ETE 1161 Analogue Electronic

Circuits I
 Lecturer: HABARUREMA WILLIAM
 CLASS: Y1ETE

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 Module Title and code
ETE 1161 Analogue Electronic Circuits I
Lecturer: HABARUREMA WILLIAM
CLASS: Y1ETE

 Module content
 UNIT I: SEMICONDUCTORS MATERIALS AND
DIODES

 UNIT II : BJT (Bipolar Junction Transistor)

 UNIT III: FET (Field Effect Transistors)

 UNIT IV: SPECIAL ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND 2

APPLICATIONS.
 Chapter I. INTRODUCTIOIN TO SEMICONDUCTOR

 Basic Semiconductor Physics

– Semiconductors
– Intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductor
Doping
Carrier concentrations
What is a semi-conductor?
A semiconductor element is one that is neither a
conductor nor an insulator, but rather, lies
halfway between the two.
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What is a Semiconductor?
 Low resistivity => “conductor”
 High resistivity => “insulator”
 Intermediate resistivity => “semiconductor”
– conductivity lies between that of conductors and
insulators
– generally crystalline in structure for IC devices
• In recent years, however, non-crystalline semiconductors
have become commercially very important

polycrystalline amorphous crystalline

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 Semiconductor Material

 Semiconductors are a special class of

elements having a conductivity between
that of a good conductor and that of an
insulator.
 They are fall into two classes : single
crystal and compound
 Single crystal e.g Ge and Si
 Compound e.g GaAs , CdS, GaN and
GaAsP
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Group → 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

↓ Period

1 2
1
H He

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2
Li Be B C N O F Ne

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
3
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar

19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
4
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr

37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
5
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe

55 56 * 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
6
Cs Ba Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn

87 88 ** 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
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Fr Ra Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Uub Uut Uuq Uup Uuh Uus Uuo

57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
* Lanthanides
La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu

89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103

** Actinides
Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
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7
Semiconductor Materials

Nitrogen
(N)

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 Historical
 Diode , in 1939 was using Ge
 Transistor, in 1947 was using Ge
 In1954 Si was used in Transistor because Si is less
temperature sensitive and abundantly available.
 High speed transistor was using GaAs in 1970 (which
is 5 times faster compared to Si)
 Si, Ge and GaAs are the semiconductor of choice

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Atomic Theory
 The Atom
– Has three basic particles
• PROTONS
MAKE UP CORE OR NUECLEUS
• NEUTRONS
• ELECTRONS - ORBIT THE NUCLEUS

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 Atomic structure

Valence shell (4 valence electrons) Valence shell (4 valence electrons)

Valence
shells electron

Valence
+ electron
+

Nucleus
orbiting
electrons orbiting
electrons
Germanium Silicon

32 orbiting electrons 14 orbiting electrons

(tetravalent) (Tetravalent)

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 Atomic structure
Valence shell (3 valence electrons)
Valence shell (5 valence electrons)
Valence
electron Valence
shells
shells electron

+
+

Nucleus orbiting
electrons Nucleus orbiting
electrons
Gallium
Arsenic

31 orbiting electrons 33 orbiting electrons

(trivalent) (pentavalent)

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 ENERGY LEVELS

 Each and every isolated electron has a

specific energy level associated with
shell and orbiting electron.
 The farther an electron from the
nucleus, the higher is the energy state.
 Electron left its parent atom has a
higher energy state than any electron in
the atomic structure.

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 Band Theory

 Analogy to atoms
–From chemistry, we are familiar with the idea of
“electron clouds” orbiting the nucleus.
–The energy of the different clouds, or levels, is
discrete. Adding energy can cause an electron to
“jump” into a higher level. In the same way, an electron
can lose energy and emit a specific wavelength of light
when falling to a lower energy level. (Atomic spectra)
–Pauli Exclusion Principle: no two electrons can
occupy the same exact state at the same time. This is
why electrons fill the energy levels in the way they do.
–Valence electrons are the electrons bound farthest
from the nucleus 14
 Band Theory
 What is a crystalline solid?
–A volume of atoms covalently bonded in a periodic
structure with well defined symmetries.
–Example: Silicon
•Face-Centered Cubic (FCC) structure
•Group-IV elements (4 valence electrons)
 Where are the electrons?
–Covalent bonds share electrons. The e-are
delocalized, they can move around the crystal, orbit
any atom, as long as there is an open state (cannot
violate Pauli Exclusion)
–This forms discrete energy bands. Solving
Schroedinger’s Equation in the specific periodic 15
structure reveals these bands.
 Free state
 Energy from external natural cause the valence electrons
to absorb sufficient kinetic energy and break the covalent
bond. This is assume to be free state.
 Electron that has separated from the fixed lattice
structure is called free carriers.
 At room temperature, approximately 1.5X 1010 free
carriers in 1 cm3 of intrinsic silicon material
*intrinsic means material has been refined to a very low
level of impurities (electronically non impurities.
 Si atomic density: 5 × 1022 cm−3

