WACHEMO UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

SCHOOL OF COMPUTING AND INFORMATICS
DEPARTMENT OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

BASIC RESEARCH METHODS IN INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY (ITEC4151)

Organized By:

1. Engdaw Ayalew (MSc in Information Technology)

2. Fikadu Weyesa (MSc in Information Technology)
3. Kidist Ergetie (MSc in Information Technology)

Reviewed by:
1. Eden Kaleb (MSc in Information Technology)
2. Radwan Aman (MSc in Information Technology)

July 19, 2022

Hossaena, Ethiopia
Contents
MODULE PREFACE ......................................................................................................... iii
CHAPTER ONE .................................................................................................................. 1
THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF RESEARCH ................................................................. 1
1.1 What is Research? ...................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Research and Theory .................................................................................................. 2
1.3 The Scientific Approach............................................................................................. 3
1.4 Stage of the Research Process .................................................................................... 9
1.4.1 Identification of a research problem............................................................................................. 9
1.4.2 Formulation of Hypothesis ......................................................................................................... 10
1.4.3 Review of Related Literature ..................................................................................................... 10
1.4.4 Preparation of Research Design ................................................................................................. 10
1.4.5 Actual experimentation .............................................................................................................. 10
1.4.6 Results and Discussion ............................................................................................................... 10
1.4.7 Formulation of Conclusions and Recommendations ................................................................. 10
1.5 Components of Research Proposal........................................................................... 11
1.6 Writing a Research Proposal .................................................................................... 13
CHAPTER TWO ............................................................................................................... 18
FORMULATION OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM ..................................................... 18
2.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 18
2.2 Selection of a General Topic .................................................................................... 19
2.3 Literature Review and Exploratory Study................................................................ 21
2.4 Formulating a Research Problem ............................................................................. 23
2.5 Specification of Objectives and Hypotheses ............................................................ 25
2.6 Concepts and Variables ............................................................................................ 31
CHAPTER THREE ........................................................................................................... 41
THE RESEARCH PROCESS ........................................................................................... 41
3.1 Major Steps in the Research Process ....................................................................... 41

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 3.2 Research Methods versus Methodology .................................................................. 51
3.3 Criteria of Good Research ........................................................................................ 53
CHAPTER FOUR.............................................................................................................. 57
THE RESEARCH DESIGN .............................................................................................. 57
4.1 The Research Design ................................................................................................ 57
4.2 Sampling Methods.................................................................................................... 66
4.3 Measurements ........................................................................................................... 71
4.4 Measurement Scale .................................................................................................. 72
4.5 Instrument Design .................................................................................................... 75
CHAPTER FIVE ............................................................................................................... 78
ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION OF DATA ............................................................. 78
5.1 Data Presentation and Analysis ................................................................................ 78
5.2 Exploring, Displaying and Examining Data ............................................................ 83
5.3 Hypothesis Test ........................................................................................................ 90
5.4 Measures of association ........................................................................................... 91
5.5 Report Writing.......................................................................................................... 94
CHAPTER SIX ................................................................................................................ 100
CURRENT RESEARCH TOPICS IN IT ........................................................................ 100
6.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 100
6.2 List of few latest thesis topics in IT ....................................................................... 100
CHAPTER SEVEN ......................................................................................................... 112
ETHICS IN RESEARCH ................................................................................................ 112
7.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 112
7.2 The researcher’s role .............................................................................................. 113
7.3 Ethical Considerations............................................................................................ 114
7.4 The Professionalism of Research ........................................................................... 117
References ........................................................................................................................ 122

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MODULE PREFACE
This lecture note on research methodology is primarily aimed at Information Technology students. It is
also hoped to be useful for other individuals who would like to understand the basic principles and
undertake Information Technology. There is a strong belief that it will serve as a guideline for
undergraduate Information Technology students as they are required to identify the most important
society problems and carry out some research work. Chapter one deals with the general introduction
and it is devoted to giving basic definitions of important terms and characteristics of research in
general and Information Technology research in particular. Chapter two gives the guidelines useful for
the identification and selection of a research topic. The questions relating to whether a research
problem is adequately analyzed and whether it is clearly stated are addressed in Chapter three.
Chapters four and five deal with literature review and the development of research objectives,
respectively. A special emphasis is given to Chapter six which is the Chapter that contains the many
elements of the "Methods" section of a research proposal. This Chapter presents the format that an
investigator may follow when writing the final draft of his/her research proposal. It also gives the
guidelines for writing a report. The last chapter is devoted to giving a brief account of the definitions
of common terms applied in computer use and the application of some statistical packages. A special
emphasis is given.
In general, this lecture note tries to cover the three major components of a research process:
development of the research proposal, fieldwork (data collection) and write-up of the scientific report.
General learning objectives followed by introductory sections which are specific to each chapter are
placed at the beginning of most of the chapters. The lecture note also includes a number of exercises
for the students so that they can examine themselves whether they have understood the topic under
consideration. It is assumed that this lecture note on research methodology will be given to
Information Technology students. It is also important to note that this lecture note focuses on
quantitative research. When the point of discussion refers to qualitative research, it would be clearly
shown so as to avoid the confusion that may arise. A few reference materials are given at the end of
the lecture note for further reading.

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 CHAPTER ONE

THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF RESEARCH

1.1 What is Research?

Definition: Research is a scientific inquiry aimed at learning new facts, testing ideas, etc. It is the
systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of data to generate new knowledge and answer a
certain question or solve a problem.
Research is the process of discovering new knowledge. This knowledge can be either the development of
new concepts or the advancement of existing knowledge and theories, leading to a new understanding that
was not previously known.
The purpose of research is to enhance society by advancing knowledge through the development of
scientific theories, concepts and ideas. A research purpose is met through forming hypotheses, collecting
data, analysing results, forming conclusions, implementing findings into real-life applications and
forming new research questions.
Characteristics of research
It demands a clear statement of the problem

It requires a plan (it is not aimlessly “ looking” for something in the hope that you will come
across a solution)
It builds on existing data, using both positive and negative findings

New data should be collected as required and be organized in such a way that they answer the
research question(s)
However, we will focus on two of the most common types of research correlational research and
experimental research.
From weather forecasts to the discovery of antibiotics, researchers are constantly trying to find new ways
to understand the world and how things work – with the ultimate goal of improving our lives.
The purpose of research is therefore to find out what is known, what is not and what we can develop
further. In this way, scientists can develop new theories, ideas and products that shape our society and our
everyday lives.
The purpose of research is to further understand the world and to learn how this knowledge can be
applied to better everyday life. It is an integral part of problem solving.
Although research can take many forms, there are three main purposes of research:
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Exploratory: Exploratory research is the first research to be conducted around a problem that has not yet
been clearly defined. Exploration research therefore aims to gain a better understanding of the exact
nature of the problem and not to provide a conclusive answer to the problem itself. This enables us to
conduct more in-depth research later on.
1. Descriptive: Descriptive research expands knowledge of a research problem or phenomenon by
describing it according to its characteristics and population. Descriptive research focuses on the
‘how’ and ‘what’, but not on the ‘why’.
2. Explanatory: Explanatory research, also referred to as casual research, is conducted to determine
how variables interact, i.e. to identify cause-and-effect relationships. Explanatory research deals
with the ‘why’ of research questions and is therefore often based on experiments.

1.2 Research and Theory

A theory is a conceptualization, or description, of a phenomenon that attempts to integrate all that we
know about the phenomenon into a concise statement or question.

Finally, theories often serve as a good source for research ideas. Theories can serve several purposes, but
in the research context, they typically function as a rich source of hypotheses that can be examined
empirically. This brings us to an important point that should not be glossed over— specifically, that
research ideas (and the hypotheses and research designs that follow from those ideas) should be based on
some theory (Serlin, 1987). For example, a researcher may have a theory regarding the development of
depression among elderly males. In this example, the researcher may theorize that elderly males become
depressed due to their reduced ability to engage in enjoyable physical activities. This hypothetical theory,
like most other theories, makes a prediction. In this instance, the theory makes a specific prediction about
what causes depression among elderly males. The predictions suggested by theories can often be
transformed into testable hypotheses that can then be examined empirically in the context of a research
study.
Throughout this discussion, you may have noticed that we have not commented on the quality of the
research idea. Instead, we have limited our discussion thus far to how researchers choose research
ideas, and not to whether those ideas are good ideas. There are many situations, however,in which
the quality of the research idea is of paramount importance. For example, when submitting a research
proposal as part of a grant application, the quality of the research idea is an important consideration in
the funding decision. Although judging whether a research idea is good may appear to be somewhat
subjective, there are some generally accepted criteria that can help in this determination. Is the
research idea creative? Will the results of the research study make a valuable and significant
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 contribution to the literature or practice in a particular field? Does the research study address a
question that is considered important in the field? Questions like these can often be answered by
looking through the existing literature to see how the particular research study fits into the bigger
picture. So, let’s turn our attention to the logical next step in the planning phase of a research study:
the literature review.

1.3 The Scientific Approach

The scientific approach is an empirical method of acquiring knowledge that has characterized the
development of science since at least the 17th century (with notable practitioners in previous centuries). It
involves careful observation, applying rigorous skepticism about what is observed, given that cognitive
assumptions can distort how one interprets the observation. It involves formulating hypotheses,
via induction, based on such observations; experimental and measurement-based testing
of deductions drawn from the hypotheses; and refinement (or elimination) of the hypotheses based on the
experimental findings.

1.3.1 Overview of science and the scientific method

In simple terms, science can be defined as a methodological and systematic approach to the
acquisition of new knowledge. This definition of science highlights some of the key differences
between how scientists and non-scientists go about acquiring new knowledge. Specifically, rather than
relying on mere casual observations and an informal approach to learn about the world, scientists
attempt to gain new knowledge by making careful observations and using systematic, controlled, and
methodical approaches (Shaughnessy & Zechmeister, 1997). By doing so, scientists are able to draw
valid and reliable conclusions about what they are studying. In addition, scientific knowledge is not
based on the opinions, feelings, or intuition of the scientist. Instead, scientific knowledge is based on
objective data that were reliably obtained in the context of a carefully designed research study. In
short, scientific knowledge is based on the accumulation of empirical evidence (Kazdin, 2003a), which
will be the topic of a great deal of discussion in later chapters of this book. The defining characteristic
of scientific research is the scientific method (summarized in Rapid Reference 1.2). First described by
the English philosopher and scientist Roger Bacon in the 13th century, it is still generally agreed that

the scientific method is the basis for all scientific investigation. The scientific method is best thought
of as an approach to the acquisition of new knowledge, and this approach effectively distinguishes
science from no science. To be clear, the scientific method is not actually a single method, as the name
would erroneously lead one to believe, but rather an overarching perspective on how scientific
investigations should proceed. It is a set of research principles and a method that helps researchers
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obtain valid results from their research studies. Because the scientific method deals with the general
approach to research rather than the content of specific research studies, it is used by researchers in all
different scientific disciplines. As will be seen in the following sections, the biggest benefit of the
scientific method is that it provides a set of clear and agreed upon guidelines for gathering, evaluating,
and reporting information in the context of a research study (Cozby, 1993).

The development of the scientific method is usually credited to Roger Bacon, a philosopher and
scientist from 13th-century England; although some argue that the Italian scientist Galileo Galilei
played an important role in formulating the scientific method. Later contributions to the scientific
method were made by the philosophers Francis Bacon and René Descartes. Although some
disagreement exists regarding the exact characteristics of the scientific method, most agree that it is
characterized by the following elements:
• Empirical approach
• Observations
• Questions
• Hypotheses
• Experiments
• Analyses
• Conclusions
• Replication
There has been some disagreement among researchers over the years regarding the elements that
compose the scientific method. In fact, some researchers have even argued that it is impossible to
define a universal approach to scientific investigation. Nevertheless, for over 100 years, the scientific
method has been the defining feature of scientific research. Researchers generally agree that the
scientific method is composed of the following key elements (which will be the focus of the remainder
of this chapter): an empirical approach, observations, questions, hypotheses, experiments, analyses,

conclusions, and replication. Before proceeding any further, one word of caution is necessary. In the
brief discussion of the scientific method that follows, we will be introducing several new terms and
concepts that are related to research design and methodology. Do not be intimidated if you are
unfamiliar with some of the content contained in this discussion. The purpose of the following is
simply to set the stage for the chapters that follow, and we will be elaborating on each of the terms
and concepts throughout the remainder of the book.

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Empirical Approach
The scientific method is firmly based on the empirical approach. The empirical approach is an
evidence-based approach that relies on direct observation and experimentation in the acquisition of
new knowledge (see Kazdin, 2003a). In the empirical approach, scientific decisions are made based on
the data derived from direct observation and experimentation. Contrast this approach to decision
making with the way that most non-scientific decisions are made in our daily lives. For example, we
have all made decisions based on feelings, hunches, or “gut” instinct. Additionally, we may often
reach conclusions or make decisions that are not necessarily based on data, but rather on opinions,
speculation, and a hope for the best. The empirical approach, with its emphasis on direct, systematic,
and careful observation, is best thought of as the guiding principle behind all research conducted in
accordance with the scientific method.
Observations
An important component in any scientific investigation is observation. In this sense, observation refers
to two distinct concepts—being aware of the world around us and making careful measurements.
Observations of the world around us often give rise to the questions that are addressed through
scientific research. For example, the Newtonian observation that apples fall from trees stimulated
much research into the effects of gravity. Therefore, a keen eye to your surroundings can often provide
you with many ideas for research studies. In the context of science, observation means more than just
observing the world around us to get ideas for research. Observation also refers to the process of
making careful and accurate measurements, which is a distinguishing feature of well-conducted
scientific investigations. When making measurements in the context of research, scientists typically
take great precautions to avoid making biased observations. For example, if a researcher is observing
the amount of time that passes between two events, such as the length of time that elapses between
lightning and thunder, it would certainly be advisable for the researcher to use a measurement device
that has a high degree of accuracy and reliability. Rather than simply trying to “guesstimate” the
amount of time that elapsed between those two events, the researcher would be advised to use a
stopwatch or similar measurement device. By doing so, the researcher ensures that the measurement is
accurate and not biased by extraneous factors. Most people would likely agree that the observations
that we make in our daily lives are rarely made so carefully or systematically.
An important aspect of measurement is an operational definition. Researchers define key concepts and
terms in the context of their research studies by using operational definitions. By using operational
definitions, researchers ensure that everyone is talking about the same phenomenon. For example, if a
researcher wants to study the effects of exercise on stress levels, it would be necessary for the

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 researcher to define what “exercise” is. Does exercise refer to jogging, weight lifting, swimming,
jumping rope, or all of the above? By defining “exercise” for the purposes of the study, the researcher
makes sure that everyone is referring to the same thing. Clearly, the definition of “exercise” can differ
from one study to another, so it is crucial that the researcher define “exercise” in a precise manner in
the context of his or her study. Having a clear definition of terms also ensures that the researcher’s
study can be replicated by other researchers.

Questions

After getting a research idea, perhaps from making observations of the world around us, the next step
in the research process involves translating that research idea into an answerable question. The term
“answerable” is particularly important in this respect, and it should not be overlooked. It would
obviously be a frustrating and ultimately unrewarding endeavour to attempt to answer an
unanswerable research question through scientific investigation. An example of an unanswerable
research question is the following: “Is there an exact replica of me in another universe?” Although
this is certainly an intriguing question that would likely yield important information, the current state
of science cannot provide an answer to that question. It is therefore important to formulate a research
question that can be answered through available scientific methods and procedures. One might ask, for
example, whether exercising (i.e., perhaps operationally defined as running three times per week for
30 minutes each time) reduces cholesterol levels. This question could be researched and answered
using established scientific methods.

Hypotheses

The next step in the scientific method is coming up with a hypothesis, which is simply an educated—
and testable—guess about the answer to your research question. A hypothesis is often described as an
attempt by the researcher to explain the phenomenon of interest. Hypotheses can take various forms,
depending on the question being asked and the type of study being conducted. A key feature of all
hypotheses is that each must make a prediction. Remember that hypotheses are the researcher’s
attempt to explain the phenomenon being studied, and that explanation should involve a prediction
about the variables being studied. These predictions are then tested by gathering and analysing data,
and the hypotheses can either be supported or refuted on the basis of the data. In their simplest forms,
hypotheses are typically phrased as “if-then” statements. For example, a researcher may hypothesize
that “if people exercise for 30 minutes per day at least three days per week, then their cholesterol
levels will be reduced.” This hypothesis makes a prediction about the effects of exercising on levels of
cholesterol, and the prediction can be tested by gathering and analysing data. Two types of hypotheses
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 with which you should be familiar are the null hypothesis and the alternate (or experimental)
hypothesis. The null hypothesis always predicts that there will be no differences between the groups
being studied. By contrast, the alternate hypothesis predicts that there will be a difference between the
groups. In our example, the null hypothesis would predict that the exercise group and the no-exercise
group will not differ significantly on levels of cholesterol. The alternate hypothesis would predict that
the two groups will differ significantly on cholesterol levels.
Experiments

After articulating the hypothesis, the next step involves actually conducting the experiment (or
research study). For example, if the study involves investigating the effects of exercise on levels of
cholesterol, the researcher would design and conduct a study that would attempt to address that
question. As previously mentioned, a key aspect of conducting a research study is measuring the
phenomenon of interest in an accurate and reliable manner. In this example, the researcher would
collect data on the cholesterol levels of the study participants by using an accurate and reliable
measurement device. Then, the researcher would compare the cholesterol levels of the two groups to
see if exercise had any effects.

Analyses

After conducting the study and gathering the data, the next step involves analyzing the data, which
generally calls for the use of statistical techniques. The type of statistical techniques used by a
researcher depends on the design of the study, the type of data being gathered, and the questions
being asked. Although a detailed discussion of statistics is beyond the scope of this text, it is important
to be aware of the role of statistics in conducting a research study. In short, statistics help researchers
minimize the likelihood of reaching an erroneous conclusion about the relationship between the
variables being studied.

A key decision that researchers must make with the assistance of statistics is whether the null
hypothesis should be rejected. Remember that the null hypothesis always predicts that there will be no
difference between the groups. Therefore, rejecting the null hypothesis means that there is a difference
between the groups. In general, most researchers seek to reject the null hypothesis because rejection
means the phenomenon being studied (e.g., exercise, medication) had some effect.
It is important to note that there are only two choices with respect to the null hypothesis. Specifically,
the null hypothesis can be either rejected or not rejected, but it can never be accepted. If we reject the
null hypothesis, we are concluding that there is a significant difference between the groups. If,
however, we do not reject the null hypothesis, then we are concluding that we were unable to detect a
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 difference between the groups. To be clear, it does not mean that there is no difference between the
two groups. There may in actuality have been a significant difference between the two groups,
but we were unable to detect that difference in our study. We will talk more about this important
distinction in later chapters.
The decision of whether to reject the null hypothesis is based on the results of statistical analyses, and
there are two types of errors that researchers must be careful to avoid when making this decision—
Type I errors and Type II errors. A Type I error occurs when a researcher concludes that there is a
difference between the groups being studied when, in fact, there is no difference. This is sometimes
referred to as a “false positive.” By contrast, a Type II error occurs when the researcher concludes that
there is not a difference between the two groups being studied when, in fact, there is a
difference. This is sometimes referred to as a “false negative.” As previously noted, the conclusion
regarding whether there is a difference between the groups is based on the results of statistical
analyses. Specifically, with a Type I error, although there is a statistically significant result, it
occurred by chance (or error) and there is not actually a difference between the two groups (
Wampold, Davis, & Good, 2003). With a Type II error, there is a nonsignificant statistical result when,
in fact, there actually is a difference between the two groups ( Wampold et al.).
The typical convention in most fields of science allows for a 5% chance of erroneously
rejecting the null hypothesis (i.e., of making a Type I error). In other words, a researcher will conclude
that there is a significant difference between the groups being studied (i.e., will reject the null
hypothesis) only if the chance of being incorrect is less than 5%. For obvious reasons, researchers
want to reduce the likelihood of concluding that there is a significant difference between the groups
being studied when, in fact, there is not a difference.

The distinction between Type I and Type II errors is very important, although somewhat complicated.
An example may help to clarify these terms. In our example, a researcher conducts a study to determine
whether a new medication is effective in treating depression. The new medication is given to Group 1,
while a placebo medication is given to Group 2. If, at the conclusion of the study, the researcher
concludes that there is a significant difference in levels of depression between Groups 1 and 2 when, in
fact, there is no difference, the researcher has made a Type I error. In simpler terms, the researcher has
detected a difference between the groups that in actuality does not exist; the difference between the
groups occurred by chance (or error). By contrast, if the researcher concludes that there is no significant
difference in levels of depression between Groups 1 and 2 when, in fact, there is a difference, the
researcher has made a Type II error. In simpler terms, the researcher has failed to detect a difference that
actually exists between the groups.

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Which type of error is more serious—Type I or Type II? The answer to this question often depends on
the context in which the errors are made. Let’s use the medical context as an example. If a doctor
diagnoses a patient with cancer when, in fact, the patient does not have cancer (i.e., a false positive), the
doctor has committed a Type I error. In this situation, it is likely that the erroneous diagnosis will be
discovered (perhaps through a second opinion) and the patient will undoubtedly be relieved. If,
however, the doctor gives the patient a clean bill of health when, in fact, the patient actually has cancer
(i.e., a false negative), the doctor has committed a Type II error. Most people would likely agree that a
Type II error would be more serious in this example because it would prevent the patient from getting
necessary medical treatment.
You may be wondering why researchers do not simply set up their research studies so that there is even
less chance of making a Type I error. For example, wouldn’t it make sense for researchers to set up
their research studies so that the chance of making a Type I error is less than 1% or, better yet, 0%? The
reason that researchers do not set up their studies in this manner has to do with the relationship between
making Type I errors and making Type II errors. Specifically, there is an inverse relationship between
Type I errors and Type II errors, which means that by decreasing the probability of making a Type I
error, the researcher is increasing the probability of making a Type II error. In other words, if a
researcher reduces the probability of making a Type I error from 5% to 1%, there is now an increased
probability that the researcher will make a Type II error by failing to detect a difference that actually
exists. The 5% level is a standard convention in most fields of research and represents a compromise
between making Type I and Type II errors.

1.4 Stage of the Research Process

Research has more than seven stapes as showing below. Whether you are University or college student,
you have to take research subject for you to be able to receive your Degree / diploma. To ease your
burden in doing research, here are the seven steps in the research process:
1.4.1 Identification of a research problem

A good research always starts with a good problem. You can observe people or things, visit places, read
print materials, or consult experts to find the research problem that is right for you. The research problem
guides you in formulating the hypothesis and interpretation of your findings so that you can formulate the
right conclusion. A good research problem is important because it is the basis of all subsequent research
activities you are going to undertake. Factors like area of interest, availability of fund, socio-economic
significance of the study, and the safety measures to be undertaken should be considered in finding a
good research problem.

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 1.4.2 Formulation of Hypothesis

After finding your research problem, the next step is to formulate your own hypothesis. A hypothesis is a
theoretical statement in solving a logical relationship between variables. Do not be afraid if your
hypothesis proves to be incorrect after the experimentation because it is only considered as an educated
guess. Always remember that when you formulate a hypothesis, it should be based on the research
problem being solved.
1.4.3 Review of Related Literature

A research problem is vague at first. To give you a bright picture of the whole research, you shall read
various publications or surf the internet to become aware of the previous works already done. In doing so,
it could spur an idea that can be the subject of your investigation. The review of related literature can be
taken from science books, magazines, journals, newspapers, or even in the internet.
1.4.4 Preparation of Research Design

A research design is the blueprint of the research you are going to undertake. It serves as the work plan of
the whole study not only because it entails the resources needed in conducting the research but also the
ways these resources are utilized.
1.4.5 Actual experimentation

Actual experimentation is an implementation of the research design. In actual experimentation, you have
to conduct an experiment to prove the validity of the hypothesis you have formulated. Actual
experimentation includes the methodology that you have followed in doing your research. The
methodology should be carefully planned prior to the actual experimentation to ensure the validity and
accuracy of the result.

1.4.6 Results and Discussion

This is the heart of the research process because this is part where the findings of the research can be
found. You can use table and graph to interpret the results of your research.
1.4.7 Formulation of Conclusions and Recommendations
Conclusion is a statement where you will present the solution to the proposed problem based on the
findings of the investigation. They are tied up to the questions investigated. Your conclusion will show
whether or not your experiment worked. It should answer your hypothesis and research problem. In your
concluding statement you can also infer on the possible benefits to society that your results might present.
You can state any plans you might have to continue working on other aspects related to your area of

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study. We must remember that recommendations are based on conclusions and conclusions are based on
findings
Conducting research is a tiresome task because it is a year-round activity. You have to be committed to
become successful in making a good research which would benefit not only you but of everyone. The
willingness in you in making future researches should always be there because doing research without
your ‘heart’ and ‘mind’ on it is a burden on your part. Never hesitate to ask questions. Asking questions
from other people who is aware of your research topic would help you arrive at the correct conclusions.
Now that you have finally learned the steps in the research process, you can now start doing one.

1.5 Components of Research Proposal

A research proposal is a written document that provides an overview of the project, why it is important,
and what is needed to get it done. Learn what a research proposal is, the questions to consider before
beginning, and the main components through some example
1.5.1 The Title
Try to come up with a title that is unique and at the same time easy to remember. It should also make
a lasting impression to the reader and make them want to come back and read your proposal. The title
must also capture the main concepts of the study. As the research process is lengthy, it is important
that you choose a topic that you are so curious about that you remain motivated for the duration of the
research process. Select a topic that you will be able to complete within the time frame that you have for
your research.
1.5.2 Introduction to the Research
This section of the proposal must provide a broad overview of the topic. The jargon and key terms used in
the particular topic must also be thoroughly explained in order to avoid confusion. The interest of the
researcher in the particular topic must also be clearly outlined while at the same time mentioning, albeit
briefly at this point, a critical review of the main literature that covers the topic. The researcher must also
provide the aim of the research by clearly and concisely stating the problem, as well as the research
questions to be dealt with. This section must also indicate what the research study will not be covering.

