10 Egypt. J. Bot. Vol. 60, No. 1, pp.

147-168 (2020)

Egyptian Journal of Botany

http://ejbo.journals.ekb.eg/

Characterization of the Wild Trees and Shrubs in the Egyptian

Flora
Heba Bedair#, Kamal Shaltout, Dalia Ahmed, Ahmed Sharaf El-Din, Ragab El-
Fahhar
Botany Department, Faculty of Science, Tanta University, 31527, Tanta, Egypt.

T HE present study aims to study the floristic characteristics of the native trees and shrubs
(with height ≥50cm) in the Egyptian flora. The floristic characteristics include taxonomic
diversity, life and sex forms, flowering activity, dispersal types, economic potential, threats and
national and global floristic distributions. Nine field visits were conducted to many locations
all over Egypt for collecting trees and shrubs. From each location, plant and seed specimens
were collected from different habitats. In present study 228 taxa belonged to 126 genera and 45
families were recorded, including 2 endemics (Rosa arabica and Origanum syriacum subsp.
sinaicum) and 5 near-endemics. They inhabit 14 habitats (8 natural and 6 anthropogenic).
Phanerophytes (120 plants) are the most represented life form, followed by chamaephytes (100
plants). Bisexuals are the most represented. Sarcochores (74 taxa) are the most represented
dispersal type, followed by ballochores (40 taxa). April (151 taxa) and March (149 taxa) have
the maximum flowering plants. Small geographic range - narrow habitat - non abundant plants
are the most represented rarity form (180 plants). Deserts are the most rich regions with trees
and shrubs (127 taxa), while Sudano-Zambezian (107 taxa) and Saharo-Arabian (98 taxa) was
the most. Medicinal plants (154 taxa) are the most represented good, while salinity tolerance
(105 taxa) was the most represented service and over-collecting and over-cutting was the
most represented threat. Plants with spiny organs such as spiny stipules, leaves, branches,
inflorescences and fruits or woody branches with spine-like terminates are the most represented
(64 taxa).

Keywords: Egyptian flora, Good and services, Rarity form, Woody plants.

Introduction four geographical units, namely: River Nile (about

35,700km2) that includes: The Nile Delta, Nile
Woody plants are perennials with defined stem Valley and Nile Fayium; Western Desert (about
and canopy, and clearly formed with secondary 681,000km2); Eastern Desert (about 223,000km2)
growth and lignificated tissues. Woody plants and Sinai Peninsula (about 61,000km2) (Zaharan &
are either trees (e.g. Salix mucronata), Shrubs Willis, 2009). The climate of Egypt can be divided
(e.g. Thymelaea hirsuta) or lianas (e.g. Cocculus into two main climatic provinces: arid (including
pendulus). Trees have one erect perennial stem the Mediterranean coast and Gebel Elba area
or trunk at least 25cm in circumference at 137cm with annual rainfall of 20-100mm) and hyper arid
above the ground. (Lund, 2015). They also have (including the Eastern and Western Deserts with
a define crown of foliage. In contrast, shrubs are annual rainfall usually less than 20mm) (Ayyad &
small woody plants, usually with several perennial Ghabour, 1986). Consequently, Egypt is mainly
stems branching at the base. However, some trees desert (>96%) and its climate does not favour
(e.g. Quercus sp. and Fraxinus sp.) have multi- the establishment of real forests with their huge
trunked forms (Lund, 2015). trees and shrubs, so the flora of Egypt comprises,
relatively, few trees and shrubs.
Egypt’s land (about one million km2) comprises

Corresponding author email: heba.taha@science.tanta.edu.eg, heba.taha57@yahoo.com

#
Mobile: +201022067227
Received 1/1/2019; Accepted 7/9/2019
DOI: 10.21608/ejbo.2019.6982.1276
Edited by: Prof. Dr. Fawzy M. Salama, Faculty of Science, Assuit University, Assuit, Egypt.
©2020 National Information and Documentation Center (NIDOC)
 148 HEBA BEDAIR et al.

These plants show a number of morpho- threatened plant species in the Flora of Egypt was
physiological features that allow them to adapt with carried out, and later in 1987 a list of 425 of the
the high aridity and low nutrient availability which flowering plants and vascular cryptogams was
characterizes the semi-arid environments, such as assigned in collaboration with the Threatened
deep root systems, tolerance to high radiation levels Plant Unit (TPU) of the IUCN, Kew, England.
and capacity for clonal spread, presence of thorns Among these 190 species are woody perennials
and spines and small leaves (Nobel & Franco, (trees, shrubs and under-shrubs), while the rest are
1989; Pugnaire et al., 1996a, b). Many shrubs and annuals, biennials or perennial herbs. The taxa are
trees are of structural and economic importance classified using the categories of The Red Data
in the arid regions (Crisp & Lange, 1976). They Book categories prepared by IUCN to indicate the
play an important role in soil protection and degree of threat to individual species in their wild
stabilization against movement by wind or water, habitats (Abd El-Ghani & Fahmy, 1994). Checking
provide a source of forage for animals and fuel for the Red data list of vascular plants represented in
local inhabitants and have medicinal and potential the Flora of Egypt carried out by (El-Hadidi &
industrial values (Thalen, 1979). Hosni, 2000), it was found that 96 threatened trees
and shrubs (with mean height ≥50 cm) are among
From the view point of the dynamics of them.
semi-desert communities, many shrubs and trees
may be considered pioneer species. Their high The present paper aims at the followings: 1-
germinability, elevated growth rates during early Preparing a list of the trees and shrubs (with mean
stages and tolerance to high radiation levels allow height ≥ 50cm) in the Egyptian flora (see appendix).
them to colonize open spaces, thus providing 2- Determining the species which are considered
microsites for the germination and establishment alien. 3- Determining if there are endemic or
of many other species under their canopies (Nobel near-endemic species among them. 4- Checklist
& Franco, 1989; Valiente-Banuet & Ezcurra, 1991; analysis in terms taxonomic diversity, geographical
Pugnaire et al., 1996a, b). distribution, life forms, flowering times, sex forms,
dispersal types, rarity forms, goods and services,
These plants are, unfortunately, endangered. threats and physical defense.
Human activities (primarily over-grazing by
livestock and related disturbances) are one of the Methods
principal influences on woodland species (Oliver,
1980; Agren & Zachrisson, 1990; Skarpe, 1990; Fourteen field visits were conducted to many
Stewart & Rose, 1990; Welden et al., 1991; Veblen, locations all over Egypt during the period from
1992; Lykke, 1998; Sakio et al., 2002; Tanaka et 2017 to 2019 for collecting the trees and shrubs
al., 2008). There are many examples of human in Egypt. The covered phytogeographical regions
destructive activities against the woody plants as are Oases, Mediterranean, Nile region, Red
mortality of Acacia trees which mainly associated Sea, Eastern desert and Sinai (Table 1). From
with charcoal production in eastern desert of Egypt each location, specimens of plant taxa were
(Andersen & Krzywinski, 2007), over-grazing collected from different habitats and seed samples
and over-cutting in Sinai, and aridity conditions representing the recorded taxa were also collected
and limited surface water availability in Sinai as can as possible. Other notifications were taken
and Negev deserts (Shrestha et al., 2003; Abd El- into account, if possible, such as sex form, size
Wahab et al., 2013). Local populations of Moringa structure, life form, flowering time and dispersal
peregrina are endangered due to over-cutting, type of diaspores. The available information
and over-grazing whose effects are magnified by and data such as: main habitats, coordinates,
the contemporary prevailing extreme of drought uses and threats for taxa were recorded through
(Zaghloul et al., 2012). Small populations of visiting different locations. Other information was
Juniperus phonicea at Gabal El-Maghara and collected from the herbarium of Tanta University
Gabal Yelleq should be considered very important (TANE). Information from the available literature
as they are under intensive cutting and burning and was also taken into consideration (Täckholm &
are negatively affected by drought (El-Bana et al., Täckholm, 1941; Täckholm & Drar, 1950-1969;
2010). Zohary, 1966, 1972; Täckholm, 1956, 1974;
Feinbrun-Dothan, 1978, 1986; Boulos, 1999-
Early in 1986, a preliminary survey of the 2009; El-Hadidi & Hosni, 2000; Ahmed, 2009;

Egypt. J. Bot. 60, No. 1 (2020)

 CHARACTERIZATION OF THE WILD TREES AND SHRUBS IN THE EGYPTIAN FLORA 149

Shaltout et al., 2010). The websites in Table 2 arranged alphapitically according to APG IV (The
were also consulted to collect more information Angiosperm Phylogeny Group) system (Byng et
about the recorded plants. The list of families are al., 2016) (Table 3).
TABLE 1. Field visits during the present study (2017 to 2019).

