General Properties of Materials

Properties of Building Materials

- A material can be considered as a building construction material if the quality and

capacity of such is capable to its application.
-
1. PHYSICAL - Properties that shows the quality and condition of a material without
exerting forces.
2. MECHANICAL - Property of material that can be found out by applying and exerting
forces.
3. CHEMICAL – Property of material against chemical actions or combinations.
4. ELECTRICAL – Property that conduct or to resist electricity.
5. MAGNETIC – Property of material like permeability and hysteresis that is required in
the case of generators.
6. THERMAL – Property that absorb heat and is required to design proper ventilation.
Materials Engineering Concepts

Materials engineers are responsible for the selection, specification, and quality control of
materials to be used in a job. These materials must meet certain classes of criteria or
materials properties (Ashby and Jones, 2011). These classes of criteria include:

▪ economic factors
▪ mechanical properties
▪ nonmechanical properties
▪ production/construction considerations
▪ aesthetic properties
▪ economic Factors

The economics of the material selection process are affected by much more that just the
cost of the material. Factors that should be considered in the selection of the material
include:

▪ availability and cost of raw materials

▪ manufacturing costssection 1.2 Mechanical properties 23
▪ transportation
▪ placing
▪ maintenance

Physical Properties Of Engineering Materials:

1. DENSITY – It is the ratio of mass of the material and its volume.

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 2. POROSITY – It is the ratio of volume of pores to the volume of material.
3. DURABILITY – Property of a material to withstand against the combined action of
atmospheric and other factors.
4. SPECIFIC WEIGHT – 𝛾 = 𝜌𝛿 is equal to the product of density of material and standard
gravity due to acceleration.
5. SPECIFIC GRAVITY – Is the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of a reference
substance.
6. WATER ABSORPTION – The capacity of a material to absorb and retain water. It is
expressed in % of weight of dry material. It depends up on the size, shape and number of
pores of material.
7. WATER PERMEABILITY – The ability of a material to permit water through it is called water
permeability. Dense materials like glass metals etc. are called impervious materials which
cannot allow water through it.
8. FIRE RESISTANCE – The ability to withstand against fire without changing its shape and
other properties. Fire resistance of a material is tested by the combined actions of water
and fire. Fireproof materials should provide more safety in case of fire.
9. WEATHERING RESISTANCE – The property of a material to withstand against all
atmospheric actions without losing its strength and shape. Weathering effects the
durability of material. For example corrosion occurs in iron due to weathering. To resist
this paint layer is provided.
Mechanical properties

The mechanical behavior of materials is the response of the material to external loads. All
materials deform in response to loads; however, the specific response of a material depends
on its properties, the magnitude and type of load, and the geometry of the element. Whether
the material “fails” under the load conditions depends on the failure criterion. Catastrophic
failure of a structural member, resulting in the collapse of the structure, is an obvious material
failure.

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 Examples of Functional Failures:

- Pavement may fail due to excessive roughness at the surface, even though the stress
levels are well within the capabilities of the material.
- A building may have to be closed due to excessive vibrations by wind or other live loads,
although it could be structurally sound.
1. loading Conditions
There are 2 types of loads these are STATIC and DYNAMIC.
STATIC - loading implies a sustained loading of the structure over a period. Generally, static
loads are slowly applied such that no shock or vibration is generated in the structure. Once
applied, the static load may remain in place or be removed slowly. Loads that remain in
place for an extended period are called sustained (dead) loads. In civil engineering, much
of the load the materials must carry is due to the weight of the structure and equipment
in the structure.
DYNAMIC - Loads that generate a shock or vibration in the structure are dynamic loads.
Dynamic loads can be classified as periodic, random, or transient, as shown in Figure
(Richart et al., 1970).

Periodic – harmonic or
sinusoidal load, repeats
itself with time

Random – the load pattern

never repeats

Transient – an impulse load

that is applied over a short
time interval

Figure : Types of dynamic loads: (a) periodic, (b) random, and (c) transient

2. Stress-Strain Relations
Materials deform in response to loads or forces. In 1678, Robert Hooke published the first
findings that documented a linear relationship between the amount of force applied to a

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 member and its deformation. The amount of deformation is proportion𝜀al to the properties of
the material and its dimensions. The effect of the dimensions can be normalized. Dividing the
force by the cross-sectional area of the specimen normalizes the effect of the loaded area.
𝐹
stress 𝜎 = 𝐴; Dividing the deformation by the original length is defined as strain ε of the
specimen (i.e., e = change in length/original length). Much useful information about the
material can be determined by plotting the stress–strain diagram. Figure shows typical uniaxial
tensile or compressive stress–strain curves for several engineering materials.