1.5.3 The Background

The background to the topic of your intended research must be clear and precise. It must not only include
an in-depth explanation of the key points of your subject but also all the developments in the field as well
as their timelines. The researcher must also explain the compelling interest in the research issue as well as
the personal interest (if any) in the topic. This section must also indicate the specific area within which

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the topic falls in your particular field of study or subject. also, how will the proposed study contribute to a
particular field? In other words, the impact and the significance in a subject area must be clearly
outlined. The target audience must also be clearly described.

1.5.4 The Research questions

The research questions must state clearly what your proposed study is meant to address or answer. Ensure
that you use simple language that is easy to understand, while being cognisant of the level
of your intended audience.

1.5.5 Objective of the Research

It is important that the objectives are in alignment with the research questions. The objectives must
indicate what the aim of the research study is. In fact, objectives give you a clear indication of the steps
that you will take to achieve the aim of the research. The objectives must be specific, measurable,
achievable, relevant and time-bound.

1.5.6 Research methodology

This section outlines the approach which the researcher will follow in order to address the research
problem and to answer all the research questions from the researcher. The research design must be clearly
defined, e.g., is the research Descriptive, Correlational, Causal-Comparative/Quasi-Experimental,
Experimental, Diagnostic or Explanatory.

State clearly
• how the research will be conducted in terms of the theoretical resources that will be used
• the theoretical framework for conducting the research, which is the theoretical approach drawn
from your literature review to support your research study
• proposed research method(s)
• a comparison of the advantages, limitations and suitability of the available approaches and
methods for conducting your research
• Participants, instruments, procedure, analysis, etc.
1.5.7 Literature Review
Collect and present relevant literature on your topic of choice. It is important to include all the main
authors or experts in a particular field. Depending on your field of study or topic, ensure that you
include recent literature as well as literature that presents counterarguments to the topic. The justification
for the study needs to based on existing literature. Click here for more information on how to write a
literature review.
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 1.5.8 Limitation and Delimitation of the study
The researcher must indicate the limitations of the study which are what the researcher cannot do or
factors that are beyond the researcher's control, as well as delimitations that the researcher chooses not to
address for the purposes of the study. Delimitations are boundaries that the researcher has set for the
study. The reasons both for limitations and delimitations must be discussed in this section.

1.5.9 Significance of the Research

The researcher must provide justification for the need to conduct the study. What is the gap that the study
will fill, and what is its contribution to the existing body of knowledge? The originality and importance of
the research which will be level appropriate, must be clearly described, for instance, the required level of
originality for a fourth year research project is different to that of a doctoral candidate.

The impact of the study for the subject field must be indicated. In other words, how will the
research improve the field, who will it impact, how will it make changes in your industry or field etc.?
Lastly, the proposed research must be relatable, interesting and engaging.
1.5.10 Work Plan
Your schedule for the research must be stated clearly including the projected timelines for the various
stages of your study.

1.5.11 References
All the sources that you have used for your proposal must be listed in alphabetical order using a
referencing style that your lecturer has prescribed for your subject field.

1.6 Writing a Research Proposal

In a research proposal, the goal is to present the author’s plan for the research they intend to conduct. In
some cases, part of this goal is to secure funding for said research. In others, it’s to have the research
approved by the author’s supervisor or department so they can move forward with it. In some cases, a
research proposal is a required part of a graduate school application. In every one of these circumstances,
research proposals follow the same structure.

In a research proposal, the author demonstrates how and why their research is relevant to their field. They
demonstrate that the work is necessary to the following:
➢ Filling a gap in the existing body of research on their subject
➢ Underscoring existing research on their subject, and/or

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 ➢ Adding new, original knowledge to the academic community’s existing understanding of their
subject
A research proposal also demonstrates that the author is capable of conducting this research and
contributing to the current state of their field in a meaningful way. To do this, your research proposal
needs to discuss your academic background and credentials as well as demonstrate that your proposed
ideas have academic merit.
But demonstrating your research’s validity and your personal capability to carry it out isn’t enough to get
your research proposal approved. Your research proposal also has to cover these things:
➢ The research methodology you plan to use
➢ The tools and procedures you will use to collect, analyze, and interpret the data you collect
➢ An explanation of how your research fits the budget and other constraints that come with
conducting it through your institution, department, or academic program
If you’ve already read our post on literature reviews, you may be thinking that a research proposal sounds
pretty similar. They’re more than just similar, though—a literature review is part of a research proposal.
It’s the section that covers which sources you’re using, how you’re using them, and why they’re relevant.
Think of a literature review as a mini-research proposal that fits into your larger, main proposal.
How long should a research proposal be?
Generally, research proposals for bachelor’s and master’s theses are a few pages long. Research proposals
for meatier projects, like Ph.D. dissertations and funding requests, are often longer and far more detailed.
A research proposal’s goal is to clearly outline exactly what your research will entail and accomplish, so
including the proposal’s word count or page count isn’t nearly as important as it is to ensure that all the
necessary elements and content are present.

Research proposal structure

A research proposal follows a fairly straightforward structure. In order to achieve the goals described in
the previous section, nearly all research proposals include the following sections:
Introduction

Your introduction achieves a few goals:

➢ Introduces your topic
➢ States your problem statement and the questions your research aims to answer
➢ Provides context for your research
In a research proposal, an introduction can be a few paragraphs long. It should be concise, but don’t feel
like you need to cram all of your information into one paragraph.

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In some cases, you need to include an abstract and/or a table of contents in your research proposal. These
are included just before the introduction.
Background significance

This is where you explain why your research is necessary and how it relates to established research in
your field. Your work might complement existing research, strengthen it, or even challenge it—no matter
how your work will “play with” other researchers’ work, you need to express it in detail in your research
proposal.
This is also the section where you clearly define the existing problems your research will address. By
doing this, you’re explaining why your work is necessary in other words, this is where you answer the
reader’s “so what?”
In your background significance section, you’ll also outline how you’ll conduct your research. If
necessary, note which related questions and issues you won’t be covering in your research.

Literature review

In your literature review, you introduce all the sources you plan to use in your research. This includes
landmark studies and their data, books, and scholarly articles. A literature review isn’t merely a list of
sources (that’s what your bibliography is for); a literature review delves into the collection of sources you
chose and explains how you’re using them in your research.
Research design, methods, and schedule

Following your research review, you’ll discuss your research plans. In this section, make sure you cover
these aspects:

• The type of research you will do. Are you conducting qualitative or quantitative research? Are you
collecting original data or working with data collected by other researchers?
• Whether you’re doing experimental, correlational, or descriptive research
• The data you’re working with. For example, if you’re conducting research in the social sciences,
you’ll need to describe the population you’re studying. You’ll also need to cover how you’ll select your
subjects and how you’ll collect data from them.
• The tools you’ll use to collect data. Will you be running experiments? Conducting surveys?
Observing phenomena? Note all data collection methods here along with why they’re effective methods
for your specific research.
Beyond a comprehensive look at your research itself, you’ll also need to include:
• Your research timeline

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 • Your research budget
• Any potential obstacles you foresee and your plan for handling them
Suppositions and implications

Although you can’t know your research’s results until you’ve actually done the work, you should be
going into the project with a clear idea of how your work will contribute to your field. This section is
perhaps the most critical to your research proposal’s argument because it expresses exactly why your
research is necessary.
In this section, make sure you cover the following:
• Any ways your work can challenge existing theories and assumptions in your field
• How your work will create the foundation for future research
• The practical value your findings will provide to practitioners, educators, and other academics in
your field
• The problems your work can potentially help to fix
• Policies that could be impacted by your findings
• How your findings can be implemented in academia or other settings and how this will improve or
otherwise transform these settings.
In other words, this section isn’t about stating the specific results you expect. Rather, it’s where you
state how your findings will be valuable.
Conclusion

This is where you wrap it all up. Your conclusion section, just like your conclusion paragraph for an
essay, briefly summarizes your research proposal and reinforces your research’s stated purpose.

Bibliography

Yes, you need to write a bibliography in addition to your literature review. Unlike your literature review,
where you explained the relevance of the sources you chose and in some cases, challenged them, your
bibliography simply lists your sources and their authors.

The way you write a citation depends on the style guide you’re using. The three most common style
guides for academics are MLA, APA, and Chicago, and each has its own particular rules and
requirements. Keep in mind that each formatting style has specific guidelines for citing just
about any kind of source, including photos, websites, speeches, and YouTube videos.

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Sometimes, a full bibliography is not needed. When this is the case, you can include a references list,
which is simply a scaled-down list of all the sources you cited in your work. If you’re not sure which to
write, ask your supervisor.
Review Question
1. What is research means?
2. What is research methodology?
3. What is scientific approach in research methodology?
4. What are the stages of research processes?
5. What are the components of research proposal?

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 CHAPTER TWO

FORMULATION OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

2.1 Introduction

Formulation of the research proposal is the major task in the process of developing a research project.
The proposal draws on all the preparatory steps of the research process and pulls them together in
a document describing the rationale and the methodology proposed for research. The proposal is a
basis for approval and funding. After approval, the proposal is used as a blueprint during
implementation of the project. It should be noted that development of a research proposal is often a
cyclical process. The process is not always linear. It is a usual practice to go up and down on the
developed proposal and make the necessary revisions. Is there evidence to indicate that the research
proposal focuses on a problem of priority importance? Was the given health problem identified by
relevant groups of the health system? Was the problem adequately analysed to include all possible
contributory factors from different sectors? Was it clearly stated? These questions should be clearly
answered before trying to develop the research proposal. The sections that follow are devotedto giving
the guidelines useful for identification, selection, analysis and statement of the given problem.
As discussed in Chapter 1, engaging in research can be an exciting and rewarding endeavour. Through
research, scientists attempt to answer age-old questions, acquire new knowledge, describe how things
work, and ultimately improve the way we all live. Despite the exciting and rewarding nature of
research, deciding to conduct a research study can be intimidating for both inexperienced and
experienced researchers alike. Novice researchers are frequently surprised—and often overwhelmed—
by the sheer number of decisions that need to be made in the context of a research study. Depending
on the scope and complexity of the research study being considered, there are typically dozens of
research related issues that need to be addressed in the planning stage alone. As a result, the early
stages of planning a research study can often seem overwhelming for novice researchers with little
experience (and even for seasoned researchers with considerable experience, although they may not
always freely admit it).
As will become clear throughout this chapter, much of the work involved in conducting a research
study actually takes place prior to conducting the study itself. All too often, novice researchers
underestimate the amount of preparatory groundwork that needs to be accomplished prior to collecting
any data. Although the preliminary work of getting a research study started differs depending on the

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 type of research being conducted, there are some research-related issues that are common to most
types of research. For example, prior to collecting any data at all, researchers must typically identify a
topic area of interest, conduct a literature review, formulate a researchable question, articulate
hypotheses, determine who or what will be studied, identify the independent and dependent variables
that will be examined in the study, and choose an appropriate research methodology. And these are
just a few of the more common research-related issues encountered by researchers. Furthermore,
depending on the context in which the research is taking place, there may be a push to get the research
study started sooner rather than later, which may further contribute to the researcher’s feeling
overwhelmed during the planning stage of a research study.
In addition to these research-related issues, researchers may also need to consider several logistical and
administrative issues. Administrative and logistical issues include things such as who is paying for the
research, whether research staff need to be hired, where and when the research study will be
conducted, and what approvals need to be obtained (and from whom) to conduct the research study.
And this is just a small sampling of the preliminary issues that researchers need to address during the
planning stage of a research study.
The purpose of this chapter is to introduce you to this planning stage. Because research studies differ
greatly, both in terms of scope and content, this chapter cannot possibly address all of the issues that
need to be considered when planning and designing a research study. Instead, this chapter will focus
on the research-related issues that are most commonly encountered by researchers in all scientific
fields (particularly those that involve human participants) when planning and designing a research
study. In some ways, you can think of this chapter as a checklist of the major research-related issues
that need to be considered during the planning stage. Although some of the topics discussed in this
chapter may not be applicable in the context of your particular research, it is important for you to
be aware of these issues. After discussing how researchers typically select the topics that they study,
this chapter will discuss literature reviews, the formulation of research problems, the development of
testable hypotheses, the identification and operationalization of independent and dependent variables,
and the selection and assignment of research participants. Finally, this chapter will conclude with a
discussion of the impact of multicultural issues on research.

2.2 Selection of a General Topic

The first step in designing any research study is deciding what to study. Researchers choose the topics
that they study in a variety of ways, and their decisions are necessarily influenced by several factors. For
example, choosing a research topic will obviously be largely influenced by the scientific field within

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which the researcher works. As you know, “science” is a broad term that encompasses numerous
specialized and diverse areas of study, such as biology, physics, psychology, anthropology, medicine,
and economics, just to name a few. Researchers achieve competence in their particular fields of study
through a combination of training and experience, and it typically takes many years to develop an area
of expertise. As you can probably imagine, it would be quite difficult for a researcher in one scientific
field to undertake a research study involving a topic in an entirely different scientific field. For example,
it is highly unlikely that a botanist would choose to study quantum physics or macroeconomics. In
addition to his or her lacking the training and experience necessary for studying quantum physics or
macroeconomics, it is probably reasonable to conclude that the botanist does not have an interest in
conducting research studies in those areas. So, assuming that researchers have the proper training and
experience to conduct research studies in their respective fields, let’s turn our attention to how
researchers choose the topics that they study (see Christensen, 2001; Kazdin, 1992).

Interest

First and foremost, researchers typically choose research topics that are of interest to them. Although
this may seem like common sense, it is important to occasionally remind ourselves that researchers
engage in research presumably because they have a genuine interest in the topics that they study. A
good question to ask at this point is how research interests develop in the first place. There are several
answers to this question. Many researchers entered their chosen fields of study with longstanding
interests in those particular fields. For example, a psychologist may have decided to become a
researcher because of a long-standing interest in how childhood psychopathology develops or how
anxiety disorders can be effectively treated with psychotropic medications. For other researchers, they
may have entered their chosen fields of study with specific interests, and then perhaps refined those
interests over the course of their careers. Further, as many researchers will attest, it is certainly not
uncommon for researchers to develop new interests throughout their careers. Through the process of
conducting research, as well as the long hours that are spent reviewing other people’s research,
researchers can often stumble onto new and often unanticipated research ideas. Regardless of whether
researchers enter their chosen fields with specific interests or develop new interests as they go along,
many researchers become interested in particular research ideas simply by observing the world around
them (as discussed in Chapter 1). Merely taking an interest in a specific observed phenomenon is the
impetus for a great amount of research in all fields of study. In summary, a researcher’s basic curiosity
about an observed phenomenon typically provides sufficient motivation for choosing a research topic.

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 2.3 Literature Review and Exploratory Study
Once a researcher has chosen a specific topic, the next step in the planning phase of a research study is
reviewing the existing literature in that topic area. If you are not yet familiar with the process of
conducting a literature review, it simply means becoming familiar with the existing literature (e.g.,
books, journal articles) on a particular topic. Obviously, the amount of available literature can
differ significantly depending on the topic area being studied, and it can certainly be a time-consuming,
arduous, and difficult process if there has been a great deal of research conducted in a particular area.
Ask any researcher (or research assistant) about conducting literature reviews and you will likely
encounter similar comments about the length of time that is spent looking for literature on a particular
topic.

Fortunately, the development of comprehensive electronic databases has facilitated the process of
conducting literature reviews. In the past few years, individual electronic databases have been developed
for several specific fields of study. For example, medical researchers can access existing medical
literature through Medline; social scientists can use PsychINFO or PsychLIT; and legal researchers can
use Westlaw or Lexis. Access to most of these electronic database services is restricted to individuals
with subscriptions or to those who are affiliated with university-based library systems. Although gaining
access to these services can be expensive, the advent of these electronic databases has made the process
of conducting thorough literature reviews much easier and more efficient. No longer are researchers (or
their student assistants!) forced to look through shelf after shelf of dusty scientific journals. The
importance and value of a well-conducted and thorough literature review cannot be overstated in the
context of planning a research study (see Christensen, 2001). The primary purpose of a literature review
is to help researchers become familiar with the work that has already been conducted in
their selected topic areas. For example, if a researcher decides to investigate the onset of diabetes
among the elderly, itwould be important for him or her to have an understanding of the current state of
the knowledgein that area.

Literature reviews are absolutely indispensable when planning a research study because they can help
guide the researcher in an appropriate direction by answering several questions related to the topic area.
Have other researchers done any work in this topic area? What do the results of their studies suggest?
Did previous researchers encounter any unforeseen methodological difficulties of which
future researchers should be aware when planning or conducting studies? Does more research need to be
conducted on this topic, and if so, in what specific areas? A thorough literature review should answer
these and related questions, thereby helping to set the stage for the research being planned.
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Often, the results of a well-conducted literature review will reveal that the study being planned has, in
fact, already been conducted. This would obviously be important to know during the planning phase of
a study, and it would certainly be beneficial to be aware of this fact sooner rather than later. Other times,
researchers may change the focus or methodology of their studies based on the types of studies that have
already been conducted. Literature reviews can often be intimidating for novice researchers, but like
most other things relating to research, they become easier as you gain experience.

Use of literature review

It prevents you from duplicating work that has been done before.
It increases your knowledge on the problem you want to study and this may assist you in
refining your "statement of the problem".
It gives you confidence why your particular research project is needed.
To be familiar with different research methods
Sources of information
Card catalogues of books in libraries
Organizations (institutions)
Published information (books, journals, etc.)
Unpublished documents (studies in related fields, reports, etc.)
Computer based literature searches such as Medline
Opinions, beliefs of key persons
Some examples of resources where information could be obtained are:
Clinic and hospital based data from routine activity statistics
Local surveys, annual reports
Scientific conferences
Statistics issued at region and district levels
Articles from national and international journals
Internet
Documentation, reports, and raw data from the Ministry of Health, Central Statistical Offices,
Nongovernmental organizations, etc.
References that are identified:
ƒ Should first be skimmed or read
Then summaries of the important information in each of the references may be recorded on
separate index cards
These should then be classified so that the information can easily be retrieved
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 Overall, the literature review should be adequate, relevant and critical. In addition to this,
appropriate referencing procedures should always be followed in research proposals as well
as in research reports. While reviewing a literature give emphasis to both positive and negative
findings and avoid any distortion of information to suit your own study objectives.
Finally, after an exhaustive literature review, summarize the findings and write a coherent
discussion by indicating the research gap which supports the undertaking of your study.

DON’T FORGET
Literature Reviews
Scouring the existing literature to get ideas for future research is a technique used by most researchers. It is
important to note, however, that being familiar with the literature in a particular topic area also serves
another purpose. Specifically, it is crucial for researchers to know what types of studies have been
conducted in particular areas so they can determine whether their specific research questions have already
been answered. To be clear, it is certainly a legitimate goal of research to replicate the results of other
studies—but there is a difference between replicating a study for purposes of establishing the robustness or
generalizability of the original findings and simply duplicating a study without having any knowledge that
the same study has already been conducted. You can often save yourself a good deal of time and money
by simply looking to the literature to see whether the studyyou are planning has already been conducted.

2.4 Formulating a Research Problem

After selecting a specific research topic and conducting a thorough literature review, you are ready to
take the next step in planning a research study: clearly articulating the research problem. The research
problem typically takes the form of a concise question regarding the relationship between two or more
variables. Examples of research problems include the following:
(1) Is the onset of depression among elderly males related to the development of physical
limitations?
(2) What effect does a sudden dip in the Dow Jones Industrial Average have on the economy of
small businesses?
(3) Will a high-fiber, low-fat diet be effective in reducing cholesterol levels among middle-aged
females?
(4) Can a memory enhancement class improve the memory functioning of patients with
progressive dementia?
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 When articulating a research question, it is critically important to make sure that the question is
specific enough to avoid confusion and to indicate clearly what is being studied. In other words,
the research problem should be composed of a precisely stated research question that clearly
identifies the variables being studied. A vague research question often results in methodological
confusion, because the research question does not clearly indicate what or who is being studied.
The following are some examples of vague and nonspecific research questions:
1. What effect does weather have on memory?
2. Does exercise improve physical and mental health?
3. Does a taking street drug result in criminal behaviour?
As you can see, each of these questions is rather vague, and it is impossible to determine exactly what
is being studied. For example,
In the first question, what type of weather is being studied, and memory for what?
In the second question, is the researcher studying all types of exercise, and the effects of
exercise on the physical and mental health of all people or a specific subgroup of people?
Finally, in the third question, which street drugs are being studied, and what specific types of
criminal behaviour?

An effective way to avoid confusion in formulating research questions is by using operational

definitions. Through the use of operational definitions, researchers can specifically and clearly identify
what (or who) is being studied (see Kazdin, 1992). As briefly discussed in Chapter 1, researchers use
operational definitions to define key concepts and terms in the specific contexts of their research
studies. The benefit of using operational definitions is that they help to ensure that everyone is talking
about the same phenomenon. Among other things, this will greatly assist future researchers who
attempt to replicate a given study’s results. Obviously, if researchers cannot determine what or whom

is being studied, they will certainly not be able to replicate the study. Let’s look at an example of how
operational definitions can be effectively used when formulating a research question.

Let’s say that a researcher is interested in studying the effects of large class sizes on the academic
performance of gifted children in highpopulation schools. The research question may be phrased in the
following manner: “What effects do large class sizes have on the academic performance of gifted
children in high-population schools?” This may seem to be a fairly straightforward research question,
but upon closer examination, it should become evident that there are several important terms and
concepts that need to be defined. For example, what constitutes a “large class”; what does “academic
performance” refer to; which kids are considered “gifted”; and what is meant by “high population

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 schools”?
To reduce confusion, the terms and concepts included in the research question need to be clarified
through the use of operational definitions. For example, “large classes” may be defined as classes with
30 or more students; “academic performance” may be limited to scores received on standardized
achievement tests; “gifted” children may include only those children who are in advanced classes; and
“high-population schools” may be defined as schools with more than 1,000 students. Without
operationally defining these key terms and concepts, it would be difficult to determine what exactly is
being studied. Further, the specificity of the operational definitions will allow future researchers to
replicate the research study.

Criteria for Research Problems

Good research problems must meet three criteria (see Kerlinger, 1973).

First, the research problem should describe the relationship between two or more variables.

Second, the research problem should take the form of a question.

Third, the research problem must be capable of being tested empirically (i.e., with data derived from
direct observation and experimentation).

2.5 Specification of Objectives and Hypotheses

Objectives
After completing this lesson, the student should be able to:
1. Describe the need for the development of research objectives
2. Differentiate between general and specific objectives
3. Formulate specific objectives and hypotheses

Introduction

Having decided what to study, and knowing why s/he wants to study it, the investigator can now
formulate his study objectives. Objectives should be closely related to the statement of the problem.
For example, if the problem identified is low utilization of health stations in a rural district, the general
objective of the study could be to assess the reasons for this low utilization. If we break down this
general objective into smaller and logically connected parts, then we get specific objectives.

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Definitions

General objectives: aim of the study in general terms

Example: In a study on missed opportunities for EPI in Addis Ababa the general objective was: “to
assess missed opportunities for EPI in Addis Ababa”.
Specific objectives: measurable statements on the specific questions to be answered. Unlike the
general objectives, the specific objectives are more specific and are related to the
research problem situation. They indicate the variable to be examined and measured.
Example: In the study of missed opportunity for EPI in Addis Ababa the specific objectives
could be:
To find out the magnitude of missed opportunities for children who attend OPD, MCH, CDD, etc. in
Addis Ababa,

Formulation of the research objectives

The formulation of objectives will help us to:

• Focus the study (narrowing it down to essentials)
• Avoid collection of data that are not strictly necessary for understanding and solving
the identified problem
• Organize the study in clearly defined parts
The explicit formulation of study objectives is an essential step in the planning of a study. It is
said that “a question well-stated is a question half-answered”, but a question that is poorly stated or
unstated is unlikely to be answered at all.

How should we state our objectives?

We have to make sure that our objectives:

• Cover the different aspects of the problem and its contributing factors in a coherent way and in a
logical sequence
• Are clearly expressed in measurable terms
• Are realistic considering local conditions
• Meet the purpose of the study
• Use action verbs that are specific enough to be measured
Examples of action verbs are:
- to determine

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 - to compare
- to verify
- to calculate
- to describe
- to find out
- to establish
Avoid the use of vague non-action verbs such as;
- to appreciate
- to understand
- to study
- to believe

Research objectives can be stated as:

• Questions - the objectives of this study are to answer the following questions ….
• Positive sentence - the objectives of this study are to find out, to establish, to determine, …
• Hypothesis - the objective of this study is to verify the following hypothesis (examples
are given below)
Based on the type of the study problem, it might be possible to develop explanations for the
problem that can be tested. If so, we can formulate hypotheses in addition to the other study
objectives.
A hypothesis is a prediction of a relationship between one or more variables and the problem under
study. That is, It specifies the relationship among variables. These variables are to be statistically
tested at a later stage. In order to measure the relationship among variables to be studied the dependent
and independent variables need to be identified. A few examples are given below:
1. The health of children living in rural villagization projects is better than those living in
traditionalrural communities.
2. To examine whether there is any significant difference between district “A” and district
“B”with respect to their malaria prevalence rates
3. An increase in the frequency of face washing is followed by a reduction in trachoma
prevalence One of the most important problems usually observed among students is the tendency
of stating too many study objectives which are not appropriately addressed (or sometimes
will be forgotten) in the sections that follow. It should be noted that it is on the bases of
these specific objectives that the methods, results and discussion sections will be presented.

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 For example, sample size calculations for each stated objective and identifying
(selecting) the most appropriate sample size that will answer the required research
questions is not covered in the development of most research proposals. This is also true during
the write up of the completed research work. It is not uncommon to come across a
situation in which some of the specific objectives are not addressed in the results section
at all. It is therefore advisable to limit the number of specific objectives. In most practical
situations, the number of specific objectives should not exceed three.

