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ST.

MARTIN'S ENGINEERING COLLEGE


An UGC Autonomous Institute
NBA & NAAC A+ Accredited
Dhulapally, Secunderabad-500 100
www.smec.ac.in

PROJECT REPORTS OF
EEE
A
PROJECT REPORT
On

ADVANCED DRIVE SYSTEM FOR DC MOTOR


USING MULTILEVEL DC/DC BUCK CONVERTER
CIRCUIT
Submitted by
1) Mr.Godisela Mohan Regd.No:17K81A0214
2) Mr.M.VijayKumar Regd.No:18K85A0218
3) Mr.G.Ruthesh Yadav Regd.No:18K85A0214
4) Mr.M.Akshith Yadav Regd.No:17K81A0243

in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Under The Guidance of


Mr.G.Sridhar Babu,M.Tech,(Ph.D)
Associate Professor
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS NGINEERING

ST.MARTIN’S ENGINEERING COLLEGE


(An Autonomous Institute)

Dhulapally, Secunderabad – 500 100

JUNE 2021
BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project entitled Advanced Drive System for DC Motor using
Multilevel DC/DC Buck Converter Circuit, is being submitted by 1.Mr.Godisela Mohan
Regd.No.17K81A0214 ,2.Mr.M.Vijay KumarRegd.No.18K85A0218,3.Mr.G.Ruthesh Yadav
Regd.No.18K85A0214, 4.Mr.M.Akshith Yadav Regd.No.17K81A0243 in partial fulfillment
of the requirement for the award of the degree of BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY IN
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING is recorded of bonafide work
carried out by them. The result embodied in this report have been verified and found
satisfactory.

Mr.G.Sridhar babu Dr.N.Ramachandra


Associate Professor Professor & HOD
Department of EEE Department of EEE

Internal Examiner External Examiner

Place: Dhulapally

Date:

i
DECLARATION

We, the student of Bachelor of Technology in Department of ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS


ENGINEERING, session: 2017 – 2021, St. Martin’s Engineering College, Dhulapally, Kompally,
Secunderabad, hereby declare that work presented in this Project Work entitled ADVANCED
DRIVE SYSTEM FOR DC MOTOR USING MULTILEVEL DC/DC BUCK CONVRTER
CIRCUIT is the outcome of our own bonafide work and is correct to the best of our knowledge and
this work has been undertaken taking care of Engineering Ethics. This result embodied in this project
report has not been submitted in any university for award of any degree.

1. Mr.Godisela Mohan Regd.No.17K81A0214

2.Mr.M.Vijay Kumar Regd.No.18K85A0218

3.Mr.G.Ruthesh Yadav Regd.No.18K85A0214

4.Mr.M.Akshith Yadav Regd.No.17K81A0243

ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The satisfaction and euphoria that accompanies the successful completion of any task would be
incomplete without the mention of the people who made it possible and whose encouragements
and guidance have crowded effects with success.
First and foremost, we would like to express my deep sense of gratitude and indebtedness
to our College Management for their kind support and permission to use the facilities
available inthe Institute.
We especially would like to express my deep sense of gratitude and indebtedness to
Dr.P.Santosh Kumar Patra, our beloved Principal, St.Martin’s Engineering College for
his invaluable encouragement, suggestions and support from an early stage of this research and
providing me extraordinary experiences throughout the work. Above all, his priceless and
meticulous supervision at each and every phase of work inspired me in innumerable ways.
We would like to express our gratitude to Dr.N.Ramachandra, Head &Professor, the
Dept. of Electrical and Electronics Engineering for his advice, supervision, and the vital
contribution as and when required during this research. We are proud to record that we had the
opportunity to work with an exceptionally experienced Professor like him. The time spent with
him will remain in my memory for years to come.
We would like to thank our supervisor, Mr.G.Sridhar babu, Associate professor, Dept. of
EEE for his continuous support and valuable guidance for our research work.
We would like to express our gratitude to our dept. project coordinators Mr. K. V.
GovardhanRao, Assistant Professor, Dept. of EEE and Mr. T. Penchalaiah, Assistant Professor,
Dept of EEE for their involvement with originality has triggered and nourished my intellectual
maturitythat will help me for a long time to come.
Finally, we are highly grateful and obliged to our college level Project Coordinators
Dr.Maalyadri, Professor in IT and Dr.R.Santhosh Kumar, Associate Professor in CSE for
their advice, supervision, and the vital contribution as and when required during this research
work and for their support and co- operation that is difficult to express in words.
1.Mr.Godisela Mohan Regd.No.17K81A0214

2.Mr.M.Vijay Kumar Regd.No.18K85A0218

3.Mr.G.Ruthesh Yadav Regd.No.18K85A0214

3. Mr.G.Ruthesh Yadav Regd.No.18K85A0214


iii
ABSTRACT
This project presents a new topology of clamped diode multilevel DC/DC buck
power converter for a DC motor system. The proposed converter circuit consists of four
cascaded MOSFET power switches with three clamping diodes and four voltage sources
(voltage cells) connected in series. The main objective of the new topology is to reduce
current ripples and torque ripples that are associated with hard switching of the traditional
chopper circuit. When the voltage profile of this converter is applied on a DC motor, it
positively affects the performance of the DC motor armature current and the generated
dynamic torque. The output voltage of the proposed topology shows an adequate
performance for tracking of reference voltage with small ripples that are normally reflected
into smaller EMI noise. Moreover, it has been shown that the operation of the DC motor
with the newly proposed chopper topology greatly decreases the motor armature current
ripples and torque ripples by a factor equal to the number of the connected voltage cells.

iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER NO TITLE PAGE NO

CERTIFICATE i
DECLARATION ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iii
ABSTRACT iv
LIST OF TABLE v
LIST OF FIGURES vi
LIST OF OUTPUT SCREENS vii

1 INTRODUCTION 1

2 SPEED CONTROL OF DC MOTOR 4


DC MOTOR
WHAT IS DC SERIES MOTOR
COMPONENTS USED IN DC SERIES MOTOR
DC SERIES MOTOR CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
ELECTROMAGNETIC MOTORS
SPEED CONTROL OF DC SERIES MOTOR
FIELD CONTROL METHOD
TAPPED DIVERTER METHOD
TAPPED FILD CONTROL METHOD
SPEED TORQUE CHARECTERISTCS OF DC SERIES MOTOR
WOUND STATORS
SERIES CONNECTION
SHUNT CONNECTION
COMPOUND CONNECTION
DC SERIES MOTOR ADVANTAGES
DC SERIES MOTOR DISADVANTAGES

3 PROPOSED CONVERTERS AND CONTROLLER CONFIGURATION 13


PROPOSED CONVERTER
PI CONTROLLER
WHY PULSE WIDTH MODULATION

4 PROPOSED CIRCUIT SIMULATION RESULTS 24


INTRODUCTION
BLOCK DIAGRAM
SIMULINK BLOCK LIBRARIES
SUB SYSTEMS
SOLVERS
FIXED-STEP AND VARIABLE-STEP SOLVERS
CONTINOUS AND DISCRETE SOLVERS
MODEL EXECUTION PHASE
BLOCK SORTING RULES

v
3 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE ENHANCEMENT 33

REFERENCES 34

APPENDICES 37

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO TITLE PAGE NO.

4.1 SPECIFICATIONS 30

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO TITLE PAGE NO.

DC MOTOR 04
DC SERIES MOTOR CIRCUIT 05
ARMATURE RESISTANCE CONTROL 08
FIELD CONTROL CIRCUIT 08
TAPPED FIELD CONTROL CIRCUIT 09
WOUND STATORS 10
PROPOSED CONVERTERS CIRCUIT 13
MLCC CIRCUIT 14
POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE WAVE PULSES 21
PWM PULSE 22
4.1 PROPOSED CIRCUIT CONFIGURATION 30

vi
LIST OF OUTPUT SCREENS

FIGURE NO TITLE PAGE NO.