Figure: Typical uniaxial stress–strain diagrams for some engineering materials:

(a) glass and chalk, (b) steel, (c) aluminum alloys, (d) concrete, and (e) soft rubber.

3. Elastic Behavior
If a material exhibits true elastic behavior, it must have an instantaneous response
(deformation) to load, and the material must return to its original shape when the load is
removed. Many materials, including most metals, exhibit elastic behavior, at least at low
stress levels. As will be discussed in Chapter 2, elastic deformation does not change the
arrangement of atoms within the material, but rather it stretches the bonds between
atoms. When the load is removed, the atomic bonds return to their original position.
Young observed that different elastic materials have different proportional constants
between stress and strain. For a homogeneous, isotropic, and linear elastic material, the
proportional constant between normal stress and normal strain of an axially loaded
member is the modulus of elasticity or Young’s modulus, E, and is equal to
𝜎
𝐸 = 𝜀 ; 𝜎 = 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜀 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
In the axial tension test, as the material is elongated, there is a reduction of the cross
section in the lateral direction. In the axial compression test, the opposite is true. The ratio
of the lateral strain, εl, to the axial strain, εa, is Poisson’s ratio,
−𝜀1
𝑣=
𝜀𝑎

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 If a homogeneous, isotropic cubical element with linear elastic response is subjected to
normal stresses sx, sy, and sz in the three orthogonal directions (as shown in Figure), the
normal strains εx, εy, and εz can be computed by the generalized
Hooke’s law,
𝜎𝑥 − 𝑣(𝜎𝑦 + 𝜎𝑧 )
𝜀𝑥 =
𝐸
𝜎𝑦 − 𝑣(𝜎𝑧 + 𝜎𝑥 )
𝜀𝑦 =
𝐸
𝜎𝑧 − 𝑣(𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 )
𝜀𝑧 =
𝐸

Figure: Normal stresses applied on a cubical

element.

Sample Problem

A cube made of alloy with dimensions 50mm x 50mm x 50mm is placed into a pressure
chamber and subjected to a pressure of 90 MPa. If the modulus of elasticity of the alloy is
100 GPa and Poisson’s ratio is 0.28, what will be the length of each side of the cube,
assuming that the material remains within the elastic region?

Solution:
𝜎𝑥 − 𝑣(𝜎𝑦 + 𝜎𝑧 ) −90 − 0.28 × (−90 − 90)
𝜀𝑥 = = = −0.000396 𝑚/𝑚
𝐸 100000
𝜀𝑦 = 𝜀𝑧 = −0.000396 𝑚/𝑚
∆𝑥 = ∆𝑦 = ∆𝑧 = −0.000396 × 50 = −0.0198 𝑚𝑚
𝐿𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 50 − 0.0198 = 49.9802 𝑚𝑚
Linear Material – stress-strain relationship follows a straight line
Elastic Material – returns to its original shape when load is removed and reacts
instantaneously to changes in load.

Figure: Elastic behavior: (a) linear and

(b) nonlinear

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 For materials that do not display any linear behavior, such as concrete and soils
determining a Young’s modulus or elastic modulus can be problematical. There are several
options for arbitrarily defining the modulus for these materials. Figure shows four options:

Initial tangent the slope of the tangent of the

modulus stress–strain curve at the
origin
tangent modulus the slope of the tangent at a
point on the stress–strain
curve

secant modulus the slope of a chord drawn

between the origin and an
arbitrary point on the stress–
strain curve

chord modulus the slope of a chord drawn

between two points on the
stress–strain curve.

the initial tangent, tangent, secant, and chord moduli.

Figure: Methods for approximating

modulus.

4. Elastroplastic Behavior
For some materials, as the stress
applied on the specimen is increased,
the strain will proportionally increase up
to a point; after this point, the strain will
increase with little additional stress. In
this case, the material exhibits linear elastic behavior followed by plastic response. The
stress level at which the behavior changes from elastic to plastic is the elastic limit.

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 Figure: Stress–strain behavior of plastic materials: (a) example of loading and unloading,
(b) elastic–perfectly plastic, and (c) elasto–plastic with strain hardening.

When the load is removed from the specimen,some of the deformation will be recovered
and some of the deformation will remain as seen in Figure (a).
Figure (b) shows a linear elastic–perfectly plastic response in which the material exhibits a
linear elastic response upon loading, followed by a completely plastic response.
Figure (c) shows an elastoplastic response in which the first portion is an elastic response
followed by a combined elastic and plastic response.