Trip Latitude Longitude

Exact location Governorate Date
number (N) (E)
1 Siwa Oasis Matrouh 29.2052 25.5217 2017/1
2 Aswan Botanic Garden Aswan - - 2017/2
Wadi Um - Rakham Matrouh 31.3933 27.0432 4/2017
3
Wadi Habis Matrouh 31.388889 27.053333 4/2017

Al-Omayed Matrouh 30.83555556 29.01833333 11/2017

4
Al-Alamein Matrouh 30.8390 28.9476 11/2017
5 Dafra road, Tanta Gharbia 31.02216 30.725102 15/1/2018
6 Wadi Degla Protected Area, Al-Maadi Helwan 31.3865 29.9488 12/2/2018

The agricultural new road, Al-Hamoul Kafr Al-Sheikh 31.4233 30.9660 12/3/2018
7
The International Coastal Road, Al-
Kafr Al-Sheikh 31.1003 31.5855 12/3/2018
Borlos
8 Al-Alamein Matrouh 30.8390 28.9476 23/3/2018
Cairo-Alexandria desert road, Al-
Alexandria 31.0731 29.8322 29/3/2018
Amereya
Bremly cage near Burg Elarab stadium Alexandria 30.88074 28.79789 29/3/2018
9
Shatea El-Gharam Road, Marsa Matrouh Matrouh 31.3722 27.1813 30/3/2018

Wadi Um Al-Rakhm Matrouh 31.3933 27.0432 31/3/2018

Ajeeba Matrouh 31.4141 27.0072 31/3/2018
10 Wadi Al-Hitan, North Fayoum Fayoum 30.4264 29.2117 13/4/2018
El-Mallaha Swamp near Hurghada Red Sea 33.1676 28.2317 24/4/2018
11
Mangrove Forests, Safaga Red Sea 34.0104 26.6165 25/4/2018
12 Cairo University Herbarium Cairo - - 2019/1/29

Ras Sedr Eltoor road South Sinai 28.90831667 33.19305 2019/4/5

Wadi El-Arbain, Saint Catherine South Sinai 28.55347222 33.94791667 2019/4/5

13 Wadi Feiran ,Saint Catherine South Sinai 28.78969444 33.45647222 2019/4/5

Wadi Tal’a ,Saint Catherine South Sinai 28.56861111 33.93277778 2019/4/6

Ras Muhammad Nature Reserve ,Sharm

South Sinai 27.7222 34.2539 2019/4/7
Elsheikh

El-Gharam region Matrouh 31.38086 27.00040 2019/4/11

14
Marsa Matrouh El-Sallum road Matrouh 31.3019733 26.8584964 2019/4/12

Egypt. J. Bot. 60, No. 1 (2020)

 150 HEBA BEDAIR et al.

TABLE 2. Websites that were consulted to collect more information about the recorded plants.

Database name Link

The Plant List http://www.theplantlist.org
Kew world checklist of
http://wcsp.science.kew.org
different plant families
Catalogue of Life http://www.catalogueoflife.org
South African national
http://pza.sanbi.org
biodiversity institute (SANBI)
PFAF Plant Database https://pfaf.org/user/Default.aspx
Global Plant Science
http://plants.jstore.org
(JSTOR)
Useful tropical plants http://tropical.theferns.info/
PlantUse https://uses.plantnet-project.org
Flora of Israel online http://flora.org.il/en/plants/
Global Biodiversity
http://www.gbif.org/occurence
Information Facility (GBIF)
African Plant Database http://www.villege.ch/musinfo/bd/cjb/africa
Tropicos http://www.tropicos.prg/Home.aspx
International Plant Name
http://www.ipni.org
Index (IPNI)
IUCN http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/

TABLE 3. Major taxonomic groups of the trees and shrubs in the Egyptian flora.

Family Genus Species Subspecies Variety

Taxonomic group Sub/S S/G G/F
(F) (G) (S) (Sub) (V)
Gymnosperms 2 2 6 1 0 0.2 3 1
Monocots 2 5 6 0 0 0 1.2 2.5
Eudicots 41 119 199 27 21 0.1 1.7 2.9
Total 45 126 211 28 21 0.1 1.7 2.8

Identification of plant specimens was carried hills and ridges, 6- Calcareous ground, 7- Plains,
out depending on the previous mentioned literature. depressions and wadis, 8- Forests (i.e., evergreen,
Some identification was revised in TANE based semi-evergreen, dry, mangrove forests and
on referral materials. The species which were savanna). The anthropogenic habitats are: 1- Saline
not collected from the field were examined from soils, 2- Salt marshes, 3- Banks of water bodies
herbarium sheets deposited in TANE. Life forms (i.e., canals, ditches and misqas), 4- Road sides, 5-
of the recorded taxa were assessed using the Waste lands (i.e., ruderal places and fallow fields),
system of (Raunkiaer, 1937), and dispersal type 6- Cultivated lands (i.e., fields, gardens, irrigated
was assessed using the system of (Dansereau & soil, plantations and farmland). The habitats of
Lems, 1957). the trees and shrubs were recorded during the
field trips, while the missing information were
Fourteen major habitats are supporting the trees recorded according to these references (Boulos,
and shrubs in Egypt: eight are natural habitats and 1999, 2000, 2002, 2005, 2009), (Täckholm, 1974),
six are anthropogenic habitats. The natural habitats (Zohary, 1966, 1972), (Ahmed, 2009), (Shaltout
are: 1- Sand dunes, 2- Sand flats (i.e., sandy soil, et al., 2010), and the phyto-geographical regions
desert plains and sandy plains), 3- Alluvial and were gathered from previous references, while
loamy soils, 4- Rocky ground, 5- Mountains, relative magnitude terms, as reported by (Mueller-

Egypt. J. Bot. 60, No. 1 (2020)