4.1 REFERENCE SPEED 30


4.3 COMPARISION B/W TRADITIONAL CHOPPER AND PROPOSED MLCC 31

vii
CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Nowadays, Direct Current (DC) motors are the main horse power of the most of the
industrial process operations. These motors find a wide area of applications such as robotic
motions, automatic manipulations, electric and hybrid vehicles, traction system, servo systems,
rolling mills, and similar applications that require adequate process. The DC motors and their
associate control and drive system are classified as the first choice compared to the available
Alternating Current (AC) motors and their drive systems. The DC motor acquires this popularity
due to many merits such as simplicity of its control and drive system compared to AC
counterpart, linear variation of the torque and speed against applied armature voltage, wide
controlled speed and wide controlled torque ranges, compact of size with high power efficiency
for Permanent Magnet DC (PMDC) motors, and finally the overall low cost.
To control the DC motor rotor position, rotor speed, or the developed torque, the motor
field current or the armature voltage is controlled to achieve the control goal. The armature
terminal voltage through power electronic circuits is mostly used in the motor control system
especially for the relatively high-power machines.
The application of pulse width modulation (PWM) with a large DC link voltage to the motor
windings with hard switching strategy (as the case of traditional chopper circuit) causes an
unsatisfactory dynamic behavior. The abrupt variations in the voltage and the associated change
in the armature current corresponding to the PWM switching initiate a wide range of voltage and
current harmonics, which lead to torque ripples and the associated mechanical vibrations and
acoustic noise.
The mechanical vibration and noise in electric motors have become one of the most important
factors for motor selection to do a certain task. The sound of the noise and the vibration in the
motor are aroused mainly due to improper electromagnetic exciting forces that are continuously
changed in time and space corresponding to the switching operation. This resultant variable-
exciting force causes deformation in the mechanical structure and triggers the motor to vibrate
In a modern industrial situation, DC motor is widely used which is due to the low initial
cost, excellent drive performance, low maintenance and the noise limit. As the electronic
technology develops rapidly, its provide a wide scope of applications of high performance DC
1
motor drives in areas such as rolling mills, electric vehicle tractions, electric trains, electric
bicycles, guided vehicles, robotic manipulators, and home electrical appliances. DC motors have
some control capabilities, which means that speed, torque and even direction of rotation can be
changed at anytime to meet new condition. DC motors also can provide a high starting torque at
low speed and it is possible to obtain speed control over a wide range.
So, the study of controlling DC motor is more practical significance. Control theory is an
interdisciplinary branch of engineering and mathematics that deals with the behaviour of
dynamical systems. For controlling a motor in any system, a controller is needed which is to give
input to gate driver. For motor actuation, the microcontroller does not directly actuate the DC
motor. It will have a device that known as gate driver which is function to drive the motor. For
this system, it use motor driver as PWM amplifier to provide variable output voltage for
controlling the speed of the motor and positive or negative voltage to control the direction of
motor rotations. In real world, motor applications not only use the maximum speed of motor.
It maybe uses only 50% of its speed. So, the speed of the motor must be control. For
some applications, motor is using not only one direction but with alternate direction to control a
machine. In industrial field, some machine or robots cannot get in touch according to safety and
the location of those things. The new method, which extensively used in motor controller, is
pulse width modulation (PWM). PWM switching technique is a best method to control the speed
of DC motor compare to another method. The duty cycle can be varied to get the variable output
voltage. The concept of this system is same like DC-DC converter which is the output voltage
depends on their duty cycle. Digital-to-analog conversion is not necessary because PWM itself is
a signal that remains digital all the way from processor to control the overall system. By keeping
the signal digital, noise effects are minimized unless there is a change from logic 1 to logic 0,
which will make noise affect the digital signal. The Pulse-Width-Modulation (PWM) in
microcontroller is used to control duty cycle of DC motor drive. PWM is an entirely different
approach to controlling the speed of a DC motor. Power is supplied to the motor in square wave
of constant voltage but varying pulse-width or duty cycle. Duty cycle refers to the percentage of
one cycle during which duty cycle of a continuous train of pulses .
Since the frequency is held constant while the on-off time is varied, the duty cycle of
PWM is determined by the pulse width. Thus the power increases duty cycle in PWM. A direct
current (DC) motor converts DC electrical energy into mechanical energy. It produces a

2
mechanical rotary action at the motor shaft where the shaft is physically coupled to a machine or
other mechanical device to perform some type of work. DC motors are well suited for many
industrial applications. For example, DC motors are used where accurate control of speed or
position of the load is required and can be accelerate or decelerate quickly and smoothly. Plus,
the direction easily reversed

3
CHAPTER 2
SPEED CONTROL OF DC MOTOR

DC MOTOR

There are two types of DC motors based on the construction such as self-excited, and
separately excited. Similarly, self-excited motors classified into three types namely DC series
motor, DC shunt motor, and DC compound motor. This article discusses an overview of the
series motor, and the main function of this motor is to convert electrical energy to mechanical
energy. The working principle of this motor mainly depends on electromagnetic law, which
states that whenever a magnetic field is formed in the region of current carrying conductor &
cooperates with an outside field, then the rotating motion can be generated. Once the series
motor is started, then it will give utmost speed as well as torque slowly with high speed.
What is DC Series Motor?
The DC Series Motor is similar to any other motor because the main function of this motor is to
convert electrical energy to mechanical energy. The operation of this motor mainly depends on
the electromagnetic principle. Whenever the magnetic field is formed approximately, a current
carrying conductor cooperates with an exterior magnetic field, and then a rotating motion can be
generated.

Fig.2.1 DC Series Motor

4
Components used in DC Series Motor

The components of this motor mainly include the rotor (the armature), Commutator, stator, axle,
field windings, and brushes. The fixed component of the motor is the stator, and it is built with
two otherwise more electromagnet pole parts. The rotor includes the armature and the windings
on the core allied to the Commutator. The power source can be connected toward the armature
windings throughout a brush array allied to the Commutator.
The rotor includes a central axle for rotating, and the field winding must be able to hold high
current due to the larger quantity of current throughout the winding, the larger will be the torque
produced with the motor.
Therefore the motor winding can be fabricated with solid gauge wire. This wire does not permit
a huge number of twists. The winding can be fabricated with solid copper bars because it assists
in simple as well as efficient heat dissipation generated accordingly by a large amount of current
flow during winding.
DC Series Motor Circuit Diagram
In this motor, field, as well as stator windings, are coupled in series by each other. Accordingly
the armature and field current are equivalent.
Huge current supply straightly from the supply toward the field windings. The huge current can
be carried by field windings because these windings have few turns as well as very thick.
Generally, copper bars form stator windings. These thick copper bars dissipate heat generated by
the heavy flow of current very effectively. Note that the stator field windings S1-S2 are in series
with the rotating armature A1-A2.

Fig.2.2 DC Series Motor Circuit Diagram

5
The strength of these magnetic fields provides the armature shafts with the greatest amount of
torque possible. The large torque causes the armature to begin to spin with the maximum amount
of power and the armature starts to rotate.
Electromagnetic motors
A coil of wire with a current running through it generates an electromagnetic field aligned with
the center of the coil. The direction and magnitude of the magnetic field produced by the coil can
be changed with the direction and magnitude of the current flowing through it.
A simple DC motor has a stationary set of magnets in the stator and an armature with one or
more windings of insulated wire wrapped around a soft iron core that concentrates the magnetic
field. The windings usually have multiple turns around the core, and in large motors there can be
several parallel current paths. The ends of the wire winding are connected to a Commutator. The
Commutator allows each armature coil to be energized in turn and connects the rotating coils
with the external power supply through brushes. (Brushless DC motors have electronics that
switch the DC current to each coil on and off and have no brushes.)
The total amount of current sent to the coil, the coil's size and what it's wrapped around dictate
the strength of the electromagnetic field created.
The sequence of turning a particular coil on or off dictates what direction the effective
electromagnetic fields are pointed. By turning on and off coils in sequence a rotating magnetic
field can be created. These rotating magnetic fields interact with the magnetic fields of the
magnets (permanent or electromagnets) in the stationary part of the motor (stator) to create a
torque on the armature which causes it to rotate. In some DC motor designs the stator fields use
electromagnets to create their magnetic fields which allow greater control over the motor.
At high power levels, DC motors are almost always cooled using forced air.
Different number of stator and armature fields as well as how they are connected provide
different inherent speed/torque regulation characteristics. The speed of a DC motor can be
controlled by changing the voltage applied to the armature. The introduction of variable
resistance in the armature circuit or field circuit allowed speed control. Modern DC motors are
often controlled by power electronics systems which adjust the voltage by "chopping" the DC
current into on and off cycles which have an effective lower voltage.
Since the series-wound DC motor develops its highest torque at low speed, it is often used in
traction applications such as electric locomotives, and trams. The DC motor was the mainstay of

6
electric traction drives on both electric and diesel-electric locomotives, street-cars/trams and
diesel electric drilling rigs for many years. The introduction of DC motors and an electrical
grid system to run machinery starting in the 1870s started a new second Industrial Revolution.
DC motors can operate directly from rechargeable batteries, providing the motive power for the
first electric vehicles and today's hybrid cars and electric cars as well as driving a host
of cordless tools. Today DC motors are still found in applications as small as toys and disk
drives, or in large sizes to operate steel rolling mills and paper machines. Large DC motors with
separately excited fields were generally used with winder drives for mine hoists, for high torque
as well as smooth speed control using thyristor drives. These are now replaced with large AC
motors with variable frequency drives.
If external mechanical power is applied to a DC motor it acts as a DC generator, a dynamo. This
feature is used to slow down and recharge batteries on hybrid and electric cars or to return
electricity back to the electric grid used on a street car or electric powered train line when they
slow down. This process is called regenerative braking on hybrid and electric cars. In diesel
electric locomotives they also use their DC motors as generators to slow down but dissipate the
energy in resistor stacks. Newer designs are adding large battery packs to recapture some of this
energy.

Speed control of DC series Motor

The speed of this type of motor is controlled by the following methods


 Armature resistance control
 Field control
 Tapped Field control
The most frequently used method is armature-resistance control method. Because in this method,
the flux generated by this motor can be changed. The difference of flux can be attained by using
the three methods like field diverters, armature diverter, and tapped field control.

Armature-resistance Control:

In the armature resistance control method, a changeable resistance can directly be connected in
series through the supply. This can reduce the voltage which is accessible across the armature &

7
the speed drop. By altering the variable resistance value, any speed under the regular speed can
be attained. This is the most general method used to control the DC series motor speed.

Fig.2.3
From the diagram, it is clear that as and when the resistance is adjusted the speed is varied. We
know that in a series motor the field winding is in series and line and field current are the same.
Due to this, the current flow depends upon the value of resistance. If more resistance is put in
series with the armature, then the current flow will be less and vice-versa if less resistance is put
in series.
The relationship between the speed and the back emf is given by N Eb/ɸ

Field Control Method

The circuit diagram that explains the field control method is shown in the figure below.

Fig no.2.4

8
Tapped diverter method
From the diagram, we can observe that a field diverter is connected across the field winding
which is in series with the armature. The use of this diverter is to bypass the amount of flow
armature current through the machine. As and when the armature current is varied we can able to
vary the speed of the motor just like in armature resistance control. But the difference is, here we
bypass the armature current by allowing some amount of current through the field winding as
required. This is achieved by varying the resistance connected across field winding. If the
diverter has maximum resistance, the current flows through the field winding and vice-versa if
less resistance is connected.

Tapped Field Control Method

The circuit diagram that explains the Tapped field control method is shown in the figure below.

Fig.2.5
From the diagram, we can observe that a tapped series field resistance is connected in series with
the armature. Just like the armature resistance control method, the series field is tapped at
different points to vary the speed.

