MEC5041: Fluid Power Engineering (Second Semester, 2023 / 2024 Academic Session) - ADUST

1.3 Force due to the Deflection of a Jet by a Curved Vane

If a stream of fluid is deflected by a curved vane (see figure 1.5), entering and leaving
tangentially without impact, a force will be exerted between the fluid and the surface of the vane,
which causes a change in momentum. Usually, the components of this force parallel and
perpendicular to the direction of the incoming stream are calculated from the rate of change of
momentum in these two directions. The resultant of these components is the force exerted by the
vane on the fluid, which is equal and opposite reaction of the fluid on the vane.

Figure 1.5: Force exerted by a curved vane

Illustrative example 1.3

A jet of water from a nozzle is deflected through an angle θ = 60° from its original direction by a
curved vane which it enters tangentially without shock with a mean velocity 𝑉̅1 of 30 m/s and leaves
with a mean velocity 𝑉̅2 of 25 m/s. If the discharge from the nozzle is 0.8 kg/s, calculate the
magnitude and direction of the resultant force on the vane if the vane is stationary.

Solution

The resultant force R exerted by the fluid on the vane is found by determining the component forces
𝑅𝑥 and 𝑅𝑦 in the x and y directions, as follows:
From momentum equation,

𝑅𝑥 = −𝐹1 = 𝐹2 + 𝐹3 − 𝑚̇(𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑉𝑖𝑛 )𝑥

where, 𝐹2 is the force due to gravity; 𝐹3 is the pressure force; 𝐹1 is the force exerted in a given
direction on the fluid.
Neglecting force 𝐹2 due to gravity and assuming that for a free jet the pressure is constant
everywhere, so that 𝐹3 = 0.
𝑅𝑥 = 𝑚̇(𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 )𝑥
In the x direction, 𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉̅1; 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉̅2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
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MEC5041: Fluid Power Engineering (Second Semester, 2023 / 2024 Academic Session) - ADUST

𝑅𝑥 = 𝑚̇(𝑉̅1 − 𝑉̅2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) = 0.8(30 − 25𝑐𝑜𝑠60𝑜 ) = 14 𝑁

and similarly, 𝑅𝑦 = 𝑚̇(𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 )𝑦

In the y direction, 𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 0; 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉̅2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

̇
𝑅𝑦 = 𝑚̇(0 − (−𝑉̅2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)) = 𝑚𝑉̅2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 0.8(25𝑠𝑖𝑛60𝑜 ) = 17.32 𝑁

The force exerted by fluid on vane, 𝑅 = √𝑅𝑥 2 + 𝑅𝑦 2 = √(14)2 + (17.32)2 = 22.27 𝑁

This resultant force R will be inclined to the x direction at an angle

𝜑 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑅𝑦 /𝑅𝑥 )
𝜑 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (17.32/14) = 51.05𝑜

1.4 Force Exerted when a Jet is Deflected by a Moving Curved Vane

If a jet of fluid is deflected by a moving curved vane without impact at the inlet to the vane,
the relative velocity of the fluid at inlet is tangential to the vane. The force in the direction of motion
of the vane will be equal to the rate of change of momentum of the fluid in the direction of motion,
i.e. the mass of fluid deflected per unit time multiplied by the change of velocity in that direction.
Likewise, the force in the direction perpendicular to the direction of motion will be equal to the mass
flow rate times the change of velocity at right angles to the direction of motion.

Illustrative example 1.4

A jet of water 100 mm in diameter leaves a nozzle with a mean velocity 𝑉̅1 of 36 m/s as shown in
figure 2.5 and is deflected by a series of vanes moving with a velocity u of 15 m/s in a direction at
30° to the direction of the jet, so that it leaves the vane with an absolute mean velocity 𝑉̅2 which is
at right angles to the direction of motion of the vane. Owing to friction, the velocity of the fluid
relative to the vane at outlet 𝑉𝑟2 is equal to 0.85 of the relative velocity 𝑉𝑟1 at inlet. Calculate (i) the
inlet angle α and outlet angle β of the vane which will permit the fluid to enter and leave the moving
vane tangentially without shock; and (ii) the force exerted on the series of vanes in the direction of
motion u.

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Fig. 1.6: Force exerted on a series of moving vanes

Solution

If the absolute velocity 𝑉̅2 is to be at right angles to the direction of motion, the vane
must turn the fluid so that it leaves with a relative velocity 𝑉𝑟2, which has a component
velocity equal and opposite to u as shown in the outlet velocity triangle (Fig. 1.6).

(i) To determine the inlet angle 𝛼, consider the inlet velocity triangle. The velocity of
the fluid relative to the vane at inlet, 𝑉𝑟1, must be tangential to the vane and make an
angle α with the direction of motion,
𝐶𝐷 𝑉̅1 𝑠𝑖𝑛30𝑜 36𝑥0.5
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 = = = = 1.113
𝐵𝐶 (𝑉̅1 𝑐𝑜𝑠30𝑜 − 𝑢) (36𝑥0.866 − 15)
𝛼 = 48.06𝑜

To determine the outlet angle β, if 𝑉̅2 has no component in the direction of motion, the
outlet velocity triangle is right angled,
𝑢
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 = 𝑉 ; but 𝑉𝑟2 = 0.85𝑉𝑟1
𝑟2

𝐶𝐷 ̅1 𝑠𝑖𝑛30𝑜
𝑉
From the inlet triangle, 𝑉𝑟1 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
𝑢 𝑢 𝑢 15𝑠𝑖𝑛48.06𝑜
Therefore, 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 = 𝑉 = 0.85𝑉 = 0.85(𝑉̅ 𝑠𝑖𝑛30𝑜 )/𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 = 0.85(36𝑠𝑖𝑛30𝑜 ) = 0.729
𝑟2 𝑟1 1

𝛽 = 43.2𝑜

(ii) Since the jet strikes a series of vanes, perhaps mounted on the periphery of a wheel (as the
case of turbomachines), so that as each vane moves on its place is taken by the next in the series, the
average length of the jet does not alter and the whole flow from the nozzle of diameter
d is deflected by the vanes.