Exercises

1. Define general objectives, specific objectives and hypotheses by giving your own examples.

2. The objectives of a study should be written after the statement of the research problem and before
the methods section. Does this statement sound true? Justify your answer.

3. List the characteristics of research objectives.

4. Comment on the statement: “A question well-stated is a question half-answered”.

5. Mention some of the problems that may arise as a result of having too many objectives.

Articulating Hypotheses

The next step in planning a research study is articulating the hypotheses that will be tested. This is yet
another step in the planning phase of a research study that can be somewhat intimidating for
inexperienced researchers. Articulating hypotheses is truly one of the most important steps in the
research planning process, because poorly articulated hypotheses can ruin what may have been an
otherwise good study. The following discussion regarding hypotheses can get rather complicated, so
we will attempt to keep the discussion relatively short and to the point.

As briefly discussed in Chapter 1, hypotheses attempt to explain, predict, and explore the phenomenon
of interest. In many types of studies, this means that hypotheses attempt to explain, predict, and
explore the relationship between two or more variables (Kazdin, 1992; see Christensen, 2001). To this
end, hypotheses can be thought of as the researcher’s educated guess about how the study will turn
out. As such, the hypotheses articulated in a particular study should logically stem from the research
problem being investigated.

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Before we discuss specific types of hypotheses, there are two important points that you should keep in
mind. First, all hypotheses must be falsifiable. That is, hypotheses must be capable of being refuted
based on the results of the study (Christensen, 2001). This point cannot be emphasized enough. Put
simply, if a researcher’s hypothesis cannot be refuted, then the researcher is not conducting a scientific
investigation. Articulating hypotheses that are not falsifiable is one sure way to ruin what could have
otherwise been a well-conducted and important research study. Second, as briefly discussed in Chapter
1, a hypothesis must make a prediction (usually about the relationship between two or more variables).
The predictions embodied in hypotheses are subsequently tested empiricallyby gathering and analysing
data, and the hypotheses can then be either supported or refuted.
Now that you have been introduced to the topic of hypotheses, we should turn our attention to specific
types of hypotheses.
There are two broad categories of hypotheses with which you should be familiar.
The first category of research hypotheses, which was briefly discussed in Chapter 1, includes the null
hypothesis and the alternate (or experimental) hypothesis. In research studies involving two groups of
participants (e.g., experimental group vs. control group), the null hypothesis always predicts that there
will be no differences between the groups being studied (Kazdin, 1992). If, however, a particular
research study does not involve groups of study participants, but instead involves only an examination
of selected variables, the null hypothesis predicts that there will be no relationship between the
variables being studied. By contrast, the alternate hypothesis always predicts that there will be a
difference between the groups being studied (or a relationship between the variables being studied).
Let’s look at an example to clarify the distinction between null hypotheses and alternate
hypotheses. In a research study investigating the effects of a newly developed medication on blood
pressure levels, the null hypothesis would predict that there will be no difference in terms of blood
pressure levels between the group that receives the medication (i.e., the experimental group) and the
group that does not receive the medication (i.e., the control group). By contrast, the alternate
hypothesis would predict that there will be a difference between the two groups with respect to blood
pressure levels. So, for example, the alternate hypothesis may predict that the group that receives the
new medication will experience a greater reduction in blood pressure levels than the group that does
not receive the new medication.
It is not uncommon for research studies to include several null and al- ternate hypotheses. The number
of null and alternate hypotheses included in a particular research study depends on the scope and
complexity of the study and the specific questions being asked by the researcher. It is important to
keep in mind that the number of hypotheses being tested has implications for the number of research

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 participants that will be needed to conduct the study. This last point rests on rather complex statistical
concepts that we will not discuss in this section. For our purposes, it is sufficient to remember that as
the number of hypotheses increases, the number of required participants also typically increases.
In scientific research, keep in mind that it is the null hypothesis that is tested, and then the null
hypothesis is either confirmed or refuted (sometimes phrased as rejected or not rejected). Remember,
if the null hypothesis is rejected (and that decision is based on the results of statistical analyses, which
will be discussed in later chapters), the researcher can reasonably conclude that there is a difference
between the groups being studied (or a relationship between the variables being studied). Rejecting the
null hypothesis allows a researcher to not reject the alternate hypothesis, and not rejecting a hypothesis
is the most we can do in scientific research. To be clear, we can never accept a hypothesis; we can
only fail to reject a hypothesis (as was briefly discussed in Chapter 1). Accordingly, researchers
typically seek to reject the null hypothesis, which empirically demonstrates that the groups being
studied differ on the variables being examined in the study. This last point may seem counterintuitive,
but it is an extremely important concept that you should keep in mind.

Directional Hypotheses and Non-directional Hypotheses

The second category of research hypotheses includes directional hypotheses and non-directional
hypotheses. In research studies involving groups of study participants, the decision regarding whether
to use a directional or a non-directional hypothesis is based on whether the researcher has some idea
about how the groups being studied will differ. Specifically, researchers use non directional
hypotheses when they believe that the groups will differ, but they do not have a belief regarding how
the groups will differ (i.e., in which direction they will differ). By contrast, researchers use
directional hypotheses when they believe that the groups being studied will differ, and they have a
belief regarding how the groups will differ (i.e., in a particular direction).

A simple example should help clarify the important distinction between directional and non-
directional hypotheses. Let’s say that a researcher is using a standard two-group design (i.e., one
experimental group and one control group) to investigate the effects of a memory enhancement class
on college students’ memories. At the beginning of the study, all of the study participants are
randomly assigned to one of the two groups. Subsequently, one group (i.e., the experimental group)
will be exposed to the memory enhancement class and the other group (i.e., the control group) will not
be exposed to the memory enhancement class. Afterward, all of the participants in both groups will be
administered a memory test. Based on this research design, any observed differences between the two
groups on the memory test can reasonably be attributed to the effects of the memory enhancement
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 class.
In this example, the researcher has several options in terms of hypotheses. On the one hand, the
researcher may simply hypothesize that there will be a difference between the two groups on the
memory test. This would be an example of a non-directional hypothesis, because the researcher is
hypothesizing that the two groups will differ, but the researcher is not specifying how the two groups
will differ. Alternatively, the researcher could hypothesize that the participants who are exposed to the
memory enhancement class will perform better on the memory test than the participants who are not
exposed to the memory enhancement class. This would be an example of a directional hypothesis,
because the researcher is hypothesizing that the two groups will differ and specifying how the two
groups will differ (i.e., one group will perform better than the other group on the memory test). See the
following comparison for a tip on how to distinguish between directional and non-directional
hypotheses.

Non-directional Hypotheses vs. Directional Hypotheses

A reliable way to tell the difference between directional and nondirectional hypotheses is to look at the
wording of the hypotheses. If the hypothesis simply predicts that there will be a difference between the
two groups, then it is a nondirectional hypothesis. It is nondirectional because it predicts that there will
be a difference but does not specify how the groups will differ. If, however, the hypothesis uses so-
called comparison terms, such as “greater,”“less,”“better,” or “worse,” then it is a directional
hypothesis. It is directional because it predicts that there will be a difference between the two groups
and it specifies how the two groups will differ.

2.6 Concepts and Variables

What is Concepts?
Concepts are general or abstract ideas that express the social and/or economic phenomena to be studied.
They are the subjects of inquiry and analysis that are of interest to users.

Concepts are highly subjective in nature and that makes it difficult to use them as they are in a research
study. These subjective thoughts cannot be measured on a statistical scale. Kumar (2000) says that
concepts are mental images and therefore their meanings vary markedly from individual to individual.
Concepts are subjective impressions and their understanding will differ from person to person, which, if

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 measured, would cause problems in comparing responses. Concepts should be converted into variables so
that they can be measured, although on different scales same variable will have different precision.
If the researcher is using some concepts in his research he needs to find out some indicators that are
reflective of these concepts. these indicators can be chosen subjectively by the researcher but they should
have a logical link with the concept. The indicators can then be converted into variables.
Example:
1. Take an example of the effectiveness of a medicine in curing a disease, the researcher can use the
indicators: changes in the mortality rate, changes in morbidity, changes in recurrence of that disease, or
prevention from that disease. These indicators can then be converted into variable to be able to be
measured.
2. We can take another example of another concept that is how rich someone can be? To measure this
concept you need an indicator and you can measure someone’s richness from his wealth that he
possesses. This wealth can be in the form of his income, money in his bank accounts, owned houses or
other property and so on.
3. A psychologist might want to test the effectiveness of his counselling to patients with anxiety.
Effectiveness is a concept and you cannot measure it on any statistical scale. He can operationalize his
concept of effectiveness of his counselling treatment into the following indicators: percentage
reduction in patients’ anxiety, reduction in his day offs from the workplace, reduction in his visits to
the psychologist office etc.
Without converting your concept into an indicator and then a variable you cannot measure it on any scale.
The subjectivity of these indicators make them not suitable to be used directly in a research project. It
should also be noted that the extent of variation can only be reduced by operationalizing these concepts, it
cannot be eliminated completely.
What is Variables?
Variables are measurable of course, with varying degree of accuracy. Measurability is the main difference
between concepts and variables. A variable can be measured either using crude or refined method or
either using subjective or objective methods. There are various scales and a variable can be measured on
either one of those scales. The statistical variables can be measured on either nominal, ordinal, ratio or
interval scale. This ability of the variables brings objectivity in the research findings.

A s variables are capable of measurement they can take different values and every variable can have
different values. Generally speaking variables can be either independent variable or dependent variable.
There can also be extraneous and intervening variables
We are now very close to beginning the actual study, but there are still a few things remaining to do
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 before we begin collecting data. Before proceeding any further, it would probably be helpful for us to
take a moment and see where we are in this process of planning a research study. So far, we have
discussed how researchers
(1) come up with researchable ideas;
(2) conduct thorough literature reviews to see what has been done in their topic areas (and,
if necessary, to refine the focus of their studies based on the results of the prior
research);
(3) formulate concise research problems with clearly defined concepts and terms (using
operational definitions); and
(4) Articulate falsifiable hypotheses.
We have certainly accomplished quite a bit, but there is still a little more to do before beginning the
study itself. The next step in planning a research study is identifying what variables will be the focus
of the study.
There are many categories of variables that can appear in research studies. However, rather than
discussing every conceivable one, we will focus our attention on the most commonly used categories.
Although not every research study will include all of these variables, it is important that you are
aware of the differences among the categories and when each type of variable may be used.

Independent Variables vs. Dependent Variables

When discussing variables, perhaps the most important distinction is between independent and
dependent variables. The independent variable is the factor that is manipulated or controlled by the
researcher. In most studies, researchers are interested in examining the effects of the independent
variable. In its simplest form, the independent variable has two levels: present or absent. For example,
in a research study investigating the effects of a new type of psychotherapy on symptoms of anxiety,
one group will be exposed to the psychotherapy and one group will not be exposed to the
psychotherapy. In this example, the independent variable is the psychotherapy, because the researcher
can control whether the study participants are exposed to it and the researcher is interested in
examining the effects of the psychotherapy on symptoms of anxiety. As you may already know,
the group in which the independent variable is present (i.e., that is exposed to the psychotherapy) is
referred to as the experimental group, whereas the group in which the independent variable is not
present (i.e., that is not exposed to the psychotherapy) is referred to as the control group.

Although, in its simplest form, an independent variable has only two levels (i.e., present or absent), it
is certainly not uncommon for an independent variable to have more than two levels. For example, in a
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 research study examining the effects of a new medication on symptoms of depression, the researcher
may include three groups in the study—one control group and two experimental groups. As usual, the
control group would not get the medication (or would get a placebo), while one experimental group
may get a lower dose of the medication and the other experimental group may get a higher dose of the
medication. In this example, the independent variable (i.e., medication) consists of three levels: absent,
low, and high. Other levels of independent variables are, of course, also possible, such as low,
medium, and high; or absent, low, medium, and high. Researchers make decisions regarding the
number of levels of an independent variable based on a careful consideration of several factors,
including the number of available study participants, the degree of specificity of results they desire to
achieve with the study, and the associated financial costs.
It is also common for a research study to include multiple independent variables, perhaps with each of
the independent variables consisting of multiple levels. For example, a researcher may attempt to
investigate the effects of both medication and psychotherapy on symptoms of depression. In this
example, there are two independent variables (i.e., medication and psychotherapy), and each
independent variable could potentially consist of multiple levels (e.g., low, medium, and high doses of
medication; cognitive behavioral therapy, psychodynamic therapy, and rational emotive therapy). As
you can see, things have a tendency to get complicated fairly quickly when researchers use multiple
independent variables with multiple levels.
At this point in the discussion, you should be actively resisting the urge to be intimidated by the
material presented so far in this chapter. We have covered quite a bit of information, and it is getting
more complicated as we go. Keeping track of the different categories and types of variables can
certainly be difficult, even for those of us with considerable research experience. If you are getting
confused, it may be helpful to reduce things to their simplest terms. In the case of independent
variables, the important point to keep in mind is that researchers are interested in examining the effects
of an independent variable on something, and that something is the dependent variable (Isaac &
Michael, 1997). Let’s now turn our attention to dependent variables.
The dependent variable is a measure of the effect (if any) of the independent variable. For example, a
researcher may be interested in examining the effects of a new medication on symptoms of depression
among college students. In this example, prior to administering any medication, the researcher would
most likely administer a valid and reliable measure of depression—such as the Beck Depression
Inventory (Beck, Ward, Mendelson, Mock, & Erbaugh, 1961)—to a group of study participants. The
Beck Depression Inventory is a well-accepted self-report inventory of symptoms of depression.
Administering a measure of depression to the study participants prior to administering any medication

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 allows the researcher to obtain what is called a baseline measure of depression, which simply means a
measurement of the levels of depression that are present prior to the administration of any intervention
(e.g., psychotherapy, medication). The researcher then randomly assigns the study participants to two
groups, an experimental group that receives the new medication and a control group that does not
receive the new medication (perhaps its members are administered a placebo).

After administering the medication (or not administering the medication, for the control group), the
researcher would then re-administer the Beck Depression Inventory to all of the participants in both
groups. The researcher now has two Beck Depression Inventory scores for each of the participants in
both groups—one score from before the medication was administered and one score from after the
medication was administered. By the way, this type of research design is referred to as a pre/post
design, because the dependent variable is measured both before and after the intervention is
administered. These two depression scores can then be compared to determine whether the medication
had any effect on the levels of depression. Specifically, if the scores on the Beck Depression Inventory
decrease (which indicates lower levels of depression) for the participants in the experimental group,
but not for the participants in the control group, thenthe researcher can reasonably conclude that the
medication was effective in reducing symptoms of depression. To be more precise, for the researcher
to conclude that the medication was effective in reducing symptoms of depression, there would need to
be a statistically significant difference in Beck Depression Inventory scores between the experimental
group and the control group, but we will put that point aside for the moment.

Before proceeding any further, take a moment and see whether you can identify the independent and
dependent variables in our example. Have you figured it out? In this example, the new medication
is the independent variable because it is under the researcher’s control and the researcher is interested
in measuring its effect. The Beck Depression Inventory score is the dependent variable because it is a
measure of the effect of the independent variable. When students are exposed to research terminology
for the first time, it is not uncommon for them to confuse the independent and dependent variables.
Fortunately, there is an easy way to remember the difference between the two. If you get confused,
think of the independent variable as the “cause” and the dependent variable as the “effect.” To assist
you in this process, it may be helpful if you practice stating your research question in the following
manner: “What are the effects of on ?” The first blank is the independent variable and the
second blank is the dependent variable. For example, we may ask the following research question:
“What are the effects ofexercise on levels of body fat?”

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In this example, “exercise” is the independent variable and “levels of body fat” is the dependent
variable. The following summarizes the distinction between the two;

Independent Variables and Dependent Variables

The independent variable is called “independent” because it is independent of the outcome
being measured. More specifically, the independent variable is what causes or influences the outcome.

The dependent variable is called “dependent” because it is influenced by the independent variable. For
example, in our hypothetical study examining the effects of medication on symptoms of depression,
the measure of depression is the dependent variable because it is influenced by (i.e., is dependent on)
the independent variable (i.e., the medication).

Now that we know the difference between independent and dependent variables, we should focus our
attention on how researchers choose these variables for inclusion in their research studies. An
important point to keep in mind is that the researcher selects the independent and dependent variables
based on the research problem and the hypotheses. In many ways, this simplifies the process of
selecting variables by requiring the selection of independent and dependent variables to flow logically
from the statement of the research problem and the hypotheses. Once the research problem and the
hypotheses are articulated, it should not take too much effort to identify the independent and dependent
variables.
Perhaps another example will clarify this important point. Suppose that a researcher is interested in
examining the relationship between intake of dietary fiber and the incidence of colon cancer
among elderly males. The research problem may be stated in the following manner: “Does increased
consumption of dietary fiber result in a decreased incidence of colon cancer among elderly males?”
Using our suggested phrasing from the previous paragraph, we could also ask the following question:
“What are the effects of dietary fiber consumption on the incidence of colon cancer among elderly
males?” Following logically from this research problem, the researcher may hypothesize the
following: “High levels of dietary fiber consumption will decrease the incidence of colon cancer
among elderly males.” Obviously, several terms in this hypothesis need to be operationally defined,
but we can skip that step for the purposes of the current example. It takes only a cursory examination
of the research problem and related hypothesis to determine the independent variable and dependent
variable for this study. Have you figured it out yet? Because the researcher is interested in

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 examining the effects of consuming dietary fiber on the incidence of colon cancer, “dietary fiber
consumption” is the independent variable and a measure of the “incidence of colon cancer” is the
dependent variable.
Categorical Variables vs. Continuous Variables
Now that you are familiar with the difference between independent and dependent variables,we will
turn our attention to another category of variables with which you should be familiar. The distinction
between categorical variables and continuous variables frequently arises in the context of many
research studies. Categorical variables are variables that can take on specific values only within a
defined range of values. For example, “gender” is a categorical variable because you can either be
male or female. There is no middle ground when it comes to gender; you can either be male or female;
you must be one, and you cannot be both. “Race,” “marital status,” and “hair color” are other common
examples of categorical variables. Although this may sound obvious, it is often helpful to think of
categorical variables as consisting of discrete, mutually exclusive categories, such as “male/female,”
“White/Black,” “single/married/divorced,” and “blonde/brunette/redhead.” In contrast with categorical
variables, continuous variables are variables that can theoretically take on any
value along a continuum. For example, “age” is a continuous variable because, theoretically at least,
someone can be any age. “Income,” “weight,” and “height” are other examples of continuous
variables. As we will see, the type of data produced from using categorical variables differs from the
type of data produced from using continuous variables.

In some circumstances, researchers may decide to convert some continuous variables into categorical
variables. For example, rather than using “age” as a continuous variable, a researcher maydecide to
make it a categorical variable by creating discrete categories of age, such as “under age 40” or
“age 40 or older.” “Income,” which is often treated as a continuous variable, may instead be treated as
a categorical variable by creating dis-crete categories of income, such as “under $25,000 per year,”
“$25,000– $50,000 per year,” and “over $50,000 per year.” The benefit of using continuous variables
is that they can be measured with a higher degree of precision. For example, it is more informative to
record someone’s age as “47 years old” (continuous) as opposed to “age 40 or older” (categorical).
The use of continuous variables gives the researcher access to more specific data.

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 Categorical Variables vs. Continuous Variables
The decision of whether to use categorical or continuous variables will have an effect on the precision
of the data that are obtained. When compared with categorical variables, continuous variables can be
measured with a greater degree of precision. In addition, the choice of which statistical tests will be
used to analyze the data is partially dependent on whether the researcher uses categorical or
continuous variables. Certain statistical tests are appropriate for categorical variables, while other
statistical tests are appropriate for continuous variables. As with many decisions in the research-
planning process, the choice of which type of variable to use is partially dependent on the question that
the researcher is attempting to answer.

Quantitative Variables vs. Qualitative Variables

Finally, before moving on to a different topic, it would behoove us to briefly discuss the distinction
between qualitative variables and quantitative variables. Qualitative variables are variables that vary
in kind, while quantitative variables are those that vary in amount (see Christensen, 2001). This
is an important yet subtle distinction that frequently arises in research studies, so let’s take a look at a
few examples.

Rating something as “attractive” or “not attractive,” “helpful” or “not helpful,” or “consistent” or “not
consistent” are examples of qualitative variables. In these examples, the variables are considered
qualitative because they vary in kind (and not amount). For example, the thing being rated is either
“attractive” or “not attractive,” but there is no indication of the level (or amount) of attractiveness. By
contrast, reporting the number of times that something happened or the number of times that someone
engaged in a particular behaviour are examples of quantitative variables. These variables are
considered quantitative because they provide information regarding the amount of something.

As stated at the beginning of this section, there are several other categories of variables that we will
not be discussing in this text. What we have covered in this section are the major categories that most
commonly appear in research studies. One final comment is necessary. It is important to keep in mind
that a single variable may fit into several of the categories that we have discussed. For example, the
variable “height” is both continuous (if measured along a continuum) and quantitative (because we are
getting information regarding the amount of height). Along similar lines, the variable “eye color” is
both categorical (because there is a limited number of discrete categories of eye color) and qualitative
(because eye colour varies in kind, not amount).
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 If this discussion of variables still seems confusing to you, take comfort in the fact that even seasoned
researchers can still get turned around on these issues. As with most aspects of research, repeated
exposure to (and experience with) these concepts tends to breed a comfortable level of familiarity. So,
the next time you come across a research study, practice identifying the different types of variables
that we have discussed in this section.

Review Question
1. What is literature review?
2. Why researcher Review other previous study?
3. How to write the literature review on the proposed study?
4. What is variable in research?
5. What are hypotheses in research methodology?
6. How To write a research proposal?
7. How to write objective of the study?

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Summary
In this chapter, we have covered the research-related issues that are most commonly encountered by
researchers when they are planning and designing research studies. There are certainly other topics
related to planning and designing a research study that we could have included in this discussion (e.g.,
choosing study instruments), but we chose to take a broad approach because of the inherent uniqueness
of research studies. Rather than discussing topics that are specific to specific types of studies, we
believed that it would be most beneficial to make the discussion more general by focusing on the
research-related topics that are encountered by virtually all researchers when planning and designing
studies.

TEST YOURSELF

1. Researchers become familiar with the existing literature on a particular topic by conducting a
.

2. Researchers use to attempt to explain, predict, and explore the phenomenon of

interest.

3. The hypothesis always predicts that there will be no differences between the
groups being studied.

4. The is a measure of the effect (if any) of the independent variable.

Answers: 1. literature review; 2. hypotheses; 3. null; 4. dependent variable;

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 CHAPTER THREE

THE RESEARCH PROCESS

3.1 Major Steps in the Research Process

Before embarking on the details of research methodology and techniques, it seems appropriate to
present a brief overview of the research process. Research process consists of series of actions or steps
necessary to effectively carry out research and the desired sequencing of these steps. The chart shown
in Figure 3.1 well illustrates a research process.