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 Covalent bonding

Covalent bonding of Si crystal Covalent bonding of

GaAs crystal
This bonding of atoms, strengthened by the sharing of
electrons, is called covalent bonding
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Atomic Theory
 Valence Shell
– The outer most shell is called the VALENCE SHELL.
– It determines the conductivity of an atom.
– May contain up to 8 electrons in valence shell.
 One electron = a nearly perfect conductor.
 Eight electrons = an insulator.
 4 electrons in valence shell = semiconductor.
– Therefore the conductivity decreases with the increase of # of
Valence electrons.

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Atomic Theory
 Semiconductors
– Have four Valence electrons
– Neither a Good conductor or an insulator
– 3 most common materials are
• 1. Silicon (Si) solid state most commonly used.
• 2. Germanium (Ge) solid state less usage.
• 3. Carbon (C) resistors and potentiometers

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Atomic Theory
 Charge & Conduction
– The number of electrons equals the number of protons.
– Electrons are a -ve charge and protons are a +ve charge.
• Therefore the net charge = 0
– The loss of a valence band electron results in a positively charged
atom.
– The addition of an electron in an incomplete valence shell causes the
atom to become negatively charged.

 Electrons and Orbital Shells

– 1. Electrons travel in orbital shells
– 2. Each shell represents an energy range.
– 3. For an electron to move away from the nucleus to another shell, it
must absorb enough energy equal to the difference between the
initial shell level to that of the one it moves to.
– 4. The energy absorbed by an electron to move to a higher energy
level shell, will eventually give up that energy and return to a lower
energy level shell. 20
Atomic Theory

Forbidden zone

The energy gap is the space between any two orbital shells.
An electron travels through this gap but cannot
continuously orbit the nucleus within the gap.
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Atomic Theory
 The Conduction Band
– The band in which the electron is considered to be “excited” is
called the conduction band. This band exists outside the valence
band and is yet, another level higher. The higher the energy
difference , the harder it is to have conduction. Eventually the
electron will return to its lower energy level and it will release its
energy in the form of heat or light.

Forbidden zone 22
Atomic Theory
 Covalent Bonding
– …is the method by which atoms complete their
valence shells by “sharing” valence electrons with
other atoms.

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 Atomic Theory
 The Crystalline Structure
– 1. The atoms from a solid substance
– 2. Valence shells are complete thus they are electrically
stable. A complete valence shell produces an “insulator”.
Therefore INTRINSIC (pure) silicon is a very poor conductor.
 Like Quartz crystals, silicon and germanium form a smooth
glassy solid. However, at room temperature silicon has fewer
free electrons than germanium and is therefore more suitable for
most applications

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Atomic Theory
 Conduction
– When a valence electron absorbs enough energy and jumps to the
conduction band, a hole is left behind in the covalent bond. Therefore
for every conduction band electron there must be a valence band hole.
“Electron Hole Pair”.
– Within a few microseconds of becoming a “Free Electron”,an electron
will return to one of the holes in the covalent band in a process known
as Recombination. (see figure 1.5 below)
– NOTE: Conductivity within a semiconductor material increases as temperature
increase, and decreases as temperature decreases, therefore conductivity in a
semi-conductor is directly proportional to temperature.

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Silicon

 Atomic density: 5 x 1022 atoms/cm3

 Si has four valence electrons. Therefore, it
can form covalent bonds with four of its
nearest neighbors.
 When temperature goes up, electrons can
become free to move about the Si lattice.

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 Electronic Properties of Si
 Silicon is a semiconductor material.
– Pure Si has a relatively high electrical resistivity at room temperature.