 CHARACTERIZATION OF THE WILD TREES AND SHRUBS IN THE EGYPTIAN FLORA 151

Dombois & Ellenberg, 1974) and (Täckholm, var. microphylla, Withania obtusifolia and
1974), were used to evaluate the abundance Zygophyllum dumosum)
categories of the recorded species (very rare,
rare, common and very common). Habitat
The most represented habitat is sand dunes
The global distribution (i.e. floristic regions) (116 taxa= 50.9%), followed by saline soils
was assessed according to the system of (101 taxa= 44.3%). Whereas calcareous ground
(Good, 1974), who divided the globe into six is the least represented one (only 6 taxa= 2.6%)
kingdoms, three subkingdoms and thirty nine (Fig. 1). The species number gradually decreases
floristic regions., The theoretical framework of with the rise in the number of habitats which
(Rabinowitz, 1981) was applied to assess the they occur in (an inverse J-shaped), where the
different types of rarity forms depending on the number of taxa that occur in one habitat is (49
phyto-geographical range, habitat specificity and taxa= 21.4%), two habitats (123 taxa= 53.9%).
local abundance. Then number of plants gradually decreases with
increasing number of habitats. Tamarix nilotica
Results is the only species that occurs in eight habitats
(Fig. 2.).
Floristic analysis
There are 228 plant taxa recorded in this study Life forms
(211 species, 28 subspecies and 21 varieties) The life form determination of the recorded
belonging to 126 genera and 45 families. The most species indicated that phanerophytes (120
represented genera are: Acacia (12 taxa), Atriplex taxa= 52.6% of the total recorded taxa) are
(9 taxa), Tamarix (6 taxa), Ephedra, Salsola, the most represented life form, followed by
Capparis, Euphorbia and Lycium (5 taxa each). Suffruticose chamaephytes (100 taxa= 43.9%)
Gymnosperms are represented by 2 families (Appendix). Phanerophytes are represented by:
(Cupressaceae and Ephedraceae), 2 genera, nano-phanerophytes (83 taxa= 36.4%), micro-
6 species and one subspecies. The monocot phanerophytes (33 taxa= 14.5%), and meso-
families are 2 (Asparagaceae and Arecaceae), phanerophytes (4 taxa= 1.8%). The rest of
represented by 5 genera and 6 species. Eudicots plants are distributed as follows: 3 taxa (1.3%)
are represented by 41 families (Table 3). are proto-hemicryptophytes. Both Euphorbia
polycantha and Euphorbia consobrina are stem
The highly represented families are Fabaceae succulents, and Plicosepalus curviflorus and
(34 species), Amaranthaceae (25 species), Plicosepalus acaciae are hemi-parasites, while
Malvaceae (14 species), Solanaceae (11 species) only Asparagus stipularis is geophyte-helophyte.
and both Capparaceae and Apocynaceae (10
species). Twelve families are represented by Sex forms
only one species (Boraginaceae, Ebenaceae, The sex of trees and shrubs is expressed in the
Plantaginaceae, Rubiaceae, Celastraceae, following forms: bisexual (i.e. hermaphrodites),
Elatinaceae, Menispermaceae, Moringaceae, unisexual (either monoecious or dioecious) and
Nitrariaceae, Rhizophoraceae, Sapindaceae polygamous. They are arranged ascendingly
and Thymeleaceae); 8 by 2 species (Apiaceae, as follows: polygamous (7 plants= 3.1%),
Brassicaceae, Burseraceae, Convolvulaceae, monoecious (31 plants= 13.6%), dioecious (34
Loranthaceae, Polygonaceae, Resedaceae and plants= 15%) and bisexual (156 plants= 68.4%)
Salvadoraceae); 8 by 3 species (Acanthaceae, (Appendix).
Oleaceae, Plumbaginaceae, Verbenaceae,
Moraceae, Phyllanthaceae, Salicaceae and Dispersal types
Zygophyllaceae); 3 by 6 species (Rhamnaceae, Determination of dispersal types indicated
Rosaceae and Tamaricaceae); while 2 by 7 species that sarcochores (74 taxa= 32.7% of the total
(Anacardiaceae and Euphorbiaceae) (Table 4). plant taxa) are the most represented dispersal
type, followed by ballochores (40 taxa= 17.7%),
Two endemics are recorded (Rosa arabica then pogonochores (29 taxa= 12.8%) and
and Origanum syriacum subsp. sinaicum) and microsclerochores (28 taxa= 12.3%) (Appendix).
5 near-endemics (Lycium schweinfurthii var.
aschersohnii, Medemia argun, Pistacia khinjuk

Egypt. J. Bot. 60, No. 1 (2020)

 152 HEBA BEDAIR et al.

TABLE 4. Taxic diversity of the trees and shrubs in the Egyptian flora. Ac: actual number and Re: relative
number (%). The leading families were underlined.
Genus Species Subspecies Variety
Family
Ac Re Ac Re Ac Re Ac Re
Gymnosperms

Cupressaceae 1 0.8 1 0.5 - - - -

Ephedraceae 1 0.8 5 2.4 1 3.4 - -
Angiosperms
A. Monocots
Arecaceae 3 2.4 3 1.4 - - - -
Asparagaceae 2 1.6 3 1.4 - - - -
B. Eudicots
Amaranthaceae 12 9.5 25 11.8 2 6.9 4 19
Acanthaceae 3 2.4 3 1.4 - - - -
Anacardiaceae 2 1.6 7 3.3 - - 2 9.5
Apiaceae 1 0.8 2 0.9 - - - -
Apocynaceae 8 6.3 10 4.7 2 6.9 - -
Asteraceae 5 4 6 2.8 - - - -
Boraginaceae 1 0.8 1 0.5 - - - -
Brassicaceae 2 1.6 2 0.9 2 6.9 - -
Burseraceae 2 1.6 2 0.9 - - - -
Capparaceae 4 3.2 10 4.7 - - 3 14.3
Celastraceae 1 0.8 1 0.5 - - - -
Convolvulaceae 2 1.6 2 0.9 - - - -
Ebenaceae 1 0.8 1 0.5 - - - -
Elatinaceae 1 0.8 1 0.5 - - - -
Euphorbiaceae 3 2.4 7 3.3 - - - -
Fabaceae 17 13.5 34 16.1 9 31 2 9.5
Lamiaceae 5 4 5 2.4 3 10.3 - -
Loranthaceae 1 0.8 2 0.9 - - - -
Malvaceae 8 6.3 14 6.6 - - - -
Menispermaceae 1 0.8 1 0.5 - - - -
Moraceae 1 0.8 3 1.4 1 3.4 - -
Moringaceae 1 0.8 1 0.5 - - - -
Nitrariaceae 1 0.8 1 0.5 - - - -
Oleaceae 2 1.6 3 1.4 4 13.8 2 9.5
Phyllanthaceae 2 1.6 3 1.4 1 3.4 2 9.5
Plantaginaceae 1 0.8 1 0.5 - - - -
Plumbaginaceae 2 1.6 3 1.4 - - - -
Polygonaceae 2 1.6 2 0.9 2 6.9 - -
Resedaceae 2 1.6 2 0.9 - - - -
Rhamnaceae 3 2.4 6 2.8 1 3.4 - -
Rhizophoraceae 1 0.8 1 0.5 - - - -
Rosaceae 4 3.2 6 2.8 - - - -
Rubiaceae 1 0.8 1 0.5 - - - -

Egypt. J. Bot. 60, No. 1 (2020)

 CHARACTERIZATION OF THE WILD TREES AND SHRUBS IN THE EGYPTIAN FLORA 153

TABLE 4. Cont.

Genus Species Subspecies Variety

Family
Ac Re Ac Re Ac Re Ac Re
Salicaceae 2 1.6 3 1.4 - - - -
Salvadoraceae 2 1.6 2 0.9 - - 2 9.5
Sapindaceae 1 0.8 1 0.5 - - - -
Solanaceae 5 4 11 5.2 - - 4 19
Tamaricaceae 1 0.8 6 2.8 - - - -
Thymeleaceae 1 0.8 1 0.5 - - - -
Verbenaceae 2 1.6 3 1.4 - - - -
Zygophyllaceae 2 1.6 3 1.4 - - - -
Total 126 100 211 100 28 100 21 100

140
116
120
101
Number of species

100

80
60 57
60
41 41
40 29 24
17 14 12
20 11 10 6
0
SD Sa PDW RG Sf MHR BW Ro CL WL Al Fo SM CG

Habitat
Fig. 1. Number of trees and shrubs in the Egyptian flora in relation to their habitat [Habitats are abbreviated as
Fig. 1.
follows: SD:Number
Sand dunes,ofSa:trees
Salineand
soils, shrubs in the
PDW: Plains, Egyptian
depressions floraRG:
and wadis, in Rocky
relation to SF:
ground, their
Sand flats,
habitat.
MHR: Mountains, Habitats
hills and areBanks
ridges, BW: abbreviated asRo:follows:
of water bodies, SD:Cultivated
Road sides, CL: Sand lands, WL: Sa:
dunes, Waste lands,
Al: AlluvialSaline
and loamysoils, PDW:
soils, Fo: Forests,plains,
SM: Saltdepressions
marshes and CG: and RG: Rocky ground,
wadis,ground].
Calcareous
SF: Sand flats, MHR: mountains, hills and ridges, BW: banks of water
bodies, Ro: Road sides, CL: Cultivated lands, WL: Waste lands, Al:
140 alluvial and loamy soils, Fo: forests, SM: Salt marshes and CG:
123
120 calcareous ground.
Number of species

100
80
60 49
40
21
20 15
9 6
2 1
0
One Two Three Four Five Six Seven Eight

Number of habitats

Fig. 2.Fig. 2. Number

Number ofshrubs
of trees and trees inand
the shrubs
Egyptianin theinEgyptian
flora flora
relation to the in relation
number to in
of habitats the
which they occur.
number of habitats in which they occur.
Egypt. J. Bot. 60, No. 1 (2020)
 154 HEBA BEDAIR et al.