Figure 3.1: A Research Process

1. Formulating the research problem: There are two types of research problems, viz., those which
relate to states of nature and those which relate to relationships between variables. At the very outset
the researcher must single out the problem he wants to study, i.e., he must decide the general area of
interest or aspect of a subject- matter that he would like to inquire into. Initially the problem may be
stated in a broad general way and then the ambiguities, if any, relating to the problem be resolved.
Then, the feasibility of a particular solution has to be considered before a working formulation of the
problem can be set up. The formulation of a general topic into a specific research problem, thus,
constitutes the first step in a scientific enquiry. Essentially two steps are involved in formulating the
research problem, viz., understanding the problem thoroughly, and rephrasing the same into
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 meaningful terms from an analytical point of view.
The best way of understanding the problem is to discuss it with one’s own colleagues or with those
having some expertise in the matter. In an academic institution the researcher can seek the help from a
guide who is usually an experienced man and has several research problems in mind. Often, the guide
puts forth the problem in general terms and it is up to the researcher to narrow it down and phrase the
problem in operational terms. In private business units or in governmental organizations, the problem
is usually earmarked by the administrative agencies with whom the researcher can discuss as to how
the problem originally came about and what considerations are involved in its possible solutions.
The researcher must at the same time examine all available literature to get himself acquainted with
the selected problem. He may review two types of literature the conceptual literature concerning the
concepts and theories, and the empirical literature consisting of studies made earlier which are similar
to the one proposed. The basic outcome of this review will be the knowledge as to what data and other
materials are available for operational purposes which will enable the researcher to specify his own
research problem in a meaningful context. After this the researcher rephrases the problem into
analytical or operational terms i.e., to put the problem in as specific terms as possible. This task of
formulating, or defining, a research problem is a step of greatest importance in the entire research
process. The problem to be investigated must be defined unambiguously for that will help
discriminating relevant data from irrelevant ones. Care must be taken to verify the objectivity and
validity of the background facts concerning the problem. Professor W.A. Neiswanger correctly states
that the statement of the objective is of basic importance because it determines the data which are to be
collected, the characteristics of the data which are relevant, relations which are to be explored, the
choice of techniques to be used in these explorations and the form of the final report. If there are
certain pertinent terms, the same should be clearly defined along with the task of formulating the
problem. In fact, formulation of the problem often follows a sequential pattern where a number of
formulations are set up, each formulation more specific than the preceding one, each one phrased in
more analytical terms, and each more realistic in terms of the available data and resources.
2. Extensive literature survey: Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary of it should be written
down. It is compulsory for a research worker writing a thesis for a Ph.D. degree to write a synopsis of
the topic and submit it to the necessary Committee or the Research Board for approval. At this juncture
the researcher should undertake extensive literature survey connected with the problem. For this
purpose, the abstracting and indexing journals and published or unpublished bibliographies are the first
place to go to. Academic journals, conference proceedings, government reports, books etc., must be
tapped depending on the nature of the problem. In this process, it should be remembered that one source

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 will lead to another. The earlier studies, if any, which are similar to the study in-hand, should be
carefully studied. A good library will be a great help to the researcher at this stage.
3. Development of working hypotheses: After extensive literature survey, researcher should state in
clear terms the working hypothesis or hypotheses. Working hypothesis is tentative assumption made in
order to draw out and test its logical or empirical consequences. As such the manner in which research
hypotheses are developed is particularly important since they provide the focal point for research.
They also affect the manner in which tests must be conducted in the analysis of data and indirectly the
quality of data which is required for the analysis. In most types of research, the development of
working hypothesis plays an important role. Hypothesis should be very specific and limited to the
piece of research in hand because it has to be tested. The role of the hypothesis is to guide the
researcher by delimiting the area of research and to keep him on the right track. It sharpens his
thinking and focuses attention on the more important facets of the problem. It also indicates the type
of data required and the type of methods of data analysis to be used.
How does one go about developing working hypotheses? The answer is by using the following
approach:
(a) Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem, its origin and the objectives in
seeking asolution;
(b) Examination of data and records, if available, concerning the problem for possible trends,
peculiarities and other clues;
(c) Review of similar studies in the area or of the studies on similar problems; and

(d) Exploratory personal investigation which involves original field interviews on a limited scale
with interested parties and individuals with a view to secure greater insight into the practical
aspects of the problem.
Thus, working hypotheses arise as a result of a-priori thinking about the subject, examination of the
available data and material including related studies and the counsel of experts and interested parties.
Working hypotheses are more useful when stated in precise and clearly defined terms. It may as well
be remembered that occasionally we may encounter a problem where we do not need working
hypotheses, especially in the case of exploratory researches which do not aim at testing the
hypothesis. But as a general rule, specification of working hypotheses in another basic step of the
research process in most research problems.
4. Preparing the research design: The research problem having been formulated in clear cut terms,
the researcher will be required to prepare a research design, i.e., he will have to state the conceptual
structure within which research would be conducted. The preparation of such a design facilitates
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 research to be as efficient as possible yielding maximal information. In other words, the function of
research design is to provide for the collection of relevant evidence with minimal expenditure of effort,
time and money. But how all these can be achieved depends mainly on the research purpose. Research
purposes may be grouped into four categories, viz.,
(i) Exploration, (ii) Description, (iii) Diagnosis, and (iv) Experimentation. A flexible research design
which provides opportunity for considering many different aspects of a problem is considered
appropriate if the purpose of the research study is that of exploration. But when the purpose happens to
be an accurate description of a situation or of an association between variables, the suitable design will
be one that minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability of the data collected and analyzed.
There are several research designs, such as, experimental and non-experimental hypothesis testing.
Experimental designs can be either informal designs (such as before-and-after without control, after-
only with control, before-and-after with control) or formal designs (such as completely randomized
design, randomized block design, Latin square design, simple and complex factorial designs), out of
which the researcher must select one for his own project. The preparation of the research design,
appropriate for a particular research problem, involves usually the consideration of the following:
(i) the means of obtaining the information;
(ii) the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff (if any);
(iii) explanation of the way in which selected means of obtaining information will be organised
and the reasoning leading to the selection;
(iv) the time available for research; and
(v) the cost factor relating to research, i.e., the finance available for the purpose.
5. Determining sample design: All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry constitute a
‘universe’ or ‘population’. A complete enumeration of all the items in the ‘population’ is known as a
census inquiry. It can be presumed that in such an inquiry when all the items are covered no element of
chance is left and highest accuracy is obtained. But in practice this may not be true. Even the slightest
element of bias in such an inquiry will get larger and larger as the number of observations increases.
Moreover, there is no way of checking the element of bias or its extent except through a resurvey or
use of sample checks.
The researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample or what is popularly known as the sample
design. In other words, a sample design is a definite plan determined before any data are actually
collected for obtaining a sample from a given population. Thus, the plan to select 12 of a city’s 200
drugstores in a certain way constitutes a sample design. Samples can be either probability samples or
non-probability samples. With probability samples each element has a known probability of being

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 included in the sample but the non- probability samples do not allow the researcher to determine this
probability. Probability samples are those based on simple random sampling, systematic sampling,
stratified sampling, cluster/area sampling whereas non- probability samples are those based on
convenience sampling, judgment sampling and quota sampling techniques. A brief mention of the
important sample designs is as follows:
(i) Deliberate sampling: Deliberate sampling is also known as purposive or non-probability
sampling. This sampling method involves purposive or deliberate selection of particular units
of the universe for constituting a sample which represents the universe. When population
elements are selected for inclusion in the sample based on the ease of access, it can be called
convenience sampling. If a researcher wishes to secure data from, say, gasoline buyers, he
may select a fixed number of petrol stations and may conduct interviews at these stations.
This would be an example of convenience sample of gasoline buyers. At times such a
procedure may give very biased results particularly when the population is not homogeneous.
On the other hand, in judgment sampling the researcher’s judgment is used for selecting items
which he considers as representative of the population. For example, a judgement sample of
college students might be taken to secure reactions to a new method of teaching. Judgement
sampling is used quite frequently in qualitative research where the desire happens to be to
develop hypotheses rather than to generalize to larger populations.
(ii) Simple random sampling: This type of sampling is also known as chance sampling or
probability sampling where each and every item in the population has an equal chance of
inclusion in the sample and each one of the possible samples, in case of finite universe, has
the same probability of being selected. For example, if we have to select a sample of 300
items from a universe of 15,000 items, then we can put the names or numbers of all the
15,000 items on slips of paper and conduct a lottery. Using the random number tables is
another method of random sampling. To select the sample, each item is assigned a number
from 1 to 15,000. Then, 300 five digit random numbers are selected from the table. To do
this we select some random starting point and then a systematic pattern is used in proceeding
through the table. We might start in the 4th row, second column and proceed down the
column to the bottom of the table and then move to the top of the next column to the right.
When a number exceeds the limit of the numbers in the frame, in our case over 15,000, it
is simply passed over and the next number selected that does fall within the relevant range.
Since the numbers were placed in the table in a completely random fashion, the resulting
sample is random. This procedure gives each item an equal probability of being selected. In

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 case of infinite population, the selection of each item in a random sample is controlled by the
same probability and that successive selections are independent of one another.
(iii) Systematic sampling: In some instances the most practical way of sampling is to select every
15th name on a list, every 10th house on one side of a street and so on. Sampling of this type
is known as systematic sampling. An element of randomness is usually introduced into this
kind of sampling by using random numbers to pick up the unit with which to start. This
procedure is useful when sampling frame is available in the form of a list. In such a design the
selection process starts by picking some random point in the list and then every nth element is
selected until the desired number is secured.
(iv) Stratified sampling: If the population from which a sample is to be drawn does not constitute
a homogeneous group, then stratified sampling technique is applied so as to obtain a
representative sample. In this technique, the population is stratified into a number of non-
overlapping subpopulations or strata and sample items are selected from each stratum. If the
items selected from each stratum is based on simple random sampling the entire procedure,
first stratification and then simple random sampling, is known as stratified random sampling.
(v) Quota sampling: In stratified sampling the cost of taking random samples from individual
strata is often so expensive that interviewers are simply given quota to be filled from different
strata, the actual selection of items for sample being left to the interviewer’s judgement. This
is called quota sampling. The size of the quota for each stratum is generally proportionate to
the size of that stratum in the population. Quota sampling is thus an important form of non-
probability sampling. Quota samples generally happen to be judgement samples rather than
random samples.
(vi) Cluster sampling and area sampling: Cluster sampling involves grouping the population and
then selecting the groups or the clusters rather than individual elements for inclusion in the
sample. Suppose some departmental store wishes to sample its credit card holders. It has
issued its cards to 15,000 customers. The sample size is to be kept say 450. For cluster
sampling this list of 15,000 card holders could be formed into 100 clusters of 150 card
holders each. Three clusters might then be selected for the sample randomly. The sample
size must often be larger than the simple random sample to ensure the same level of
accuracy because is cluster sampling procedural potential for order bias and other sources of
error are usually accentuated. The clustering approach can, however, make the sampling
procedure relatively easier and increase the efficiency of field work, especially in the case
of personal interviews.

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 (vii) Area sampling is quite close to cluster sampling and is often talked about when the total
geographical area of interest happens to be big one. Under area sampling we first divide the
total area into a number of smaller non-overlapping areas, generally called geographical
clusters, then a number of these smaller areas are randomly selected, and all units in these
small areas are included in the sample. Area sampling is especially helpful where we do not
have the list of the population concerned. It also makes the field interviewing more efficient
since interviewer can do many interviews at each location.
(viii) Multi-stage sampling: This is a further development of the idea of cluster sampling. This
technique is meant for big inquiries extending to a considerably large geographical area like
an entire country. Under multi-stage sampling the first stage may be to select large primary
sampling units such as states, then districts, then towns and finally certain families within
towns. If the technique of random- sampling is applied at all stages, the sampling procedure is
described as multi-stage random sampling.
(ix) Sequential sampling: This is somewhat a complex sample design where the ultimate
size of the sample is not fixed in advance but is determined according to mathematical
decisions on the basis of information yielded as survey progresses. This design is usually
adopted under acceptance sampling plan in the context of statistical quality control.
In practice, several of the methods of sampling described above may well be used in the same study in
which case it can be called mixed sampling. It may be pointed out here that normally one should resort
to random sampling so that bias can be eliminated and sampling error can be estimated. But purposive
sampling is considered desirable when the universe happens to be small and a known characteristic of
it is to be studied intensively. Also, there are conditions under which sample designs other than
random sampling may be considered better for reasons like convenience and low costs. The sample
design to be used must be decided by the researcher taking into consideration the nature of the inquiry
and other related factors.
6. Collecting the data: In dealing with any real life problem it is often found that data at hand are
inadequate, and hence, it becomes necessary to collect data that are appropriate. There are several
ways of collecting the appropriate data which differ considerably in context of money costs, time and
other resources at the disposal of the researcher.
Primary data can be collected either through experiment or through survey. If the researcher conducts
an experiment, he observes some quantitative measurements, or the data, with the help of which he
examines the truth contained in his hypothesis. But in the case of a survey, data can be collected by
any one or more of the following ways:

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 (i) By observation: This method implies the collection of information by way of investigator’s
own observation, without interviewing the respondents. The information obtained relates to
what is currently happening and is not complicated by either the past behaviour or future
intentions or attitudes of respondents. This method is no doubt an expensive method and the
information provided by this method is also very limited. As such this method is not suitable in
inquiries where large samples are concerned.
(ii) Through personal interview: The investigator follows a rigid procedure and seeks answers
to a set of pre-conceived questions through personal interviews. This method of collecting
data is usually carried out in a structured way where output depends upon the ability of the
interviewer to a large extent.
(iii) Through telephone interviews: This method of collecting information involves contacting
the respondents on telephone itself. This is not a very widely used method but it plays an
important role in industrial surveys in developed regions, particularly, when the survey has to
be accomplished in a very limited time.
(iv) By mailing of questionnaires: The researcher and the respondents do come in contact with
each other if this method of survey is adopted. Questionnaires are mailed to the respondents
with a request to return after completing the same. It is the most extensively used method in
various economic and business surveys. Before applying this method, usually a Pilot Study
for testing the questionnaire is conduced which reveal the weaknesses, if any, of the
questionnaire. Questionnaire to be used must be prepared very carefully so that it may prove
to be effective in collecting the relevant information.
(v) Through schedules: Under this method the enumerators are appointed and given training.
They are provided with schedules containing relevant questions. These enumerators go to
respondents with these schedules. Data are collected by filling up the schedules by
enumerators on the basis of replies given by respondents. Much depends upon the capability
of enumerators so far as this method is concerned. Some occasional field checks on the work
of the enumerators may ensure sincere work.
The researcher should select one of these methods of collecting the data taking into consideration the
nature of investigation, objective and scope of the inquiry, financial resources, available time and the
desired degree of accuracy. Though he should pay attention to all these factors but much depends upon
the ability and experience of the researcher. In this context Dr A.L. Bowley very aptly remarks that in
collection of statistical data common sense is the chief requisite and experiences the chief teacher.

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7. Execution of the project: Execution of the project is a very important step in the research process. If
the execution of the project proceeds on correct lines, the data to be collected would be adequate and
dependable. The researcher should see that the project is executed in a systematic manner and in time.
If the survey is to be conducted by means of structured questionnaires, data can be readily machine-
processed. In such a situation, questions as well as the possible answers may be coded. If the data are
to be collected through interviewers, arrangements should be made for proper selection and training
of the interviewers. The training may be given with the help of instruction manuals which explain
clearly the job of the interviewers at each step. Occasional field checks should be made to ensure that
the interviewers are doing their assigned job sincerely and efficiently. A careful watch should be
kept for unanticipated factors in order to keep the survey as much realistic as possible. This, in
other words, means that steps should be taken to ensure that the survey is under statistical control so
that the collected information is in accordance with the pre-defined standard of accuracy. If some of
the respondents do not cooperate, some suitable methods should be designed to tackle this problem.
One method of dealing with the non-response problem is to make a list of the non-respondents and
take a small sub-sample of them, and then with the help of experts vigorous efforts can be made for
securing response.
8. Analysis of data: After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of analysing
them. The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as establishment of
categories, the application of these categories to raw data through coding, tabulation and then drawing
statistical inferences. The unwieldy data should necessarily be condensed into a few manageable
groups and tables for further analysis. Thus, researcher should classify the raw data into some
purposeful and usable categories. Coding operation is usually done at this stage through which the
categories of data are transformed into symbols that may be tabulated and counted. Editing is the
procedure that improves the quality of the data for coding. With coding the stage is ready for
tabulation. Tabulation is a part of the technical procedure wherein the classified data are put in the
form of tables. The mechanical devices can be made use of at this juncture. A great deal of data,
especially in large inquiries, is tabulated by computers. Computers not only save time but also make it
possible to study large number of variables affecting a problem simultaneously.
Analysis work after tabulation is generally based on the computation of various percentages,
coefficients, etc., by applying various well defined statistical formulae. In the process of analysis,
relationships or differences supporting or conflicting with original or new hypotheses should be
subjected to tests of significance to determine with what validity data can be said to indicate any
conclusion(s). For instance, if there are two samples of weekly wages, each sample being drawn from

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 factories in different parts of the same city, giving two different mean values, then our problem may be
whether the two mean values are significantly different or the difference is just a matter of chance.
Through the use of statistical tests we can establish whether such a difference is a real one or is the
result of random fluctuations. If the difference happens to be real, the inference will be that the two
samples come from different universes and if the difference is due to chance, the conclusion would be
that the two samples belong to the same universe. Similarly, the technique of analysis of variance can
help us in analyzing whether three or more varieties of seeds grown on certain fields yield significantly
different results or not. In brief, the researcher can analyze the collected data with the help of various
statistical measures.
9. Hypothesis-testing: After analyzing the data as stated above, the researcher is in a position to test the
hypotheses, if any, he had formulated earlier. Do the facts support the hypotheses or they happen to
be contrary? This is the usual question which should be answered while testing hypotheses. Various
tests, such as Chi square test, t-test, F-test, have been developed by statisticians for the purpose.
The hypotheses may be tested through the use of one or more of such tests, depending upon the
nature and object of research inquiry. Hypothesis-testing will result in either accepting the hypothesis
or in rejecting it. If the researcher had no hypotheses to start with, generalizations established on the
basis of data may be stated as hypotheses to be tested by subsequent researches in times to come.
10. Generalizations and interpretation: If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be
possible for the researcher to arrive at generalization, i.e., to build a theory. As a matter of fact, the real
value of research lies in its ability to arrive at certain generalizations. If the researcher had no
hypothesis to start with, he might seek to explain his findings on the basis of some theory. It is known
as interpretation. The process of interpretation may quite often trigger off new questions which in turn
may lead to further researches.
11. Preparation of the report or the thesis: Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what
has been done by him. Writing of report must be done with great care keeping in view the following:
1. The layout of the report should be as follows: (i) the preliminary pages; (ii) the main text, and
(iii) the end matter. In its preliminary pages the report should carry title and date followed by
acknowledgements and foreword. Then there should be a table of contents followed by a list of
tables and list of graphs and charts, if any, given in the report. The main text of the report
should have the following parts:
a. Introduction: It should contain a clear statement of the objective of the research and an
explanation of the methodology adopted in accomplishing the research. The scope of
the study along with various limitations should as well be stated in this part.

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 b. Summary of findings: After introduction there would appear a statement of findings
and recommendations in non-technical language. If the findings are extensive, they
should besummarized.
c. Main report: The main body of the report should be presented in logical sequence and
broken- down into readily identifiable sections.
d. Conclusion: Towards the end of the main text, researcher should again put down the
results of his research clearly and precisely. In fact, it is the final summing up.

At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data. Bibliography,
i.e., list of books, journals, reports, etc., consulted, should also be given in the end. Index should also
be given specially in a published research report.
2. Report should be written in a concise and objective style in simple language avoiding vague
expressions such as ‘it seems,’ ‘there may be’, and the like.
3. Charts and illustrations in the main report should be used only if they present the information
more clearly and forcibly.

4. Calculated ‘confidence limits’ must be mentioned and the various constraints experienced in
conducting research operations may as well be stated.

3.2 Research Methods versus Methodology

It seems appropriate at this juncture to explain the difference between research methods and research
methodology. Research methods may be understood as all those methods/techniques that are used for
conduction of research. Research methods or techniques*, thus, refer to the methods the researchers
use in performing research operations. In other words, all those methods which are used by the
researcher during the course of studying his research problem are termed as research methods. Since
the object of research, particularly the applied research, it to arrive at a solution for a given problem,
the available data and the unknown aspects of the problem have to be related to each other to make a
solution possible. Keeping this in view, research methods can be put into the following three groups:
1. In the first group we include those methods which are concerned with the collection of data.
These methods will be used where the data already available are not sufficient to arrive
at the requiredsolution;
2. The second group consists of those statistical techniques which are used for establishing
relationships between the data and the unknowns;
3. The third group consists of those methods which are used to evaluate the accuracy of the
results obtained.
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 Research methods falling in the above stated last two groups are generally taken as the analytical tools
of research.
Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research problem. It may be understood as
a science of studying how research is done scientifically. In it we study the various steps that are
generally adopted by a researcher in studying his research problem along with the logic behind them.
It is necessary for the researcher to know not only the research methods/techniques but also the
methodology. Researchers not only need to know how to develop certain indices or tests, how to
calculate the mean, the mode, the median or the standard deviation or chi-square, how to apply
particular research techniques, but they also need to know which of these methods or techniques, are
relevant and which are not, and what would they mean and indicate and why. Researchers also need to
understand the assumptions underlying various techniques and they need to know the criteria by which
they can decide that certain techniques and procedures will be applicable to certain problems and
others will not. All this means that it is necessary for the researcher to design his methodology for his
problem as the same may differ from problem to problem. For example, an architect, who designs a
building, has to consciously evaluate the basis of his decisions, i.e., he has to evaluate why and on
what basis he selects particular size, number and location of doors, windows and ventilators, uses
particular materials and not others and the like. Similarly, in research the scientist has to expose the
research decisions to evaluation before they are implemented. He has to specify very clearly and
precisely what decisions he selects and why he selects them so that they can be evaluated by others
also.
From what has been stated above, we can say that research methodology has many dimensions and
research methods do constitute a part of the research methodology. The scope of research
methodology is wider than that of research methods. Thus, when we talk of research methodology we
not only talk of the research methods but also consider the logic behind the methods we use in the
context of our research study and explain why we are using a particular method or technique and why
we are not using others so that research results are capable of being evaluated either by the researcher
himself or by others. Why a research study has been undertaken, how the research problem has been
defined, in what way and why the hypothesis has been formulated, what data have been collected and
what particular method has been adopted, why particular technique of analysing data has been used
and a host of similar other questions are usually answered when we talk of research methodology
concerning a research problem or study.

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3.3 Criteria of Good Research
Whatever may be the types of research works and studies, one thing that is important is that they all
meet on the common ground of scientific method employed by them. One expects scientific research to
satisfy the following criteria: [4]
1. The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be used.
2. The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another
researcher to repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the continuity of what has
already been attained.
3. The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that are as
objectiveas possible.
4. The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design and
estimate theireffects upon the findings.
5. The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the
methods of analysis used should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of the data should
be checked carefully.
6. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and limited to
those forwhich the data provide an adequate basis.
7. Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a good
reputation in research and is a person of integrity.
In other words, we can state the qualities of a good research as under:
1. Good research is systematic: It means that research is structured with specified steps to be
taken in a specified sequence in accordance with the well-defined set of rules. Systematic
characteristic of the research does not rule out creative thinking but it certainly does reject the
use of guessing and intuition in arriving at conclusions.
2. Good research is logical: This implies that research is guided by the rules of logical reasoning
and the logical process of induction and deduction are of great value in carrying out research.
Induction is the process of reasoning from a part to the whole whereas deduction is the process
of reasoning from some premise to a conclusion which follows from that very premise. In fact,
logical reasoning makes research more meaningful in the context of decision making.
3. Good research is empirical: It implies that research is related basically to one or more aspects
of a real situation and deals with concrete data that provides a basis for external validity to
research results.

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Summary
Before embarking on the details of research methodology and techniques, it seems appropriate to
present a brief overview of the research process. Research process consists of series of actions or steps
necessary to effectively carry out research and the desired sequencing of these steps.

The first step the researcher must do is to identify the problem he wants to study, i.e., he must decide
the general area of interest or aspect of a subject-matter that he would like to inquire into. Initially the
problem may be stated in a broad general way and then the ambiguities, if any, relating to the problem
be resolved.
Once the problem is identified, the next step is to conduct extensive literature survey. A brief summary
of it should be written down. At this juncture the researcher should undertake extensive literature
survey connected with the problem. Academic journals, conference proceedings, government reports,
books etc. must be tapped depending on the nature of the problem. In this process, it should be
remembered that one source will lead to another. The earlier studies, if any, which are similar to the
study in-hand, should be carefully studied. A good library will be a great help to the researcher at this
stage.
After extensive literature survey, researcher should state in clear terms the working hypothesis or
hypotheses. Working hypothesis is tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical
or empirical consequences. In most types of research, the development of working hypothesis plays an
important role. Hypothesis should be very specific and limited to the piece of research in hand because
it has to be tested. The role of the hypothesis is to guide the researcher by delimiting the area of
research and to keep him on the right track. It sharpens his thinking and focuses attention on the
more important facets of the problem. It also indicates the type of data required and the type of
methods of data analysis to be used.In dealing with any real life problem it is often found that data at
hand are inadequate, and it becomes necessary to collect data that are appropriate. There are several
ways of collecting the appropriate data which differ considerably in context of money costs, time and
other resources at the disposal of the researcher. Primary data can be collected either through
experiment or through survey. In the case of a survey, data can be collected observation, personal
interview, telephone interviews, mailing of questionnaires or a combination of them.
Execution of the project is a very important step in the research process. If the execution of the project
proceeds on correct lines, the data to be collected would be adequate and dependable. The researcher
should see that the project is executed in a systematic manner and in time. If the survey is to be
conducted by means of structured questionnaires, data can be readily machine-processed. In such a
situation, questions as well as the possible answers may be coded. If the data are to be collected
54 | P a g e
 through interviewers, arrangements should be made for proper selection and training of the
interviewers. The training may be given with the help of instruction manuals which explain clearly the
job of the interviewers at each step. Occasional field checks should be made to ensure that the
interviewers are doing their assigned job sincerely and efficiently. A careful watch should be kept for
unanticipated factors in order to keep the survey as much realistic as possible. This, in other words,
means that steps should be taken to ensure that the survey is under statistical control so that the
collected information is in accordance with the pre-defined standard of accuracy. If some of the
respondents do not cooperate, some suitable methods should be designed to tackle this problem. One
method of dealing with the non-response problem is to make a list of the non-respondents and take a
small sub-sample of them, and then with the help of experts vigorous efforts can be made for securing
response.
Analysis of data: After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of analysing them.
The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as establishment of
categories, the application of these categories to raw data through coding, tabulation and then drawing
statistical inferences. The unwieldy data should necessarily be condensed into a few manageable
groups and tables for further analysis. Thus, researcher should classify the raw data into some
purposeful and usable categories.
Hypothesis-testing: After analysing the data as stated above, the researcher is in a position to test the
hypotheses, if any, he had formulated earlier. Do the facts support the hypotheses or they happen to be
contrary? This is the usual question which should be answered while testing hypotheses. If the
researcher had no hypotheses to start with, generalisations established on the basis of data may be stated
as hypotheses to be tested by subsequent researches in times to come.

Generalisations and interpretation: If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be
possible for the researcher to arrive at generalisation, i.e., to build a theory. As a matter of fact, the real
value of research lies in its ability to arrive at certain generalisations. If the researcher had no
hypothesis to start with, he might seek to explain his findings on the basis of some theory. It is known
as interpretation. The process of interpretation may quite often trigger off new questions which in turn
may lead to further researches.
Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done by him. Writing of report must
be done with great care.