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Neglecting the force due to gravity and assuming a free jet that does not fill the space between the
vanes completely, so that the pressure is constant everywhere, the component forces in the x and y
directions (Fig. 1.6) can be found from the relation:

𝑅𝑥 = 𝑚̇(𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 )𝑥
𝜋𝑑 2
𝑅𝑥 = 𝜌𝐴𝑉1 (𝑉1 𝑐𝑜𝑠30𝑜 − 𝑉2 𝑐𝑜𝑠90𝑜 ) = 𝜌 ( ) 𝑉1 (𝑉1 𝑐𝑜𝑠30𝑜 )
4
𝜋(0.1)2
= 1000 ( ) 36𝑥(36𝑥0.866) = 8816 𝑁
4
1.5 Turbine Blading
Depending upon the types of blades used and the method by which the kinetic energy of
steam is converted to shaft work, the steam turbines may be classified as:
(i) Impulse turbines; or
(ii) Reaction turbines.

1.5.1 Impulse steam turbines

In impulse turbines, all pressure drops of the steam occur in the nozzles and there is no
pressure drop of the steam as it flows through the passage between two blades. Steam enters the
nozzles at a pressure, P0, and average velocity, V0, and undergoes an expansion process to a pressure,
P1, and the velocity increases to V1 . High velocity jets of steam from the nozzles impinge upon the

blades with velocity, V1 , get deflected by an angle, and come out at a lower velocity, V2 , impressing

a torque on the blades. The pressure of steam, P1 , remains essentially constant as steam flows through
the blades. The arrangement of the nozzles and blades as well as the flow through the blades of an
impulse turbine are shown in Figure 1.7.
From the principle of conservation of momentum, we have:

Momentum of steam jets at inlet to the blades – momentum of jets at exit from the blades =
momentum (angular) absorbed by the wheel in producing shaft work.

The wheel rotates only due to the impulsive effect of the jets. The blades of such a wheel are
called impulse blades.

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Fig. 1.7: Impulse turbine blades

Blades velocity diagram
The steam comes out from the nozzles at absolute velocity, V1 , and strikes the blades with relative

velocity, Vr 1 , while the blades rotate with means peripheral velocity, Vb .

The mean peripheral velocity of the blades is given by:

Dm N
Vb = … (1.16)
60
Where, Dm = mean diameter of the wheel
N = rotational speed of the wheel
The area of flow or blade annulus, Ab , is given by:

 D2 + D1 D2 − D1
Ab = ( D2 − D1 ) =  ( ) = D m hb
2 2
)( … (1.17)
4 2 2
where, D1 is the root diameter; D2 is the tip diameter; and hb is the height of the blades (see figure
1.7e).
The steam leaves the blades with relative velocity, Vr2, while its absolute velocity is V2.

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Let 1 and  2 be the inlet and exit blade angles, respectively; α is the nozzle angle subtended by the
nozzle axis with the direction of rotation of the wheel.
The velocity diagrams at the inlet and exit of the blade are as shown in Figure 1.8a. These diagrams
may be superimposed on a common Vb (blades mean velocity vector as shown in Figure 1.8b and
1.8c.

Fig. 1.8: Velocity diagrams for impulse turbine blades

It is the change in velocity of whirl, Vw , that drives the wheel and produces the torque.

Vw = (Velocity of whirl at inlet) – (Velocity of whirl at outlet)

Vw = Vw1 − Vw 2 = V1 cos  − V2 cos  … (1.18)

Case 1:   90 0 , cos   0, therefore, Vw1 and V w 2 are additive in estimating Vw (see. Fig. 1.8b).

Case 2:   90 o , Vw = Vw1 − Vw2 (see Fig. 1.6c)

From Fig. 1.8b, considering triangle ABC, we obtain:

V1 cos  − Vb = Vr1 cos 1 … (1.19)

And V1 sin  = Vr1 sin 1 … (1.20)

Dividing equation (1.19) by equation (1.20), gives

Vr1 sin 1 V1 sin 

=
Vr1 cos 1 V1 cos  − Vb

V1 sin 
Or tan 1 = … (1.21)
V1 cos  − Vb
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Also, from the exit velocity triangle, DBC, we obtain:

Vb + V2 cos(180 −  ) = Vr 2 cos(180 −  ) (from Fig. 1.6b,   90 o )

Vb − V2 cos  = −Vr 2 cos 

V2 cos  = Vb + Vr 2 cos 

Or Vb - V2 cos  = −Vr 2 cos  … (1.22)

Vr 2
Let Kb = … (1.23)
Vr1
Kb is the ratio of relative velocity at exit to the relative velocity at inlet, and it is called the blade
friction factor.
Due to friction in the blades, some amount of energy is lost, which is given by:
Vr21 − Vr22
Eloss = … (1.24)
2
Now, combining equations (1.18) and (1.22), we obtain
Vw = V1 cos  − V2 cos  = V1 cos  − Vb − K bVr1 cos 
Also, using equation (1.19) to replace Vr1 , we get:
V1 cos  − Vb
Vw = (V1 cos  − Vb − K b cos  )
cos 1

 cos  
= (V1 cos  − Vb )1 − K b  … (1.25)
 cos 1 

Since  = 180 -  2 → cos  = − cos  2 , equation (1.25) can be rewritten as follows:

Vw = (V1 cos  − Vb )(1 + K b ) … (1.26)
Also, from either of the velocity diagrams (Fig. 1.6b or Fig. 1.6c), we have:
Vw = Vr1 cos 1 + Vr 2 cos  2

= Vr1 cos 1 + K bVr1 cos  2

But  2 = 180 −  → cos  2 = − cos  = cos 1 (Assuming symmetrical blades, i.e. 1 =  2 )

 Vw = Vr1 cos 1 + K bVr1 cos 1 = Vr1 cos 1 (1 + K b )
Also, using equation (1.19), we obtain:
Vw = Vr1 cos 1 (1 + K b ) = (V1 cos  − Vb )(1 + K b ) … (1.27)

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Note: Blades are said to be symmetrical if the blade angles are equal, i.e. 1 =  2 (Impulse
turbines mostly have symmetrical blades).