9
Speed Torque Characteristics of DC Series Motor

In general, for this motor, there are 3-characteristic curves are considered significant like Torque
Vs. armature current, Speed Vs. armature current, & Speed Vs. torque. These three
characteristics are determined by using the following two relations.
Ta 𝖺ɸ.Ia
N 𝖺Eb/ɸ
The above two equations can be calculated at the equations of emf as well as torque. For this
motor, the back emf’s magnitude can be given with the similar DC generator e.m.f equation like
Eb= Pɸ NZ / 60A. For a mechanism, A, P, and Z are stable, thus, N 𝖺Eb/ɸ.
The DC series motor torque equation is,
Torque= Flux* Armature current
T = If * Ia
Here If= Ia, then the equation will become
T= Ia^2
Wound stators
The DC series motor torque (T) can be proportional to the Ia^2 (square of the armature current).
In load test on dc series motor, the motor should be activated on load condition because if the
motor can be activated on no load, then it will achieve an extremely high speed.
There are three types of electrical connections between the stator and rotor possible for DC
electric motors: series, shunt/parallel and compound (various blends of series and shunt/parallel)
and each has unique speed/torque characteristics appropriate for different loading torque
profiles/signatures.

Fig .2.6
A field coil may be connected in shunt, in series, or in compound with the armature of a DC
machine (motor or generator)

10
Series connection
A series DC motor connects the armature and field windings in series with a common D.C.
power source. The motor speed varies as a non-linear function of load torque and armature
current; current is common to both the stator and rotor yielding current squared (I^2) behavior . A
series motor has very high starting torque and is commonly used for starting high inertia loads,
such as trains, elevators or hoists. This speed/torque characteristic is useful in applications such
as dragline excavators, where the digging tool moves rapidly when unloaded but slowly when
carrying a heavy load.
A series motor should never be started at no load. With no mechanical load on the series motor,
the current is low, the counter-Electro motive force produced by the field winding is weak, and
so the armature must turn faster to produce sufficient counter-EMF to balance the supply
voltage. The motor can be damaged by over speed. This is called a runaway condition.
Series motors called universal motors can be used on alternating current. Since the armature
voltage and the field direction reverse at the same time, torque continues to be produced in the
same direction. However they run at a lower speed with lower torque on AC supply when
compared to DC due to reactance voltage drop in AC which is not present in DC. Since the speed
is not related to the line frequency, universal motors can develop higher-than-synchronous
speeds, making them lighter than induction motors of the same rated mechanical output. This is a
valuable characteristic for hand-held power tools. Universal motors for commercial utility are
usually of small capacity, not more than about 1 kW output. However, much larger universal
motors were used for electric locomotives, fed by special low-frequency traction power
networks to avoid problems with commutation under heavy and varying loads.

Shunt connection

A shunt DC motor connects the armature and field windings in parallel or shunt with a common
D.C. power source. This type of motor has good speed regulation even as the load varies, but
does not have the starting torque of a series DC motor. It is typically used for industrial,
adjustable speed applications, such as machine tools, winding/unwinding machines and
tensioners.

11
Compound connection

A compound DC motor connects the armature and fields windings in a shunt and a series
combination to give it characteristics of both a shunt and a series DC motor. This motor is used
when both a high starting torque and good speed regulation is needed. The motor can be
connected in two arrangements: cumulatively or differentially. Cumulative compound motors
connect the series field to aid the shunt field, which provides higher starting torque but less speed
regulation. Differential compound DC motors have good speed regulation and are typically
operated at constant speed.

DC Series Motor Advantages

The advantages of the DC series motor include the following.


 Vast starting torque
 Easy assembly and simple design
 Protection is easy
 Cost-effective

DC Series Motor Disadvantages

The disadvantages of DC series motor include the following.


 The motor speed regulation is fairly poor. When the load speed increases then the machine
speed will decrease
 When the speed is increased, then the DC series motor’s torque will be decreased sharply.
 This motor always needs the load before running the motor. So these motors are not suitable
for where the motor’s load is totally removed.

12
CHAPTER 3

PROPOSED CONVERTERS AND CONTROLLER


CONFIGURATION

PROPOSED CONVERTER

The proposed block diagram of the multilevel chopper circuit (MLCC) for a DC motor
drive system is shown in Fig. 1. This suggested system consists of the proposed MLCC block, H-
bridge block in order to control the direction of the motor rotation, PMDC motor, in addition to
many control blocks that arrange and synchronize the operation of the whole system. In this
research work, the suggested multilevel chopper circuit (MLCC) is a 5-level power converter as
illustrated in Fig. 2, it is composed of four controllable power switches

Fig.3.1
such as power MOSFET. The MLCC consists of three clamped diodes, (D1, D2 D3), preferably
Schottky diodes and freewheeling diode DF: These diodes together with the power switches

13
actualize the correct operation of the multilevel chopper circuit. The voltage of the sources
VDC1, VDC2, VDC3 and VDC4 are of equal or different voltage values. These independent DC
voltage sources could be cell storage batteries, solar cell units or any equivalent DC voltage
sources.

Fig.3.2
Controller design for any system needs knowledge about system behavior. Usually this
involves a mathematical description of the relation among inputs to the process, state variables,
and output. This description in the form of mathematical equations which describe behavior of
the system (process) is called model of the system. This paper describes an efficient method to
learn, analyze and simulation of power electronic converters, using system level nonlinear, and
switched state- space models. The MATLAB/SIMULINK software package can be
advantageously used to simulate power converters. This study aims at development of the
models for all basic converters and studying its open loop response, so these models can be used
in case of design of any close loop scheme. Also as a complete exercise a closed scheme case has
been studied using cascaded control for a boost converter.
System modeling is probably the most important phase in any form of system control
design work. The choice of a circuit model depends upon the objectives of the simulation. If the
goal is to predict the behavior of a circuit before it is built. A good system model provides a

14
designer with valuable information about the system dynamics. Due to the difficulty involved in
solving general nonlinear equations, all the governing equations will be put together in block
diagram form and then simulated using Matlab’s Simulink program. Simulink will solve these
nonlinear equations numerically, and provide a simulated response of the system dynamics.

To obtain a nonlinear model for power electronic circuits, one needs to apply Kirchhoff's circuit
laws. To avoid the use of complex mathematics, the electrical and semiconductor devices must
be represented as ideal components (zero ON voltages, zero OFF currents, zero switching times).
Therefore, auxiliary binary variables can be used to determine the state of the switches. It must
be ensure that the equations obtained by the use of Kirchhoff's laws should include all the
permissible states due to power semiconductor devices being ON or OFF.

The steps to obtain a system-level modeling and simulation of power electronic converters are
listed below.

1) Determine the state variables of the power circuit in order to write its switched state-space
model, e.g., inductor current and capacitor voltage.

2) Assign integer variables to the power semiconductor (or to each switching cell) ON and OFF
states.

3) Determine the conditions governing the states of the power semiconductors or the switching
cell.

4) Assume the main operating modes of the converter (continuous or discontinuous conduction
or both) or the modes needed to describe all the possible circuit operational modes. Then, apply
Kirchhoff's laws and combine all the required stages into a switched state-space model, which is
the desired system-level model.

5) Write this model in the integral form, or transform the differential form to include the
semiconductors logical variables in the control vector: the converter will be represented by a set
of nonlinear differential equations.

6) Implement the derived equations with "SIMULINK" blocks (open loop system simulation is
then possible to check the obtained model).

15
7) Use the obtained switched space-state model to design linear or nonlinear controllers for the
power converter.

8) Perform closed-loop simulations and evaluate converter performance.

9) The algorithm for solving the differential equations and the step size should be chosen before
running any simulation. The two last steps are to obtain closed-loop simulations.

Each of the power electronic models represents subsystems within the simulation
environment. These blocks have been developed so they can be interconnected in a consistent
and simple manner for the construction of complex systems. The subsystems are masked,
meaning that the user interface displays only the complete subsystem, and user prompts gather
parameters for the entire subsystem. Relevant parameters can be set by double-clicking a mouse
or pointer on each subsystem block, then entering the appropriate values in the resulting dialogue
window.

To facilitate the subsequent simulation analysis and feedback controller verification, the pulse-
width-modulation signal to control the ideal switch can also be built into the masked subsystem
Fig. 9(a) and Fig. 9(b). For each converter to verity it’s working in open loop configuration
trigger pulses have been derived using a repeating sequence generator and duty cycle block.
Function block compares the duty cycle and saw tooth from repeating sequence- derived trigger
pulses are connected as an input to the switch control. Hence inputs for the masked subsystem
are duty ratio and input voltage, and the outputs are chosen to be inductor current, capacitor
voltage, and output voltage. When double-clicking the pointer on the masked subsystem, one
enters parameter values of the switching converter circuit in a dialogue window. The intuitive
signal flow interface in SIMULINK makes this mathematical model and its corresponding
masked subsystem very easy to create.

PI Controller

A variation of Proportional Integral Derivative (PID) control is to use only the proportional and
integral terms as PI control. The PI controller is the most popular variation, even more than full
PID controllers. The value of the controller output u(t)u(t) is fed into the system as the
manipulated variable input.

16
The u bias term is a constant that is typically set to the value of u(t)u(t) when the controller
is first switched from manual to automatic mode. This gives "bump less" transfer if the error is
zero when the controller is turned on. The two tuning values for a PI controller are the controller
gain, KcKc and the integral time constant τI τI. The value of Kc Kc is a multiplier on the
proportional error and integral term and a higher value makes the controller more aggressive at
responding to errors away from the set point. The set point (SP) is the target value and process
variable (PV) is the measured value that may deviate from the desired value. The error from the
set point is the difference between the SP and PV and is defined as e(t)= SP−PVe(t) =SP-PV.

Digital controllers are implemented with discrete sampling periods and a discrete form of the PI
equation is needed to approximate the integral of the error. This modification replaces the
continuous form of the integral with a summation of the error and uses Δt as the time between
sampling instances and ntnt as the number of sampling instances.

A P.I Controller is a feedback control loop that calculates an error signal by taking the difference
between the output of a system, which in this case is the power being drawn from the battery,
and the set point. The set point is the level at which we’d like to have our system running, ideally
we’d like our system to be running near max power (990W) without causing the limiter to
engage.