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 Questions
1. Briefly describe the different steps involved in a research process.
2. What do you mean by research? Explain its significance in modern times.
3. Distinguish between Research methods and Research methodology.
4. Describe the different types of research, clearly pointing out the difference between an
experiment and a survey.
5. Write short notes on:
a. Design of the research project;
b. Motivation in research;
c. Objectives of research;
d. Criteria of good research;

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 CHAPTER FOUR

THE RESEARCH DESIGN

Learning objectives
After completing this chapter, the student should be able to:
1. Identify the pertinent questions to consider when developing the methodology of a research
proposal
2. Describe and understand the various components of the methods section in a research proposal
3. Explain the cyclical nature of the different steps in designing the methodology

4.1 The Research Design

Research design is the framework of research methods and techniques chosen by a researcher to conduct a
study. The design allows researchers to sharpen the research methods suitable for the subject matter and
set up their studies for success.
Creating a research topic explains the type of research (experimental, survey research, correlational, semi-
experimental, review) and its sub-type (experimental design, research problem, descriptive case-study).
The research design refers to the overall strategy that you choose to integrate the different
components of the study in a coherent and logical way, thereby, ensuring you will effectively
address the research problem; it constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement, and
analysis of data. Note that the research problem determines the type of design you should use, not
the other way around!
Research Design Elements
Impactful research usually creates a minimum bias in data and increases trust in the accuracy of collected
data. A design that produces the slightest margin of error in experimental research is generally considered
the desired outcome. The essential elements are:

1. Accurate purpose statement

2. Techniques to be implemented for collecting and analyzing research
3. The method applied for analyzing collected details
4. Type of research methodology
5. Probable objections to research
6. Settings for the research study
7. Timeline
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8. Measurement of analysis
Characteristics of Research Design
A proper design sets your study up for success. Successful research studies provide insights that are
accurate and unbiased. You’ll need to create a survey that meets all of the main characteristics of a
design. There are four key characteristics:

• Neutrality: When you set up your study, you may have to make assumptions about the data you expect
to collect. The results projected in the research should be free from bias and neutral. Understand
opinions about the final evaluated scores and conclusions from multiple individuals and consider those
who agree with the results.
• Reliability: With regularly conducted research, the researcher expects similar results every time.
You’ll only be able to reach the desired results if your design is reliable. Your plan should indicate how
to form research questions to ensure the standard of results.
• Validity: There are multiple measuring tools available. However, the only correct measuring tools are
those which help a researcher in gauging results according to the objective of the research.
The questionnaire developed from this design will then be valid.
• Generalization: The outcome of your design should apply to a population and not just a
restricted sample. A generalized method implies that your survey can be conducted on any part of a
population with similar accuracy.
Research Design Types
A researcher must clearly understand the various research design types to select which model to
implement for a study. Like research itself, the design of your analysis can be broadly classified into
quantitative and qualitative.

4.1.1 Action Research Design:

The essentials of action research design follow a characteristic cycle whereby initially an exploratory
stance is adopted, where an understanding of a problem is developed and plans are made for some form of
interventionary strategy. Then the intervention is carried out [the "action" in action research] during
which time, pertinent observations are collected in various forms. The new interventional strategies are
carried out, and this cyclic process repeats, continuing until a sufficient understanding of [or a valid
implementation solution for] the problem is achieved. The protocol is iterative or cyclical in nature and is
intended to foster deeper understanding of a given situation, starting with conceptualizing and
particularizing the problem and moving through several interventions and evaluations.

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What do these studies tell you?
1. This is a collaborative and adaptive research design that lends itself to use in work or community
situations.
2. Design focuses on pragmatic and solution-driven research outcomes rather than testing theories.
3. When practitioners use action research, it has the potential to increase the amount th ey learn
consciously from their experience; the action research cycle can be regarded as a learning cycle.
4. Action research studies often have direct and obvious relevance to improving practice and
advocating for change.
5. There are no hidden controls or preemption of direction by the researcher.
What these studies don't tell you?
1. It is harder to do than conducting conventional research because the researcher takes on
responsibilities of advocating for change as well as for researching the topic.
2. Action research is much harder to write up because it is less likely that you can use a standard
format to report your findings effectively [i.e., data is often in the form of stories or
observation].
3. Personal over-involvement of the researcher may bias research results.
4. The cyclic nature of action research to achieve its twin outcomes of action [e.g. change] and
research [e.g. understanding] is time-consuming and complex to conduct.
5. Advocating for change usually requires buy-in from study participants.
4.1.2 Case Study Design:

A case study is an in-depth study of a particular research problem rather than a sweeping statistical survey
or comprehensive comparative inquiry. It is often used to narrow down a very broad field of research into
one or a few easily researchable examples. The case study research design is also useful for testing
whether a specific theory and model actually applies to phenomena in the real world. It is a useful design
when not much is known about an issue or phenomenon.

What do these studies tell you?

1. Approach excels at bringing us to an understanding of a complex issue through detailed
contextual analysis of a limited number of events or conditions and their relationships.
2. A researcher using a case study design can apply a variety of methodologies and rely on a
variety of sources to investigate a research problem.
3. Design can extend experience or add strength to what is already known through previous
research.

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4. Social scientists, in particular, make wide use of this research design to ex amine contemporary
real-life situations and provide the basis for the application of concepts and theories and the
extension of methodologies.
5. The design can provide detailed descriptions of specific and rare cases.
What these studies don't tell you?
1. A single or small number of cases offers little basis for establishing reliability or to generalize
the findings to a wider population of people, places, or things.
2. Intense exposure to the study of a case may bias a researcher's interpretation of the finding s.
3. Design does not facilitate assessment of cause and effect relationships.
4. Vital information may be missing, making the case hard to interpret.
5. The case may not be representative or typical of the larger problem being investigated.
6. If the criteria for selecting a case is because it represents a very unusual or unique phenomenon
or problem for study, then your interpretation of the findings can only apply to that particular
case.
4.1.3 Cross-Sectional Design:
Cross-sectional research designs have three distinctive features: no time dimension; a reliance on existing
differences rather than change following intervention; and, groups are selected based on existing
differences rather than random allocation. The cross-sectional design can only measure differences
between or from among a variety of people, subjects, or phenomena rather than a process of change. As
such, researchers using this design can only employ a relatively passive approach to making causal
inferences based on findings.

What do these studies tell you?

1. Cross-sectional studies provide a clear 'snapshot' of the outcome and the characteristics
associated with it, at a specific point in time.
2. Unlike an experimental design, where there is an active intervention by the researcher to produce
and measure change or to create differences, cross-sectional designs focus on studying and
drawing inferences from existing differences between people, subjects, or phenomena.
3. Entails collecting data at and concerning one point in time. While longitudinal studies involve
taking multiple measures over an extended period of time, cross-sectional research is focused on
finding relationships between variables at one moment in time.
4. Groups identified for study are purposely selected based upon existing differences in the sample
rather than seeking random sampling.

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5. Cross-section studies are capable of using data from a large number of subjects and, unlike
observational studies, are not geographically bound.
6. Can estimate prevalence of an outcome of interest because the sample is usually taken from the
whole population.
7. Because cross-sectional designs generally use survey techniques to gather data, they are
relatively inexpensive and take up little time to conduct.
What these studies don't tell you?
1. Finding people, subjects, or phenomena to study that are very similar except in one specific
variable can be difficult.
2. Results are static and times bound and, therefore, give no indication of a sequence of events or
reveal historical or temporal contexts.
3. Studies cannot be utilized to establish cause and effect relationships.
4. This design only provides a snapshot of analysis so there is always the possibility that a study
could have differing results if another time-frame had been chosen.
5. There is no follow up to the findings.
4.1.4 Descriptive Design:
Descriptive research designs help provide answers to the questions of who, what, when, where, and how
associated with a particular research problem; a descriptive study cannot conclusively ascertain answers
to why. Descriptive research is used to obtain information concerning the current status of the phenomena
and to describe "what exists" with respect to variables or conditions in a situation.

In a descriptive composition, a researcher is solely interested in describing the situation or case under
their research study. It is a theory-based design method created by gathering, analyzing, and presenting
collected data. This allows a researcher to provide insights into the why and how of research. Descriptive
design helps others better understand the need for the research. If the problem statement is not clear, you
can conduct exploratory research.
In Descriptive Research Design, the scholar explains/describes the situation or case in depth in their
research materials. This type of research design is purely on a theoretical basis where the individual
collects data, analyses, prepares and then presents it in an understandable manner. It is the most
generalized form of research design. To explore one or more variables, a descriptive design might employ
a wide range of research approaches. Unlike in experimental research, the researcher does not control or
change any of the variables in a descriptive research design; instead, he or she just observes and measures
them. In other words, while qualitative research may also be utilized for descriptive reasons, a descriptive
method of research design is typically regarded as a sort of quantitative research. To guarantee that the
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results are legitimate and dependable, the study design should be properly constructed. Here are some
examples for the descriptive design of research type:
• How has the Delhi housing market changed over the past 20 years?
• Do customers of company A prefer product C or product D?
• What are the main genetic, behavioral and morphological differences between Indian wildcows
and hybrid-cows?
• How prevalent is disease 1 in population Z?
What do these studies tell you?
1. The subject is being observed in a completely natural and unchanged natural environment. True
experiments, whilst giving analyzable data, often adversely influence the normal behavior of the
subject [a.k.a., the Heisenberg effect whereby measurements of certain systems cannot be made
without affecting the systems].
2. Descriptive research is often used as a pre-cursor to more quantitative research designs with the
general overview giving some valuable pointers as to what variables are worth testing
quantitatively.
3. If the limitations are understood, they can be a useful tool in developing a more focused study.
4. Descriptive studies can yield rich data that lead to important recommendations in practice.
5. Appoach collects a large amount of data for detailed analysis.
What these studies don't tell you?
1. The results from a descriptive research cannot be used to discover a definitive answer or to
disprove a hypothesis.
2. Because descriptive designs often utilize observational methods [as opposed to quantitative
methods], the results cannot be replicated.
3. The descriptive function of research is heavily dependent on instrumentation for measurement
and observation.
4.1.5 Experimental Design:
A blueprint of the procedure that enables the researcher to maintain control over all factors that may
affect the result of an experiment. In doing this, the researcher attempts to determine or predict what may
occur. Experimental research is often used where there is time priority in a causal relationship (cause
precedes effect), there is consistency in a causal relationship (a cause will always lead to the same effect),
and the magnitude of the correlation is great. The classic experimental design specifies an experimental
group and a control group. The independent variable is administered to the experimental group and not to
the control group, and both groups are measured on the same dependent variable. Subsequent

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experimental designs have used more groups and more measurements over longer periods. True
experiments must have control, randomization, and manipulation.

Experimental research establishes a relationship between the cause and effect of a situation. It is a causal
design where one observes the impact caused by the independent variable on the dependent variable. For
example, one monitors the influence of an independent variable such as a price on a dependent variable
such as customer satisfaction or brand loyalty. It is an efficient research method as it contributes to
solving a problem.
The independent variables are manipulated to monitor the change it has on the dependent variable. Social
sciences often use it to observe human behavior by analyzing two groups. Researchers can have
participants change their actions and study how the people around them react to understand social
psychology better.
Experimental research is a type of research design in which the study is carried out utilising a scientific
approach and two sets of variables. The first set serves as a constant against which the variations in the
second set are measured. Experimentation is used in quantitative research methodologies, for example. If
you lack sufficient evidence to back your conclusions, you must first establish the facts. Experimental
research collects data to assist you in making better judgments. Experimentation is used in any research
undertaken under scientifically appropriate settings. The effectiveness of experimental investigations is
dependent on researchers verifying that a variable change is due only to modification of the constant
variable. The study should identify a noticeable cause and effect. The traditional definition of
experimental design is “the strategies employed to collect data in experimental investigations.” There are
three types of experimental designs:
• Pre-experimental research design
• True experimental research design
• Quasi-experimental research design
What do these studies tell you?
1. Experimental research allows the researcher to control the situation. In so doing, it allows
researchers to answer the question, “What causes something to occur?”
2. Permits the researcher to identify cause and effect relationships between variables and to
distinguish placebo effects from treatment effects.
3. Experimental research designs support the ability to limit alternative explanations and to infer
direct causal relationships in the study.
4. Approach provides the highest level of evidence for single studies.

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What these studies don't tell you?
1. The design is artificial, and results may not generalize well to the real world.
2. The artificial settings of experiments may alter the behaviors or responses of participants.
3. Experimental designs can be costly if special equipment or facilities are needed.
4. Some research problems cannot be studied using an experiment because of ethical or technical
reasons.
5. Difficult to apply ethnographic and other qualitative methods to experimentally designed
studies.
4.1.6 Exploratory Design:

An exploratory design is conducted about a research problem when there are few or no earlier studies to
refer to or rely upon to predict an outcome. The focus is on gaining insights and familiarity for later
investigation or undertaken when research problems are in a preliminary stage of investigation.
Exploratory designs are often used to establish an understanding of how best to proceed in studying an
issue or what methodology would effectively apply to gathering information about the issue.

The goals of exploratory research are intended to produce the following possible insights:

• Familiarity with basic details, settings, and concerns.

• Well grounded picture of the situation being developed.
• Generation of new ideas and assumptions.
• Development of tentative theories or hypotheses.
• Determination about whether a study is feasible in the future.
• Issues get refined for more systematic investigation and formulation of new research questio ns.
• Direction for future research and techniques get developed.
Explanatory design uses a researcher’s ideas and thoughts on a subject to further explore their theories.
The study explains unexplored aspects of a subject and details the research questions’ what, how, and
why.
Explanatory research is a method established to explore phenomena that have not before been researched
or adequately explained. Its primary goal is to notify us about where we may get a modest bit of
information. With this strategy, the researcher obtains a broad notion and use research as a tool to direct
them more quickly to concerns that may be addressed in the future. Its purpose is to discover the why and
what of a subject under investigation. In short, it is a type of research design that is responsible for finding
the why of the events through the establishment of cause-effect relationships. The most popular methods
of explanatory research are:
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 • Literature research
• In-depth interview
• Focus groups
• Case studies
What do these studies tell you?
1. Design is a useful approach for gaining background information on a particular topic.
2. Exploratory research is flexible and can address research questions of all types (what, why,
how).
3. Provides an opportunity to define new terms and clarify existing concepts.
4. Exploratory research is often used to generate formal hypotheses and develop more precise
research problems.
5. In the policy arena or applied to practice, exploratory studies help establish research priorities
and where resources should be allocated.
What these studies don't tell you?
1. Exploratory research generally utilizes small sample sizes and, thus, findings are typically not
generalizable to the population at large.
2. The exploratory nature of the research inhibits an ability to make definitive conclusions about
the findings. They provide insight but not definitive conclusions.
3. The research process underpinning exploratory studies is flexible but often unstructured, leading
to only tentative results that have limited value to decision-makers.
4. Design lacks rigorous standards applied to methods of data gathering and analysis because one
of the areas for exploration could be to determine what method or methodologies could best fit
the research problem.

4.1.7 Diagnostic Research Design

Diagnostic research design is a type of research design that tries to investigate the underlying cause of a
certain condition or phenomena. It can assist you in learning more about the elements that contribute to
certain difficulties or challenges that your clients may be experiencing.
In diagnostic design, the researcher is looking to evaluate the underlying cause of a specific topic or
phenomenon. This method helps one learn more about the factors that create troublesome situations.
This design typically consists of three research stages, which are as follows:

• Inception of the issue

• Diagnosis of the issue
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 • Solution for the issue
4.1.8 Quantitative Research Design

In Quantitative Research Design, a researcher examines the various variables while including numbers as
well as statistics in a project to analyze its findings. The use of graphics, figures, pie charts is the main
form of data collection measurement and meta-analysis (it is information about the data by the data).

It is for cases where statistical conclusions to collect actionable insights are essential. Numbers provide a
better perspective for making critical business decisions. Quantitative research methods are necessary for
the growth of any organization. Insights drawn from complex numerical data and analysis prove to be
highly effective when making decisions about the business’s future.

4.1.9 Qualitative Research Design

This type of research is quite contrary to quantitative research design. It is explanatory in nature and
always seeks answers to “What’s” and “How’s”. It mainly focuses on why a specific theory exists and
what would be the respondent’s answer to it. This allows a researcher to draw a conclusion with proper
findings. Case studies are mainly used in Qualitative Research Design in order to understand various
social complexities.
It determines relationships between collected data and observations based on mathematical calculations.
Statistical methods can prove or disprove theories related to a naturally existing phenomenon.
Researchers rely on qualitative research methods that conclude “why” a particular theory exists and
“what” respondents have to say about it.

4.2 Sampling Methods

What is sampling?
Sampling involves the selection of a number of study units from a defined study population.
The population is too large for us to consider collecting information from all its members.
Instead we select a sample of individuals hoping that the sample is representative of the population.
When taking a sample, we will be confronted with the following questions:
a. What is the group of people from which we want to draw a sample?
b. How many people do we need in our sample?
c. How will these people be selected?

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 Definitions

Target population (reference population): Is that population about which an investigator wishes to
draw a conclusion.
Study population (population sampled): Population from which the sample actually was drawn and
about which a conclusion can be made. For Practical reasons the study population is often more
limited than the target population. In some instances, the target population and the population sampled
are identical.
Sampling unit: The unit of selection in the sampling process. For example, in a sample of districts,
the sampling unit is a district; in a sample of persons, a person, etc.
Study unit: The unit on which the observations will be collected. For example, persons in a study of
disease prevalence, or households, in a study of family size.

N.B. The sampling unit is not necessarily the same as the study unit.
Sample design: The scheme for selecting the sampling units from the study population.
Sampling frame: The list of units from which the sample is to be selected.

The existence of an adequate and up-to-date sampling frame often defines the study population.
Sampling methods
An important issue influencing the choice of the most appropriate sampling method is
whether a sampling frame is available, that is, a listing of all the units that compose the study
population.

A. Non-probability sampling methods

1. Convenience sampling: is a method in which for convenience sake the study units that happen to be
available at the time of data collection are selected.
2. Quota sampling: is a method that insures that a certain number of sample units from different
categories with specific characteristics appear in the sample so that all these characteristics are
represented. In this method the investigator interviews as many people in each category of study unit
as he can find until he has filled his quota.
3. Purposeful sampling strategies for qualitative studies: Qualitative research methods are typically used
when focusing on a limited number of informants, whom we select strategically so that their in-depth
information will give optimal insight into an issue about which little, is known. This is called
purposeful sampling.
Random sampling strategies to collect quantitative data: If the aim of a study is to measure
variables distributed in a population (e.g., diseases) or to test hypotheses about which factors are
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 contributing significantly to a certain problem, we have to be sure that we can generalise the findings
obtained from a sample to the total study population. Then, purposeful sampling methods are
inadequate, and probability or random sampling methods have to be used.
Probability sampling methods:

They involve random selection procedures to ensure that each unit of the sample is chosen
on the basis of chance. All units of the study population should have an equal or at least a
known chance of being included in the sample.
1. Simple Random Sampling (SRS): This is the most basic scheme of random sampling. To
select a simple random sample you need to:
Make a numbered list of all the units in the population from which you want to draw a
sample. Each unit on the list should be numbered in sequence from 1 to N (Where N is
the Size of the population).
Decide on the size of the sample
Select the required number of sampling units, using a “lottery” method or a table of
random numbers.
2. Systematic Sampling: Individuals are chosen at regular intervals (for example, every 5th, 10th,
etc.) from the sampling frame. Ideally we randomly select a number to tell us where to start
selecting individuals from the list. For example, a systematic sample is to be selected from
1000 students of a school. The sample size is decided to be 100. The sampling fraction is:
100/1000 = 1/10. The number of the first student to be included in the sample is chosen
randomly by picking one out of the first ten pieces of paper, numbered 1 to 10. If number 5 is
picked, every tenth student will be included in the sample, starting with student number 5, until
100 students are selected. Students with the following numbers will be included in the sample:
5,15, 25, 35,45, . . . , 985, 995.
ƒSystematic Sampling is usually less time consuming and easier to perform than SRS.
It provides a good approximation to SRS.
Should not be used if there is any sort of cyclic pattern in the ordering of the subjects on the
list.
Unlike SRS, systematic sampling can be conducted without a sampling frame (useful in some
situations where a sampling frame is not readily available).
3. Stratified sampling: If it is important that the sample includes representative groups of study
units with specific characteristics (for example, residents from urban and rural areas), then the
sampling frame must be divided into groups, or strata, according to these characteristics.
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 Random or systematic samples of a predetermined size will then have to be obtained from each
group (stratum). This is called stratified sampling.
Some of the reasons for stratifying the population may be:
ƒ Different sampling schemes may be used in different strata, e.g. Urban and rural Conditions
may suggest that prevalence rates will vary between strata:
The overall estimate for the whole population will be more precise if stratification is used.

Administrative reasons may make it easier to carry out the survey through an organization with
a regional structure.
4. Cluster sampling: When a list of groupings of study units is available (e.g. villages, etc.) or
can be easily compiled, a number of these groupings can be randomly selected. The selection
of groups of study units (clusters) instead of the selection of study units individually is called
cluster sampling. Clusters are often geographic units (e.g. districts, villages) or organizational
units (e.g. clinics).
5. Multi-Stage Sampling: This method is appropriate when the population is large and widely
scattered. The number of stages of sampling is the number of times a sampling procedure is
carried out.
The primary sampling unit (PSU) is the sampling unit (or unit of selection in the
sampling procedure) in the first sampling stage;
The secondary sampling unit (SSU) is the sampling unit in the second sampling stage,
etc.
e.g. After selection of a sample of clusters (e.g. household), further sampling of
individuals may be carried out within each household selected. This constitutes
twostage sampling, with the PSU being households and the SSU being individuals.
Advantages: less costly, we only need to draw up a list of individuals in the clusters
actually selected, and we can do that when we arrive there.
Disadvantage: less precise than SRS.

When we take a sample, our results will not exactly equal the correct results for the whole
population. That is, our results will be subject to errors. This error has two components:
sampling and non-sampling errors.
B. Sampling error (i.e., random error)
Random error, the opposite of reliability (i.e., Precision or repeatability), consists of
random deviations from the true value, which can occur in any direction.

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 Sampling error (random error) can be minimized by increasing the size of the sample.
Reliability (or precision): This refers to the repeatability of a measure, i.e., the degree
of closeness between repeated measurements of the same value. Reliability addresses
the question, if the same thing is measured several times, how close are the
measurements to each other?
The sources of variation resulting in poor reliability include:
a. Variation in the characteristic of the subject being measured. Example: blood pressure
b. The measuring instruments, e.g. questionnaires
c. The persons collecting the information (observer variation)
Inter-observer variation: differences between observers in measuring the same observation

Intra-observer variation: differences in measuring the same observation by the same

observer on different occasions.

C. Non Sampling error (i.e., bias)

Bias, the opposite of validity, consists of systematic deviations from the true value, always in the
same direction.
It is possible to eliminate or reduce the non-sampling error (bias) by careful design of thesampling
procedure.
Validity: This refers to the degree of closeness between a measurement and the true value of what
is being measured. Validity addresses the question, how close is the measured value to the true
value?
To be accurate, a measuring device must be both valid and reliable. However, if one cannot have
both, validity is more important in situations when we are interested in the absolute value of what
is being measured. Reliability on the other hand is more important when it is not essential to know
the absolute value, but rather we are interested in finding out if there is a trend, or to rank values.
Examples of types of bias in sampling include:
Bias resulting from incompleteness of the sampling frame: accessibility bias, season ability bias,
self-reporting bias, volunteer bias, non-response bias etc.
Non-response bias refers to failure to obtain information on some of the subjects included in
the sample to be studied. It results in significant bias when the following two situations are
both fulfilled.
1. When non-respondents constitute a significant proportion of the sample.
2. When non-respondents differ significantly from respondents.

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The issue of non-response should be considered during the planning stage of the study:

1. Non-response should be kept to a minimum. E.g. below 15%

Methods that may help in maintaining non-response at a low level could be:

• Training data collectors to initiate contact with study subjects in a respectful way and convince them
about the importance of the given study (this minimizes the refusal type of non-response)
• Offering incentives to encourage participation (this should be done by taking account of the potential
problems that may arise in conducting future research)
• By making repeated attempts (at least 3 times) to contact study subjects who were absent at the time
of the initial visit.
2. The number of non-responses should be documented according to type, so as to
facilitate an assessment of the extent of bias introduced by non-response.
3. As much information as possible should be collected on non-respondents, so as to see
in what ways they may differ from respondents.

4.3 Measurements
Measurement is often viewed as being the basis of all scientific inquiry, and measurement techniques
and strategies are therefore an essential component of research methodology. A critical juncture
between scientific theory and application, measurement can be defined as a process through which
researchers describe, explain, and predict the phenomena and constructs of our daily existence
(Kaplan, 1964; Pedhazur & Schmelkin, 1991). For example, we measure how long we have lived in
years, our financial suc-cess in dollars, and the distance between two points in miles. Important life
decisions are based on performance on standardized tests that measure intelligence, aptitude,
achievement, or individual adjustment. We predict that certain things will happen as we age, become
more educated, or make other significant lifestyle changes. In short, measurement is as important in
our daily existence as it is in the context of research design.

The concept of measurement is important in research studies in two key areas. First, measurement
enables researchers to quantify abstract constructs and variables. As you may recall from Chapter 2,
research is usually conducted to explore the relationship between independent and
dependent variables. Variables in a research study typically must be operationalized and quantified
before they can be properly studied (Kerlinger, 1992). For example, in a study of weight loss, a
researcher might operationalize the variable “weight loss” as a decrease in weight below the
individual’s starting weight on a particular date.
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 The process of quantifying the variable would be relatively simple in this situation—for example, the
amount of weight lost in pounds and ounces during the course of the research study. Without
measurement, researchers would be able to do little else but make unsystematic observations of the
world around us. Second, the level of statistical sophistication used to analyse data derived from a
study is directly dependent on the scale of measurement used to quantify the variables of interest
(Anderson, 1961). There are two basic categories of data: nonmetric and metric. Nonmetric data
(also referred to as qualitative data) are typically attributes, characteristics, or categories that describe
an individual and cannot be quantified. Metric data (also referred to as quantitative data) exist in
differing amounts or degrees, and they reflect relative quantity or distance. Metric data allow
researchers to examine amounts and magnitudes, while nonmetric data are used predominantly as a
method of describing and categorizing (Hair, Anderson, Tatham, & Black, 1995).

Importance of Measurement in Research Design

Measurement is important in research design in two critical areas. First, measurement allows researchers to
quantify abstract constructs and variables. Second, the level of statistical sophistication used to analyze data
derived from a study is directly dependent on the scale of measurement used to quantify the variables of
interest.

4.4 Measurement Scale

As part of the process of clarifying each of the variables to be studied, its scale of measurement should
be specified. There are four types of scales of measurement: Nominal, Ordinal, Interval and Ratio.
They are listed in ascending order of power and preference.
1. Nominal Scale: This consists of two or more named categories (classes) which are
qualitatively different from each other.
E.g Sex: male (1); Female (2)
Marital status: 1 married 2 single 3 Divorced 4 Widowed

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 Characteristics of Nominal Measurement Scales and Data
• Used only to qualitatively classify or categorize not to quantify.

• No absolute zero point.

• Cannot be ordered in a quantitative sequence.