Thrust exerted on the blades of an impulse turbine

(a) Axial thrust: this is the thrust produced by the difference in the axial components of the
velocities (along the axis of the shaft), and is given by:
.
Pa = m s Va … (1.28)
.
where, m s = steam mass flow rate
Va = Vr1 sin 1 − Vr 2 sin  2

(b) Tangential thrust: the tangential thrust impressed by the steam jets on the blades, Pt is
given by:
.
Pt = m s V w … (1.29)

The rate at which work is done by the jets on the blades is called the blading work or diagram
work, WD, which is given by:
.
W D = Pt xVb = m s VwVb … (1.30)

The energy input to the blades is the kinetic energy of jets being issued out from the nozzles,
which is given by:
2
. V1
Ein = m s … (1.31)
2
Therefore, the blading or diagram efficiency is defined as
.
rate of work done on the blades m s VwVb 2VwVb
D = = = 2
… (1.32)
rate of energy input to the blades 1 . 2 V
m s V1 1
2
The blading efficiency ( ( D ) expresses the fraction of kinetic energy of jets of steam issued from
nozzles which is converted to shaft work.

Velocity ratio and the maximum efficiency

Substituting Vw from equation (1.27) into equation (1.32), gives:

2(V1 cos  − Vb )(1 + K b )Vb 2Vb2 (V1 cos  / Vb − 1)(1 + K b )

D = = … (1.33)
V12 V12
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The velocity ratio ( ) is defined as the ratio of mean blade velocity (Vb) to the jet velocity (V1).
Thus,
Vb
=
V1
Therefore, equation (1.33) may be rewritten as:
 cos  
 D = 2  2  − 1(1 + K b ) = 2(  cos  −  2 )(1 + K b ) … (1.34)
  
d D
For maximum,  D , = 2(cos  − 2  )(1 + K b ) = 0
d
cos 
 opt = … (1.35)
2
Therefore, the maximum efficiency is found as:
 cos 2  cos 2   1 + Kb
( D ) max = 2  −  (1 + K b ) = cos 2  … (1.36)
 2 4  2

For negligible energy loss due to friction in blades, the blade friction factor, Kb, become unity.
Thus,
Kb = 1

 ( D ) max = cos 2  … (1.37)

Where  = nozzle angle

NOTE: The lower the nozzle angle, the higher is the blading efficiency. However, too low a nozzle
angle may cause energy loss at blade inlet. Therefore, the nozzle angle has to be maintained within
the range of 16o to 22o.

Graphical Method
The blading work (or diagram work) and the blading efficiency (or diagram efficiency) may be
estimated under a given operating condition by drawing the inlet and exit velocity triangles.
If the state of the steam inlet to the nozzles, the exit pressure and nozzle efficiency are known, the
absolute velocity of the steam is first determined from equation (1.11a) as:

V1 = 44.72(ho − h1s ) n 2
1

For a given wheel size (Dm) and speed (N), the mean blade velocity is calculated as
Dm N
Vb =
60

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With known values of  and Kb as well as the blades angles 1 and  2 , using an appropriate scale,
a horizontal line AB is drawn, the length of which represents the magnitude of Vb. Then, a straight
line is drawn from B, making an angle  with line AB and its length BC represents the magnitude
of the absolute inlet velocity V1. The line CA is joined and represents the relative velocity Vr1. The
angle CAD is then measured. This is the inlet blade angle 1 . Again, a straight line AE is drawn

from A making an angle  2 with the horizontal. For symmetrical blades, 1 =  2 . The length AE

represents the magnitude of the relative velocity at the exit of the blades, Vr 2 = K bVr1 . The line EB
is then joined, which represents the magnitude of the absolute velocity of the steam exit from the
blades. The velocity diagram is thus completed as shown in Fig. 1.9. From the diagram, Vw,Va1 and

Va 2 are measured and the following parameters may be estimated:

.
Pt = m s V w
.
Pa = m s (Va1 − Va 2 )

WD = PtVb

 D = (2VwVb ) / V12

Fig. 1.9: Construction of velocity diagram

Alternatively, the velocity diagram can be drawn as shown in Fig. 1.10.

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Fig. 1.10: Alternative velocity diagram with symmetrical impulse blading

If Kb = 1 ( Vr 2 = Vr1 ), there is no energy loss due to friction as steam flows through the blades, and
the discharge is axial, i.e. parallel to the axis of the shaft, for which  = 900. In this case, the velocity
diagram for symmetrical blades may be drawn as shown in Fig. 1.11.

Fig. 1.11: Velocity diagram for frictionless symmetrical

impulse blading with axial discharge.

Compounding of Steam Turbines

A steam turbine is basically an assemblage of nozzles and blades arranged in rows. One row
of nozzles followed by one row of blades is called a stage of a turbine.
In a steam turbine, if the steam from the boiler is allowed to expand down to condenser
condition, in a single row of nozzles, the velocity of the steam exit from nozzles, V1, would be very
large. Consequently, the blade velocity, Vb, also becomes very large also becomes very large. From
Dm N
the relation, Vb = for a given size of wheel (Dm), the rotational speed, N, becomes also very
60
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large. Such high rotational speed cannot be properly utilized. It entails large friction losses. The
centrifugal stress also becomes very large. Alternative, if N is fixed at a low value, the diameter of
the wheel, Dm, will become too large. In addition to this, with a single stage, velocity of the steam
exit from the turbine is sufficiently high and there is a considerable loss of kinetic energy with the
exiting steam.