It is important to point out that due the the complexity of the electronic components within the
circuit path( i.e ESC, power limiter, and motor) I was not able to accurately create model
(transfer function) for the system. Having a transfer function would have allowed me to
simulate the system in a software package such as MATLAB/Simulink and assist me in finding

17
the right proportional and integral constant parameters for the controller. Unfortunately, due to
the lack of a model, the parameters were obtained via a trial and error format. The figure above
shows a software level block diagram of the P.I control algorithm. The controller receives a
current and voltage measurement which it then uses to calculate the power being drained from
the battery. Once the power is measured the error signal is calculated by taking the difference
between the set point and the power measured. The error signal then goes into the P.I control
loop where it gets multiplied by the proportional and integral constant. The output of the P.I
control is a power value and in order to convert it to a quantity that is comparable to that of the
control signal, it goes through a power to PWM signal converter. The adjusted PWM signal (
output of PWM converter) then gets compared with the throttle signal, which is also a PWM
signal, that is being sent by pilot,the least of the two gets sent to the controlled system. The
controlled system block encompasses the battery, motor, speed controller, and limiter.

PI control is needed for non-integrating processes, meaning any process that eventually returns to
the same output given the same set of inputs and disturbances. A P-only controller is best suited
to integrating processes. Integral action is used to remove offset and can be thought of as an
adjustable ubiasubias.

Common tuning correlations for PI control are the ITAE (Integral of Time-weighted Absolute
Error) method and IMC (Internal Model Control). IMC is an extension of lambda tuning by
accounting for time delay. The parameters KcKc, τpτp, and θpθp are obtained by fitting dynamic
input and output data to a first-order plus dead-time (FOPDT) model.

An important feature of a controller with an integral term is to consider the case where the
controller output u(t)u(t) saturates at an upper or lower bound for an extended period of time.
This causes the integral term to accumulate to a large summation that causes the controller to
stay at the saturation limit until the integral summation is reduced. Anti-reset windup is that the
integral term does not accumulate if the controller output is saturated at an upper or lower limit.

Suppose that a driver of a vehicle set the desired speed set point to a value higher than the
maximum speed. The automatic controller would saturate at full throttle and stay there until the
driver lowered the set point. Suppose that the driver kept the speed set point higher than the
maximum velocity of the vehicle for an hour. The discrepancy between the set point and the
current speed would create a large integral term. If the driver then set the speed set point to zero,
the controller would wait to lower the throttle until the negative error cancels out the positive
error from the hour of driving. The automobile would not slow down but continue at full throttle
18
for an extended period of time. This undesirable behavior is fixed by implementing anti-reset
windup.

P-only Control
Simulate the behavior for using a P-only controller with Kc=2Kc=2 and Kc=0.5Kc=0.5.
Implement a set point change from 0 to 10 and back in automatic mode (closed-loop). Include a
plot of the error between the set point (SP) and process variable (PV). What happens with
increased KcKc in terms of offset and oscillation?

PI Control
Configure the controller to add an integral term in addition to the proportional control
with Kc=2Kc=2. Simulate the PI controller response with integral reset
times τI=200,100,10τI=200,100,10. Include a plot of the integral of the error between the set
point (SP) and process variable (PV) with anti-reset windup. Explain what happens and why.

Open Loop Response with Dead Time


Add dead time θp=100θp=100 as an input delay. Simulate the behavior for making a step change
in manual mode from 0 to 10 (and back). Explain what happens in terms of oscillations.

P-only Control with Dead Time


With the dead time, simulate the response of a P-only controller
with Kc=2Kc=2 and Kc=0.5Kc=0.5. Implement a set point change from 0 to 10 and back in
automatic mode (closed-loop). Include a plot of the error between the set point (SP) and process
variable (PV). What happens with increased KcKc in terms of offset and oscillation?

PI Control with Dead Time


Simulate the response of a PI controller with τI=200τI=200. Include a plot of the integral of the
error between the set point (SP) and process variable (PV) with anti-reset windup. Explain what
happens and why. Explain the results.

WHY PULSE WIDTH MODULATION

1. Cheap to make.
2. Little heat whilst working.
3. Low power consumption.
4. Can utilize very high frequencies (40-100 Khz is not uncommon.)
5. Very energy-efficient when used to convert voltages or to dim light bulbs.

19
6. High power handling capability
7. Efficiency up to 90%

a modulation technique used to encode a message into a pulsing signal. Although this
modulation technique can be used to encode information for transmission, its main use is to
allow the control of the power supplied to electrical devices, especially to inertial loads such as
motors. In addition, PWM is one of the two principal algorithms used in photovoltaic solar
battery chargers,[1] the other being MPPT.

The average value of voltage (and current) fed to the load is controlled by turning the switch
between supply and load on and off at a fast rate. The longer the switch is on compared to the off
periods, the higher the total power supplied to the load.

The PWM switching frequency has to be much higher than what would affect the load (the
device that uses the power), which is to say that the resultant waveform perceived by the load
must be as smooth as possible. Typically switching has to be done several times a minute in an
electric stove, 120 Hz in a lamp dimmer, from few kilohertz (kHz) to tens of kHz for a motor
drive and well into the tens or hundreds of kHz in audio amplifiers and computer power supplies.

The term duty cycle describes the proportion of 'on' time to the regular interval or 'period' of
time; a low duty cycle corresponds to low power, because the power is off for most of the time.
Duty cycle is expressed in percent, 100% being fully on.

The main advantage of PWM is that power loss in the switching devices is very low. When a
switch is off there is practically no current, and when it is on and power is being transferred to
the load, there is almost no voltage drop across the switch. Power loss, being the product of
voltage and current, is thus in both cases close to zero. PWM also works well with digital
controls, which, because of their on/off nature, can easily set the needed duty cycle.

PWM has also been used in certain communication systems where its duty cycle has been used
to convey information over a communications channel.

20
Fig 3.3 wave for combined positive and negative pulse

An example of PWM in an idealized inductor driven by a voltage source: the voltage source
(blue) is modulated as a series of pulses that results in a sine-like current/flux (red) in the
inductor. The blue rectangular pulses nonetheless result in a smoother and smoother red sine
wave as the switching frequency increases. Note that the red waveform is the (definite) integral
of the blue waveform.

Principle

Pulse-width modulation uses a rectangular pulse wave whose pulse width is modulated resulting
in the variation of the average value of the waveform. If we consider a pulse waveform ,
with period , low value , a high value and a duty cycle D (see figure 1), the
average value of the waveform is given by:

As is a pulse wave, its value is for and


for . The above expression then becomes:

21
This latter expression can be fairly simplified in many cases where
as . From this, it is obvious that the average value of the signal ( ) is directly
dependent on the duty cycle D.

Fig. 3.4
Fig. 3.4 A simple method to generate the PWM pulse train corresponding to a given signal is the
intersective PWM: the signal (here the red sine wave) is compared with a saw tooth waveform
(blue). When the latter is less than the former, the PWM signal (magenta) is in high state (1).
Otherwise it is in the low state (0).

The simplest way to generate a PWM signal is the intersective method, which requires only
a sawtooth or a triangle waveform (easily generated using a simple oscillator) and a comparator.
When the value of the reference signal (the red sine wave in figure 2) is more than the
modulation waveform (blue), the PWM signal (magenta) is in the high state, otherwise it is in the
low state.

22
The PWM is a technique which is used to drive the inertial loads since a very long time.The
simple example of an inertial load is a motor. Apply the power to a motor for a very short period
of time and then turn off the power: it can be observed that the motor is still running even after
the power has been cut off from it. This is due to the inertia of the motor and the significance of
this factor is that the continuous power is not required for that kind of devices to operate. A burst
power can save the total power supplied to the load while achieving the same performance from
the device as it runs on continuous power.

The PWM technique is use in devices like DC motors, Loudspeakers, Class -D


Amplifiers, SMPS etc. They are also used in communication field as-well. The modulation
techniques like AM, FM are widely used RF communication whereas the PWM is modulation
technique is mostly used in Optical Fiber Communication (OFC).

As in the case of the inertial loads mentioned previously, the PWM in a communication link
greatly saves the transmitter power. The immunity of the PWM transmission against the inter-
symbol interference is another advantage. This article discusses the technique of generating a
PWM wave corresponding to a modulating sine wave.

23
CHAPTER 4

PROPOSED CIRCUIT SIMULATION RESULTS

INTRODUCTION
Simulink is a software package for modeling, simulating, and analyzing dynamical
systems. It supports linear and nonlinear systems, modeled in continuous time, sampled time, or
a hybrid of the two. For modeling, Simulink provides a graphical user interface (GUI) for
building models as block diagrams, using click-and-drag mouse operations. Models are
hierarchical, so we can build models using both top-down and bottom-up approaches. We can
view the system at a high level, then double-click on blocks to go down through the levels to see
increasing levels of model detail. This approach provides insight into how a model is organized
and how its parts interact. After we define a model, we can simulate it, using a choice of
integration methods, either from the Simulink menus or by entering commands in MATLAB's
command window. Using scopes and other display blocks, we can see the simulation results
while the simulation is running. In addition, we can change parameters and immediately see what
happens, for "what if" exploration.
The simulation results can be put in the MATLAB workspace for post processing and
visualization. Simulink can be used to explore the behavior of a wide range of real-world
dynamic systems, including electrical circuits, shock absorbers, braking systems, and many other
electrical, mechanical, and thermodynamic systems.
Simulating a dynamic system is a two-step process with Simulink. First, we create a graphical
model of the system to be simulated, using Simulink's model editor. The model depicts the time-
dependent mathematical relationships among the system’s inputs, states, and outputs. Then, we
use Simulink to simulate the behavior of the system over a specified time span. Simulink uses
information that you entered into the model to perform the simulation.