 There are 2 types of mobile charge-carriers in Si:

– Conduction electrons are negatively charged;
– Holes are positively charged.

 The concentration (#/cm3) of conduction electrons & holes in

a semiconductor can be modulated in several ways:
1. by adding special impurity atoms ( dopants )
2. by applying an electric field
3. by changing the temperature
4. by irradiation
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 Silicon bond model: electrons and holes

Si is in Column IV of periodic table:

Electronic structure of Si atom:

• 10 core electrons (tightly bound)
• 4 valence electrons (loosely bound, responsible
for most (physical) properties)
Other semiconductors:
• Ge, C (diamond form), SiGe
• GaAs, InP, InGaAs, InGaAsP, ZnSe, CdTe
(on average, 4 valence electrons per
atom) 28
Controlling the properties of a
Semiconductor
 Silicon: 4 valence electrons.
 Each Si atom bonds to four others.
 Doping
•Replace some Si atoms with
atoms that do not have four
valence electrons.
•These atoms will have an extra
electron (group IV), or an extra
hole (group III).
•Doping increases the number of
carriers .

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Electron-Hole Pair Generation

 When a conduction electron is thermally

generated, a “hole” is also generated.
 A hole is associated with a positive charge,
and is free to move about the Si lattice as
well.

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Carrier Concentrations in Intrinsic Si
 The “band-gap energy” Eg is the amount of
energy needed to remove an electron from a
covalent bond.
 The concentration of conduction electrons in
intrinsic silicon, ni, depends exponentially on
Eg and the absolute temperature (T):
 Eg
ni  5.2 10 T
15 3/ 2
exp electrons / cm 3
2kT

ni  11010 electrons / cm 3 at 300K

ni  11015 electrons / cm 3 at 600K 31
Extrinsic materials

 A semiconductor material that has been

subjected to the doping process is
called an extrinsic material.
 Type of materials
– n-type
– p-type

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 Atomic Theory
 Doping..
– ..is the process of adding impurity atoms to intrinsic silicon or germanium
to improve their conductivity.
– Silicon and germanium are poor conductors in their intrinsic forms and
are useless as such. Once doped, the silicon and germanium
semiconductor material is referred to as Extrinsic (impure).
– Two types of element used in the doping process are:
• 1. P-type “TRIVALENT” - having 3 valence electrons
• 2. N-type “PENTAVALENT” - having 5 valence electrons.
– (See table 1.1 below)

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Doping (N type)
 Si can be “doped” with other elements to
change its electrical properties.
 For example, if Si is doped with phosphorus
(P), each P atom can contribute a conduction
electron, so that the Si lattice has more
electrons than holes, i.e. it becomes “N type”:
Notation:
n = conduction
electron
concentration
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Atomic Theory
 N-type
– Pentavelant impurities cause an excess of electrons in the covalent
bond.
– In the example (below) of arsenic (As) and silicon (Si), we can see that
there is one electron in the valence band of the arsenic atom that is not
bound to a silicon atom, thus very little energy is required to free it into
the conduction band. As a result of there being more conduction band
electrons than valence band holes in N-type materials, the electrons are
called the Majority Carriers and the hole are called the Minority carriers.
– (figure 1.6 & 1.7 page 8)

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Phosphorus Doping (n-type)

 Phosphorus has 5 valence electrons.

•P atoms will sit in the location of a Si atom in the lattice, to
avoid breaking symmetry, but each will have an extra electron
that does not bond in the same way.
•These electrons form their own band. Exactly where depends
on the amounts of the two materials.
•This new band is located closer to the conduction band,
because these extra electrons are easier to excite (and can
move around more easily)

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 Eg. Of n-type material doping
Doping with Sb

One electron loosely bound

and freely to move in the
crystal structure. The
atoms (in this case is
antimony (Sb)) with five
valence electrons are called
the donor atoms. Similarly
with Phosphorus (P) which
also is a donor.

Sb - antimony 37
Boron Doping (p-type)

 Boron has 3 valence electrons.

•B will sit at a lattice site, but the adjacent Si atoms
lack an electron to fill its shell. This creates a hole.
•These holes form their own energy band.
•This band is located closer to the valence band,
because these extra holes are easy to “excite
down” into the valence band.