Fig. 1.12: Single stage expansion of steam

In order to overcome these shortcomings, turbines are compounded or staged, where steam
instead of expanding in a single stage is made to expand in a number of stages, whereby the turbine
speed is reduced while securing the same enthalpy drop of steam. Steam turbines are compounded
basically in two ways:
(i) Pressure compounding or Rateau staging; and
(ii) Velocity compounding or Curtis staging.

Pressure compounding or Rateau staging

This is achieved by putting a number of simple impulse stages in series. The total enthalpy
drop of the steam across all the stages is divided equally among the stages. The pressure drops only
in the nozzles. Theoretically, the steam does not experience any pressure drop as it flows through
the blades. The kinetic energy of the steam increases as it passes through the nozzles and this energy
is partially absorbed by the blades in each stage in producing torque. Fig. 1.13 shows the
arrangement for a pressure compounded steam turbine and Fig. 1.14 shows the enthalpy drop across
a 4 stage turbine on an enthalpy – entropy (h – s) diagram.

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Fig. 1.13: Pressure-compounded impulse turbine with three stages

Fig. 1.14: enthalpy drop across a 4 – stage turbine

The velocity of steam at exit from the first row of nozzles of a 4 – stage turbine may be estimated
using the following relations:
1 1
V1 = 44.72(ho − h1 ) 2 = 44.72(ho − h4 ) / 42 =
1 1
(44.72)(ho − h4 ) 2 … (1.38)
2
(assuming equal enthalpy drop per stage)
If a single – stage turbine is used for the same enthalpy drop (h0 – h4), the jet velocity would
have been
1
V1 = 44.72(ho − h4 ) 2
… (1.39)

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Comparing equation (1.38) and (1.39), it can be deduced that for a 4 – stage turbine, the velocity of
steam leaving the nozzles in each stage is half of that for a single stage. For a 9 – stage turbine, it
will be one – third.
For each impulse stage operating at its maximum blading efficiency, the blade velocity is
given by:
cos 
Vb = V1 … (1.40)
2
Also, in line with V1 the blade velocity also gets halved for a 4 – stage turbine and consequently, the
rotational speed N gets halved for a given size of the wheel (Dm) or the size is reduced to half for a
given N. With more stages, N or Dm would further decrease.
Let n be the number of stages in the turbine. The isentropic enthalpy drop per stage is
therefore,
htotal
hstage = … (1.41)
n
Also, from equation (1.40),

Vb = 44.72(hstage )2
2 1
V1 =
cos 
2 2
 2Vb   Vb 
hstage =  = 4  … (1.42)
 44.72 cos    44.72 cos  
Therefore, the number of impulse stages required for a given enthalpy drop ( htotal ) can be

estimated under ideal condition as:

(hs ) total
n= … (1.43)
(hs ) stage

where, (hs ) total is the total isentropic enthalpy drop; (h) stage is the isentropic drop per stage.

Velocity compounding or Curtis staging

In this type of arrangement, all the pressure drop and hence, enthalpy drop of steam take place in a
single row of nozzles and the resultant kinetic energy of steam is absorbed by the wheel in a number
of rows of moving blades with guide blades in between two such rows. Fig. 1.15 shows a velocity
compounded steam turbine.

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Fig. 1.15: Velocity Compounded steam turbine

The high kinetic energy of steam jets from the nozzles is partly converted to shaft work in the first
row of moving blades with velocity decreasing from V1 to V2 . The exiting steam jets are then
deflected by the stationary guide blades to the next row of moving blades where part of the remaining
kinetic energy is converted to shaft work. A two-row Curtis or velocity stage has two rows of moving
blades with one row of guide blades in between.
The velocity diagrams for the first row of moving blades and the second row of moving
blades may be drawn in figure 1.16.

(a) First row of moving blades (b) Second row of moving blades
Fig. 1.16: Velocity diagrams for a 2-row Curtis stage

In the above diagrams, 1 = exit angle of the guide blades.

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1 ,  2 = inlet and outlet angle of the guide blades, respectively.

 3 ,  4 = inlet and exit angles of the second row of moving blades, respectively.
Vw1 , Vw 2 = changes in the velocity of whirl in the first and second rows of moving blades.

Va1 , Va 2 = changes in the axial components of velocity in the first and second rows of moving
blades.
For same friction factor for both moving and guide blades, we have:
V r 2 V r 3 Vr 4
= = = Kb … (1.44)
Vr 1 Vr 2 Vr 3
The tangential thrust is given by:
. .
Pt = m s  Vw = m s (Vw1 + Vw2 ) … (1.45)

The axial thrust is:

. .
Pa = m s  Vw = m s (Va1 + Va 2 ) … (1.46)

The blading or diagram work is given by:

Wd = P1 xVb … (1.47)

The blading or diagram efficiency is given by:

2Vw .Vb
D = … (1.48)
V12

For symmetrical blades, 1 =  2 and  3 =  4 and the velocity diagrams may be represented as

shown in figure 1.17.

(a) First row of moving blades (b) Second row of moving blades
Fig. 1.17: Velocity diagrams for a two-row Curtis stage turbine with symmetrical blades.

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MEC5041: Fluid Power Engineering (Second Semester, 2023 / 2024 Academic Session) - ADUST

Optimum Velocity ratio for a Curtis stage

Consider a two – row Curtis stage with frictionless symmetrical blading. The velocity diagram
may be constructed as shown in figure 1.18.

Fig. 1.18: Velocity diagram of a two – row Curtis stage

with frictionless symmetrical blades.