Flowering time the only species that is SWN (small geographic

Analysis of the flowering times of the recorded range – wide habitat – non abundant) constituting
species indicated that there was a gradual increase 0.4% of the total trees and shrubs.
in the frequency of the flowered species from
December (36 taxa= 15.8%) till reaching a Global distribution
maximum in April (151 taxa= 66.2%) and March The chorology of the recorded species revealed
(149 taxa= 65.4%) forming positively skewed curve that the Sudano-Zambezian element is the most
(Fig. 3). Generally, the period from March to May represented by 107 taxa (46.9% of the total
is characterized by the highest flowering activity, trees and shrubs). This element includes strictly
while the period from September to December is Sudano-Zambezian (monoregional with about
characterized by the lowest. Regarding the number 64.5%), biregional (28.1%) and pluriregional
of months in which the plants are in the flowering taxa (21.5%). Followed by the Saharo-Arabian
stage, it was found that the highest percentage of element that is represented by 98 taxa (43%)
plants stay flowered in three months of the year including 38.8% monoregional, 51% biregional
(78 plants= 34.2%), followed by the plants that and 10.2% pluriregional. Then Mediterranean
flower in two months (38 plants= 16.7%). There element that is represented by 45 taxa (19.7%)
are 7 plants that give flowers all the year (they are including 31.1% monoregional, 48.9 % biregional
Lycium schweinfurthii, Salsola villosa, Ecbolium and 20% pluriregional. and the Irano-Turanian
viride, Delonix elata, Bergia suffruticosa and element is represented by 34 taxa (14.9%)
Boscia angustifolia), wherease only one species including 29.4% monoregional, 47% biregional
flowers in eleven months (Capparis decidua). and 23.5 pluriregional (Fig. 4).

Rarity forms Local distribution

The relation between the number of trees and Ninety two trees and shrubs (40.4%) occur in
shrubs and the rarity forms indicated that SNN only one phyto-geographical region. In addition,
(small geographic range – narrow habitat – non 26 taxa occur in 2 regions (11.4%), 25 in 3 regions
abundant plants) was the most represented (180 (11%) and 85 taxa occur in more than 3 regions.
taxa= 78.9%), followed by LNA (large geographic The Egyptian deserts are the most rich regions with
range – narrow habitat – abundant) (23 taxa= trees and shrubs, comprising 127 taxa (55.8%) of
10.1%), LNN (large geographic range – narrow the total trees and shrubs followed by Gebel Elba
habitat – non abundant) (21 taxa= 9.2%), and LWA region (100 taxa = 43.9 %). Red Sea region has the
(large geographic range – wide habitat – abundant) least number of trees and shrubs (53 taxa= 23.2%)
(6 taxa= 2.6%) (Appendix). Thymelaea hirsuta is (Appendix).

160
Total plants = 228
140
Number of species

120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Month

Fig. 3. Number of trees

Fig. 3. Number andand
of trees shrubs
shrubs in theEgyptian
in the Egyptianflora flora in relation
in relation to their
to their flowering flowering
time.

time.
Egypt. J. Bot. 60, No. 1 (2020)
 CHARACTERIZATION OF THE WILD TREES AND SHRUBS IN THE EGYPTIAN FLORA 155

120
107 98
100
Number of species

80

60
45
40 34

20 14 9 5 3 2 2 2 2 2
0
SU SA ME IR PA NE Au EU PN TE Pac Atl En

Floristic region

Fig. 4. Number of trees and shrubs in the Egyptian flora in relation to their floristic regions [SU: Sudano-Zambezian,
Fig.SA:4.Saharo-Arabian,
Number ofME: trees and shrubs
Mediterranean, PAL:inPaleotropical,
the Egyptian flora in Au:
NE: Neotropical, relation to EU:
Australian, their floristic
Euro-Siberian,
regions. SU: Sudano-Zambezian, SA: Saharo-Arabian, ME: Mediterranean,
PN: Pantropical, TE: Temperate, Pac: Pacific N. American, Atl: Atlantic N. American and En: Endemic].

PAL: Paleotropical, NE: Neotropical, Au: Australian, EU: Euro-Siberian, PN:

Pantropical, TE: Temperate, Pac: Pacific
Goods and services N. American,
One hundred and eightyAtl: Atlantic
six trees N.
and shrubs
American and En: Endemic.
All the trees and shrubs have at least one in the Egyptian flora (81.6% of the total species)
aspect of the potential or actual economic goods. have at least one aspect of the environmental
The goods are classified into 5 major groups: services. The environmental role of the recorded
grazing, medicinal, human food, fuel, timber and species could be arranged descendingly as
other uses (e.g. esthetic concerns, oil, ornamental, follows: Salinity tolerance (105 taxa) > shading
breeding work, antimicrobial activity, cosmetics). (77 taxa) > soil stabilization (70 taxa) > wind
The offered goods could be arranged descendingly breaks (40 taxa) > sand accumulator (36 taxa) >
as follows: medicinal (154 taxa= 70.6%) > grazing refuge (33 taxa) > soil fertility (32 taxa) > water
(76 taxa= 34.9%) > other uses (76 taxa= 34.9%) storage (14 taxa) > esthetic concerns (14 taxa)
> fuel (70 taxa= 32.1%) > human food (59 taxa= > ruderals (9 taxa) > bank retention (7 taxa) >
27.1%) > timber (53 taxa= 24.3%) (Fig. 5). drought resistance (7 taxa) > poisonous plants (6
taxa) > phytoremediator (5 taxa) (Fig. 6).

180
160 154
Number of species

140
120
100
76 76 70
80
59 53
60
40
20
0
ME GR OT FU HF TI
Good
Fig.
Fig. 5.5.Descending
Descending arrangement
arrangement ofofthe
of the goods goods
the trees andof the intrees
shrubs and shrubs
the Egyptian in the
flora [Goods Egyptian
are coded as: ME:
Medicinal, OT: Other uses, GR: Grazing, FU: Fuel, HF: Human food and TI: Timber].
flora. Goods are coded as: ME: medicinal, OT: other uses, GR: grazing, FU:
fuel, HF: human food and TI: timber. Egypt. J. Bot. 60, No. 1 (2020)
 156 HEBA BEDAIR et al.