• Examples include gender, religious and political affiliation, and maritalstatus.

• Purely descriptive and cannot be manipulated mathematically.

2. Ordinal scale: This has the additional quality that the categories are ranked and have implied
order. However, the intervals between classes are not necessarily equal.
Example 1. Severity of a disease: Severe (grade III); moderate (grade II); mild (grade I); absent
(grade 0).
• Impossible to use to
Example conduct standard
2. Educational status:mathematical
0; 1-6; 7-8; 9 operations.
-12; more than 12.

Characteristics of Ordinal Measurement Scales and Data

• Build on nominal measurement.

• Categorize a variable and its relative magnitude in relation to other variables.

• Represent an ordering of variables with some number representing more than another.

• Information about relative position but not the interval between the ranks or categories.

• Qualitative in nature.

• Example would be finishing position of runners in a race.

• Lack the mathematical properties necessary for sophisticated statistical analyses.

3. Interval scale: This has the additional quality that the intervals between classes are equal.

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 Example: Temperature (in Celsius)
Equal differences between any pair of numbers in the scale indicate equal differences in the
attribute being measured. The difference in temperature between 20… C and 25…C is the
same as the difference between 30…C and 35…C. The ratio between numbers in the scale is
not, however, necessarily the same as that between the amounts of the attribute. That is, a room
at 30… C is not 'twice as hot' as one at 15…C. This is because the zero on the scale does not
indicate absence of the attribute.

Characteristics of Interval Measurement Scales and Data

• Quantitative in nature.
• Build on ordinal measurement.
• Provide information about both order and distance between values of variables.
• Numbers scaled at equal distances.
• No absolute zero point; zero point is arbitrary.
• Addition and subtraction are possible.
• Examples include temperature measured in Fahrenheit and Celsius.
• Lack of an absolute zero point makes division and multiplication impossible.

4. Ratio scale: This has the additional quality that zero indicates absence of the attribute. As a
result, the ratio between numbers in the scale is the same as that between the amounts of the
attribute being measured.
Example: Weight measured in kilograms, height in cms., etc.

Characteristics of Ratio Measurement Scales and Data

• Identical to the interval scale, except that they have an absolute zero point.
• Unlike with interval scale data, all mathematical operations are possible.
• Examples include height, weight, and time.
• Highest level of measurement.
• Allow for the use of sophisticated statistical techniques.

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 4.5 Instrument Design
The term research instrument refers to any tool that you may use to collect or obtain data, measure data
and analyse data that is relevant to the subject of your research.
Research instruments are often used in the fields of social sciences and health sciences. These tools can
also be found within education that relates to patients, staff, teachers and students.
The format of a research instrument may consist of questionnaires, surveys, interviews, checklists or
simple tests. The choice of which specific research instrument tool to use will be decided on the by the
researcher. It will also be strongly related to the actual methods that will be used in the specific study.
A research instrument is a tool used to obtain, measure, and analyze data from subjects around the
research topic. You need to decide the instrument to use based on the type of study you are conducting:
quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-method. For instance, for a quantitative study, you may decide to use a
questionnaire, and for a qualitative study, you may choose to use a scale. While it helps to use an
established instrument, as its efficacy is already established, you may if needed use a new instrument or
even create your own instrument. You need to describe the instrument(s) used in the Methods section of
the paper.
The general format of an interview is where the interviewer asks the interviewee to answer a set of
questions which are normally asked and answered verbally. There are several different types of interview
research instruments that may exist.
1. A structural interview may be used in which there are a specific number of questions that are
formally asked of the interviewee and their responses recorded using a systematic and standard
methodology.
2. An unstructured interview on the other hand may still be based on the same general theme of
questions but here the person asking the questions (the interviewer) may change the order the
questions are asked in and the specific way in which they’re asked.
3. A focus interview is one in which the interviewer will adapt their line or content of questioning
based on the responses from the interviewee.
4. A focus group interview is one in which a group of volunteers or interviewees are asked questions
to understand their opinion or thoughts on a specific subject.
5. A non-directive interview is one in which there are no specific questions agreed upon but instead
the format is open-ended and more reactionary in the discussion between interviewer and
interviewee.
An observation research instrument is one in which a researcher makes observations and records of the
behaviour of individuals. There are several different types.
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Structured observations occur when the study is performed at a predetermined location and time, in which
the volunteers or study participants are observed used standardised methods.
Naturalistic observations are focused on volunteers or participants being in more natural environments in
which their reactions and behaviour are also more natural or spontaneous.
A participant observation occurs when the person conducting the research actively becomes part of the
group of volunteers or participants that he or she is researching.
Data collection instrument Data collection instruments refer to devices used to collect data such as
questionnaires, tests, structured interview schedules and checklists (Seaman 1991:42). Polit and Hungler
(1997:466) define a questionnaire as “a method of gathering information from respondents about
attitudes, knowledge, beliefs and feelings”. The questionnaire was designed to gather information about
adolescent mothers’ knowledge, attitudes and beliefs regarding contraceptives.
Reliability of the research instrument Reliability refers to the degree of consistency or accuracy with
which an instrument measures the attribute it is designed to measure (Polit & Hungler 1997:296; Uys &
Basson 1991:75). If a study and its results are reliable, it means that the same results would be obtained if
the study were to be replicated by other researchers using the same method. A pretest utilising adolescent
mothers, excluded from the actual research, with similar characteristics to the study sample was
conducted to determine the clarity of the items and consistency of the responses. The major anomaly
detected was some respondents’ apparent unfamiliarity with some contraceptive terms in the Zulu
language. In order to enhance the reliability of the instrument the appropriate English terms were added to
the Zulu questionnaire to facilitate the respondents’ comprehension of these terms.

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Summary

This chapter focused on important issues and considerations related to various aspects of data
collection and measurement. Measurement strategies are an integral aspect of research design and
methodology that should be considered at the earliest stages of design conceptualization.
Special consideration should be given to scales of measurement, psychometric properties, and specific
measurement strategies for collecting data. Ultimately, measurement is critical in research because it
allows researchers to quantify abstract constructs and variables. This is an essential step in exploring
the relationship between various independent and dependent variables.

Review Question

1. Identify the most appropriate study design for the research proposal you are planning to
develop.
2. State the differences between quantitative and qualitative research methods by giving
appropriate examples.
3. is often defined as a process through which researchers describe, explain,and
predict the phenomena and constructs of our daily existence.
4. data constitute the highest level of measurement and allow for the use of
sophisticated statistical techniques.
5. A measurement can be valid, but not reliable. True or False?
6. What is research design?
7. What is sampling in research work?
8. What is Measurement scale means?
9. What is instrument design?

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 CHAPTER FIVE

ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION OF DATA

5.1 Data Presentation and Analysis

Data presentation and Analysis forms an integral part of all academic studies, commercial, industrial
and marketing activities as well as professional practices. Presentation of data requires skills and
understanding of data. It is necessary to make use of collected data which is considered to be raw data
which must be processed to put for any application. Data analysis helps in the interpretation of data
and takes a decision or answer the research question. This can be done by using data processing tools
and software. Data analysis starts with the collection of data followed by data processing by various
data processing methods and sorting it. Processed data helps in obtaining information from it as the
raw data is non-comprehensive in nature. Presenting the data includes the pictorial representation of
the data by using graphs, charts, maps and other methods. These methods help in adding the visual
aspect to data which makes it much more comfortable and quicker to understand. Various methods of
data presentation can be used to present data and facts. Widely used format and data presentation
techniques are mentioned below:
1. As text: raw data with proper formatting, categorization, identification is most extensively used
and very effective way of presenting data. Such format is widely found in books, reports,
research papers and inthis artic module itself.
2. In tabular form: tabular form is generally used to differentiate, categorize, and relate different
datasets. It can be simple pros and cons table, or a data with corresponding value such as annual
GDP, a bank statement, monthly expenditure etc.
3. In graphical Form – Data can further be presented in a simpler and even easier form by means
of using graphical form. The input for such graphical data can be another type of data itself or
some raw data. For example, a bar graph & pie chart takes tabular data as input. The tabular data
in such case is processed data itself but provides limited use. Converting such data or raw data
into graphical form directly makes it quick and easier to interpret.

The significance of data presentation and analysis

Data presentation and analysis plays an essential role in every field. An excellent presentation can be a
deal maker or deal breaker. Some people make an incredibly useful presentation with the same set of
facts and figures which are available with others. At times people who did all the hard work but failed
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 to present it present it properly have lost essential contracts, the work which they did is unable to
impress the decision makers. So to get the job done especially while dealing with clients or higher
authorities presentation matters! No one is willing to spend hours in understanding what you have to
show and this is precisely why presentation matters! It is thus essential to have clarity on what is data
presentation.
Data analysis helps people in understanding the results of surveys conducted, makes use of already
existing studies to obtain new results. It helps to validate the existing research or to add/expand the
current research.
These two go hand in hand, and it will be difficult to provide a complete differentiation between the
two. Adding visual aspect to data or sorting it using grouping and presenting it in the form of table is a
part of the presentation which further helps in analyzing data. During a study with an aim and multiple
objectives, data analysis will be required to complete the required objectives and compiling or
presenting the analyzed data will help in overall analysis and concluding the study.
Data analysis is the process of developing answers to questions through the examination and
interpretation of data. The basic steps in the analytic process consist of identifying issues, determining
the availability of suitable data, deciding on which methods are appropriate for answering the
questions of interest, applying the methods and evaluating, summarizing and communicating the
results.

Analytical results underscore the usefulness of data sources by shedding light on relevant issues. Data
analysis plays a key role in data quality assessment by pointing to data quality problems in a given
survey. Analysis can thus influence future improvements to the survey process.

Data analysis is essential for understanding results from surveys, administrative sources and pilot
studies; for providing information on data gaps; for designing and redesigning surveys; for planning
new statistical activities; and for formulating quality objectives.
You can have a variety of data which can be used in presentations. Some of these types include:
• Time Series Data
• Bar Charts
• Combo Charts
• Pie Charts
• Tables
• Geo Map
• Scorecard

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 • Scatter Charts
• Bullet Charts
• Area Chart
• Text & Images
Steps for presenting and analysing data:

1. Frame the objectives of the study and make a list of data to be collected and its format.
2. Collect/obtain data from primary or secondary sources.
3. Change the format of data, i.e., table, maps, graphs, etc. in the desired format
4. Sort data through grouping, discarding the extra data and deciding the required form to
make datacomprehensible
5. Make charts and graphs to help to add visual part and analyse trends.
6. Analyse trends and relate the information to fulfill the objectives.

Presentation of data:

1. A presentation should have a predefined sequence of arguments being made to support the study.
Start with stating the Aim of study and the objectives required to reach the aim.
2. Break the objectives in multiple parts and make a list of data to be collected, the sources of data,
form in which data exist and needs to be obtained, conducting a primary survey for information
which does not exist.
3. Form and explain the methodology adapted to carry out a study.
4. Data collection through primary survey needs to have well thought of sampling methods. This
will help in reducing the efforts and increasing efficiency. Sample size should be given
importance and correct sampling technique should be applied.
5. Present only the required information and skip the background research to make your point more
clear.
6. Do not forget to give credits and references in the end and where ever required.
The presentation can be done using software such as Microsoft PowerPoint, Prezi, Google Analytics
and other analytic software. It can also be done by making models, presenting on paper or sheets, on
maps or by use of boards. The methods selected depend on the requirement and the resources
available.
How to present the different type of data and which format to choose
Since there are a number of options available while presenting data, careful consideration should be
given to the method being used. A basic understanding of the desired result/ form is helpful to choose

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 the correct form of representation. One cannot expect to get liner data from a pie chart, thus basic
knowledge and application of different type of presentation methods saves time. Additionally, there
should be enough sample available so as to get some meaningful analysis and result. Some of the
popular ways of presenting the data includes Line graph, column chart, box pot, vertical bar, scatter
plot. These and other types are explain below with brief information about their application.
Secondary surveys form a significant part of data research and primary means of data collection
by conducting various studies and making use of existing data from multiple sources. The data thus
obtained from multiple sources like Census department, Economics and Statistics Department,
Election Commission, Water Board, Municipal Bodies, Economic surveys, Website feedbacks,
scientific research, etc. is compiled and analyzed. Data is also required to forecast and estimate the
change in the requirement of various resources and thus provide them accordingly. Phasing and
prioritization form another important part for the effective implementation of the proposals.
Such presentation of data and information can be either by means of manual hand drawings/ graphs &
tables, whereas much effective and accurate way for such presentation is by means of specialized
computer software. Different types of charts which can be used for data presentation and analysis.

Bar Charts/Bar Graphs: These are one of the most widely used charts for showing the grown of a
company over a period. There are multiple options available like stacked bar graphs and the option of
displaying a change in numerous entities. These look as shown in the image below:

1. Line Chart: These are best for showing the change in population, i.e., for showing the trends.
These also work well for explaining the growth of multiple areas at the same time.

Figure 5.1: presentation using line chart

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 2. Pie Charts: These work best for representing the share of different components from a total
100%. For e.g. contribution of different sectors to GDP, the population of different states in a
country, etc.

Figure 5.2: Result presentation using pie chart

3. Combo Chart: As the name suggests it is a combination of more than one chart type. The one
shown in the figure below is a combination of line and bar graph. These save space and are at
times more effective than using two different charts. There can even be 3 or more charts
depending on the requirement.

4. Combo Chart: As the name suggests it is a combination of more than one chart type. The one
shown in the figure below is a combination of line and bar graph. These save space and are at
times more effective than using two different charts. There can even be 3 or more charts
depending on the requirement.

Figure 5.3: Result presentation using combo chart

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 5.2 Exploring, Displaying and Examining Data
Displaying data
Displaying data in research is the last step of the research process. It is important to display data
accurately because it helps in presenting the findings of the research effectively to the reader. The purpose
of displaying data in research is to make the findings more visible and make comparisons easy. When the
researcher will present the research in front of the research committee, they will easily understand the
findings of the research from displayed data. The readers of the research will also be able to understand it
better. Without displayed data, the data looks too scattered and the reader cannot make inferences.

There are basically two ways to display data: tables and graphs. The tabulated data and the graphical
representation both should be used to give more accurate picture of the research. In quantitative research
it is very necessary to display data, on the other hand in qualitative data the researcher decides whether
there is a need to display data or not. The researcher can use appropriate software to help tabulate and
display the data in the form of graphs. Microsoft excel is one such example, it is a user-friendly program
that you can use to help display the data.

Tables for displaying data in research

The use of tables to display data is very common in research. Tables are very effective in presenting a
large amount of data. They organize data very well and makes the data very visible. A badly tabulated
data also occurs, in case, you do not have knowledge of tables and tabulating data consult a statistician to
do this step effectively.
Parts of a table
To know the tables and to tabulate data in tables you should know the parts or structure of the tables.
There are five parts of a table, namely;
Title
The title of the table speaks about the contents of the table. The title should have to be concise and
precise, no extra details. The title should be written in sentence case.
Stub
The column at the left-most of the table is called as stub. A stub has a stub-heading at the top of the
column, not all tables have stub. The stub shows the subcategories that are listed along Y-axis.
Caption
The caption is the column heading, the variable might have subcategories which are captioned. These
subcategories are provided on the X-axis, the captions are provided on the top of each column.

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Body
The body of the table is the actual part of the table in which resides the whole values, results, and
analysis.
Footnotes
There can be many different types of notes that you may have to provide at the end of the table. The
footnotes are provided just below the table and labeled as the source. The source generally are provided
when the table has been taken from some other source. They are also provided for explaining some point
in the table. Sometimes there is some part of the table that is taken from a source so it should also be
mentioned.
Graphs to display data
The purpose of displaying data is to make the communications easier. Graphs should be used in
displaying data when they can add to the visual beauty of the data. The researcher should decide whether
there is a need for table only or he should also present data in the form of a suitable graph.

Types of graphs

You can use a suitable graph type depending on the type of data and the variables involved in the data.
The histogram
The histogram is a graph that is highly used for displaying data. A histogram consists of rectangles that
are drawn next to each other on the graph. The rectangles have no space in between them. A histogram
can be drawn for a single variable as well as for two or more than two variables. The height of the bars in
the histogram represents the frequency of each variable. It can be drawn for both categorical and
continuous variables.
The bar chart
The bar chart is similar to a histogram except in that it is drawn only for categorical variables. Since it is
used for categorical variables, therefore, it is drawn with space between the rectangles.
The frequency polygon
A frequency polygon is also very much like a histogram. A frequency polygon consists of frequency
rectangles drawn next to each other but the values taken to draw the rectangles are the midpoint of the
values. The height of the rectangles describes the frequency of each interval. A line is drawn that touches
the midpoints at the highest frequency level on Y-axis and it touches the X-axis on each extreme end.
The cumulative frequency polygon
The cumulative frequency polygon is also a frequency polygon, it is drawn using the cumulative
frequencies on the Y-axis. The values on the X-axis are taken by using the endpoints of the interval. The

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endpoints of the interval are joined to each other the reason being that the cumulative frequency is always
based on the upper limit of an interval.
The stem and leaf display
The stem and leaf display is another easy way to display data. The stem and leaf display if rotated to 90
degrees become a histogram.
The pie chart

The pie chart is a very different way to display data. The pie chart is a circle, as a circle has 360 degrees
so it is taken in percentage and the whole pie or circle represent the whole population. The pie or circle is
divided into slices or sections, each section represents the magnitude of the category or the sub-category.
The trend curve
The trend curve is also called as the line diagram. It is drawn by plotting the midpoints on the X-axis and
the frequencies commensurate with each interval on the Y-axis. The trend curve is drawn only for a set of
data that has been measured on the continuous, interval or ratio scale. A trend diagram or the line diagram
is most suitable for plotting values that show changes over a period of time.
The area chart
The area chart is a variation of the trend curve. In area chart, the sub-categories of a variable can be
displayed. The categories in the chart are displayed by shading them with different colors or patterns. For
example, if there are both males and females category in the dataset both can be highlighted in this chart.
The scattergram
A scattergram is a very simple way to plot the data on a chart. The scattergram is used for data where the
change in one variable affects the change in the other variable. The frequency against each interval is
plotted with the help of dots.
Examining data

The following pages were designed to provide a rough guide as to how to examine data. These
instructions are by no means exhaustive or complete and the statistics suggested do not take into
consideration special situations and unusual data characteristics. After the database is complete and clean,
you need to start the process of analysis. Progressing through these steps will improve the efficiency of
your analysis and help prevent you from spending hours in front of the computer on “fishing trips.” Use
the process outlined below when you begin to think about writing the report for your project. The
questions contained in the next few pages were designed to be generic and useful for most projects. Our
purpose was to develop a systematic process so that you can assemble in one place, the relevant
information needed to write up your methodology and select the appropriate way to analyze the data.

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Four phases are outlined:
1. The first step is to clarify the metadata associated with the information you are about to examine. This
means that you need to know some basic things about the way the data were collected. Use this
information to help write the “methodology” section of your report (of course you will need to draw upon
additional information to provide details about the methodology when you are actually writing this
section). However, this form will provide a good place to start. Some of this information may already be
recorded in the codebook.
2. The next step is to identify which variables you are interested in examining. This is a critical step
because the temptation is to look at the relationship between everything. Statistically this is considered
“fishing” for good results.1 Avoid fishing at all costs. It wastes time and leads to a dramatic increase in
the sampling error.
3. The third step is to select the appropriate statistics for the variables you want to examine. This
procedure is dependent on a number of characteristics of the data. 4. The final step is to create tables of
your findings. These tables along with appropriate graphs or charts will then be inserted into your report
along with your interpretations of the results.
Step 1: Develop Metadata for the Project
Prior to sitting down to examine a dataset, it is important to review the data collection methodology
(sometimes we refer to this as metadata). Some details about the data collection should be found in the
project files and also at the bottom of the codebook associated with your dataset. When writing up the
results you will need to write a couple of paragraphs outlining the procedures that were followed to gather
the information. The more specific you are on this step the better the final report will be. After sorting out
the metadata move on to Step 2. Answer as completely as you can each of the following:
A. Describe the sampling frame (population + method of selecting the sample).
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
B. Describe/ list the selection criteria.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
C. When was the data collected (i.e. dates and time of day)?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
D. Who collected the data (i.e. number and names of staff)?

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_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
E. How the data was collected (i.e. method of administration and collection)?
__________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
F. Non-response rate (i.e. if a survey was used, how many people decline to participate):
_____________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
F. What are the main limitations (i.e. related to the measures and the data collection process) and how
much does these factors affect the inferential strength of the results?
__________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
Step 2: Making Predictions
Prior to sitting down to a database to examine the information, it is important to have a clear sense of
what you want to look for. Your ideas should be based in a thorough examination of the relevant
literature. This intensive literature review was done early in the project, probably when the grant proposal
was written or before the data collection instruments were created. While you may not have been
involved in this aspect of the project’s development, the project director will be able to tell you what
patterns are expected. Also, after spending many hours collecting and cleaning the data, you will also
have your own ideas developed about which variables may be related. Isolating specific variables to
examine is very important, especially when dealing with large datasets. If you do not narrow down your
focus, you will spend hours, if not days, fishing for significant findings. Follow the steps below to select
key variables to examine.
Step 3: Selecting the Appropriate Statistic
Selecting the appropriate statistic to examine your data (both univariate and bivariate analysis) can be
very confusing; there are many statistics to choose from. Basically, the selection of the statistic depends
on three factors: q the level of measurement for the variables you are looking at, q whether you expect
that the data will have a certain underlying distribution (i.e. linear); and, q the sampling frame (whether it
was a random sample). The first two aspects are the most important to the selection of appropriate
statistics. To select the appropriate statistic for your analysis please fill in the table below identifying the
level of measurement for each variable involved.
Step 4: Creating Tables and/or Graphics
All tables and graphics must have the following elements:

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1. Informative Title: describes what appears in the image or what variables/analysis are presented in the
table.
2. Notes: located below the table or image to provide additional information needed to interpret the data
or to identify its source:
a. data source(s)
b. time period (when data was collected and the time period of the data)
c. sample size or data coverage
d. significance levels or notes about the statistics presented (tables only)
3. Legend: if needed, to explain symbolism or truncated variable names
4. Axis Labels and value labels (when appropriate if creating a chart) A number of different tables are
presented in the following pages. These are by no means the most perfect tables but they will provide
some guidance as to some ideas of formatting for different kinds of analyses. Note that the decimal points
must always line up. Also, if you are in doubt, pick-up a few Criminology journals and model your tables
after their formats.
Exploring data

Data exploration is the initial step in data analysis, where users explore a large data set in an unstructured
way to uncover initial patterns, characteristics, and points of interest. This process isn’t meant to reveal
every bit of information a dataset holds, but rather to help create a broad picture of important trends and
major points to study in greater detail.

Data exploration can use a combination of manual methods and automated tools such as data
visualizations, charts, and initial reports.

This process makes deeper analysis easier because it can help target future searches and begin the process
of excluding irrelevant data points and search paths that may turn up no results. More importantly, it helps
build a familiarity with the existing information that makes finding better answers much simpler.

Many times, data exploration uses visualization because it creates a more straightforward view of data
sets than simply examining thousands of individual numbers or names.
In any data exploration, the manual and automated aspects also look at different sides of the same coin.
Manual analysis helps users familiarize themselves with information and can point to broad trends.
These methods are also by definition unstructured so that users can examine a whole set without any
preconceptions. Automated tools, on the other hand, are excellent at pruning out less applicable data

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points, reorganizing data into sets that are easier to analyze, and scrubbing data sets to make their findings
relevant.

In any situation where you have a massive set of information, data exploration can help cut it down to a
manageable size and focus efforts to optimize your analysis.

Most data analytics software includes visualization tools and charting features that make exploration at
the outset significantly easier, helping reduce data by rooting out information that isn’t required, or which
can distort results in the long run.
By taking the time to perform a real exploration of your data along with visualization tools, you can also
start finding correlations, patterns, and determine if a certain path is worth researching, or if the
information is less usable.
Data exploration can also assist by reducing work time and finding more useful and actionable insights
from the start alongside presenting clear paths to perform better analysis.

Data exploration: is the first step of data analysis used to explore and visualize data to uncover insights
from the start or identify areas or patterns to dig into more. Using interactive dashboards and point-and-
click data exploration, users can better understand the bigger picture and get to insights faster.

Starting with data exploration helps users to make better decisions on where to dig deeper into the data
and to take a broad understanding of the business when asking more detailed questions later. With a
user-friendly interface, anyone across an organization can familiarize themselves with the data, discover
patterns, and generate thoughtful questions that may spur on deeper, valuable analysis.
Data exploration and visual analytics tools build understanding, empowering users to explore data in
any visualization. This approach speeds up time to answers and deepens users’ understanding by
covering more ground in less time. Data exploration is important for this reason because it democratizes
access to data and provides governed self-service analytics. Furthermore, businesses can accelerate data
exploration by provisioning and delivering data through visual data marts that are easy to explore and
use.
Data exploration can help businesses explore large amounts of data quickly to better understand next
steps in terms of further analysis. This gives the business a more manageable starting point and a way to
target areas of interest. In most cases, data exploration involves using data visualizations to examine the
data at a high level. By taking this high-level approach, businesses can determine which data is most
important and which may distort the analysis and therefore should be removed. Data exploration can also

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be helpful in decreasing time spent on less valuable analysis by selecting the right path forward from the
start.

5.3 Hypothesis Test

What is a Hypothesis?
A hypothesis is an educated guess about something in the world around you. It should be testable,
either by experiment or observation. For example:

• A new medicine you think might work.