BLOCK DIAGRAM

A Simulink block diagram is a pictorial model of a dynamic system. It consists of a set of


symbols, called blocks, interconnected by lines. Each block represents an elementary
dynamic system that produces an output either continuously (a continuous block) or at

24
specific points in time (a discrete block). The lines represent connections of block inputs to
block outputs. Every block in a block diagram is an instance of a specific type of block. The
type of the block determines the relationship between a block's outputs and its inputs, states,
and time. A block diagram can contain any number of instances of any type of block needed
to model a system. Blocks represent elementary dynamic systems that Simulink knows how
to simulate. A block comprises one or more of the following:

1) A set of inputs,
2) A set of states, and
3) A set of outputs.
A block's output is a function of time and the block's inputs and states (if any). The
specific function that relates a block's output to its inputs, states, and time depends on the type of
block of which the block is an instance. Continuous Versus discrete Blocks Simulink's standard
block set includes continuous blocks and discrete blocks. Continuous blocks respond
continuously to continuously changing input. Discrete blocks, by contrast, respond to changes in
input only at integral multiples of a fixed interval called the block's sample time. Discrete blocks
hold their output constant between successive sample time hits. Each discrete block includes a
sample time parameter that allows you to specify its sample rate. The Simulink blocks can be
either continuous or discrete, depending on whether they are driven by continuous or discrete
blocks. A block that can be either discrete or continuous is said to have an implicit sample rate.
The implicit sample time is continuous if any of the block's inputs are continuous. The implicit
sample time is equal to the shortest input sample time if all the input sample times are integral
multiples of the shortest time. Otherwise, the input sample time is equal to the fundamental
sample time of the inputs, where the fundamental sample time of a set of sample times is defined
as the greatest integer divisor of the set of sample times.

Simulink can optionally color code a block diagram to indicate the sample times of the
blocks it contains, e.g., black (continuous), magenta (constant), yellow (hybrid), red (fastest
discrete), and so on. The block contains block name, icon, and block library that contain the
block, the purpose of the block

25
SIMULINK BLOCK LIBRARIES

Simulink organizes its blocks into block libraries according to their behavior.

1) The Sources library contains blocks that generate signals.


2) The Sinks library contains blocks that display or write block output.
3) The Discrete library contains blocks that describe discrete-time components.
4) The Continuous library contains blocks that describe linear functions.
5) The Math library contains blocks that describe general mathematics functions.
6) The Functions & Tables library contains blocks that describe general functions
and table look-up operations.
7) The Nonlinear library contains blocks that describe nonlinear functions.
8) The Signal & Systems library contains blocks that allow multiplexing and
demultiplexing, implement external input/output, pass data to other parts of the model,
and perform other functions.
9) The Subsystems library contains blocks for creating various types of subsystems.
10) The Block sets and Toolboxes library contains the Extras block library of specialized
blocks.
SUB SYSTEMS

Simulink allows to model a complex system as a set of interconnected subsystems each


of which is represented by a block diagram. We create a subsystem using Simulink's Subsystem
block and the Simulink model editor. We can embed subsystems with subsystems to any depth to
create hierarchical models. We can create conditionally executed subsystems that are executed
only when a transition occurs on a triggering or enabling input.

SOLVERS
Simulink simulates a dynamic system by computing its states at successive time step
solver a specified time span, using information provided by the model. The process of computing
the successive states of a system from its model is known as solving the model. No single
method of solving a model suffices for all systems. Accordingly, Simulink provides a set of

26
programs, known as solvers, that each embody a particular approach to solving a model. The
Simulation Parameters dialog box allows us to choose the solver most suitable for our model.

Fixed-Step and Variable-Step Solvers


Fixed-step solvers solve the model at regular time intervals from the beginning to the end
of the simulation. The size of the interval is known as the step-size. We can specify the step size
or let the solver choose the step size. Generally decreasing the step size increases the accuracy of
the results while increasing the time required to simulate the system.
Variable-step solvers vary the step size during the simulation, reducing the step size to
increase accuracy when a model's states are changing rapidly and increasing the step size to
avoid taking unnecessary steps when the model's states are changing slowly. Computing the step
size adds to the computational overhead at each step but can reduce the total number of steps,
and hence simulation time, required to maintain a specified level of accuracy for models with
rapidly changing or piecewise continuous states.

Continuous and Discrete Solvers

Continuous solvers use numerical integration to compute a model's continuous states


at the current time step from the states at previous time steps and the state derivatives.
Continuous solvers rely on the model's blocks to compute the values of the model's discrete
states at each time step. Mathematicians have developed a wide variety of numerical integration
techniques for solving the ordinary differential equations (ODEs) that represent the continuous
states of dynamic systems. Simulink provides an extensive set of fixed-step and variable-step
continuous solvers, each implementing a specific ODE solution method. Some continuous
solvers subdivide the simulation time span into major and minor steps, where a minor time step
represents a subdivision of the major time step. The solver produces a result at each major time
step. It use results at the minor time steps to improve the accuracy of the result at the major time
step.

Discrete solvers exist primarily to solve purely discrete models. They compute the next
simulation time-step for a model and nothing else. They do not compute continuous states and

27
they rely on the model's blocks to update the model's discrete states. We can use a continuous
solver, but not a discrete solver, to solve a model that contains both continuous and discrete
states. This is because a discrete solver does not handle continuous states. If you select a discrete
solver for a continuous model, Simulink disregards your selection and uses a continuous solver
instead when solving the model.
Simulink provides two discrete solvers, a fixed-step discrete solver and a variable-step
discrete solver. The fixed-step solver by default chooses a step size and hence simulation rate
fast enough to track state changes in the fastest block in our model. The variable-step solver
adjusts the simulation step size to keep pace with the actual rate of discrete state changes in our
model. This can avoid unnecessary steps and hence shorten simulation time for multirate models.

MODEL EXECUTION PHASE

In the simulation model execution phase, Simulink successively computes the states and
outputs of the system at intervals from the simulation start time to the finish time, using
information provided by the model. The successive time points at which the states and outputs
are computed are called time steps. The length of time between steps is called the step size. The
step size depends on the type of solver used to compute the system's continuous states, the
system's fundamental sample time, and whether the system's continuous states have
discontinuities (Zero Crossing Detection). At the start of the simulation, the model specifies the
initial states and outputs of the system to be simulated. At each step, Simulink computes new
values for the system's inputs, states, and outputs and updates the model to reflect the computed
values. At the end of the simulation, the model reflects the final values of the system's inputs,
states, and outputs. At each time step:

1) Simulink Updates the outputs of the models' blocks in sorted order. Simulink computes a
block's outputs by invoking the block's output function. Simulink passes the current time
and the block's inputs and states to the output function as it may require these arguments
to compute the block's output. Simulink updates the output of a discrete block only if the
current step is an integral multiple of the block's sample time.
2) Updates the states of the model's blocks in sorted order. Simulink computes a block's
discrete states by invoking its discrete state update function. Simulink computes a block's

28
continuous states by numerically integrating the time derivatives of the continuous states.
It computes the time derivatives of the states by invoking the block's continuous
derivatives function.
3) Optionally checks for discontinuities in the continuous states of blocks. Simulink uses a
technique called zero crossing detection to detect discontinuities in continuous states.
4) Computes the time for the next time step.
Simulink repeats steps 1 through 4 until the simulation stop time is reached.

Block Sorting Rules


Simulink uses the following basic update rules to sort the blocks:

1) Each block must be updated before any of the direct-feed through blocks that it drives.
This rule ensures that the inputs to direct-feed through blocks will be valid when they are
updated.
2) Non direct-feed through blocks can be updated in any order as long as they are updated
before any direct-feed through blocks that they drive. This rule can be met by putting all
non direct-feed through blocks at the head of the update list in any order. It thus allows
Simulink to ignore non direct-feed through blocks during the sorting process.
The result of applying these rules is an update list in which non direct-feed through
blocks appear at the head of the list in no particular order followed by direct-feed through blocks
in the order required to supply valid inputs to the blocks they drive. During the sorting process,
Simulink checks for and flags the occurrence of algebraic loops, that is, signal loops in which an
output of a direct-feed through block is connected directly or indirectly to one of the block's
inputs. Such loops seemingly create a deadlock condition since Simulink needs the input of a
direct-feed through block in order to compute its output. However, an algebraic loop can
represent a set of simultaneous algebraic equations (hence the name) where the block's input and
output are the unknowns. Further, these equations can have valid solutions at each time step.
Accordingly, Simulink assumes that loops involving direct-feed through blocks do, in fact,
represent a solvable set of algebraic equations and attempts to solve them each time the block is
updated during a simulation.

29
Table no.4.1

Fig 4.1 Proposed circuit configuration

Fig 4.2 Reference speed

30
Fig.4.3 Comparison b/w traditional chopper and proposed MLCC

To evaluate the performance of the proposed multilevel chopper circuit, two Simulink
models are built. One model is given for the proposed MLCC with the structure given in section
II and the other one is given for the traditional chopper circuit with one fixed DC voltage source
and one controllable switching element. The traditional chopper circuit works in a step-down
mode to achieve the required reference voltage. The results of the output voltage performance is
shown where the reference voltage (red) is changed from 40V to 20V then to 30V and thereafter
to 6V for a duration of 0.05 s for each voltage level. It is clear from the comparison of these two
figures that the proposed system works properly to provide the required level voltage to the load.
The system keeps switching only between two consecutive voltage levels,

31
While the tradition system of Fig must follow hard switching across the ultimate voltage
range (0-48V) to provide the required reference voltage. The torque ripple in the steady-state
performance is shown in the magnified part of Fig for the both drive systems.
The peak to peak torque ripple is approximately 0.7 Nm for the traditional chopper drive
circuit and around 0.2 Nm for the proposed MLCC. It can be roughly concluded that with the
proposed MLCC, the torque ripple is decreased by a factor of n (equal to the number of the DC
voltage source cells). This reduction in the torque ripples eventually reflects on less noise and
reduced mechanical vibration. In addition, the armature current in Fig which is like the
developed torque performance, shows smaller current ripples for the proposed MLCC. These
smaller ripples lead to less ohmic losses, and less harmonics and low EMI noise. The
corresponding
speed problem in Fig.4.1 shows that for the same applied average voltage, the proposed MLCC
gives a relatively higher speed level. In addition, the magnified part of the Fig.13 shows that the
speed pulsation is higher in the case of the traditional chopper.
To accurately evaluate the proposed topology, the MLCC is simulated in closed loop
control mode. The simulated circuit is arranged as given in Fig.1. The tuned parameters of the
current loop controller are (Ki D 0:2 and Kp D 2, and high voltage limits of 48V ), and that of
the speed controller are (Ki D 16 and Kp D 1:6, and current limit of 90 amps). The speed
reference is changed from initial value of 100 rad/s to 120 rad /s or ( in rpm as 100_60/2 to
120_60/2 ) at time tD 3 second. The load torque is changed from an initial value of 4 Nm to a
intial value of 2 Nm at time t D 6 second. The detailed speed and torque performances are shown
in Fig respectively. The controlled speed performance for the both methods (the proposed in red
and the traditional in blue) shows almost the same general performance at starting and at steady
state. However, the magnified parts of the traditional chopper show that the proposed MLCC
has smaller speed ripples and relatively smaller overshoot during the load change at time D 6
second. On the other hand, the corresponding torque profile shows an outstanding performance
of the proposed MLCC as can be seen in the magnified parts. Although the average dynamic
timeresponse is almost the same, the torque overshoot at load torque change point is higher
than theproposed MLCC, in addition the torque ripples of the traditional chopper circuit are
extremelyhigh.