120
105
Number of trees and shrubs

100
77
80 70
60
40 36
40 33 32

20 14 14
9 7 7 6 5
0
St Sh Ss Wb Sa Re Sf Ws Ec Ru Br Dr Po Ph

Service
Fig. 6. Number of trees and shrubs in the Egyptian flora in relation to their environmental services. Services are
Fig. 6. Number
coded of tolerance,
as: St: salinity trees and shrubsSs:in
Sh: shading, soil the Egyptian
stabilization, flora
Wb: wind in Sa:
breaks, relation to their
sand accumulator,
Re: refuge, Sf: soil fertility, Ws: water storage, Ec: esthetic concerns, Ru: ruderals, Br: bank retention, Dr:
environmental
drought services.
resistance, Po: poisonous Services
plants are coded as: St: salinity tolerance, Sh:
and Ph: phytoremediator.
shading, Ss: soil stabilization, Wb: wind breaks, Sa: sand accumulator, Re:
Threats refuge, Sf: soil fertility, Ws: watertaxa storage,
(40% of Ec: esthetic
taxa that concerns,
have physical Ru:
defense)
Most ofruderals, Br: bank
the recorded speciesretention,
are exposedDr: drought resistance,
that have Po: poisonous
hairy leathery plants
leaves and hairy and
stems;
to at least Ph:
one aspect of threats. The threats are
phytoremediator. sometimes the hairs become stiff or rough and
classified into 8 major groups: over-collecting irritating (e.g. Atriplex glauca, Salsola villosa and
and over-cutting, habitat loss, browsing and Haloxylon persicum). Group II comprises 64 taxa
over-grazing, clearance for agriculture, mining (58.2%) with spiny organs such as spiny stipules,
and quarrying, disturbance by cars or trampling, leaves, branches, inflorescences and fruits or
urbanization, tourism, climatic changes and woody branches with spine-like terminates (e.g.
environmental conditions. The threats upon Atraphaxis spinosa, Salsola spinescens and Zilla
trees and shrubs are: over-collecting and over- spinosa subsp. spinosa). Group III includes 5
cutting (180 taxa= 78.9%) > climate changes taxa (4.5%) that have sticky latex and are with
and environmental conditions (121 taxa= 53.1%) unpleasant taste and odour (Pistacia lenticus,
> browsing and over grazing (75 taxa= 33%) > Gomphocarpus sinaicus, Solenostemma arghel
clearance for agriculture (71 taxa= 31.1%) > and Salsola imbricata). Group IV includes 4 taxa
habitat loss (67 taxa= 29.4%) > urbanization and (3.6%) that are covered with scales, dots or spots
tourism (59 taxa= 25.9%) > mining and quarrying (Deverra triradiata, D. tortuosa, Limoniastrum
(31 taxa= 13.6%) > disturbance by cars or monopetalum and Datura metel) (Fig. 8).
trampling (11 taxa= 4.8%) (Fig. 7). The variation
according to the number of threats illustrated that Discussion
57 taxa are exposed to one threat (25% of the total
threatened taxa), 67 to 2 threats (29.4%), 37 to 3 The flora of Egypt comprises 2145 species,
threats (16.2%), 33 to 4 threats (14.5%), 22 to 5 related to 744 genera and 129 families (Boulos,
threats (9.6%), 8 to 6 threats (3.5%), 2 (Anabasis 2009). This means that trees and shrubs (with
articulata and Withania somnifera) to 7 threats mean height ≥ 50cm) represented only 9.9% of
(0.9%). Suaeda pruinosa is the only species that the total species, 17% of the total genera and
is exposed to all the 8 threats. 37.2% of the total families. This agree to some
extent with the study of Zahran & El-Ameir
Physical defense (2012) who reported that the natural wealth of the
There are 110 trees and shrubs that have sort flora of Egypt comprised few trees and shrubs.
of physical defense (48.2% of the total plant taxa). This may due to almost Egypt was mainly desert
These species were sorted into 4 groups according (96% of its total area) and it was an arid and hyper
to their mode of defense. Group I includes 44 arid country.

Egypt. J. Bot. 60, No. 1 (2020)

 CHARACTERIZATION OF THE WILD TREES AND SHRUBS IN THE EGYPTIAN FLORA 157

200
Number of trees and shrubs 180 180
160
140 121
120
100
75 71
80 67
59
60
40 31
20 11
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Threat

Fig. 7. Arrangement of the threats upon the trees and shrubs in the Egyptian flora [Threat groups are coded as:
Fig.1-7.Over-collecting
Arrangement of cutting,
and over the threats upon
2- Habitat theBrowsing
loss, 3- trees and
andover-grazing,
shrubs in4- the Egyptian
Clearance flora. 5-
for agriculture,
Threat groups are coded as: 1- over-collecting and over cutting, 2- habitat loss,and
Mining and quarrying, 6- Disturbance by cars or trampling, 7- Urbanization and tourism, 8- Climatic changes
environmental conditions].
3- browsing and over-grazing, 4- clearance for agriculture, 5- mining and
quarrying, 6- disturbance by cars or trampling, 7- urbanization and tourism, 8-
70
climatic changes and environmental conditions.
60 58.2
Percentage of species

50

40
40

30

20

10
4.5 3.6
0
Spiny Hairy Latex & odour Scales & spots

Sort of physical defence

Fig. 8. Physical
Fig. 8.defence
Physicalofdefence
the trees
of and shrubs
the trees in shrubs
and the Egyptian flora. flora.
in the Egyptian

Shaltout et al. (2014) reported that there were river beds, banks and canals and may contribute to
14 alien trees and shrubs (13 naturalized and 1 mosquito nuisance (Eid, 2002). The rapid spread
invasive species). The naturalized species were from aquatic to xerophytic habitats indicate that
represented as follows: 9 intentionally introduced this plant may become an ecological disaster
(Datura metel, Ficus carica, Lantana camara, like water hyacinth (Eid, 2002; Shaltout et al.,
Populus euphratica, Ricinus communis, Rubus 2010). Regarding the endemism of the recorded
sanctus, Salix tetrasperma, Sesbania sesban species, there are 2 endemics (Rosa arabica
and Ziziphus spina-christi) and 4 accidentally and Origanum syriacum subsp. sinaicum) and
introduced (Atriplex canescens, A. nummularia, 5 near-endemics (Lycium schweinfurthii var.
Euphorbia mauritanica and Nicotiana glauca). aschersohnii, Medemia argun, Pistacia khinjuk
Ipomoea carnea was the only invasive exotic var. microphylla, Withania obtusifolia and
shrub that was introduced into Egypt in 1930 Zygophyllum dumosum) (El-Khalafy, 2018;
as an ornamental plant. It was native to South Shaltout et al., 2018).
America. It grows in dense populations along

Egypt. J. Bot. 60, No. 1 (2020)

 158 HEBA BEDAIR et al.

Most of the recorded life forms were have polymorphic sexual systems with
phanerophytes (120 taxa) whose permanent mixtures of hermaphroditic, female and/or
buds borne at height > 25cm followed by male individuals (Tomaszewski et al., 2018).
chamaephytes (100 taxa) whose permanent buds In present study, most of the recorded species
borne above the soil surface till a height < 25cm. were bisexual. The preponderance of the
Phanerophytes are represented by 3 types: nano- hermaphroditic species was a common feature in
phanerophytes, under 2m, micro-phanerophytes, most floras of the world (Lewis, 1941). The eco-
2-8m and meso-phanerophytes, 8-30m. The evolution of hermaphroditic flowers with animal
only represented chamaephyte was suffruticose pollination might be an important advancement
chamaephytes in which the permanenting parts by early angiosperms since pollen-producing
remain on the surface of the ground after the and pollen-receiving organs in the same flower
herbaceous parts had died away oil the approach allowed for efficient simultaneous deposition
of the critical season. There were 2 hemiparasite and removal of pollen (Baker & Hurd, 1968).
species (Plicosepalus curviflorus and P. acacia)
on Acacia trees and can do photosynthesis at In the present study, the dioecious species
the same time. Ononis natrix and Crotalaria (15%) were as low as monoecious species
aegyptiaca were protohemicryptophytes whose (13.6%). Unisexuality was considered as an
permanent buds borne close to soil surface and adaptation to undergo only cross pollination,
have only stem leaves. Euphorbia polycantha which was beneficial over the self-pollination
and E. consobrina were stem succulents having (Panawala, 2017). Bram & Quinn (2000)
stems without proper foliage leaves. Asparagus reported that the percentage of dioecious
stipularis was the only geophyte-helophyte angiosperms have been reported to be low.
whose permanent buds borne under soil surface Queenborough et al. (2009) reported that the
or in the mud overlain by water. low number of dioecious species may be due to
that these species suffer a reproductive handicap
In general, the period from March to May because populations of dioecious species
(i.e., spring season) was characterized by the contain fewer seed-producing individuals. In the
highest number of flowered trees and shrubs, presented study, most of dioecious species were
while the period from August to January had phanerophytes (82.3%), which coincided with the
the lowest number. In Egypt the highest humid theory that assumes an increase in the frequency
period of the year extended from November of dioecy was correlated with an increase in
to April which was associated with low the plant size (Senarath, 2008). A recent study
temperatures and evaporation; therefore, much found that in habitats with high levels of light,
favorable soil moisture. During this period, the plants were more likely to change their sexual
plants start their growth activity reaching to the expression and reproductive output (Varga,
flowering and fruiting stages in March, April 2016). There were 7 polygamous sex-labile
and May (Boulos & Hadidi, 1986; Griffiths, species in the present study. One of them was
1992; Bircher, 1998; Burnie et al., 2004; Thymelaea hirsuta that had 7 sex states: Male,
Heneidy, 2010). Neverthless, phanerophytes female, monoecious unisexual, hermaphrodite,
(e.g. Calotropis procera, Ficus palmata and andromonoecious (male and hermaphrodite
Leptadenia arborea) flower from May to flower), gynomonoecious (female and
August. This totally agrees with El-Khalafy hermaphrodite flower) and trimonoecious (male,
(2018) who reported that most species flowered female and hermaphrodite flower) (Shaltout &
from March to May, except phanerophytes from El-Keblawy, 1992). This could be affected by
May to August. Also with Raunkiaer (1937) the age of the plant and the integrated sum of all
who reported that phanerophytes flower in dry earlier interactions with its environment.
periods.
Croteau (2010) reported that Passive
Flowering plants exhibit unparalleled dispersal involves plants that cannot themselves
diversity of sexual systems, or gamete packaging move but use dispersal units called disseminules
within and among individuals (Barrett, 2002). to aid in reproduction or the exploitation of new
This diversity mostly involves monomorphic habitats. Many disseminules were adapted for
populations with only hermaphroditic movement by specific dispersal agents available
individuals, as only 6% of angiosperm species in the environment, like wind, water, or another