• A way of teaching you think might be better.
• A possible location of new species.
• A fairer way to administer standardized tests.
It can really be anything at all as long as you can put it to the test.
In other words, it’s a statement that provides an explanation for why or how something works, based on
facts (or some reasonable assumptions), but that has not yet been specifically tested. For example, a
hypothesis might look something like this:
A consumer’s likelihood to trust a financial advisor is influenced by their perception of the competence
and skill of the financial advisor.
In this example, we’re making a statement about the relationship between perceptions of
competence and likelihood to trust. The link between the two seems plausible and logical, but it is not
proven (at least not in a scientifically rigorous way in every possible context). So, this qualifies as a
hypothesis (loosely speaking). In the world of research, however, a hypothesis needs a few more
criteria to constitute a true research hypothesis or scientific hypothesis. Let’s take a look at these criteria.
A research hypothesis (also called a scientific hypothesis) is a statement about the expected outcome of a
scientific study (for example, a dissertation or thesis).
What is a Hypothesis Statement?
If you are going to propose a hypothesis, it’s customary to write a statement. Your statement will look
like this: “If I … (do this to an independent variable) … then (this will happen to the dependent
variable).” For example:
• If I (decrease the amount of water given to herbs) then (the herbs will increase in size).
• If I (give patients counseling in addition to medication) then (their overall depression scale will
decrease).
• If I (give exams at noon instead of 7) then (student test scores will improve).
• If I (look in this certain location) then (I am more likely to find new species).

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 A good hypothesis statement should:
• Include an “if” and “then” statement (according to the University of California).
• Include both the independent and dependent variables.
• Be testable by experiment, survey or other scientifically sound technique.
• Be based on information in prior research (either yours or someone else’s).
• Have design criteria (for engineering or programming projects).

What is Hypothesis Testing?

Hypothesis testing is a way for you to test the results of a survey or experiment to see if you have
meaningful results. You’re basically testing whether your results are valid by figuring out the odds that
your results have happened by chance. If your results may have happened by chance, the experiment
won’t be repeatable and so has little use.
Hypothesis testing can be one of the most confusing aspects for students, mostly because before you
can even perform a test, you have to know what your null hypothesis is. Often, those tricky word
problems that you are faced with can be difficult to decipher. But it’s easier than you think; all you
need to do is:
1. Figure out your null hypothesis,
2. State your null hypothesis,
3. Choose what kind of test you need to perform,
4. Either support or reject the null hypothesis.
What is the Null Hypothesis?
If you trace back the history of science, the null hypothesis is always the accepted fact. Simple
examples of null hypotheses that are generally accepted as being true are:

1. DNA is shaped like a double helix.

2. There are 8 planets in the solar system (excluding Pluto).
3. Taking Vioxx can increase your risk of heart problems (a drug now taken off the market).

5.4 Measures of association

Measures of association, in statistics, any of various factors or coefficients used to quantify a relationship
between two or more variables. Measures of association are used in various fields of research but are
especially common in the areas of epidemiology and psychology, where they frequently are used to
quantify relationships between exposures and diseases or behaviours.

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The method used to determine the strength of an association depends on the characteristics of the data for
each variable.
Data may be measured on an interval/ratio scale, an ordinal/rank scale, or a nominal/categorical scale.
These three characteristics can be thought of as continuous, integer, and qualitative categories,
respectively.
There are a number of other measures of association for a variety of circumstances. For example, if one
variable is measured on an interval/ratio scale and the second variable is dichotomous (have two
Outcomes), then the point-biserial correlation coefficient is appropriate. Other combinations of data types
(or transformed data types) may require the use of more specialized methods to measure the association in
strength and significance.
Other types of association describe the way data are related but are usually not investigated for their own
interest. Serial correlation (also known as autocorrelation), for instance, describes how in a series of
events occurring over a period of time, events that occur closely spaced in time tend to be more similar
than those more widely spaced. The Durbin-Watson test is a procedure to test the significance of
such correlations. If the correlations are evident, then it may be concluded that the data violate the
assumptions of independence, rendering many modeling procedures invalid. A classical example of this
problem occurs when data are collected over time for one particular characteristic. For example, if an
epidemiologist wanted to develop a simple linear regression for the number of infections by month, there
would undoubtedly be serial correlation: each month’s observation would depend on the prior month’s
observation.
This serial effect (serial correlation) would violate the assumption of independent observations for simple
linear regression and accordingly render the parameter estimates for simple linear regression as not
credible.
One goal of research may be to establish a relationship between or among variables. The first step toward
this goal is to demonstrate that a relationship exists. The second step is to quantify the strength and
direction of the relationship using one or more appropriate measures of association. Several statistical
techniques for determining the strength of the association among dependent and independent variables are
presented below. The choice of which technique to use is largely driven by the level of data being
analyzed (i.e. – Ratio, Interval, Ordinal, Nominal, Binary). Table 1 is provided at the end of the paper to
assist in choosing the correct statistical approach given the level of the data collected.
The measures of association refer to a wide variety of coefficients that measure the statistical strength of
the relationship on the variables of interest; these measures of strength, or association, can be described in
several ways, depending on the analysis. There are certain statistical distinctions that a researcher should

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know in order to better understand the measures of statistical association. First, the researcher should
know that measures of association are not the same as measures of statistical significance. The measures
of significance have a null hypothesis that states that there is no significant difference between the
strength of an observed relationship and the strength of an expected relationship by means of simple
random sampling. Therefore, there is a possibility of having a relationship that depicts strong measures of
association but is not statistically significant, and a relationship that depicts weak measures of association
but is very significant. The coefficient that measures statistical association, which can vary depending on
the analysis, that has a value of zero signifies no relationship exists. In correlation analyses, if the
coefficient (r) has a value of one, it signifies a perfect relationship on the variables of interest. In
regression analyses, if the standardized beta weight (?) has a value of one, it also signifies a perfect
relationship on the variables of interest. In regards to linear relationships, the measures of association are
those which deal with strictly monotonic, ordered monotonic, predictive monotonic, and weak monotonic
relationships. The researcher should note that if the relationships in measures of association are perfect
due to strict monotonicity, then it should be perfect by other conditions as well. However, in measures of
association, one cannot have perfect ordered and perfect predictive monotonicity at the same time. The
researcher should note that the linear definitions of perfect relationships in measures of association are
inappropriate for curvilinear relationships or discontinuous relationships. The measures of association
define the strength of the linear relationship in terms of the degree of monotonicity. This degree of
monotonicity used by the measures of association is based on the counting of various types of pairs in a
relationship. There are basically four types of pairs in the measures of association. These are concordant
pairs (i.e. the pairs that agree with each other), discordant pairs (i.e. the pairs that do not agree with each
other), the tied pair on one variable, and the tied pair on the other variable. The researcher should note
that as the concordant pair increases, all the linear definitions of perfect relationships in measures of
association increases the coefficient of association towards +1.
There are certain assumptions that are made on the measures of association: The measures of association
assume categorical (nominal or ordinal) and continuous types of level data. The measures of association
assume a symmetrical or asymmetrical type of causal direction. The measures of association that define
an ideal relationship in terms of the strict monotonicity will attain the value of one only if the two
variables have evolved from the same marginal distribution. The measures of association also ignore
those rows and columns which have null values.

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 5.5 Report Writing
A research report is a well-crafted document that outlines the processes, data, and findings of a systematic
investigation. It is an important document that serves as a first-hand account of the research process, and
it is typically considered an objective and accurate source of information.
In many ways, a research report can be considered as a summary of the research process that clearly
highlights findings, recommendations, and other important details. Reading a well-written research report
should provide you with all the information you need about the core areas of the research process
So how do you recognize a research report when you see one? Here are some of the basic features that
define a research report.
• It is a detailed presentation of research processes and findings, and it usually includes tables and
graphs.
• It is written in a formal language.
• A research report is usually written in the third person.
• It is informative and based on first-hand verifiable information.
• It is formally structured with headings, sections, and bullet points.
• It always includes recommendations for future actions.
Also, a research report can be said to be technical or popular based on the target audience. If you're
dealing with a general audience, you would need to present a popular research report, and if you're
dealing with a specialized audience, you would submit a technical report.
Technical Research Report
A technical research report is a detailed document that you present after carrying out industry-based
research. This report is highly specialized because it provides information for a technical audience; that is,
individuals with above-average knowledge in the field of study.

In a technical research report, the researcher is expected to provide specific information about the
research process, including statistical analyses and sampling methods. Also, the use of language is highly
specialized and filled with jargon.
Examples of technical research reports include legal and medical research reports.
Popular Research Report
A popular research report is one for a general audience; that is, for individuals who do not necessarily
have any knowledge in the field of study. A popular research report aims to make information accessible
to everyone.

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It is written in very simple language, which makes it easy to understand the findings and
recommendations. Examples of popular research reports are the information contained in newspapers and
magazines.
Importance of a Research Report
• Knowledge Transfer: As already stated above, one of the reasons for carrying out research is to
contribute to the existing body of knowledge, and this is made possible with a research report. A
research report serves as a means to effectively communicate the findings of a systematic
investigation to all and sundry.

• Identification of Knowledge Gaps: With a research report, you'd be able to identify knowledge
gaps for further inquiry. A research report shows what has been done while hinting at other areas
needing systematic investigation.
• In market research, a research report would help you understand the market needs and
peculiarities at a glance.
• A research report allows you to present information in a precise and concise manner.
• It is time-efficient and practical because, in a research report, you do not have to spend time
detailing the findings of your research work in person. You can easily send out the report via
email and have stakeholders look at it.
A lot of detail goes into writing a research report, and getting familiar with the different requirements
would help you create the ideal research report. A research report is usually broken down into multiple
sections, which allows for a concise presentation of information.

Structure and Example of a Research Report

• Title
This is the title of your systematic investigation. Your title should be concise and point to the aims,
objectives, and findings of a research report.
• Table of Contents
This is like a compass that makes it easier for readers to navigate the research report.
• Abstract
An abstract is an overview that highlights all important aspects of the research including the research
method, data collection process, and research findings. Think of an abstract as a summary of your
research report that presents pertinent information in a concise manner.
An abstract is always brief; typically 100-150 words and goes straight to the point. The focus of your
research abstract should be the 5Ws and 1H format – What, Where, Why, When, Who and How.
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 • Introduction
Here, the researcher highlights the aims and objectives of the systematic investigation as well as the
problem which the systematic investigation sets out to solve. When writing the report introduction, it is
also essential to indicate whether the purposes of the research were achieved or would require more work.
In the introduction section, the researcher specifies the research problem and also outlines the significance
of the systematic investigation. Also, the researcher is expected to outline any jargons and terminologies
that are contained in the research.
• Literature Review
A literature review is a written survey of existing knowledge in the field of study. In other words, it is the
section where you provide an overview and analysis of different research works that are relevant to your
systematic investigation.
It highlights existing research knowledge and areas needing further investigation, which your research has
sought to fill. At this stage, you can also hint at your research hypothesis and its possible implications for
the existing body of knowledge in your field of study.
• An Account of Investigation
This is a detailed account of the research process, including the methodology, sample, and research
subjects. Here, you are expected to provide in-depth information on the research process including the
data collection and analysis procedures.
In a quantitative research report, you'd need to provide information surveys, questionnaires and other
quantitative data collection methods used in your research. In a qualitative research report, you are
expected to describe the qualitative data collection methods used in your research including interviews
and focus groups.
• Findings
In this section, you are expected to present the results of the systematic investigation.
• Discussion
This section further explains the findings of the research, earlier outlined. Here, you are expected to
present a justification for each outcome and show whether the results are in line with your hypotheses or
if other research studies have come up with similar results.
• Conclusions
This is a summary of all the information in the report. It also outlines the significance of the entire study.
• References and Appendices
This section contains a list of all the primary and secondary research sources.

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Written and oral Reports
Presenting a quality presentation of research findings can have an inordinate effect on a reader’s or a
listener’s perceptions of a study’s quality. The oral presentations of research findings should be developed
with concern for organization, visual aids, and delivery in unique communication settings. Presentation
quality can enhance or detract from what might otherwise be excellent research.
A final report, which documents the methodology and findings of the research, is an essential requirement
of the every research project. The researcher has an obligation to report failures, as well as successes, so
that others can benefit from the experiences. Other researchers may be able to modify the procedures used
in an unsuccessful study to produce a positive outcome. But this can only be done if the unsuccessful
study is documented properly. One can also argue that research reports are more likely to be written, and
to a higher standard, in agencies which have a strong research function. While this is largely a
management and organizational issue, it is a fact that when staff performs research studies that also have
line responsibilities, there are pressures to use the results and little incentive to document the findings.
Conversely, when research is conducted in accordance with a plan, by staff that recognizes the
importance of reports, especially if they can call on the assistance of an editor and report production staff,
there is a much greater probability that a high quality report will materialize. Writing a report is hard
work, which may be why some reports are never completed! There is no single way to write a report with
respect to organization, content or format. However, there are a number of guidelines, which make the
task easier, and improve the quality of the final product. The other form of publication of interest to the
transportation community is the scientific paper. A paper is often written after a final report because, as
discussed in Chapter One, publication, especially in a peer-reviewed journal, increases the awareness of
the study, and contributes to the professional reputation of the authors. A paper is not a substitute for a
final report because limitations on the length of papers usually mean that data, explanations and
mathematical derivations must be condensed.

Writing style

A scientific paper is a formal text written in an impersonal, objective, neutral and professional way. The
writing is concise with specific wordings and formulations. The writing should be clear as well and lead
to a deeper understanding of the subject.
1. Avoid colloquial or informal language. Eliminate all 'filler' and needless words. Biased language is not
acceptable in academic writing.
2. Avoid personal or familiar language. Do not directly address the reader and do not ask rhetorical
questions. Remember that the use of personal pronouns does not fit into an objective, scientific paper. 3.

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Avoid ambiguous, imprecise or vague words such as ‘various', 'some', 'particular', 'numerous'. Try to
avoid impersonal expressions. Be clear, concrete, specific, precise and direct. If possible, choose specific
wordings which will lead to more concise writing.
4. Do not use 'wordy' expressions either. To illustrate:
✓ 'Since' or 'because' are easier to read than 'for the reason that' or 'owing to the fact that'.
✓ 'Although' is easier to read than 'despite the fact that' or 'regardless of the fact that'.
✓ 'If' is easier to read than 'in the event that'
Written language
Scientific papers should be written with correct grammar, spelling and punctuation.
1. Write out numbers at the beginning of a sentence.
2. Spell out cardinal numbers from one to nine and ordinal numbers from first to ninth. Numbers below
10 are usually written as words. Also write out hundred, thousand and million in words. Please consider
the following exceptions:
Write the number in numerals if numbers have been measured or calculated, followed by a unit of
measurement. Usually, a space is inserted between the number and the unit.
3. Writing correctly punctuated sentences is essential to enhance readability:
✓ Do not forget punctuation.
✓ Make sure you are using punctuation marks correctly. Do not use• commas instead of full stops.
To separate items in a list, use a colon. Commas are used between each item (use a semicolon if you
are including the items on a separate line in the text) and end the last item in the list with a full stop.
✓ Do not use excessive punctuation.

Review Question

1. What is Analysis means in research methodology?

2. How to present data in research in work?
3. How to write report in research work?
4. What is hypothesis testing?
5. Discus on measurement association in research study?

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Summary
Data presentation and analysis forms an integral part of all academic studies, commercial, industrial
and marketing activities as well as professional practices. Data analysis helps in the interpretation of
data and takes a decision or answer the research question. This can be done by using data processing
tools and software. Data analysis starts with the collection of data followed by data processing by
various data processing methods and sorting it. Processed data helps in obtaining information from it
as the raw data is non-comprehensive in nature. Presenting the data includes the pictorial
representation of the data by using graphs, charts, maps and other methods. These methods help in
adding the visual aspect to data which makes it much more comfortable and quicker to understand.
Widely used format and data presentation techniques are mentioned below: as a text: raw data with
proper formatting, categorization, identification, in tabular form: tabular form is generally used to
differentiate, categorize, and relate different datasets, and in graphical Form: Data can further be
presented in a simpler and even easier form by means of using graphical form, like b bar graph & pie
chart.
The steps for presenting and analyzing data include: (1) frame the objectives of the study and make a
list of data to be collected and its format, (2) collect/obtain data from primary or secondary sources,
(3) change the format of data, i.e., table, maps, graphs, etc. in the desired format, (4) Sort data through
grouping, (5) discarding the extra data and deciding the required form to make data comprehensible,
(6) make charts and graphs to help to add visual part and analyse trends, (8) analyse trends and relate
the information to fulfill the objectives.
A hypothesis is an educated guess about something in the world around you. It should be testable,
either by experiment or observation. It can really be anything at all as long as you can put it to the test.
If you are going to propose a hypothesis, it’s customary to write a statement. Your statement will look
like this: “If I … (do this to an independent variable) … then (this will happen to the dependent
variable).” For example: If I (decrease the amount of water given to herbs) then (the herbs will
increase in size). Hypothesis testing is a way for you to test the results of a survey or experiment to see
if you have meaningful results. You’re basically testing whether your results are valid by figuring out
the odds that your results have happened by chance. If your results may have happened by chance, the
experiment won’t be repeatable and so has little use. If you trace back the history of science, the null
hypothesis is always the accepted fact. Simple examples of null hypotheses include: DNA is shaped
like a double helix.

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 CHAPTER SIX
CURRENT RESEARCH TOPICS IN IT

6.1 Introduction
Completing a research in Information Technology is the most challenging task faced by research
scholars studying in universities all across the world. As Information Technology is one of the vastest
fields opted by research scholars so finding a new thesis topic in Information Technology becomes
more difficult. With each passing day, new and innovative developments are coming out in this era of
mechanization. These developments tend to make human life much easier and better. Technology is
the forerunner of this new change. Today our life is incomplete without this technology. Cell phones,
laptops and all that have become an integral part of our life. Information Technology is the seed to this
technical development. There are a number of good topics in Information Technology for project,
thesis, and research for students.
In the field of academics, we need to get rid of obsolete ideas and focus on new innovative topics
which are fast spreading their arms among the vast global audience. Information Technology students
both in bachelors and in masters are studying the same topics and subjects from the past few years.
Students don’t even have knowledge about new research topics. For project and thesis work also they
are relying on outdated topics. Projects like school management system, library management system
etc. are now out of date. Students should shift their focus to latest technologies which are highly in
demand these days and future depend upon these. Here is the list of latest topics in Information
Technology that you can choose and work for your project work or thesis and research:

6.2 List of few latest thesis topics in IT

• Thesis topics in data mining

• Thesis topics in machine learning
• Thesis topics in digital image processing
• Latest thesis topics in Internet of things (IOT)
• Research topics in Artificial Intelligence
• Networking can be chosen as a thesis topic in Information Technology
• Trending thesis topics in cloud computing
• Data aggregation as a thesis topics in Big Data
• Research topics in Software Engineering

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Data Warehousing
Data Warehousing is the process of analyzing data for business purposes. Data warehouse store
integrated data from multiple sources at a single place which can later be retrieved for making reports.
The data warehouse in simple terms is a type of database different and kept isolated from
organization’s run-time database. The data in the warehouse is historical data which is helpful in
understanding business goals and make decisions for future prospects. It is a relatively new concept
and have high growth in future. Data Warehouse provides Online Analytical Processing (OLAP) tools
for the systematic and effective study of data in a multidimensional view. Data Warehouse finds its
application in the following areas:
• Financial Sector
• Banking Sector
• Retail Services
• Consumer goods
• Manufacturing
So start working on it if you have knowledge of database and data modeling.
Internet of Things (IoT)

Internet of Things (IoT) is a concept of interconnection of various devices, a vehicle to the Internet.
IoT make use of actuators and sensors for transferring data to and from the devices. This technology is
developed for better efficiency and accuracy apart from minimizing human interaction with the
devices. The example for this is home heating in some countries when the temperature drops done
through motion sensors which automatically detect the weather conditions. Another example for this is
the traffic lights which changes its colors depending upon the traffic. Following are the application
areas of Internet of Things (IoT):
• Home Automation
• Healthcare
• Agriculture
• Transportation
• Manufacturing
• Environment
Below is the List of Few Latest and Trending Researches in IoT:-
• The secure and energy efficient data routing in the IoT based networks
• The secure channel establishment algorithm for isolation of misdirection attack in the IoT

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 • The clock synchronization of IoT devices of energy efficient data communication in IoT
• The adaptive learning scheme to increase fault tolerance of IoT
• Mobility aware energy efficient routing protocol for Internet of Things
• To propose energy efficient multicasting routing protocol for Internet of Things
• The novel scheme to maintain quality of service in Internet of Things
• Link reliable and trust aware RPL routing protocol for Internet of Things
• The energy efficient cluster based routing in Internet of Things
• Optimizing Multipath Routing With Guaranteed Fault Tolerance in Internet of Things

Many people are not aware of this concept so you can choose for your project work and learn
something new.
Big Data

Big Data is a term to denote the large volume of data which is complex to handle. The data may be
structured or unstructured. Structured data is an organized data while unstructured data is an
unorganized data. Big data can be examined for the intuition that can give way to better decisions and
schematic business moves. The definition of big data is termed in terms of three Vs. These vs are:

• Volume: Volume defines large volume of data from different sources

• Velocity: It refers to the speed with which the data is generated
• Variety: It refers to the varied amount of data both structured and unstructured.
Application areas:
• Government
• Healthcare
• Education
• Finance
• Manufacturing
• Media
• Sports
Below is the List of Few Latest and Trending in Big Data:-
• Privacy preserving big data publishing: a scalable k-anonymization approach using
MapReduce.
• Nearest Neighbour Classification for High-Speed Big Data Streams Using Spark.
• Efficient and Rapid Machine Learning Algorithms for Big Data and Dynamic Varying Systems.
• Disease Prediction by Machine Learning Over Big Data From Healthcare Communities.
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 • A Parallel Multi-classification Algorithm for Big Data Using an Extreme Learning Machine.
Thus you can prepare your project report or thesis report on this.
Cloud Computing

Cloud Computing is a comparatively new technology. It is an Internet-based service that creates a

shared pool of resources for consumers. There are three service models of cloud computing namely:
• Software as a Service(SaaS)
• Platform as a Service(PaaS)
• Infrastructure as a Service(IaaS)
Characteristics of cloud computing are:
• On-demand self-service
• Broad network access
• Shared pool of resources
• Scalability
• Measured service
Below is the list of few latest and trending in Cloud Computing:-
• To isolate the virtual side channel attack in cloud computing
• Enhancement in homomorphic encryption for key management and key sharing
• To overcome load balancing problem using weight based scheme in cloud computing
• To apply watermarking technique in cloud computing to enhance cloud data security
• To propose improvement green cloud computing to reduce fault in the network
• To apply stenography technique in cloud computing to enhance cloud data security
• To detect and isolate Zombie attack in cloud computing
The common examples of cloud computing include icloud from Apple, Google-based Services like
Google Drive and many more. The field is very demanding and is growing day by day. You can focus
on it if you have interest in innovation.

Semantic Web

Semantic Web is also referred to as Web 3.0 and is the next big thing in the field of communication. It
is standardized by World Wide Web Consortium(W3C) to promote common data formats and
exchange protocols over the web. It is machine-readable information based and is built on XML
technology. It is an extension to Web 2.0. In the semantic web, the information is well defined to
enable better cooperation between the computers and the people. In the semantic web, the data is

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 interlinked for better understanding. It is different from traditional data sharing technologies.

It can be a good topic for your thesis or project.

MANET

MANET stands for mobile ad hoc network. It is an infrastructure-less network with mobile devices
connected wirelessly and is self-configuring. It can change locations independently and can link to
other devices through a wireless connection. Following are the various types of MANETs:

• Vehicular ad hoc network(VANET)

• Smartphone ad-hoc network(SPANET)
• Internet-based mobile ad hoc network(iMANET)
You can use various simulation tools to study the functionality and working of MANET like OPNET,
NS2, NETSIM, NS3 etc.
In MANET there is no need of central hub to receive and send messages. Instead, the nodes directly
send packets to each other.
MANET finds its applications in the following areas:
• Environment sensors
• Healthcare
• Vehicular ad hoc communication
• Road Safety
• Home
Below is the List of Few Latest and Trending Research Topics in MANET:-
• Evaluate and propose scheme for the link recovery in mobile ad hoc networks
• To propose hybrid technique for path establishment using bio-inspired techniques in MANET’s
• To propose secure scheme for the isolation of black hole attack in mobile ad hoc networks
• To propose trust based mechanism for the isolation of wormhole attack in mobile ad hoc
networks
• The novel approach for the congestion avoidance in mobile ad hoc networks
• To propose scheme for the detection of selective forwarding attack in mobile ad hoc networks
• To propose localization scheme which reduce faults in mobile ad hoc network
• The energy efficient scheme for multicasting routing in wireless ad hoc network
• The scheme for secure localization aided routing in wireless ad hoc networks
• The cross-layer scheme for opportunistic routing in mobile ad hoc networks

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 Just go for it if you have interest in the field of networking and make a project on it.