From figure 1.18, we have:

Vw1 = V1 cos  + V2 cos  1 = V1 cos  + (V1 cos  − 2Vb ) = 2(V1 cos  − Vb )

Vw2 = V3 cos  1 + V4 cos  2 = (V1 cos  − 2Vb ) + (V1 cos  − 4Vb ) = 2(V1 cos  − 3Vb )

 V w = Vw1 + Vw2 = 4(V1 cos  − 2Vb ) … (1.49)

The rate of energy transfer from fluid to rotor is,

.
W D = m s VwVb

The diagram efficiency (fraction of fluid energy converted to shaft work) is found as:
V1 cos 
− 2)
2
8Vb (
2 VwVb 2 x4(V1 cos  − 2Vb )Vb Vb
D = 2
= 2
= 2
V1 V1 V1

 cos  
 D = 8 2  − 2  = 8( cos  − 2  2 ) … (1.50)
  
Vb
where  = is the velocity ratio.
V1

d D
For optimum condition, =0 →  8(cos  − 4  ) = 0
d
cos 
 opt = … (1.51)
4

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MEC5041: Fluid Power Engineering (Second Semester, 2023 / 2024 Academic Session) - ADUST

Equation (1.51) gives the optimum velocity ratio for a two-row Curtis stage. Similarly, it can be
shown for a three – row Curtis stage that
cos 
 opt = … (1.52)
6
Generally, for a Curtis stage having z rows of moving blades, we have:
cos 
 opt = … (1.53)
2z
From equation (1.51), for a 2 – row Curtis stage,
Vb cos   cos  
 opt = =  Vb = 12  V1  … (1.54)
V1 4  2 
Equation (1.54) shows that in a 2 – row Curtis stage, the blade velocity is half of the value for a
 cos  
single stage Vb = V1 .
 2 
The maximum diagram efficiency is thus,
 cos 2  cos 2  
( D ) max = 8 −  = cos 2  … (1.55)
 4 8 

This is the same result as for symmetrical and frictionless simple impulse blading.

Isentropic enthalpy drop

For a 2-row Curtis stage operating at its maximum blading efficiency, we have

= 44.72(hs ) curtis  2
4Vb
V1 =
1

cos 
2
 Vb 
(hs ) curtis = 16   … (1.56)
 44.72 cos  

Reaction turbines
In reaction turbines, the pressure drop occurs both in the nozzles or the fixed row of blades
as well as in the moving row of blades since the moving blade passages are also of the nozzle shape.
Figure 1.19a shows the variations of pressure and velocity across a 2 – stage reaction turbine, while
figure 1.19b shows the variation of pressure and velocity in two-row Curtis stage followed by two
reaction stages.

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MEC5041: Fluid Power Engineering (Second Semester, 2023 / 2024 Academic Session) - ADUST

Fig 1.19: Variation of pressure and velocity in (a) two stage reaction turbine
and (b) in a 2 – row Curtis stage followed by two reaction stages.

As the steam expands while flowing through the blades, there is an increase in kinetic energy,
which gives rise to reaction in the opposite direction. The blades therefore, rotate due to both the
impulse effects of the steam jets (due to change in their momentum) and the reaction force of the
exiting jets impressed on the blades in the opposite direction. In this regard, a degree of reaction, R,
is therefore defined for reaction turbines as:
hmb
R= … (1.57)
h fb + hmb

where, hmb is the enthalpy drop across the moving blades and h fb is the enthalpy drop across the

fixed blades.
• If hmb = 0, R = 0, which is the case of impulse turbines where there is no enthalpy drop of

steam in the moving blades, and all the enthalpy drop of the stage take place only in the
nozzles,
• If h fb = 0, R = 1, which is the case of a pure reaction (R=100%) turbine. e.g. Hero’s turbine.

• If h mb = h fb = (hstage ) / 2, R = 12 or ( R = 50%). This type of reaction turbines (with R =

50%) are sometimes called Parsons turbine.

The velocity diagram for the moving blades of a reaction turbine with R = 50% may be drawn
as shown in figure 1.18.

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MEC5041: Fluid Power Engineering (Second Semester, 2023 / 2024 Academic Session) - ADUST

Fig. 1.20: Velocity diagram for a reaction turbine (with R=50%)

For R = 50%, h fb = hmb , V1 = Vr 2

Also, for similar geometry,  =  2 = 180 o −  (since Triangles ABD and DBC are similar).

Vr1 = V2 and 1 = 180 o − 

Vw = Vr 2 cos  − V2 cos  = V1 cos  + Vr 2 cos  2 − Vb = 2V1 cos  − Vb

(since V1 cos  = Vr 2 cos  2 )

Or alternatively,
Vw = Vr1 cos 1 + Vr 2 cos  2 = (V1 cos  − Vb ) + V1 cos  = 2V1 cos  − Vb … (1.58)

(since Vr 2 = V1 and  2 =  )
The diagram work per unit mass of steam is thus,
WD = VwVb = (2V1 cos  − Vb )Vb … (1.59)
Input energy to blades per unit mass of steam flowing
V − Vr1
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
V V V V V
Ein = 1 + r 2 = 1 + 1 − r1 = V1 − r1
2

2 2 2 2 2 2
Vr1 = V1 + Vb − 2V1Vb cos 
2 2 2
But,

V + Vb − 2V1Vb cos  V1 − Vb − 2V1Vb cos 

2 2 2 2

 Ein = V1 − 1 =
2
… (1.60)
2 2

2  V cos  
2Vb 2 1 − 1
2(2V cos  − Vb )Vb  Vb 
D = 2 1 2 =
 ( )
V1 − Vb + 2V1Vb cos  2V1 1 − Vb / V1 + 2(Vb / V1 ) cos 
2 2 2

Vb
Putting  = (velocity ratio)
V1

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MEC5041: Fluid Power Engineering (Second Semester, 2023 / 2024 Academic Session) - ADUST

 cos  
2  2 2 − 1
   = 2(2  cos  −  )
2
D =
1 −  2 + 2  cos  1 −  2 + 2  cos 

 cos  
2  2 2 − 1
   2(2  cos  −  2
D = = … (1.61)
1 −  2 + 2  cos 

d D
For maximum efficiency condition, =0
d

d D (1 −  2 + 2  cos  ) x 2(2 cos  − 2  ) − (−2  + 2 cos  ) x 2  (2 cos  −  )