32
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION

This project presents simulation results and experimental validation of a new topology of
the multilevel chopper DC/DC converter for a DC motor system. The main objective of the
propounded topology is to reduce current ripples and torque ripples that are associated with hard
switching of the traditional chopper circuit. The proposed configuration provides constant -ve
values of standard cell voltage and has the ability to generate the required nonstandard voltage
within the cell voltage ranges. The generated voltage pattern of this topology has relatively
smaller switching ripples compared to the traditional step-down DC/DC power converters. It has
been shown that the operation of the DC motor with the new proposed chopper topology can
efficiently decrease the motor armature current ripples and torque ripples by a factor equal to the
number of the connected voltage cells. As compared with the operation of the motor with
traditional chopper circuit.

33
CHAPTER 6
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electronics, vol. 55, no. 6, june 2008.

[12] I. M. Oise, U. H. Diala, G. N. Ezeh and R. Opara, “Evaluation of Transient Response of a


Separately Excited DC Motor under No-Load Condition,” IEEE International Conference on
Emerging & Sustainable Technologies for Power & ICT in a Developing Society (NIGERCON),
2013.

[13] Zhen Zhang, and Kwok-Tong Chau, “Pulse-Width–Modulation-Based Electromagnetic


Interference Mitigation of Bidirectional Grid Connected Converters for Electric Vehicles,” IEEE
Trans. on Smart Grid, Vol. 8, No. 6, November 2017.

[14] Sivadas .M .C and Poorani Shivkumar, “Comprehensive Analyses and Comparison of 1kw
Isolated DC-DC Converters For Bidirectional Ev Charging Systems,” International Journal of
Pure and Applied Mathematics, Vol. 118, no. 20, pp. 313-319, 2018.

35
[15] Malik, M.Z.; Chen, H.; Nazir, M.S.; Khan, I.A.; Abdalla, A.N.; Ali, A.; Chen,W. A New
Ecient Step-Up Boost Converter with CLD Cell for Electric Vehicle and New Energy Systems.
Energies 2020, 13, 1791. [CrossRef]

[16] Nguyen, M.K.; Choi, Y.O. Voltage Multiplier Cell-Based Quasi-Switched Boost Inverter
with Low Input Current Ripple. Electronics 2019, 8, 227. [CrossRef]

[17] Ismail, A.A.A.; Elnady, A. Advanced Drive System for DC Motor Using Multilevel DC/DC
Buck Converter Circuit. IEEE Access 2019, 7, 54167–54178. [CrossRef]

[18] Lim, S.; Lee,H.; Cha, H.; Park, S. Multi-Level DC/DC Converter for E-Mobility Charging
Stations. IEEE Access 2020, 8, 48774–48783. [CrossRef]

[19] Dimitrov, B.; Hayatleh, K.; Barker, S.; Collier, G.; Sharkh, S.; Cruden, A. A Buck-Boost
Transformerless DC–DC Converter Based on IGBT Modules for Fast Charge of Electric
Vehicles. Electronics 2020, 9, 397. [CrossRef]

36
APPENDIX

MATLAB is a high-performance language for technical computing. It integrates


computation, visualization, and programming in an easy-to-use environment where problems and
solutions are expressed in familiar mathematical notation. Typical uses include-

 Math and computation


 Algorithm development
 Data acquisition
 Modeling, simulation, and prototyping
 Data analysis, exploration, and visualization
 Scientific and engineering graphics

MATLAB is an interactive system whose basic data element is an array that does not
require dimensioning. This allows solving many technical computing problems, especially those
with matrix and vector formulations, in a fraction of the time it would take to write a program in
a scalar non-interactive language such as C or FORTRAN.

The MATLAB system consists of six main parts:

(a) Development Environment

This is the set of tools and facilities that help to use MATLAB functions and files. Many
of these tools are graphical user interfaces. It includes the MATLAB desktop and Command
Window, a command history, an editor and debugger, and browsers for viewing help, the
workspace, files and the search path.

(b) The MATLAB Mathematical Function Library

This is a vast collection of computational algorithms ranging from elementary functions,


like sum, sine, cosine, and complex arithmetic, to more sophisticated functions like matrix
inverse, matrix Eigen values, Bessel functions, and fast Fourier transforms.

37
(c) The MATLAB Language

This is a high-level matrix/array language with control flow statements, functions, data
structures, input/output, and object-oriented programming features. It allows both "programming
in the small" to rapidly create quick and dirty throw-away programs, and "programming in the
large" to create large and complex application programs.

(d) Graphics

MATLAB has extensive facilities for displaying vectors and matrices as graphs, as well
as annotating and printing these graphs. It includes high-level functions for two-dimensional and
three-dimensional data visualization, image processing, animation, and presentation graphics. It
also includes low-level functions that allow to fully customize the appearance of graphics as well
as to build complete graphical user interfaces on MATLAB applications.

(e) The MATLAB Application Program Interface (API)


This is a library that allows writing in C and FORTRAN programs that interact with
MATLAB. It includes facilities for calling routines from MATLAB (dynamic linking), calling
MATLAB as a computational engine, and for reading and writing MAT-files.

(f) MATLAB Documentation


MATLAB provides extensive documentation, in both printed and online format, to help
to learn about and use all of its features. It covers all the primary MATLAB features at a high
level, including many examples. The MATLAB online help provides task-oriented and reference
information about MATLAB features. MATLAB documentation is also available in printed form
and in PDF format.

(1) Three phase source block

Three Phase Source Block

38
The Three-Phase Source block implements a balanced three-phase voltage source with
internal R-L impedance. The three voltage sources are connected in Y with a neutral connection
that can be internally ground.

(2) VI measurement block

The Three-Phase V-I Measurement block is used to measure three-phase voltages and
currents in a circuit. When connected in series with three-phase elements, it returns the three
phase-to-ground or phase-to-phase voltages and the three line currents

Three Phase V-I Measurement

(3) Scope

Display signals generated during a simulation. The Scope block displays its input with
respect to simulation time. The Scope block can have multiple axes (one per port); all axes have
a common time range with independent y-axes. The Scope allows you to adjust the amount of
time and the range of input values displayed. You can move and resize the Scope window and
you can modify the Scope's parameter values during the simulation

Scope

(4) Three-Phase Series RLC Load

The Three-Phase Series RLC Load block implements a three-phase balanced load as a
series combination of RLC elements. At the specified frequency, the load exhibits constant

39
impedance. The active and reactive powers absorbed by the load are proportional to the square of
the applied voltage.

Three-Phase Series RLC Load

(5) Three-Phase Breaker block

The Three-Phase Breaker block implements a three-phase circuit breaker where the
opening and closing times can be controlled either from an external Simulink signal or from an
internal control signal.

Three-Phase Breaker Block

(6) Integrator

Library: Continuous

Integrator

40
The integrator block outputs the integral of its input at the current time step. The
following equation represents the output of the block y as a function of its input u and an initial
condition y0, where y and u are vector functions of the current simulation time t.

(7) Breaker : Implement circuit breaker opening at current zero crossing.

Library: Elements

Circuit Breaker

Purpose: The Breaker block implements a circuit breaker where the opening and closing times
can be controlled either from an external SIMULINK signal (external control mode), or from an
internal control timer (internal control mode).

A series Rs-Cs snubber circuit is included in the model. It can be connected to the circuit
breaker. If the Breaker block happens to be in series with an inductive circuit, an open circuit or
a current source, you must use a snubber.

When the breaker block is set in external control mode, a SIMULINK input appears on
the block icon. The control signal connected to the SIMULINK input must be either 0 or 1 (0 to
open the breaker, 1 to close it).

When the Breaker block is set in internal control mode, the switching times are specified
in the dialog box of the block.

When the breaker is closed, it is represented by a resistance R on. The Ron value can be set
as small as necessary in order to be negligible compared with external components (a typical
value is 10 m ohms). When the breaker is open, it has an infinite resistance.

41
(8) Three-Phase Programmable Voltage Source

Implement three-phase voltage source with programmable time variation of amplitude,


phase, frequency, and harmonics

Library: Electrical Sources

Three Phase Voltage Sources

Purpose: This block is used to generate a three-phase sinusoidal voltage with time-varying
parameters. It can be programmed with the time variation for the amplitude, phase or frequency
of the fundamental component of the source. In addition, two harmonics can be programmed and
superimposed on the fundamental signal.