Machine Learning

It is also a relatively new concept in the field of Information Technology and is a technique of guiding
computers to act in a certain way without programming. It makes use of certain complex algorithms to
receive an input and predict an output for the same. There are three types of learning;
• Supervised learning
• Unsupervised learning
• Reinforcement learning
Machine Learning is closely related to statistics. If you are good at statistics then you should opt this
topic.
Data Mining

Data Mining is the process of identifying and establishing a relationship between large datasets for
finding a solution to a problem through analysis of data. There are various tools and techniques in
Data Mining which gives enterprises and organizations the ability to predict futuristic trends. Data
Mining finds its application in various areas of research, statistics, genetics, and marketing. Following
are the main techniques used in the process of Data Mining:
• Decision Trees
• Genetic Algorithm
• Induction method
• Artificial Neural Network
• Association
• Clustering
Below is the List of Few Latest and Trending Research Topics in Data Mining:-
• Performance enhancement of DBSCAN density based clustering algorithm in data mining
• The classification scheme for sentiment analysis of twitter data
• To increase accuracy of min-max k-mean clustering in Data mining
• To evaluate and improve apriori algorithm to reduce execution time for association rule
generation
• The classification scheme for credit card fraud detection in Data mining
• To propose novel technique for the crime rate prediction in Data Mining
• To evaluate and propose heart disease prediction scheme in Data Mining

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 • Software defect prediction analysis using machine learning algorithms
• A new data clustering approach for data mining in large databases
• The diabetes prediction technique for Data mining using classification
• Novel Algorithm for the network traffic classification in Data Mining
Advantages of Data Mining
• Data Mining helps marketing and retail enterprises to study customer behavior.
• Organizations into banking and finance business can get information about customer’s
historical data and financial activities.
• Data Mining help manufacturing units to detect faults in operational parameters.
• Data Mining also helps various governmental agencies to track record of financial activities to
curb on criminal activities.
Disadvantages of Data Mining
• Privacy Issues
• Security Issues
• Information extracted from data mining can be misused
Artificial Intelligence

Artificial Intelligence is the intelligence shown by machines and it deals with the study and creation
of intelligent systems that can think and act like human beings. In Artificial Intelligence, intelligent
agents are studied that can perceive its environment and take actions according to its surrounding
environment.
Goals of Artificial Intelligence
Following are the main goals of Artificial Intelligence:
• Creation of expert systems
• Implementation of human intelligence in machines
• Problem-solving through reasoning
Application of Artificial Intelligence
Following are the main applications of Artificial Intelligence:
• Expert Systems
• Natural Language Processing
• Artificial Neural Networks
• Robotics
• Fuzzy Logic Systems
Strong AI– It is a type of artificial intelligence system with human thinking capabilities and can find a
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 solution to an unfamiliar task.
Weak AI– It is a type of artificial intelligence system specifically designed for a particular task.
Apple’s Siri is an example of Weak AI.
Turing Test is used to check whether a system is intelligent or not. Machine Learning is a part of
Artificial Intelligence. Following are the types of agents in Artificial Intelligence systems:
• Model-Based Reflex Agents
• Goal-Based Agents
• Utility-Based Agents
• Simple Reflex Agents
Natural Language Processing

It is a method to communicate with the intelligent systems using human language. It is required to
make intelligent systems work according to your instructions. There are two processes under Natural
Language Processing – Natural Language Understanding, Natural Language Generation.
Natural Language Understanding involves creating useful representations from the natural language.
Natural Language Generation involves steps like Lexical Analysis, Syntactic Analysis, Semantic
Analysis, Integration and Pragmatic Analysis to generate meaningful information.

Image Processing

Image Processing is another field in Information Technology and a popular topic for a thesis in
Information Technology. There are two types of image processing – Analog and Digital Image
Processing. Digital Image Processing is the process of performing operations on digital images using
computer-based algorithms to alter its features for enhancement or for other effects. Through Image
Processing, essential information can be extracted from digital images. It is an important area of research
in Information Technology. The techniques involved in image processing include transformation,
classification, pattern recognition, filtering, image restoration and various other processes and techniques.

Main purpose of Image Processing

Following are the main purposes of image processing:
• Visualization
• Image Restoration
• Image Retrieval
• Pattern Measurement
• Image Recognition

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 Applications of Image Processing

Following are the main applications of Image Processing:

• UV Imaging, Gamma Ray Imaging and CT scan in medical field
• Transmission and encoding
• Robot Vision
• Color Processing
• Pattern Recognition
• Video Processing
Below is the List of Few Latest and Trending Researches in Image Processing:-

• To propose classification technique for plant disease detection in image processing

• The hybrid bio-inspired scheme for edge detection in image processing
• The HMM classification scheme for the cancer detection in image processing
• To propose efficient scheme for digital watermarking of images in image processing
• The propose block wise image compression scheme in image processing
• To propose and evaluate filter based on internal and external features of an image for image de
noising
• To improve local mean filtering scheme for de noising of MRI images
• To propose image encryption base d on textural feature analysis and chaos method
• The classification scheme for the face spoof detection in image processing
• The automated scheme for the number plate detection in image processing

Bioinformatics

Bioinformatics is a field that uses various computational methods and software tools to analyze the
biological data. In simple words, bioinformatics is the field that uses computer programming for
biological studies. It is the current topic of research in Information Technology and is also a good
topic of choice for the thesis. This field is a combination of Information Technology, biology, statistics,
and mathematics. It uses image and signal processing techniques to extract useful information from a
large amount of data. Following are the main applications of bioinformatics:
• It helps in observing mutations in the field of genetics
• It plays an important role in text mining and organization of biological data
• It helps to study the various aspects of genes like protein expression and regulation
• Genetic data can be compared using bioinformatics which will help in understanding molecular

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 biology
• Simulation and modeling of DNA, RNA, and proteins can be done using bioinformatics tools

Quantum Computing

Quantum Computing is a computing technique in which computers known as quantum computers use
the laws of quantum mechanics for processing information. Quantum Computers are different from
digital electronic computers in the sense that these computers use quantum bits known as qubits for
processing. A lot of experiments are being conducted to build a powerful quantum computer. Once
developed, these computers will be able to solve complex computational problems which cannot be
solved by classical computers. Quantum is the current and the latest topic for research and thesis in
Information Technology.
Quantum Computers work on quantum algorithms like Simon’s algorithm to solve problems. Quantum
Computing finds its application in the following areas:
• Medicines
• Logistics
• Finance
• Artificial Intelligence
The list is incomplete as there are a number of topics to choose from. But these are the trending fields
these days. Whether you have any presentation, thesis project or a seminar you can choose any topic
from these and prepare a good report.

Review Questions
1. Select at least hot research topics and write the research proposal?
2. What are currently recommended research topics in IT?
3. How to Select Research topics?

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Summary
Completing a research in IT is the most challenging task faced by research scholars studying in
universities all across the world. With each passing day, new and innovative developments are coming
out to make human life much easier and better. Technology is the forerunner of this new change.
Today our life is incomplete without this technology. Cell phones, laptops and all that have become an
integral part of our life. IT is the seed to this technical development. There are a number of good topics
in IT for project, thesis, and research for students. In the field of academics, we need to get rid of
obsolete ideas and focus on new innovative topics which are fast spreading their arms among the vast
global audience. IT students both in bachelors and masters are studying the same topics and subjects
from the past few years. Students don’t even have knowledge about new research topics. For project
and thesis work also they are relying on outdated topics. Projects like school management system,
library management system etc… are now out of date. Students should shift their focus to latest
technologies which are highly in demand these days and future depend upon these. Here is the list of
latest topics in Information Technology that you can choose and work for your project work or thesis
and research.

Data Warehousing is the process of analyzing data for business purposes. Data warehouse store
integrated data from multiple sources at a single place which can later be retrieved for making reports.
The data warehouse in simple terms is a type of database different and kept isolated from
organization’s run-time database. Data Warehouse finds its application in areas like: financial sector,
banking sector, retail services, consumer goods, manufacturing and others. So start working on it if
you have knowledge of database and data modeling.

Internet of Things (IoT) is a concept of interconnection of various devices to the Internet. IoT make
use of actuators and sensors for transferring data to and from the devices. This technology is
developed for better efficiency and accuracy apart from minimizing human interaction with the
devices. Some of the application areas of IoT include: Home Automation, Healthcare, Agriculture,
Transportation, Manufacturing, Environment, and others.

Big Data is a term to denote the large volume of data which is complex to handle. Big data can be
examined for the intuition that can give way to better decisions and schematic business moves.
Application areas include: Government, Healthcare, Education, Finance, Manufacturing, Media,
Sports, and others.

Mobile Ad-Hoc Network (MANET) is an infrastructureless network with mobile devices connected
wirelessly and is self-configuring. It can change locations independently and can link to other devices
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 through a wireless connection. In MANET there is no need of central hub to receive and send
messages. Instead, the nodes directly send packets to each other. Some of application areas of
MANETs include: Environment sensors, Healthcare, Vehicular ad hoc communication, Road Safety,
Home, and others.

Machine Learning is also a relatively new concept, and it is a technique of guiding computers to act in
a certain way without programming. It makes use of certain complex algorithms to receive an input
and predict an output for the same. Machine Learning is closely related to statistics. If you are good at
statistics then this could be your choice.

Data Mining is the process of identifying and establishing a relationship between large datasets for
finding a solution to a problem through analysis of data. Following are the main techniques used in the
process of Data Mining: Decision Trees, Genetic Algorithm, Induction method, Artificial Neural
Network, Association, Clustering …

Artificial Intelligence (AI) is the intelligence shown by machines and it deals with the study and
creation of intelligent systems that can think and act like human beings. In AI, intelligent agents are
studied that can perceive its environment and take actions according to its surrounding environment.
Some of the main applications of AI include: Expert Systems, Natural Language Processing, Artificial
Neural Networks, Robotics, and others

Natural Language Processing (NLP) is a method to communicate with the intelligent systems using
human language. It is required to make intelligent systems work according to your instructions.

Image Processing is another field in IT and a popular topic for a thesis in IT. Through Image
Processing, essential information can be extracted from digital images. Some of the main applications
of Image Processing include: UV Imaging, Gamma Ray Imaging and CT scan in medical field,
Transmission and encoding, Robot Vision, Color Processing, Pattern Recognition, Video Processing
and others.

Bioinformatics is a field that uses various computational methods and software tools to analyze the
biological data. In simple words, bioinformatics is the field that uses computer programming for
biological studies. This field is a combination of IT, biology, statistics, and mathematics. It uses image
and signal processing techniques to extract useful information from a large amount of data.

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 CHAPTER SEVEN

ETHICS IN RESEARCH

Conducting research can be simplistic and uncomplicated. However, before conducting the research, it
is important that the prospective researcher be aware of the ethical aspects and apply appropriate
ethics.
Objectives
From this chapter the reader should be able to do the following:
1. Define what is meant by ethics and explain its importance to criminological research.
2. Present and discuss the various characteristics of ethical problems in criminological research.
3. Explain how the researcher’s role influences and is influenced by ethical concerns.
4. Discuss the various ethical considerations presented.
5. Describe the relationship that exists between ethics and professionalism including a “code of
ethics.”
6. List and describe the four ethical criteria.
7. Present and discuss the five reasons why confidentiality and privacy are important research
concerns.
8. Describe the impacts of institutional review boards and research guidelines (such as those
mandated by the National Institute of Justice) on criminologic research.

7.1 Introduction

Ethics refers to doing what is morally and legally right in the conducting of research. This requires the
researcher to be knowledgeable about what is being done; to use reasoning when making decisions; to
be both intellectual and truthful in approach and reporting; and to consider the consequences, in
particular, to be sure that the outcome of the research outweighs any negatives that might occur. Using
this approach, ethical decisions are much easier.
Criminology and criminal justice are virtual playgrounds of ethical confrontations. There is no aspect
of them in which ethical questions or dilemmas do not exist, including research. This is particularly
true when the research is of an applied nature. The ethical issues encountered in applied social
research are subtle and complex, raising difficult moral dilemmas that, at least on a superficial level,
seem impossible to resolve. These dilemmas often require the researcher to strike a delicate balance

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 between the scientific requirements of methodology and the human rights and values potentially
threatened by the research (Bryman, 2008; Creswell, 2008).
Criminal justice and criminological research almost always involve dealings with humans and human
behavior. It is prudent to be aware of the characteristics associated with ethical problems in social
research. Although there does not seem to be a consensus as to what these characteristics are, and
there is no comprehensive list, the following have been identified as recognizable characteristics of
ethical problems (Bachman & Schutt, 2008; Dunn, 2009; Kraska & Neuman, 2008; McBurney &
White, 2007):
1. A single research problem can generate numerous questions regarding appropriate behavior on
the partof the researcher.
2. Ethical sensitivity is a necessity but is not necessarily sufficient to solve problems that might
arise.
3. Ethical dilemmas result from conflicting values as to what should receive priority on the
part of the researcher.
4. Ethical concerns can relate to both the research topic and how the research is conducted.
5. Ethical concerns involve both personal and professional elements in the research.
When dealing with humans, ethics plays an important role. It all begins with the researcher’s role.

7.2 The researcher’s role

Contrary to popular belief, the justician or criminologist who conducts research is considered a
scientist. Ignoring the distinctions made between a natural scientist and a social scientist, both are
scientists who are governed by the laws of inquiry (Kaplan, 1963). Both require an ethically neutral,
objective approach to research. As mentioned in Chapter 1, ethical neutrality requires that the
researcher’s moral or ethical beliefs not be allowed to influence the gathering of data or the
conclusions that are made from analyzing the data. Objectivity means striving to prevent personal
ideology or prejudices from influencing the process. As can be seen, the two have a similar concern:
maintaining the integrity of the research. In addition to these concerns, the researcher, whether a
nuclear physicist or a criminologist, must also ensure that the research concerns do not negatively
impact on the safety of others.
The researcher’s role often coexists and at times even conflicts with other important roles, such as
practitioner, teacher, academic, scholar, and citizen. This meshing of roles can often cause the
researcher to lose objectivity in his or her approach to the collection, analysis, and reporting of the
data. In particular, there are the concerns over the individual’s morals, values, attitude, and beliefs
interfering with completing an objective study.
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 Individuals are raised with certain ideals, identified as morals and values. What those are is commonly
reflected in one’s attitudes and behaviors. Weak or strong morals and values can affect how one
conducts research. For example, individuals raised to believe that success is very important, regardless
of the costs, might regard the “borrowing” of someone else’s research efforts and passing them off as
their own as acceptable; or they might accept the manipulation of data to gain more desirable results.
An even more repugnant scenario is one in which the researcher continues with his or her research
despite knowing that to do so will cause physical harm or emotional anguish for others. In each of
these cases, ethically the decisions are wrong.
Because the researcher’s role is intertwined with other roles, ethics becomes even more difficult to
manage. Ultimately, it is up to the individual to decide the importance of personal ethics. However, this is
just one aspect of ethics in research.

7.3 Ethical Considerations

Conducting research in and of itself can be problematic. Accessibility, funding, timing, and other
factors may all impose problems. The reality is there can be ethical concerns at every step of the
research process (Bickman & Rog, 2009). With this in mind, the considerations discussed next should
not be viewed as more important at any one particular time in the process, but rather they apply
throughout the research.

Ethical Ramifications

One of the first things to consider is whether the topic to be studied has innate ethical
ramifications. Some topics are controversial by their very nature. For instance, the individual interested
in gangs might decide that the best way to gain data is to become a participant observer. As such,
chances are that the researcher may have to witness or even be asked to participate in illegal activity.
Ethically as well as legally, this information should be given to the police, but doing so might
jeopardize the research. Although it is apparent what decision should be made (the research should be
adjusted to avoid such a dilemma or possibly even abandoned outright), the right one is not always
made simply because of how important the research is perceived to be to the individual. Therefore,
before embarking on a research topic, the ethical implications of the research itself must be addressed.

Harm to Others
Another consideration is what effects the research might have on the research targets. When the
research involves direct human contact, ethics plays an important role. Whether the targets are victims,

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 accused offenders, convicted offenders, practitioners, or the general public, a major consideration is
whether the research might cause them any harm. Harm can be physical, psychologic, or social.

Physical harm most often can occur during experimental or applied types of research, such as testing
new drugs or weapons. Psychologic harm might result through the type of information being gathered.
For example, in a study of victims of sexual assault, the research might delve into the events before,
during, and after the assault. This line of questioning may inflict more psychologic harm in addition to
that which already exists as a result of the assault. Finally, social harm may be inflicted if certain
information is released that should not have been. Consider a survey of sexual orientation among
correctional officers where it becomes public knowledge as to who is gay. This information may cause
those individuals to be treated differently, perhaps discriminated against, causing sociologic harm. It is
important that the researcher consider what type of harm may befall respondents or participants before
starting the research.

Privacy Concerns

The right to privacy is another ethical consideration. Individuals in America have a basic right to
privacy. In many cases, research efforts may violate that right. How far should individuals be allowed
to pry into the private or public lives of others in the name of research? Ethically speaking, if a person
does not want his or her life examined, then that right should be granted. All persons have a right to
anonymity. However, there are a variety of documents accessible to the public in which information
can be gathered that individuals would prefer to be unavailable, such as arrest records, court dockets,
and tax and property records. The ethical question that arises here is whether a person should have the
right to consent to access to certain types of information in the name of research. Giving consent in
general is a major ethical consideration.
Particularly in survey research it is common for the researcher either to ask for specific consent from
the respondents or at least acknowledge that by completing the survey, the respondent has conferred
consent. Normally, this only requires having the individual sign an informed consent form or for the
instructions to indicate that the survey is completely anonymous, voluntary, and that the information is
only being used for the purpose of research.

Voluntary Participation

As should have been noted in the previous example, not only did the researchers seek to obtain
consent, they also informed prospective respondents that participation was voluntary. Too frequently
criminologic researchers require their subjects to sign consent forms but (particularly within

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 institutional settings, such as military organizations, schools, and prisons) neglect to inform them that
their participation is voluntary. In fact, in these environments, participation is often coerced. Not all
research must use voluntary participation, but it is stressed that there must be valid reasons that can be
given showing that the knowledge could not otherwise be reasonably obtained and that no harm will
come to the participants from their compulsory involvement.

Regardless of the fact that the research was not intrusive and could cause no harm to the respondents,
informed consent was required. The rule of thumb in these situations is if there is any doubt as to
whether the research could be in any way construed to be intrusive, then consent should be obtained
from the subjects. It is also best to assure them that their participation is voluntary and they may
choose not to take part in the study.

Within the academic setting, informed consent and voluntary participation do not seem to be an
unusual requirement. To ensure that informed consent is provided, and to judge the value and ethical
nature of the research, many universities have an Institutional Review Board (IRB).
Established primarily for the review of research, usually experimental or applied, dealing directly with
human subjects, university IRBs often extend their review over any type of research involving human
respondents (survey or otherwise). Although having to attain IRB approval can be somewhat
frustrating, it is a useful process because it helps to reaffirm the researcher’s perceptions and
beliefs about the research and can help identify prospective ethical problems. Also, reviewers may
see problems overlooked by the researcher. It is better to err on the side of caution.
The process generally is not that difficult. It usually requires the researcher to submit basic
information about the proposed research, often in a format designed by the university. Appendix A
contains an example of a request submitted to an IRB for approval. Although not all IRBs make use of
the same format, the information required is similar across institutions.

Informed consent is valuable because it is important that research targets are allowed the right to
refuse to be part of the research. Although in survey research consent may not be a major problem
(because permission can be written into the documents), it does raise an interesting dilemma for
observational research (when the researcher may not want the subjects to know they are being
observed). The ethical consideration here is that as long as the subjects are doing what they normally
would be doing and the observations do not in any way directly influence their behavior or harm them,
it is ethically acceptable.

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 Deception
Some types of research (particularly field research that requires the researcher to in essence “go
undercover”) cannot be conducted if the subjects are aware that they are being studied. Such research
is controversial and must be carefully thought out before it is undertaken (Vito, Kunselman, &
Tewksbury, 2008). All too often the deception is based more on the researcher’s laziness or bias rather
than a real need to deceive. For example, a researcher is interested in studying juvenile behavior within
the confines of a juvenile facility. Rather than explain to administrators and the subjects what he or she
is doing, the research is conducted under the guise of an internship or volunteer work.
Depending on the type of research, there are always some ethical considerations. What is interesting is
that the science of research itself is viewed as ethically neutral or amoral. The ethical dilemmas rise
from the fact that researchers themselves are not neutral. This fosters the need for regulation in the
conducting of research so thatit does meet ethical standards (Fowler, 2009; Gavin, 2008).

7.4 The Professionalism of Research

According to Merriam-Webster’s Online Search, a professional is one whose “conduct, aims, or
qualities . . . characterize or mark a profession or a professional person”. [3] A profession is defined as
“a: a calling requiring specialized knowledge and often long and intensive academic preparation b: a
principal calling, vocation, or employment c: the whole body of persons engaged in a calling”.
Research in itself is a profession, and when mixed with other professions there is an even greater need
to conduct business in a professional manner. This often means that the profession has established a
code of ethics.

Many professions have support of written codes of ethics for research. However, although criminal justice
and criminology do not have a globally applicable code, the Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences, an
organization to which many academic researchers are members, did develop a code of ethics for its
members that includes a section on researcher ethics. Furthermore, although there seems to be no
universal code of ethics with respect to research, grant-funded research is more likely to have ethical
constraints imposed.

Ethical Research Criteria

Even though there is no universally recognized research code of ethics, there are some specifically
identified criteria that, when applied or followed, assist in producing ethical research. These criteria,
discussed next, include avoiding harmful research, being objective, using integrity, and protecting
confidentiality.

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Avoiding Harmful Research
The goal of research is to discover knowledge not previously known or to verify existing data. In
many instances this can be done without ever having to inflict any undue stress, strain, or pain on
respondents (i.e., historical or survey research). Unfortunately, at times research can be physically or
emotionally harmful. The ethical approach is to avoid any such research regardless of how important
its findings might be unless it can be shown that good from the information far outweighs the harm (an
eventuality that is rare even in criminological research).

Being Objective

Biases can be detrimental to a research project. One such bias deals with objectivity. Assume you do
not like drinkers, that you perceive them as weak willed and careless. Your research deals with
individuals convicted of driving while intoxicated. You are interested in their reasons for driving while
impaired. The chances are good that if you allow your personal feelings against drinkers to guide you
in your research, the results will be skewed, biased, and subjective. It is important, for good ethical
research, to maintain objectivity. Of course, being objective is just one important characteristic of the
ethical researcher.

Using Integrity

The last thing a researcher wants is for the results not to meet expectations. Sometimes, because of
how important the research is perceived to be, there may be a tendency to manipulate the data and
report it in a manner that shows the research was successful; that is, put a positive spin on an otherwise
negative result. This is especially possible when the research is evaluative and its results could
influence additional funding for the program being evaluated. When faced with this dilemma, because
of the desire not to jeopardize the program’s future or to improve future chances for research, the
researcher may not report the true findings. This is extremely unethical, but unfortunately, may be
more commonplace than one would like to believe. The ethical researcher accepts the findings and
reports them as discovered.
Protecting Confidentiality

One of the biggest concerns in conducting research is the issue of confidentiality or privacy. As it has
been suggested, privacy and confidentiality are two ethical issues that are crucial to social researchers
who, by the very nature of their research, frequently request individuals to share with them their
thoughts, attitudes, and experiences.

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 Because a good portion of criminal justice and criminologic research involves humans, chances are
great that sensitive information may be obtained in which other non research efforts might be
interested. For example, conducting gang research where street names and legal names are collected
perhaps along with identifying tattoos, scars, and so forth, and voluntary statements of criminal
history. This information is extremely valuable to a police agency. Ethically, that information must
remain confidential.

Reasons for Confidentiality and Privacy

Overall, five reasons have been identified as to why confidentiality and privacy are important in
research (Adler & Clark, 2007; Kline, 2009; Maxfield & Babbie, 2009):
1. Disclosure of particularly embarrassing or sensitive information may present the respondent
with a risk of psychology, social, or economic harm.
2. Sensitive information, if obtained solely for research purposes, is legally protected in
situations whererespondents’ privacy rights are protected.
3. Long-term research may require data storage of information that can identify the participants.
4. The courts can subpoena data.
5. Respondents may be suspicious as to how the information is truly going to be used.

The bottom line is that confidentiality and privacy must be maintained. There are two methods of
accomplishing this: physical protection and legal protection. Physical protection relates to setting up
the data so that links cannot be made between identifying information and the respondents. Reducing
who has access can also aid in protecting the data. Legal protection attempts to avoid official misuse.
Researchers are aided with this by an amendment to the 1973 Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets
Act, better known as the “Shield Law,” which protects research findings from any administrative or
judicial processes. As noted previously, funded research through such organizations as NIJ or the
National Institutes of Health is overseen by organizational regulations. Unfortunately, these guidelines
do not completely protect the data, leaving researchers responsible for gathering the data in a manner
that best protects the respondents.

By simply meeting the four suggested criteria, a researcher can avoid many ethical problems.
However, perhaps the best way to avoid ethical problems is to conduct research using a method that
does not compromise ethical standards: research that is legal, relevant, and necessary.

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Plagiarism
Plagiarism is presenting someone else’s work or ideas as your own, with or without their consent, by
incorporating it into your work without full acknowledgement. All published and unpublished material,
whether in manuscript, printed or electronic form, is covered under this definition. Plagiarism may be
intentional or reckless, or unintentional. Under the regulations for examinations, intentional or reckless
plagiarism is a disciplinary offence.
Paraphrasing the work of others by altering a few words and changing their order, or by closely following
the structure of their argument, is plagiarism if you do not give due acknowledgement to the author whose
work you are using.
A passing reference to the original author in your own text may not be enough; you must ensure that you
do not create the misleading impression that the paraphrased wording or the sequence of ideas are entirely
your own. It is better to write a brief summary of the author’s overall argument in your own words,
indicating that you are doing so, than to paraphrase particular sections of his or her writing. This will
ensure you have a genuine grasp of the argument and will avoid the difficulty of paraphrasing without
plagiarising. You must also properly attribute all material you derive from lectures.
It is important to cite correctly, according to the conventions of your discipline. As well as listing your
sources (i.e. in a bibliography), you must indicate, using a footnote or an in-text reference, where a quoted
passage comes from. Additionally, you should not include anything in your references or bibliography
that you have not actually consulted.
Plagiarism is defined as stealing someone else’s words or ideas and passing them off as your own. In the
context of academic writing, this means quoting someone’s words without quotation marks, or
paraphrasing an idea without including a proper citation.
Plagiarism is also a relevant concern in other contexts outside of academia. You might be aware of high-
profile examples of plagiarism in the worlds of art, politics, and music. It’s not only text that can be
plagiarized, but also creative works like music and images.

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Summary
The simple act of research, especially when it involves humans, creates a plethora of possible
ethical dilemmas. Because ethics is important to professions, researchers need to be cognizant
of several ethical considerations. These include determining whether the topic itself is ethical,
what harm or risk is involved to respondents, and confidentiality and privacy. The key to
ethical research is a professional approach. Some professions have created a code of ethics
applicable to research. There are four criteria that when followed, alleviate the need for such a
code: (1) avoid conducting harmful research; (2) be objective; (3) use integrity in conducting
and reporting the research; and (4) protect confidentiality.

Review Questions
1. What is ethical consideration in Research work?
2. What are the ethics of research work?
3. What is plagiarism in research work?
4. How to cite the references?
5. How can you use others research work?

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 References

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