=
d (1 −  2 + 2  cos  ) 2

( )
4 1 −  2 + 2  cos  (cos  −  ) − 4  (2 cos  −  )(cos  −  ) = 0

4(cos  −  )(1 −  2 + 2  cos  − 2  cos  +  2 ) = 0

cos  −  = 0   opt = cos  … (1.62)

Vb
i.e. = cos   Vb = V1 cos  … (1.63)
V1

Substituting for  opt into equation (1.61), gives:

2(2 cos 2  − cos 2  ) 2 cos 2 

( D ) max = = … (1.64)
1 − cos 2  + 2 cos 2  1 + cos 2 
The specific blading work corresponding to the maximum blading efficiency is found thus,
WD = Vw .Vb = (2V1 cos  − Vb )Vb

 V 
=  2 b cos  − Vb Vb = Vb2 … (1.65)
 cos  
The velocity diagram for a reaction turbine (with R = 50%) operating with maximum blading
efficiency may therefore be drawn as shown in Figure 1.21.

Fig. 1.21: Velocity diagram of a reaction turbine (R=50%)

operating with maximum blading efficiency

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MEC5041: Fluid Power Engineering (Second Semester, 2023 / 2024 Academic Session) - ADUST

Vw = V1 cos  = Vb

WD = Vw .Vb = Vb2 (specific work)

NOTE:
(i) Since Va = 0 there is no axial thrust imposed on the blades due to change in axial

velocity in a reaction turbine (R = 50%). The axial thrust is produced due to the pressure
difference across the blades in each rotor disc since there is pressure drop of steam across
the moving blades.
(ii) In a reaction turbine both the fixed and moving blades act as nozzles. The set of fixed
blades are usually referred to as the stator, while the set of moving blades are referred
to as the rotor.
The degree of reaction, R, of a reaction turbine may also be expressed in terms of the isentropic
enthalpy drop across the turbine. Figure 1.22 shows the isentropic expansion of steam as it flows
through the fixed and moving blades of a reaction turbine (R = 50%).

Fig. 1.22: Isentropic enthalpy drop in a 50% reaction stage.

From the figure above we have:
V12 − V22
(h s ) fb = h1 − h2 s =
2
Vr 2 − Vr1 V − V2
2 2 2 2

(hs ) mb = h2 s − h3s = = 1 (since h fb = hmb for R = 50% )

2 2
(hs ) fb = (hs ) mb

(hs ) stage = h1 − h3s = 2(h2 s − h3s ) = 2(hs ) mb

h2 s − h3s hmb 1
R = = =
h1 − h3s 2(hmb ) 2

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MEC5041: Fluid Power Engineering (Second Semester, 2023 / 2024 Academic Session) - ADUST

Carry-over efficiency
In a multi-stage steam turbine, the kinetic energy associated with the steam leaving the
preceding stage is available to do work in the following stage. Some loss is involved as the steam
travels from one stage to the next and is taken into account by what is known as carry-over
efficiency. Hence, the kinetic energy leaving one stage and available to the next stage is given by:
V22
E =  co … (1.66)
2
Where,  co is the carry-over efficiency and V2 is the exit velocity of steam from the preceding stage.

For symmetric staging (R=50%), the isentropic enthalpy drop across the stage is evenly distributed
between the stationary and moving rows of blades (see Fig. 1.22).
Thus,
(hs ) stage
(hs ) fb = (hs ) mb = = (hs ) row
2
Assuming the same nozzle efficiency,  n, for both fixed and moving rows, the kinetic energy of fluid

gained per row of fixed as well as moving blades is:

(hs ) stage
E row =  n . … (1.67)
2
Writing energy balance for the fixed row of blades, yields:
2 2
V1 V
+ h1 =  co 2 + h2
2 2
V11 −  coV22 (hs ) stage
= h2 − h1 =  n .
2 2
V1 −  coV2
2 2

(hs ) stage = … (1.68)

n
Equation (1.68) above gives the energy available for conversion in one stage.
The energy output or diagram work per unit mass of steam is given by
WD = (2V1 cos  − Vb )Vb (see equation (1.59); therefore, the combined nozzle and blade efficiency

( nb ) is given by:

(2V1 cos  − Vb )Vb

 nb =
(V1 −  coV2 ) /  n
2 2

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MEC5041: Fluid Power Engineering (Second Semester, 2023 / 2024 Academic Session) - ADUST

 2V cos  − 1 
2  1 
 Vb   Vb 
Or  nb =  n    2 
… (1.69)
 V1  1 −   V2  
co  
  V1  


Now, from the velocity diagram (Fig. 1.21) of the reaction turbine (R = 50%

V22 = Vr22 + Vb2 − 2Vr 2Vb cos 

2 2 2
V2 Vr 2 Vb 2Vr 2Vb
2
= 2
+ 2
− 2
cos  (Vr 2 = V1 )
V1 V1 V1 V1
2
V2 Vb
 2
= 1 +  2 − 2  cos  ( = )
V1 V1

V22
Substituting for into equation (1.69), we obtain:
V12

  2 cos 
 2 
− 1
 nb = n   
1 −  co (1 +  − 2  cos  )
2

2  cos  −  2
 nb =  n … (1.70)
1 −  co (1 +  2 − 2  cos  )

(i) Case 1:  co = 1   nb =  n … (1.71)

(Losses are confined to the nozzle friction only).

(ii) Case 2:  co = 0 → no carry-over of kinetic energy to the next stage

(velocity of approach is zero).

 nb =  n (2 cos  −  2 ) … (1.72)

Therefore, equation (1.72) expresses the efficiency of a single row of blades.