Egypt. J. Bot. 60, No. 1 (2020)

 CHARACTERIZATION OF THE WILD TREES AND SHRUBS IN THE EGYPTIAN FLORA 159

animal capable of active dispersal, or species and sand dunes). There was in fact a great deal
may have a motile larval stage. These include of water draining down the wadis, sometimes as
seeds, spores, and fruits, all of which have violent and destructive flash floods, but under
modifications for movement away from the normal circumstances, most of the water was
parent plant via available environmental kinetic underground, occasionally surfacing to produce
energy. Distance traveled by a disseminule was a short sections of freely flowing permanent water,
result of the velocity and direction of movement thus making the area rich in plants. Besides,
by the dispersal agent. The size of a population the great diversity of climate (mean annual
depends on the number of available seeds, the precipitation decreases from about 100mm in
efficiency of dispersal and the availability of the north, near the Mediterranean, to 5–30mm
safe sites for seed germination (Harper et al., in the south (Abd El-Ghani et al., 2017). The
1961). The predominance of the sarcochores vegetation was characterized by sparseness of
(soft and fleshy diaspores) indicated that plant cover of semi-shrubs, restricted to wadis
the principal mode of dissemination was the or growing on slopes of rocky hills and in sand
sarcochory (zoochory). The wide distribution fields (Danin, 1986). Seventy six taxa were
of ballochoric species (diaspore forcibly ejected present in the Mediterranean region that has
from parent plant) may be due to the explosive annual precipitation 275-900mm with at least
nature of their fruits, which is often related to 65% falling during winter. The Mediterranean
rapid desiccation and hence efficient local seed vegetation was dominated by evergreen
dispersal (Al-Sodany, 1998). The commonness sclerophyllous shrubs that form maquis (over 2m
of pogonochoric species (diaspore has long in height), garrigue and jaral (0.6-2m), phrygana
hairs), microsclerochores (diaspores of very light or batha (< 0.6m) plant communities (Archibold,
weight) and pterochores (diaspore with scarious 1995).
wing like appendages) and rarity of barochores
(very heavy diaspores), cyclochores (voluminous A mixture of different floristic elements
diaspores) and desmochores (diaspores adhere to such as Sudano-Zambezian, Saharo-Arabian,
rough surfaces) reflect the suitability for wind Mediterranean, Irano-Turanian and Paleotropical
dispersal in Egypt. The only auxochoric species were represented by the highest number of
(there is no disarticulating from parent plant species. This could be attributed to human
before diaspore is deposited at a site of further impact, agriculture and capability of certain
development) in this study is Ipomoea carnea floristic elements to penetrate the study area from
that grows on banks of water bodies. several phytogeographical regions (Seif El-Nasr
& Bidak, 2006). Sudano-Zambezian and Saharo-
In present study the Desert Region (127 Arabian chorotypes form the major floristic
taxa) has the highest number of trees and structures of the study area. Plants of Saharo-
shrubs. These plants show a number of morpho- Arabian chorotype were good indicators for the
physiological features that allow them to adapt desert environmental conditions (Abd El-Ghani
with the high aridity and low nutrient availability & Amer, 2003). The high percentage of regional
which characterizes the arid environments, endemics (61.4% of total species) may be due
such as deep root systems, tolerance to high to a physical barrier, narrow range of ecological
radiation levels and capacity for clonal spread, tolerance, low reproductive investments or
presence of thorns and spines and small leaves limited dispersal capacity of diaspores (Baumel
(Nobel & Franco, 1989; Pugnaire et al., 1996a, et al., 2010).
b). Followed by Gebel Elba Region (100 taxa),
that has annual rainfall 400mm due to the fact There are many ways in which a species can
that the coast, slightly curved to the east at this be rare; a theoretical framework of an eight-
point, presents an unusually broad front to the celled table is proposed by (Rabinowitz, 1981)
sea across a 20–25km strip of relatively flat for the different types of rarity depending on
land, which facilitates interception of moisture- range, habitat specificity and local abundance.
laden north-east sea winds. Then Sinai Peninsula In the present study, 180 taxa (78.9% of the
(97 taxa) that has rock and soil types that make total trees and shrubs) belonged to SNN cell,
existence of plants possible. In addition to the followed by LNA (23 plants= 10.1%), and LNN
landscape that is characterized by a variety of (21 plants= 9.2%) Taxa that belonged to SNA
landforms (plains, wadis, springs, salt marshes and SNN were the classic rarities in the sense

Egypt. J. Bot. 60, No. 1 (2020)

 160 HEBA BEDAIR et al.

of restricted endemics, often endangered or (Moustafa et al., 2016).

