at field level is by design between 50-60% for surface irrigation, 90% for drip
irrigation, and 50% for sprinkler. However an increasing number of studies have shown that drip
and sprinkler efficiencies can be as low as gravity.
• Collective system efficiency is between 61-77% (gravity) and 85-95% (pressurized).
• Agriculture production on PMH is not market oriented due to distance/access to market, lack of
storage capacity, landholding too small, low competiveness, and complexity of traditional water
rights.

Irrigation water policies

• Ambitious Stratégie Nationale de l’Eau (SNE) (2009) focused on water savings and water
development (e.g. barrages, water harvesting).
• Traditional and modern laws.

Institutional set-up of different types of irrigation systems

• There are three main actors: state; associations; and water agency (recently created).
• Association d’Usagers de l’Eau Agricole (AUEW) (1990) defines water associations.
• Small scale systems are traditionally managed by tribes.
• Water fees vary according to groups: no fees for traditional systems; others pay based on the
Code des Investissements Agricoles (Dahir 1-69-25), the sustainability principle (annual fees to cover
recurrent costs) and equity principle (state recovers 40% of the added value on land).
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 Water Use Efficiency

UGANDA
Types of irrigation schemes Table 3 – Typology and size of
• The total irrigated area of the country is almost 67 150 ha Irrigation Schemes
with: Type Size
− 14 148 ha of full control irrigation.
Large systems > 500 ha
− 53 000 ha of informal irrigation (swamps around streams
flowing into lake Kyoga developed for irrigation). Medium systems 50 - 500 ha
Small scale irrigation < 50 ha
Irrigation practices
• The most common surface irrigation methods are:
− Flood/basin irrigation majorly utilized for rice cultivation and furrow irrigation.
− Overhead sprinkler/micro-sprinkler irrigation.
− Drip irrigation used for seedlings, green house irrigated flower sand horticulture farms.
• Center-Pivot irrigation is mainly used in large plantations, only for seedlings (profitability).

Water use in irrigation schemes

• So far, there have been no comprehensive studies to assess water use efficiency on the existing
irrigation schemes in Uganda. However it is known that water use efficiency in the country is poor
and that systems are operating far below their potential.
• Agriculture accounts for 40% of water withdrawals (less than 0.16% of total renewable water
resources).
• Predictions indicate that water scarcity will likely affect economic development/food security by
2025.

Irrigation water policies

• There are significant recent efforts to streamline policies for optimum water use in agriculture.
• Irrigation development is part of the Uganda Vision 2040, the Agriculture Sector Development
Strategy and Investment Plan (DSIP) (2010/11-2014/15), and the Uganda National Agricultural Policy,
2011.
• The National Irrigation Master Plan (NIMP 2010-2035) provides a Framework Master Plan (FMP) for a
reinvigorated, expanded and upgraded irrigation sub-sector in Uganda. It includes:
− Establishment of new irrigation schemes (informal, small scale, commercial);
− Capacity development (guidelines, regulations, standards, technical assistance, etc.); and
− Transfer of irrigation knowledge and skills: pilots and demonstrations on small scale; and
monitoring framework for water for crops.

Institutional set-up of different types of irrigation systems

• Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries (MAAIF) and its Agencies are responsible for
irrigation development and management.
• Ministry of Water and Environment (MWE), in collaboration with MAAIF, covers water management,
development and rights.
• The District Local Government supervises irrigation infrastructure at scheme level.
• Farmer Cooperative Society (Water Users Association) duties include: operation and maintenance of
the scheme, revenue collection, community mobilization to carry out scheme activities, and so on.

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 Water Use Efficiency
COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS
Table 4 - Irrigation capacities, diagnosis and perspectives for WD-MASSCOTE in the 3 countries

National Systems for

Local capacity Main diagnosis Perspectives / Focus
capacity this project

Small & Very low

BURKINA

Improving existing
FASO

Fair, recently Poor, to be medium performance,

systems and
developed developed scale operation and
developing new ones
<300 ha maintenance
MOROCCO

Small & Highly water Improving

Good, long
Very good medium stress country and management of
tradition in
(e.g. Oasis) scale (PMH) extreme diversity existing small scale
irrigation
<3000ha of small scale systems
systems
Developing new
Poor, lack of data Small &
UGANDA

Poor, irrigation schemes

and weak medium Few functional
irrigation is NIMP: from 57 000 ha
management scale irrigation systems
recent to over 253 000 ha, by
structures <500ha
2035

On Water Use Efficiency

The generic MASSCOTE approach has been widely successfully applied
on medium to large systems. A version of this approach WD-MASSCOTE
adjusted to the specificities of small scale systems, is to be applied in
several systems of the 3 countries. The approach will raise the capacity in
performance assessment and planning modernization ultimately
contributing to crafting national strategies for water efficiency
improvements in irrigation. The in-country findings and processes which
are of common nature can be synthesized and scaled up to other
countries and regions.
The focus of the WD-MASSCOTE component is to enhance national and
regional capacity for increased water use efficiency in small scale
irrigation in Burkina Faso, Morocco and Uganda. Similar to the
MASSCOTE method, it will integrate other aspects of agricultural water
WD-MASSCOTE will support
management, such as, water productivity, water harvesting, water small scale farmers to use
accounting together with the approach of service and cost. water more efficiently

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 Project Development
RECOMMENDATIONS
Table 5- Outcomes expected and the medium term targets with the WD-MASSCOTE approach

Outcomes expected from WD-MASSCOTE

Medium term targeted outcome
applications
countries

• National capacity to use FAO approaches for • Integrate the regional expertise
All 3

performance assessment and modernization and FAO approaches into the

planning (MASSCOTE) is built centers of excellence

• Capacity in performance assessment is raised

BURKINA FASO

• Local capacity for irrigation management is

built • Develop modernization projects
• Comprehensive performance assessment for (pilots)
water efficiency (field, system, scheme and • Design a national strategy for
surrounding rainfed agriculture) is conducted investment in irrigation
• Lessons learned about irrigation modernization
are derived

• Capacity in performance assessment is

enhanced • Develop modernization projects
MOROCCO

• Comprehensive performance assessment for (pilots)

water efficiency (field to system and basin) is • Design national policy for water
conducted use efficiency and water
• Lessons learned about irrigation modernization productivity
are derived

• National and local capacity for irrigation • Design a strategy for developing
the national and local capacity
UGANDA

management and performance assessment is

built • Design a mater plan for
• Lessons learned for new investments, from a investment in irrigation
sample of 12 existing and 25 planned areas, are • Develop new pilots and
derived modernization projects

AgWA Secretariat FAO Focal Point

c/o FAO Sub-regional Office for Eastern Africa - SFE CMC Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
Road Near ILRI Bole Sub City, Kebele 12/13 PO Box 5536 (FAO)
Addis Ababa Natural Resources and Environment Department: Land and
Phone: +251 11 647 8888 Water Division (NRL)
Fax: +251 11 647 8800 Maher Salman, Technical Adviser
Maher.Salman@fao.org