If  n = 1   nb =  b1 =  D = 2 cos  −  2 … (1.73)

d D
For maximum  D , = 2 cos  − 2  = 0
d
 opt = cos  (same result as equation (1.62)

(b1 )max = cos 2 

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MEC5041: Fluid Power Engineering (Second Semester, 2023 / 2024 Academic Session) - ADUST

It can be observed that the optimum efficiencies for simple impulse, Curtis and reaction
blading are all equal. However, when friction is taken into account, the reaction stage is found to be
the most efficient, followed by Rateau and Curtis staging. The friction losses are less significant in
the reaction stage since the flow velocities are lower.

Enthalpy drops in various stages

When comparison is made on the basis of enthalpy drop, it can be shown that the isentropic
enthalpy drop across the stage of a reaction (R = 505%) turbine is lower than that across a simple
impulse and 2-row Curtis stage.
Assuming the blades operate at maximum efficiency, we obtain for a reaction (R = 50%) stage:
Vb
 opt = cos  =
V1

 (hs )stage 
1/ 2
V
V1 = b = 44.72  
cos   2 
2
 
 (hs )50% reaction =2 
Vb
 … (1.74)
 44.72 cos  
But for a simple impulse stage,
2
 Vb 
(hs ) impulse stage = 4 
 44.72 cos  
And for a 2-row Curtis stage,
2
 Vb 
(hs ) 2− row Curtis stage = 16  
 44.72 cos  
Therefore,
(hs ) 50%
reaction stage < (hs )impluse stage < (hs )2−row curtis stage
Thus, the number of stages required for a given enthalpy drop across a 50% reaction turbine, given
( hs ) total
by n = will be about twice the number of impulse or pressure (Rateau) stages and about
(hs ) stage

8 times the number of 2 – row Curtis stages.

Vb
Also, for a 50% reaction stage, V1 =
cos 

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MEC5041: Fluid Power Engineering (Second Semester, 2023 / 2024 Academic Session) - ADUST

2Vb
For a simple impulse stage, V1 =
cos 
4Vb
For a 2 – row Curtis stage, V1 =
cos 
For the same blade speed (Vb), the velocity V1 is the highest for the 2 – row Curtis stage and the
least for the reaction stage. Since energy loss due to friction is proportional to the square of the
velocity of a fluid, it follows that the energy loss due to friction in the reaction stage is the least;
hence, the highest efficiency. Therefore,

 reaction (50%) stage   simple impulse stage   2−row Curtis

A comparison of diagram efficiencies with varying velocity ratio for the three different stages is
shown in figure 1.23.

Figure 1.23: comparison of diagram efficiencies between impulse, reaction and Curtis stages

1.6 Losses in Steam Turbines

During the expansion of steam within a turbine, certain losses take place both internally and
externally. Internal losses are associated with the flow of steam, while external losses occur outside
the turbine casing.
Internal losses may include the following:
(i) Losses in regulating valves;
(ii) Nozzle friction losses;
(iii) Disc friction losses;
(iv) Blade friction losses;
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MEC5041: Fluid Power Engineering (Second Semester, 2023 / 2024 Academic Session) - ADUST

(v) Partial admission losses;

(vi) Gland leakage losses;
(vii) Residual velocity losses; and
(viii) Carry-over losses.

Illustrative example 1.5

The velocity of steam entering a simple impulse turbine is 1000 m/s and the nozzle angle is 200. The
mean peripheral velocity of blades is 400 m/s and the blades are symmetrical. If the steam is to enter
the blades without shock, what will be the blade angles?
(a) Neglecting the friction effects on the blades, calculate the tangential force on the blades and
the diagram power for a mass flow rate of 0.75 kg/s. Estimate also the axial thrust and
diagram efficiency.
(b) If the relative velocity at exit is reduced by friction to 80% of that at inlet, estimate the axial
thrust, diagram power and diagram efficiency.

SOLUTION:

Given: Inlet steam velocity, V1=1000 m/s

Means blades velocity, Vb = 400 m/s
Nozzle angle, a = 20 0
Symmetric blades, 1 =  2
.
Steam flow rate, ms = 0.75kg / s

Required: 1 = ? 1 = ? Pa = ?  D = ?

From the velocity diagram,

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MEC5041: Fluid Power Engineering (Second Semester, 2023 / 2024 Academic Session) - ADUST

Vr1 sin 1 = V1 sin 

Vr 2 cos 1 = V1 cos  − Vb → Vr1 cos 1 = V1 cos  − Vb (Since Kb =1  Vr1 = Vr 2 due to no

friction)
Dividing the above equations, gives:

 V1 sin   −1  1000 sin 20 o  −1  342 

1 = tan  −1
 = tan   = tan 
V1 cos  − Vb  1000 cos 20 − 400   940 − 400 
o

1 = 32.35 o =  2

V1 sin  1000 sin 20 o

Vr1 sin 1 = V1 sin   Vr1 = = = 639.25m / s
sin 1 sin 32.35o
Vr1 = 639.25m / s

Vr2 = 639.25m/s

V = Vr1 cos 1 + Vr 2 cos  2 = 2Vr1 cos 1 = 2 x 639.25 x cos32.35o = 1080.07 m/s

.
Tangential thrust, Pt = m s V = 0.75 x1080 .07 = 810 .05 N

Diagram power, WD = PtVb = 810 .05 x 400 = 324 .02 kW

2V .Vb 2 x1080.07 X 400

Diagram efficiency,  D = = = 0.864 or 86.4%
V12 1000 2

With Vr1 = Vr 2 and 1 =  2 Va = 0

.
Axial thrust, Pa = m Va = 0

Vr 2
b) K b = = 0.8
Vr1

Vr 2 = 0.8Vr1 → Vr 2 = 0.8 x639.25 = 511.4m / s

V = Vr1 cos 1 + Vr 2 cos  2 → V = 639.25 cos 32.35 + 511.4 cos 32.350 = 972.06m / s
.
.
. .
Axial thrust, Pa = m s Va = m s (Vr1 sin 1 − Vr 2 sin  2 ) = 0.75 (639.25 sin 32.35 -511.4 sin 32.35o)

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MEC5041: Fluid Power Engineering (Second Semester, 2023 / 2024 Academic Session) - ADUST

= 51.30N

.
Diagram power, WD = m s VVb = 0.75 x972 .06 x 400 = 291.62 kW

2VVb 2 x972.06 x 400

Diagram efficiency,  D = = = 0.778 or 77.8%
V12 1000 2

Illustrative example 1.6

An impulse team turbine has a number of pressure stages, each having a row of nozzles and a single
ring of blades. The nozzle angle in the first stage is 200 and the blade exit angle is 300 with reference
to the plane of rotation. The mean blade speed is 130 m/s and the velocity of steam leaving the
nozzles is 330 m/s.