threatened. Both internal and external factors
cause plants to become rare. Internal factors refer Seventy six taxa can be grazed and browsed
to the plant biological characteristics, including by the domestic and wild animals (34.9% of the
failures in heritability, reproduction, viability, total trees and shrubs) (e.g. Salix mucronata,
and adaptability. External factors include both Atriplex glauca, Deverra tortuosa, Atriplex
natural and human factors. Natural factors refer farinosa and Sarcocornia fruticosa). There are
to the ecological environment, including climate, some examples of selective use of different plant
topography, soil, and other biological factors organs at different seasons. Small branches of
(Chen, 2014). Taxa which have large ranges, Tamarix nilotica were apparently good for camels
but are associated with particular habitats were and goats, while sheep prefer its flowers only
generally quite predictable in their occurrence (Shaltout & Al-Sodany, 2000).
(LNA & LNN), these taxa tend to be precarious
as a result of habitat destruction (Ahmed, 2009); Seventy taxa are subjected to cutting for fuel
this may be due to human disturbances, roads, and (32.1%) (e.g. Lycium schweinfurthii, L. shawii,
land use types. Sarcocornia fruticose and Tamarix trees (Shaltout
& A-Sodany, 2002). Hassan et al. (2015) and Al-
On the other hand, no species belonged Sodany et al. (2019) reported that the biomass
to SWA cell (small range, wide habitat and of Calotropis procera was used in biofuel and
abundant species), while one species (Thymelaea bioenergy production. The timber plants were
hirsuta) belongs to SWN; this is revert to limited allover Egypt. There were 53 trees and
demographic stochasticity, while a process in shrubs (24.3%) suitable as timber such as Phoenix
small populations analogous to genetic drift, and dactylifera and Tamarix trees (Shaltout & Ahmed,
which in fluctuating population numbers, due 2012). Fruits, flowers, vegetative and ground
to small sample phenomena, may cause local parts of 59 taxa (27.1% of the total taxa) were
extinction (Rabinowitz, 1981). These deletions eaten by local inhabitants. For example, Deverra
of populations may reduce the variety of habitats tortuosa was eaten as a salad and dates of Phoenix
occupied and in essence, convert perhaps the dactylifera were eaten (Shaltout & Ahmed, 2012).
species into one in the categories SNA and Seventy six taxa (34.9% of the total good plants)
SNN (Rabinowitz 1981). The percentage of rare are of several traditional uses. Some species have
species (SNN and SWN) approximates 78.9 % of an ornamental value (e.g. Ipomoea carnea), others
the total trees and shrubs, whereas the common are used in manufacture of soap (e.g. Atriplex
species (LNA, LNN and LWA) attained 21.9 halimus) (Shaltout & Al-Sodany, 2002). Deverra
%, this finding provides an alarm to consider tortuosa may be used as a natural herbicide as
conservation of natural vegetation of trees and well as a good source for yeast control (Guetat,
shrubs in Egypt as a must. 2018). The wood of Phoenix dactylifera was
used as a tooth brush (Shaltout & Ahmed, 2012)
All the trees and shrubs have at least one aspect A recent study on Pluchea dioscoridis proved
of the potential or actual economic goods. There that the ethanolic leaf extract of it has antifungal
were 154 taxa that had medicinal uses (70.6% of activity (Metwally et al., 2020)..
the total species). For example, the antioxidant
activity, polyphenolic content and anticancer One hundred and eighty six trees and
activity of Salvadora persica that was used by shrubs in the Egyptian flora (81.6% of the total
ancient Arabs to whiten and polish the teeth. A recorded species) have at least one aspect of the
recent research reported that S. persica extract environmental services. Salinity tolerant plants
was rich in antioxidants and in polyphenols, (the halophytic vegetation) inhabit the extensive
which merited further investigations. Herein, salt affected lands, along the coastal belts (littoral
S. persica was shown to exhibit antiangiogenic salt marshes) and also in the inland oases and
and anti-proliferative activities, a discovery depressions. These plants adapt to live in saline
that makes this species a promising source of environments either by succulents, excrete, or
anticancer agent development especially for cumulates (e.g. Atriplex spp., Nitraria retusa,
solid tumors such as liver cancer (Al -Dabbagh Suaeda monoica and Tamarix spp.) (Zahran
et al., 2018). The extract Juniperus phoenicea & El-Ameir, 2012). Thus, having a role in
was used by the bedouins for treating diabetes decreasing soil salinity. Many species have the

Egypt. J. Bot. 60, No. 1 (2020)

 CHARACTERIZATION OF THE WILD TREES AND SHRUBS IN THE EGYPTIAN FLORA 161

ability to tolerate salinity through formation of used in phytoremediation of pollutants (they are
phytogenic mounds (e.g., Artemisia monosperma, Phyllanthus reticulatus var. reticulatus, Pistacia
Limoniastrum monopetalum and Nitraria retusa), lenticus, Tamarix macrocarpa Pluchea dioscoridis
which help in fixation of sand and provide refuge and Calotropis procera). Phyllanthus reticulatus
and shelter for many other species (Bidak et al., had some capacity for phytoremediating chromium
2015). (Sampanpanish et al., 2006). Calotropis procera
showed higher Pb (lead) and cd in their leaves and
Drought tolerant plants (the xerophytic a positive correlation between Mn concentration
vegetation) were the most characteristic type of in the soil and the plant (Galal et al., 2016).
the natural plant life in Egypt’s deserts. They Pistacia lenticus was proved to accumulate heavy
cover vast areas of the wadis, desert plains and metals mostly in roots (Bacchetta et al., 2012).
mountains (e.g., Acacia spp., Anabasis articulata, Recent researches highlight that Tamarix aphylla
Calotropis procera and Olea europaea) (Zahran could be useful in the remediation of polycyclic
& El-Ameir, 2012). Sand accumulators (such as aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) contaminated
Nitraria retusa, Ricinus communis and Tamarix alkaline saline soil. Pluchea dioscoridis was
trees) play a role in preventing soil erosion, considered a hyper-accumulator of Fe (Eid &
increasing soil deposition and improving drainage Shaltout, 2016). It is proved that it accumulates
of low lands (Seif El-Nasr & Bidak, 2005a). Cr (Ahmed et al., 2018).
Sometimes they make efficient windbreaks
that propagate themselves either by seeds or by Threats to the world’s plants continue to
creeping root systems (e.g., Ricinus communis increase as a result of human activities (IUCN,
and Tamarix trees) (Shaltout & Ahmed, 2012). 2003, 2010). From the well-documented threats
are habitat loss, poor land management, over-
Thirty two trees and shrubs have a role in collection, over-grazing, and climate change. Most
soil fertility. Most of them belong to family studies suggest that the rate at which plant species
Fabaceae (e.g. Acacia spp., Ononis vaginalis are being lost, or at least reduced in numbers,
and Sesbania sesban). They form a symbiotic is faster than the speed at which scientists; land
association with species of bacteria (Rhizobium managers, policy-makers, and others can or will
spp., Bradyrhizobium spp., and others). These respond (IUCN, 2003, 2010). The human impact
bacteria take nitrogen from the air and fix it into a was a dominant factor in arid environments of
form that is usable by the legume plant. the world (Chapman & Reiss, 1992). Most trees
and shrubs were subjected to over-collecting
Many trees and shrubs make soil stabilization and over-cutting by local inhabitants, herbalists
(e.g. Suaeda vermiculata, Limbarda crithmoides and scientific researchers. The collection of wild
and Asparagus stipularis) by making intricate native medicinal plants for commercial trade
root system that holds the soil together or had no regulation. The most serious aspect was
forming phytogenic mats, clumps or mounds that that it usually targets rare and localized flora
prevent the surface of soil from being disturbed leading to damage them further (Seif El-Nasr &
and provide refuge and shelter for many other Bidak, 2005a). There was an increasing demand
species. Some of the small trees such as Salix and by local Bedouin populations for fuel woods,
Acacia trees are noted for their bank retention targeting larger woody perennials (especially
quality because of their interloping root systems woody branches and roots). The elimination
that form dense network. The shading caused by of large woody perennials (which take many
trees and some shrubs keeps down the growth of years to reach mature sizes) severely reduces
weeds (Shaltout & Ahmed, 2012). A study on size the structural complexity of an already highly
structure of some trees and shrubs revealed that exposed environment, rapidly accelerating soil
their diameter exceeds the height i.e. they expand movement and erosion, reducing water retention
horizontally, thus providing shade which leads potential and the chances of germination of
to decreasing the heating effect, increasing soil annuals and smaller plants to become established
moisture and providing safe site for their self- The removal of woody perennials initiates the
regeneration (Galal, 2011). first steps in a process of complete transformation
of the natural landscape (Seif El-Nasr & Bidak,
In the present study, there are 5 taxa that have 2005a). For example, the small populations of
the ability to accumulate toxic metals, thus can be Juniperus phoenicea at Gabal El-Maghara and

Egypt. J. Bot. 60, No. 1 (2020)