(9) Trigonometric Function

Specified trigonometric function on input

Library: Math Operations

Trigonometric Function

Purpose: The Trigonometric Function block performs common trigonometric functions

(10) Three-Phase Transformer (Two Windings)

Implement three-phase transformer with configurable winding connections

42
Library: Elements

Three Phase Transformer

Purpose:

The Three-Phase Transformer (Two Windings) block implements a three-phase


transformer using three single-phase transformers. The saturation characteristic, when activated,
is the same as the one described for the saturable Transformer block, and the icon of the block is
automatically updated. If the fluxes are not specified, the initial values are automatically adjusted
so that the simulation starts in steady state.

(11) Three-Phase Transformer 12 Terminals

Implement three single-phase, two-winding transformers where all terminals are


accessible

Library: Elements

Two winding Transformer

Purpose: The Three-Phase Transformer 12 Terminals block implements three single-phase, two-
winding linear transformers where all the twelve winding connectors are accessible. The block
can be used in place of the Three-Phase Transformer (Two Windings) block to implement a

43
three-phase transformer when primary and secondary are not necessarily connected in Star or
Delta.

(12) IGBT/Diode

Implements ideal IGBT, GTO, or MOSFET and antiparallel diode

Library: Power Electronics

IGBT

Purpose: The IGBT/Diode block is a simplified mode of an IGBT (or GTO or MOSFET)/Diode pair where
the forward voltages of the forced-commutated device and diode are ignored.

44
A
PROJECT REPORT
On
FAST DC-TYPE ELECTRIC VEHICLE BASED ON
A QUASI-DIRECT BOOST-BUCK RECTIFIER
Submitted by

1)Ms. K. Meghana (17K81A0223) 2) Ms. T. Manideepa (17K81A0239)

3) Mr. B. Vinay Santosh (17K81A0205) 4) Mr. B. Soma Shekar (17K81A0209)

in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS
Under The Guidance of
Mr.CH.Srinivas(Ph.D.)
ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

ST. MARTIN’S ENGINEERING COLLEGE


(An Autonomous Institute)
Dhulapally, Secunderabad – 500 100

JUNE 2021
BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project entitled Fast Dc-Type Electric vehicle based on a Quasi-
DirectBoost-Buck Rectifier, is being submitted by 1. Ms. K. Meghana (17K81A0223),
2. Ms. T. Manideepa(17K81A0239) 3. Mr. Vinay Santosh (17K81A0205)
4. Mr. B. Soma Shekar (17K81A0209) in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the
award of the degree of BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY IN Electrical and Electronics is
recorded of bonafide work carried out by them. The result embodied in this report have been
verified and found satisfactory.

Head of the Department


Mr. CH. Srinivas Dr. N. Ramachandra
Department of Electrical and Electronics Department of Electrical and Electronics
Engineering Engineering

Internal Examiner External Examiner

Place:

Date:

i
DECLARATION

We, the student of Bachelor of Technology in Department of Electrical and Electronics’,


session: 2017 – 2021, St. Martin’s Engineering College, Dhulapally, Kompally,
Secunderabad, hereby declare that work presented in this Project Work entitled is Fast
Dc-Type Electric vehicle based on a Quasi-Direct Boost-Buck Rectifier the
outcome of our own bonafide work and is correct to the best of our knowledge and this
work has been undertaken taking care of Engineering Ethics. This result embodied in
this project report has not been submitted in any university for award of any degree.

K. Meghana 17K81A0223
T. Manideepa 17K81A0239
B. Vinay Santosh 17K81A0205
B. Soma Shekar 17K81A0209

ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The satisfaction and euphoria that accompanies the successful completion of any task
would be incomplete without the mention of the people who made it possible and
whose encouragements and guidance have crowded effects with success.
First and foremost, we would like to express my deep sense of gratitude and
indebtedness to our College Management for their kind support and permission to use
the facilities available in the Institute.
We especially would like to express my deep sense of gratitude and indebtedness to
Dr. P. Santosh Kumar Patra, our beloved Principal, St. Martin’s Engineering
College for his invaluable encouragement, suggestions and support from an early stage of
this research and providing me extraordinary experiences throughout the work. Above all,
his priceless and meticulous supervision at each and every phase of work inspired me in
innumerable ways.
We would like to express our gratitude to Dr. N. Ramchandra, Head
&Professor, the Dept. of Electrical and Electronics for his advice, supervision, and the
vital contribution as and when required during this research. We are proud to record that
we had the opportunity to work with an exceptionally experienced Professor like him.
The time spent with him will remain in my memory for years to come.
We would like our supervisor, Mr. Ch Srinivas, Associate Professor, Dept. of
EEE for his continuous support and valuable guidance of our research work.
We would like to express our gratitude to our dept. project coordinators

Mr. k. v. Govardhan Rao, Assistant Professor, Dept of EEE and Mr. T. Penchalaiah, Assistant
Professor, Dept of EEE for their involvement with originality has triggered and nourished my
intellectual maturity that will help me for a long time to come.
Finally, we are highly grateful and obliged to our college level Project Coordinators
Dr.Maalyadri ,professor in IT and DR.R. Santosh Kumar, Associate professor in CSE
for their advice, supervision, and the vitalcontribution as and when required during this
research work and for their support and co-operation that is difficult to express in words.

1. K. Meghana
2. T. Manideepa
3. B. Vinay Santosh
4. B. Soma Shekar

iii
ABSTRACT

The electric vehicle (EV) charging market is very dynamic. Companies and institutes
involved in the research and development of this area are devoted to considerably reduce the EV
charging times to be close to the ones spent by users in gas-stations filling the fuel of the internal
combustion engines vehicles. Today most EVs can be charged at 50 kW and 400 V following the
fast-charging standards “CCS - up to 80kW However new EVs are designed to withstand higher
charging power. Therefore, output power scalability will be a key feature of the EV charging system
by usage of power electronics building blocks, i.e., the total power can be scalable by paralleling
circuits. This leads to manufacturing advantages because a single circuit building block design can
satisfy a plurality of business and many charging standards. one can identify a well-known two-stage
power conversion system, i.e., a three-phase AC-DC converter, a DC-DC circuit. The back-end
circuit works as a three-channel PWM interleaved DC-DC buck-type converter. This features
enhanced loss distribution among semiconductors or better current shared between the parallel
circuits than hard paralleling of semiconductors. This results in improvements in the achievable total
conduction and switching losses. Additionally, the symmetric PWM interleaved operation will
cancel out the high frequency harmonics proportional to the number of employed parallel circuits in
both voltages and currents This work presents a DC-type fast electric vehicle battery charger
featuring low switching losses. Herein, a conventional three-phase two-level voltage source rectifier
with low capacitive energy storage operates with a discontinuous PWM modulation where each
phase-legs stops switching for 240o of the grid fundamental period, i.e. only a single phase-leg
switch every 60o . In this case, this AC-DC converter loses voltage controllability of the DC-link and
thus a buck-type DC-DC converter is cascaded in order to provide the necessary voltage regulation
and current limitation for the charging process of the electric vehicle. The presented circuit is
benchmarked against other solutions for a designed 50 kW power capability battery charger when
considering the charging of a 30 kWh.

iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER NO TITLE PAGE NO

CERTIFICATE i-ii
DECLARATION iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv
ABSTRACT v
LIST OF FIGURES viii
LIST OF GRAPHS ix
LIST OF TABLES ix

1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.0 OVERVIEW OF THE PROJECT 1
1.1 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY 3
1.2 SCOPE OF THE STUDY 3
1.3 ORGANIZATION OF CHAPTERS 4
1.3.0 INTRODUCTION 4
1.3.1 HISTORY OF POWER ELECTRONICS 9
1.3.2 PROPOSED VOLTAGE SOURCE INVERTER 25

2 LITERATURE SURVEY 26

3 PROJECT DESIGN 32
3.0 OVERVIEW OF THE DESIGN 32
3.1 EQUIPMENT ANALYSIS 35
3.2 DEFINE THE MODULES 43
3.3 MODULE FUNTIONALITIES 45
3.4 RELATEDED DESIGNS/GRAPHS 52

4 PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION 58
4.0 IMPLEMTATION STAGES 58
4.1 RESULTS 60

v
5 PROJECT TESTING 62
5.0 OVERVIEW OF TESTING METHODS 62

6 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE ENHANCEMENT 66


REFERENCES 67
APPENDICES 69

vi
LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO TITLE PAGE NO.

1.3.1 EV charger concept 6

1.3.2 Applications of Power devices


10
1.3.3 Three-phase, two-level Voltage-source
27
converter
3.1 EV charger concept
33
3.2 Proposed system circuit configuration
34
3.3 Proposed controller
34
3.4 Three Phase Source Block
45
3.5 Three Phase V-I Measurement
46
3.6 Scope
46
3.7 Three-Phase Series RLC Load
47
3.8 Three-Phase Breaker Block
47
3.9 Integrator
47
3.10 Circuit Breaker
48
3.11 Three Phase Voltage Sources
49
3.12 Trigonometric Function
50
3.13 Three Phase Transformer
50
3.14 Two winding Transformer
51
3.1.5 IGBT
51

vii
LIST OF GRAPHS

FIGURE NO TITLE PAGE NO.

1.3.1 Output voltage of a full-wave 19


rectifier with controlled thyristors.
3.4.1 Grid sectors defined by the different relations 52
of the instantaneous values of the gridphase voltages.
3.4.2 DPWM240 modulator main waveforms 53
3.4.3 Main simulated waveforms 54
3.4.4 Fast charging profile of a 30 kWh Nissan Leaf EV 55
from 0% to 90% of state-of-charging.
3.4.5 Suitable PWM modulation strategies for the 56
grid-connected or frontend powerelectronics
3.4.6 Benchmark results of 50 kW fast chargers 57
4.1.1 Input voltage for proposed system 60
4.1.2 DC-link voltage for proposed system 60
4.1.3 Battery voltage 61

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO TITLE PAGE NO.

I. Mani modulation functions for EV charger 7


II. Electric Vehicle Fast DC-type charger specifications 33
III. Comparison of active and passive components stresses 35

viii
1. INTRODUCTION

1.0 OVERVIEW OF THE PROJECT

 These days Electric vehicle charging market is very high.