(i) Taking the blade friction factor as 0.8 and a nozzle efficiency of 0.85, determine the work
done in the stage per kg of steam and the stage efficiency.
(ii) If the steam supply to the first stage is at 20 bar, 2500C and the condenser pressure is 0.7
MPa, estimate the number of stages required, assuming that the stage efficiency and the work
done are the same for all stages and that the reheat factor is 1.06.

SOLUTION:

Given: Nozzle angle, a = 20 0

Blade exit angle,  2 = 30 0

Mean blade speed, Vb = 130 m / s

Steam velocity inlet to blades, V1 = 330m / s

Blade frictional factor, K b = 0.8

Nozzle efficiency,  D = 0.85

Required: Work done in the stage per unit mass of steam, WD =?
Stage efficiency,  stage = ?

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MEC5041: Fluid Power Engineering (Second Semester, 2023 / 2024 Academic Session) - ADUST

To find the inlet blade angle, 1

V1 sin  330 sin 20 o

tan 1 = = = 0.627
V1 cos  − Vb 330 cos 20 o − 130
1 = 32.08o

The steam relative velocity at the entry of the blades is

V1 sin  330 sin 20 o

Vr 1 = = = 212 .53m / s
sin 1 sin 32.08 o

At the exit, Vr 2 = K bVr1 = 0.8 x 212 .3 = 170 .025 m / s

Therefore, the work done per stage is

.
WD = m s VVb = 0.75 x972 .06 x 400 = 42.55kJ/kg

The blading efficiency is determined as:

2V .Vb 2 x327.334

b =  D = = = 0.7815 or 78.15%
V12 330 2

The stage efficiency is therefore found as:

 stage =  b . n = 0.7815x0.85 = 0.664

 stage = 66.4%

Now given: P1 = 20 bar, T1 = 2500C

P2 = 0.7MPa = 7.0 bar
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MEC5041: Fluid Power Engineering (Second Semester, 2023 / 2024 Academic Session) - ADUST

Reheat factor, RH = 1.06

Required: number of stages, n = ?
The internal or efficiency of the turbine is
int ernal = RH stage = 1.06 x0.664 = 0.7041 Or 70.41%

At P1 = 20 bar and T1 = 2500C, h1 = 2902.3 kJ/kg (from Table)

s1 = 6.5466 kJ/kg.K

s1 = s 2 s = s f + x2 s s fg

Where sf and sfg are saturated values at 7.0 bar

sf = 1.9922 kJ/kg.K; sfg = 4.7158 kJ/kg.K

6.5466 − 1.9922
x2s = = 0.97
4.7158

h2 s = h f + x2 s h fg = 697.22 + 0.97 x 2066.3 = 2701.53 kJ/kg

(h1 − h2 )
From  int ernal =
(h1 − h2 s )

h1 − h2 =  int ernal (h1 − h2 ) = 0.7041(2902 .3 − 2701 .53)

h1 − h2 = 141.326kJ / kg

Therefore, the number of stages required is found as:

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MEC5041: Fluid Power Engineering (Second Semester, 2023 / 2024 Academic Session) - ADUST

(h) total 141 .326

n= = = 3.32 or 4 stages
(h) stage 42.55

Illustrative example 1.7

In a stage of an impulse turbine provided with a single row wheel, the mean diameter of the blade
ring is 800 mm and the speed of rotation is 3000 rpm. The steam is issued from the nozzles with a
velocity of 300m/s and the nozzle angle is 200. The rotor blades are symmetrical and the blade
friction factor is 0.86. What is the power developed in the blading when the axial thrust on the blades
is 140 N.

SOLUTION:

Given: Blade mean diameter, Dm = 800 mm = 0.8 m

Rotational speed, N = 3000 rpm
Steam inlet velocity, V1 = 300 m/s
Nozzle angle, a = 20 0
Blade friction factor, Kb = 0.86
Required: power developed, P =?

The blade velocity is found as:

Dm N x0.8 x3000
Vb = = = 125.6m / s
60 60
The blade angles are determined as follows:
V1 sin a 300 sin 20 0
tan  1 = = = 0.6565
V1 cos a − Vb 300 cos 20 0 − 125 .6

1 = 33.30 =  2
Steam relative velocity at inlet is found from the relation:
V1 sin a = Vr1 sin 1

V1 sin a 300 sin 20 0

Vr1 = = = 187 m / s
sin 1 sin 33.30
Steam relative velocity at the exit from the blade is found as:
Vr 2
Kb =  Vr 2 = K bVr1 = 0.86 x187 = 161 m/s
Vr1
But, the axial thrust is correlated as:
. .
Pa = m s (Vr1 sin 1 − Vr 2 sin  2 ) = m s Va

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MEC5041: Fluid Power Engineering (Second Semester, 2023 / 2024 Academic Session) - ADUST

. Pa 140 140
From which, m s = = = = 9.81 kg/s
(Vr1 sin 1 − Vr 2 sin  2 ) (187 − 161) sin 33.3 o
14.275

V = Vr 2 cos  2 + Vr1 cos 1 = Vr1 cos 1 (1 + k b )

= 187 cos 33.3o (1 + 0.86) = 290.71 m/s

The power developed is found thus,
.
Pa = m s VVb = 9.81x290.71x125.6 = 358.194 kW

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