 162 HEBA BEDAIR et al.

Gabal Yelleq that were under intensive cutting Climate change, a threat that was still
and burning (El-Bana et al., 2010) and mortality somewhat theoretical in 2005, is becoming
of Acacia trees which mainly associated with more evident and the mitigation of its effects on
charcoal production in the eastern desert of Egypt much localized species represents an important
(Andersen & Krzywinski, 2007). challenge. Due to climate change, the wild
population of species could be in extreme danger
Seventy-five trees and shrubs are subjected in a relatively near future. The most important
to over-grazing where sheep and goats severely natural threats are the long-lasting droughts and
depleted the natural vegetation and compete the difficulties of some species to reproduce as a
directly with native wildlife over the same result of long seed dormancy (e.g. Rosa arabica)
food resource (Seif El-Nasr & Bidak, 2005a). (Omar, 2017). For example, Acacia tortilis subsp.
For example, Local populations of Moringa raddiana, Balanites aegyptiaca and Calotropis
peregrina were endangered due to over-grazing procera in Wadi Allaqi that showed J-shaped
whose effects were magnified by the extreme distribution indicating severe decline due to high
of drought. So, failure of regeneration of new aridity, natural floods and other environmental
individuals, as well as high mortality rate of the constrains (Shaltout et al., 2009).
old trees occur (Zaghloul et al., 2012). Habitat
loss due to urbanization and tourism, clearance Most of threats come from the lack of
for agriculture and construction processes is awareness, weak law enforcement, the lack of
one of the major threats which impact many suitable strategies, a weak financial support and
species in the Egyptian flora especially in the the lack of stakeholder’s cooperation. In general,
Mediterranean region. An almost continuous the major effective threats are over- cutting, over-
row of tourist facilities occupies the coastline collecting, and over-grazing which are dominant
along the North coast. This has not only led to the in North Sinai and Mediterranean; habitat loss,
complete destruction of the habitats, but also its urbanization, tourism and clearance for agriculture
degradation of vast areas of habitat surrounding which are abundant in the Mediterranean and Red
them. Consequently, this threatens plants in these Sea coasts as well as Sinai.
habitats (e.g., Lycium europaeum, Thymelaea
hirsute and Limbarda crithmoides) (Shaltout & Some plants have defensive parts that reduce
Ahmed, 2012). or avoid consumption by herbivores (Heneidy &
Bidak, 1999). In the present study, 4 groups of
Seventy one taxa in present study are damaged physical defense were recognized in 117 taxa. The
during agricultural processes. In the past, first group includes 64 plants with modified parts
donkeys and simple tools were used for plowing, such as spines or spinescent branches and may be
which did not allow the complete elimination considered as grazing-resistant species (e.g. Zilla
of perennial vegetation; leaving behind natural spinosa, Asparagus stipularis and Cornulaca
vegetation patches. Nowadays, modern monacantha) or has defensive parts in the form of
machinery completely removes perennial shrubs densely woody pointed terminates or short spine-
(e.g. Calligonum polygonoides subsp. comosum, like branches (e.g. Lycium species). The defensive
Nitraria retusa and Pluchea dioscoridis), which parts of this group (mostly shrubs or sub-shrubs)
provide complexity and shelter to wildlife are acquired as a result of herbivores attack or are
(Shaltout & Ahmed, 2012). already formed in the early stages of the plant life
cycle (Shaltout & Ahmed, 2012).
Thirty one taxa are exposed to mining and
quarrying; one of the major processes causing The second group includes 44 plants with
degradation in the ecosystems of many Egyptian hairy leathery leaves or stem (e.g. Atriplex glauca,
regions due to complete destruction of plant cover Salsola imbricata and Diceratella elliptica).
(e.g. Lycium shawii and Suaeda vermiculata) (Grime & Blyth, 1968) reported that epidermal
(Seif El-Nasr & Bidak, 2005b). The rocky ridges hairs reduce the palatability of range species or
parallel to the sand dune belt were subjected to inhibit the passage of food through the gut of
severe quarrying for making limestone bricks. animals. Diaz & Cabido (2009) reported that hairy
This had caused the eradication of the ridge in plants may be drought-tolerance adaptations, and
many sites resulting in loss of the associated wild (Perkins, 2010) reported that the hairy plants
life (Batanoumy, 1999). could help in reflecting more sunlight, reducing

Egypt. J. Bot. 60, No. 1 (2020)

 CHARACTERIZATION OF THE WILD TREES AND SHRUBS IN THE EGYPTIAN FLORA 163

detrimental heating of the plant. The third group Al-Dabbagh, B., Elhaty, I., Murali, C., Madhoon, A.,
includes 5 taxa that have sticky latex and that Amin, A. (2018) Salvadora persica (Miswak):
are with unpleasant taste and odour (Pistacia antioxidant and promising antiangiogenic insights.
lenticus, Gomphocarpus sinaicus, Solenostemma American Journal of Plant Sciences, 9, 1228-1244.
arghel and Salsola imbricata with its two subsp.
imbricata and gaetula). They seem to be toxic Al-Sodany, Y. (1998) Vegetation analysis of the canals,
for livestock (Shaltout & Ahmed, 2012). The drains and lakes of the northern part of Nile Delta.
fourth group includes 4 taxa that are covered with Ph. D. Dissertation, Tanta University, Tanta.
scales, dots or spots (Deverra triradiata, Deverra
tortuosa, Limoniastrum monopetalum and Datura Al-Sodany, Y., Kahil, A., Al-Juaid, N. (2019)
metel). A scale or peltate hair is a type of trichome Population demography of Calotropis procera
that has a plate or shield-shaped cluster of cells (Ait.) R. Br. In Taif Region, Saudi Arabia. Egyptian
attached directly to the surface or borne on a stalk Journal of Botany, 59(3), 567-579.
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 ‫‪168‬‬ ‫‪HEBA BEDAIR et al.‬‬

‫وصف األشجار والشجيرات البرية في الفلوره المصرية‬

‫هبه بدير‪ ،‬كمال شلتوت‪ ،‬داليا أحمد‪ ،‬أحمد شرف الدين‪ ،‬رجب الفحار‬
‫قسم النبات ‪ -‬كلية العلوم ‪ -‬جامعة طنطا ‪ -‬طنطا ‪ -‬مصر‪.‬‬

‫يهتم هذا البحث بدراسة الخصائص الفلورية لألشجار والشجيرات ذات إرتفاع ≥ ‪ 50‬سم المتوطنة في الفلورة‬
‫المصرية‪ .‬تشتمل هذه الخصائص الفلورية على التنوع التصنيفي‪ ،‬أشكال الجنس‪ ،‬أشكال الحياة‪ ،‬أشكال الندرة‪،‬‬
‫وقت اإلزهار‪ ،‬أشكال اإلنتثار‪ ،‬األهمية اإلقتصادية‪ ،‬التهديدات الواقعة على األنواع والتوزيع المحلي والعالمي‬
‫لها‪ .‬تم إجراء ‪ 9‬رحالت فلورية لتجميع هذه األنواع والبذور الخاصة بها من أنحاء مصر‪ .‬تم إعداد قائمة تشتمل‬
‫علي ‪ 228‬نوع نباتي تنتمي إلى ‪ 126‬جنس و‪ 45‬عائلة‪ ،‬والتي تحتوي على نوعين مقتصري التوزيع في مصر‬
‫و‪ 5‬أنواع شبه مقتصرة التوزيع‪ .‬تحتل األنواع المسجلة ‪ 14‬بيئة (منها ‪ 8‬بيئات طبيعية و‪ 6‬صناعية)‪ .‬أغلب أشكال‬
‫الحياه الممثلة هي كل من النباتات الظاهرة والنباتات فوق السطحية‪ ،‬بينما تمثل الوحدات المتشحمة والمقذوفة‬
‫والشعرية أغلب وحدات اإلنتثار‪ .‬وجد أن أغلب األنواع تزهر في شهري مارس وأبريل‪ .‬عند حساب أشكال الندرة‬
‫وجد أن هناك ‪ 180‬نوع غير وافر ويحتل مدى جغرافي وبيئي ضيق‪ .‬تعتبر الصحاري المصرية أغنى المناطق‬
‫باألشجار والشجيرات في مصر‪.‬كل األنواع تقدم على األقل سلعة واحدة لإلنسان‪ ،‬أكثرها تمثيال األهمية الطبية‬
‫لألنواع‪ ،‬بينما هناك ‪ 186‬نوع يقدم خدمات للبيئة المحيطة‪ ،‬أكثرها تمثيال القدرة على تحمل الملوحة‪ ،‬وجد أن‬
‫القطع الجائر لألشجار والشجيرات هو التهديد األكثر وقعا على األنواع في هذه الدراسة‪ .‬النباتات الشوكية التي‬
‫قد تحمل أذينات أو أوراق أو أفرع أو نورات أو ثمار شوكية‪ ،‬أو أفرع خشبية ذات نهايات شوكية تمثل ‪ 64‬نوع‬
‫في هذه الدراسة‪.‬‬

‫)‪Egypt. J. Bot. 60, No. 1 (2020‬‬