Sample Problem 2

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 An elastoplastic material with strain hardening has the stress–strain relationship shown in
Figure 1.6(c). The modulus of elasticity is 175 GPa, yield strength is 480 MPa, and the slope
of the strain-hardening portion of the stress–strain diagram is 20.7 GPa
a. Calculate the strain that corresponds to a stress of 550 MPa.
b. If the 550-MPa stress is removed, calculate the permanent strain.
Solution:

480 550−480
a. 𝜀 = (175×103 ) + [20.7×103 ] = 0.0061 𝑚/𝑚
550
b. 𝜀𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 0.0061 − [175×103 ] = 0.0061 − 0.0031 = 0.0030 𝑚/𝑚

Sample Problem 3
A rod made of aluminum alloy, with a gauge length of 100 mm, diameter of 10 mm, and
yield strength of 150 MPa, was subjected to a tensile load of 5.85 kN. If the gauge length
was changed to 100.1 mm and the diameter was changed to 9.9967 mm, calculate the
modulus of elasticity and Poisson’s ratio.
Solution:
𝑃 5850 𝑁
𝜎= = = 74.5 × 106 𝑃𝑎 = 74.5𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐴 𝜋(5 × 10−3 𝑚)2
Since the applied stress is well below the yield strength, the material is within the elastic
region.
∆𝐿 (100.1 − 100)
𝜀𝑎 = = = 0.001
𝐿 100
𝜎 74.5
𝐸= = = 74,500𝑀𝑃𝑎 = 74.5 𝐺𝑃𝑎
𝜀𝑎 0.001
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 9.9967 − 10
𝜀1 = = = −0.00033
𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 10
−𝜀1 0.00033
𝑣= = = 0.33
𝜀𝑎 0.001
5. Viscoelastic Behavior - In some cases, materials exhibit both viscous and elastic responses,
which are known as viscoelastic. Typical viscoelastic materials used in construction
applications are asphalt and plastics.
Time-Dependent response Viscoelastic materials have a delayed response to load
application. For example, Figure (a) shows a sinusoidal axial load applied on a viscoelastic
material, such as asphalt concrete, versus time. Figure (b) shows the resulting deformation
versus time, where the deformation lags the load—that is, the maximum deformation of
the sample occurs after the maximum load is applied. The amount of time delayed of the
deformation depends on the material characteristics and the temperature.

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 Figure: Load-deformation response of a viscoelastic material.

6. Temperature and Time Effects - The mechanical behavior of all materials is affected by
temperature. Some materials, however, are more susceptible to temperature than others.
For example, viscoelastic materials, such as plastics and asphalt, are greatly affected by
temperature, even if the temperature is changed by only a few degrees. Other materials,
such as metals or concrete, are less affected by temperatures, especially when they are
near ambient temperature.
In addition to temperature, some materials, such as viscoelastic materials, are affected by
the load duration. The longer the load is applied, the larger is the amount of deformation
or creep. In fact, increasing the load duration and increasing the temperature cause similar
material responses. Therefore, temperature and time can be interchanged.
7. Work and Energy - When a material is tested, the testing machine is actually generating a
force in order to move or deform the specimen. Since work is force times distance, the
area under a force–displacement curve is the work done on the specimen. When the force
is divided by the cross-sectional area of the specimen to compute the stress, and the
deformation is divided by the length of the specimen to compute the strain, the force–
displacement diagram becomes a stress–strain diagram.
The area under the elastic portion of the curve is the modulus of resilience [Figure (a)]. The
amount of energy required to fracture a specimen is a measure of the toughness of the
material, as in Figure (b). As shown in Figure (c), a high-strength material is not necessarily
a tough material.

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 Figure: Areas under stress–strain curves: (a) modulus of resilience, (b) toughness, and (c)
high-strength and high-toughness materials.

8. Failure and Safety - Failure occurs when a member or structure ceases to perform the
function for which it was designed. Failure of a structure can take several modes, including
fracture, fatigue, general yielding, buckling, and excessive deformation. Fracture is a
common failure mode. A brittle material typically fractures suddenly when the static stress
reaches the strength of the material, where the strength is defined as the maximum stress
the material can carry. On the other hand, a ductile material may fracture due to excessive
plastic deformation.
The factor of safety (FS) is defined as the ratio of the stress at failure to the allowable stress
for design (maximum anticipated stress):
𝜎𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝐹𝑆 =
𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑑

where sfailure is the failure stress of the material and sallowable is the allowable stress for
design. Typically, a high factor of safety requires a large structural cross section and
consequently a higher cost. The proper value of the factor of safety varies from one
structure to another and depends on several factors, including the

▪ cost of unpredictable failure in lives, dollars, and time,

▪ variability in material properties,
▪ degree of accuracy in considering all possible loads applied to the structure, such
as earthquakes,
▪ possible misuse of the structure, such as improperly hanging an object from a truss
roof,
▪ degree of accuracy of considering the proper response of materials during design,
such as assuming elastic response although the material might not be perfectly
elastic.

*** END of LESSON 2***

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