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Eg of p-type material
•In this case, an
insufficient number of
electrons to complete the
Boron (B) covalent bonds.
•The impurities with
three valence electrons
are called acceptor atoms.
E.g of materials are
Gallium (Ga), Indium
(In)
•Void is called hole
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 Doping

• Doping involves in adding dopant atoms to an

intrinsic semiconductor.
• n-type materials: Doping Si with a Group V
element, providing extra electrons (n for negative)
and moving the Fermi level up.
• p-type materials: Doping Si with a Group III
element, providing extra holes (p for positive) and
moving the Fermi level down.
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Dopant

 Group V (n-type) –usually

antimony(Sb), arsenic(A),
phosphorus(P)
 Group III (p-type)-usually Boron(B) ,
Gallium (Ga) and Indium (In)

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 Doping (P type)
 If Si is doped with Boron (B), each B atom
can contribute a hole, so that the Si lattice
has more holes than electrons, i.e. it
becomes “P type”:

Notation:
p = hole
concentration

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Atomic Theory
 P-type
– Trivalent impurities cause the existence of a hole in the covalent
bonding structure.
– In the example of aluminium and silicon we can see that there is
now the existence of a hole in the covalent bond.
– Note that there are more holes than electrons the holes are said to
be the Majority carriers and the electrons are the minority.
 NOTE: In either the N-type or the P-type materials the proton-electron balance
still exists and there is a net charge of 0 in each.
 Review Figure 1.9 Page 9

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Atomic Theory
 Summary N -P type materials

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Summary of Charge Carriers

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 Electron and Hole Concentrations
 Under thermal equilibrium conditions, the
product of the conduction-electron density and
the hole density is ALWAYS equal to the
square of ni: np  ni
2

N-type material P-type material

n  ND p  NA
2 2
n n
p i n i
ND NA

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 Electron versus hole flow

•The valence electron

acquires sufficient
kinetic energy to
break its covalent
bond and fills the
void created by hole
•When the electron
move to fill the hole
therefore a transfer of
holes to the left and
electrons to the right
•This flow is known 47
 Majority and Minority Carriers

•N-type material, the electron is called majority carrier and hole

the minority carrier
•P-type material, the hole is called majority carrier and electron
the minority carrier. 48
 Temperature Dependence of Carrier
Concentrations
•The intrinsic concentration depends
exponentially on temperature. The
T3dependence is negligible.
•Ionization: only a few donors
[acceptors] are ionized.
•Extrinsic: All donors [acceptors] are
ionized
•Intrinsic: As the temperature increases
past the point where it is high enough
to excite carriers across the full band
gap, intrinsic carriers eventually
contribute more.
•At room temp (300K), the intrinsic
carrier concentration of silicon is:
  2kT  3 / 2  E  E / kT
no  2 2   m *n m * p 
3/ 4
e
 E g / 2 kT
e F i ni  1.5  1010 / cm 3
  h  

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 Effect on temperature

 Conductor – increase resistance with

increase in heat ( number of carrier do
not increase)- is said to have a positive
temperature coefficient.
 Semiconductor- increase conductivity
with increase in heat ( number of carrier
increase)- is said to have a negative
temperature coefficient.
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 Terminology
donor: impurity atom that increases n
acceptor: impurity atom that increases p

N-type material: contains more electrons than holes

P-type material: contains more holes than electrons

majority carrier: the most abundant carrier

minority carrier: the least abundant carrier

intrinsic semiconductor: n = p = ni
extrinsic semiconductor: doped semiconductor
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- Constant of Boltzmann k
-23
K=1.38x10 JK -1

- Constant of Plank h
h= 6.63x10-34J.s

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 Summary
 The band gap energy is the energy required to free
an electron from a covalent bond.
– Eg for Si at 300K = 1.12eV
 In a pure Si crystal, conduction electrons and holes
are formed in pairs.
– Holes can be considered as positively charged mobile
particles which exist inside a semiconductor.
– Both holes and electrons can conduct current.
 Substitutional dopants in Si:
– Group-V elements (donors) contribute conduction
electrons
– Group-III elements (acceptors) contribute holes
– Very low ionization energies (<50 meV) 53
Atomic Theory

 Review questions in text book.

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Assignment 1
 Name the materials that are suitable for
electronic devices
 What are the advantages and
disadvantages of each materials?
 What is a covalent bonding? Describe it.

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