 Most of the companies involved in research and development of thisareas and


work to reduce the charging time of EV’s.

 Today most of the EV’s can be charged at 50KW and 400Vfollowing


the fast-charging standards and are designed to with stand higher
charging power.

 So, the output power characteristics are key features of EV’scharging


system by using power electronics building block (PEBB).

 Connecting EV charger to medium level voltage (MV) AC grid.

 Bidirectional PEBB is connected to MV grid through 50/60 Hz


transformer.

 Advantage of this is that the battery charger can be fully assemblewith half-
bridge power modules.

 It is a two-stage power conversion system.

 Converts three phase AC to DC pulse DC to DC.

 The front-end circuit consist of three phase two level voltage sourcerectifier
which has low complexity, low cost and proper voltage conversion rate.

1
 The back-end circuit has three channel pulse width modulators with DC-DC
buck type converter. This feature improves the current shared between parallel
circuits and results in the improvement in total conduction and switching losses

 PWM will cancels out the high frequency harmonics in both voltageand current.

 The front-end back-end circuits are connected through a DC linkemploying


capacitor with low energy storage capability thismakes the operation of
both circuits highly coupled to each other.

 Therefore, high power factor operation can only be achieved ifthe back-
end circuit converter ensures constant power operation.

2
1.1. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

 The Objective of the project is to reduce the charging time ofelectric


vehicle and are designed to withstand higher charging power.
 To analyze the Pulse width modulator with 240 degrees stopswitching
interval in the two-level voltage source rectifier.

1.2. SCOPE OF THE STUDY

 The scope of the paper is to present the initial steps in the implementation of a
fast DC-type electric vehicle charger, based onQuasi-direct boost- buck
rectifier.
 It is to endorse the demand and sales of electric vehicles by providing
affordable and easily accessible charging infrastructure.

 Based on fact, the average charge time by EV batteries is nearly 5- 8 hours.


Thus, this creates a need for an adequate number ofcharging ports and
further raise the demand for fast chargingpoints.
DC fast stations which consist of these fast chargers, convert AC power to
DC within the station, delivering DC power directly to sources such as
batteries and also enabling amuch faster charge inavery less time.

3
1.3. ORGANIZATION OF CHAPTERS

1.3.0 INTRODUCTION

The electric vehicle (EV) charging market is very dynamic. Companies and
institutes involved in the research and development of this area are devoted to
considerably reduce the EV charging times to be close to the ones spent by users in gas-
stations filling the fuel of the internal combustion engines vehicles (ICEVs). Today most
EVs can be charged at 50 kW and 400 V following the fast-charging standards “CCS -
up to 80kW” and “CHAdeMO – approx. 50kW”.However new EVs are designed to
withstand higher charging power. Therefore, output power scalability will be a key
feature of the EV charging system by usage of power electronics building blocks
(PEBB), i.e. the total power can be scalable by paralleling circuits. This leads to
manufacturing advantages because a single circuit building block design can satisfy a
plurality of business and many charging standards. Connections to medium-voltage
(MV) level AC grid becomes economically sensible for EV chargers with power
capabilities of several 100 kW than today’s most used 380 V .. 480 V grid. In places where the
high power charger is installed, local energy storage systems, like battery banks, might
become more and more often used in order to mitigate power fluctuations and power quality
issues of the AC grid. Local renewable energy generation systems may also be used to
buffer the power demand and reduce energy consumption from the grid. In fact, there is
a great potential for the use of photovoltaic (PV) energy generation as available surfaces
in the roofs of the EV charging station and the nearby buildings can be greater than
1000 m2 . Both batteries and PV systems can also be integrated into the charger itself as
proposed.
A suitable bidirectional PEBB circuit is shown for a high power DC- type EV
charger with connection to a MV grid through a 50/60 Hz transformer. Advantageously,
the battery charger can be fully assembled with half-bridge power modules, which has a
large number of manufacturers with several current ratings and blocking voltage
available.

4
By close inspection of the circuit depicted in Fig. 1, one can identify a well-
known two-stage power conversion system, i.e. a three-phase AC-DC converter + a DC-
DC circuit. The back-end circuit works as a three-channel PWM interleaved DC-DC
buck-type converter. This features enhanced loss distribution among semiconductors or
better current shared between the parallel circuits than hard paralleling of
semiconductors. This results in improvements in the achievable total conduction and
switching losses. Additionally, the symmetric PWM interleaved operation will cancel out
the high frequency harmonics proportional to the number of employed parallel circuits in
both voltages and currents, lowering the rms current across the DC capacitors Cf and Co.
This feature can be used to enlarge the current ripple across each phase-leg of the back-
endcircuit in order to achieve Zero-Voltage-Switching turn-on of the active switches and
low reverse-recovery losses of the antiparallel diodes. The front-end converter comprises
a three phase three-wire two-level six-switch voltage source rectifier (2L-VSR), which inherent
features low complexity and low cost.Note that with proper voltage conversion rate
between the AC grid and EV battery the current stress across the front- and back-end
circuits can be similar, which will bring a manufacturing advantage.

5
In this paper, the front- and back-end circuits are intentionally connected through a DC-
link employing capacitors with low energy storage capability, e.g., electrolytic capacitor-
less DC-link. This makes the operation of both circuits highly coupled to each other.
The DC-link or voltage across the terminals p and n (or upn) in Fig. 1 will follow the
rectified envelop of the AC capacitors line-to-line voltages, similarly to what is achieved
by a basic three-phase diode-bridge rectifier.

Fig 1.3.1 EV charger concept with back-end power conversion based on the PWM
interleaved Buck- converter and front-end circuit based on the two-level bidirectional
six-switch voltage source rectifier. Note that the systems are connected to each other
through a low energy storage DC-link.

6
This allows that the rectifier phase-legs operate with a unique discontinuous
PWM modulation (DPWM) where they can stop switching during two-thirds of the grid
period or 240o, while the AC currents are at their highest values, i.e. only one phase-leg
switch during every60o .

Table I : Main modulation functions for EV charger

This operation was previously reported and it yield to the best switching loss reduction in
any known DPWM strategy, e.g., the ones described, but at the cost of losing voltage
controllability of upn. The back-end circuit becomes necessary for voltage regulation and
current limitation for the charging process of the EV batteries. Additionally, high power
factor operation can only be achieved if the back-end converter ensures constant power
operation. VIENNA-type and a DELTA-SWITCH-type front-end circuit with similar
operation have been proposed. The goal of this paper is to analyze the benefits of
implementing the DPWN with 240o stop switching interval in the widely used 2L-VSR
considering the application of a fast EV battery charger. This paper is organized as follows.
The explanation of the structural characteristics of the presented DC-type EV charger, suitable
modulation strategy featuring low switching losses and feedback control method,
guaranteeing high-power- factor operation, are presented in Section II and III.

7
In Section IV, the analytical equations for calculating the power semiconductors and
passives stresses with dependency on the AC or DC current amplitudes and the voltage transfer
ratio of the converter are given. In Section V, the circuit in Fig. 1 is benchmarked against
other suitable solutions for a 50 kW PEBB systemregarding the achievable efficiency when
considering the fast charging of a 30 kWh Nissan Leaf vehicle from state-of-charging (SoC) 0
% to 90 %.

8
1.3.1 HISTORY OF POWER ELECTRONICS

Power electronics is the application of solid-state electronics for the control and
conversion of electric power. It also refers to a subject of research in electronic and
electrical engineering which deals with design, control, computation and integration of
nonlinear, time varying energy processing electronic systems with fast dynamics.
The first high power electronic devices were mercury-arc valves. In modern
systems the conversion is performed with semiconductor switching devices such as
diodes, thyristors and transistors, pioneered by R. D. Middlebrook and others
beginning in the 1950s. In contrast to electronic systems concerned with transmission
and processing of signals and data, in power electronics substantial amounts of electrical
energy are processed.
An AC/DC converter (rectifier) is the most typical power electronics device
found in many consumer electronic devices, e.g. television sets, personal computers,
battery chargers, etc.
The power range is typically from tens of watts to several hundred watts. In
industry a common application is the variable speed drive (VSD) that is used to control
an induction motor. The power range of VSDs start from a few hundred watts and end at
tens of megawatts. The power conversion systems can be classified according to the type
of the input and output power AC to DC (rectifier), DC to AC (inverter), DC to DC
(DC-to- DC converter), AC to AC (AC-to-AC converter)

9
History
Power electronics started with the development of the mercury arc rectifier.
Invented by Peter Cooper Hewitt in 1902, it was used to convert alternating current (AC)
into direct current (DC).

Fig:1.3.2: Applications of Power devices

From the 1920s on, research continued on applying thyratrons and grid-
controlled mercury arc valves to power transmission. Uno Lamm developed a valve with
grading electrodes making mercury valves usable for high voltage direct current
transmission. In 1933 selenium rectifiers were invented.
In 1957 the bipolar point-contact transistor was invented by Walter H. Brattain
and John Bardeen under the direction of William Shockley at Bell Telephone
Laboratory. In 1958 Shockley's invention of the bipolar junction transistor improved the
stability and performance of transistors, and reduced costs. By the 1950s, semiconductor
power diodes became available and started replacing vacuum tubes. In 1956 the Silicon
Controlled Rectifier (SCR) was introduced by General Electric, greatly increasing
the range of power electronic application.

10
In the 1960s the switching speed of bipolar junction transistors allowed for high
frequency DC/DC converters. In 1976 power MOSFET became commercially
available. In
1982 the Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) was introduced.
The capabilities and economy of power electronics system are determined by the
active devices that are available. Their characteristics and limitations are a key element
in the design of power electronics systems. Formerly, the mercury arc valve, the high-
vacuum and gas-filled diode thermionic rectifiers, and triggered devices such as the
thyratron and ignitron were widely used in power electronics. As the ratings of solid-
state devices improved in both voltage and current-handling capacity, vacuum devices
have been nearly entirely replaced by solid-state devices.

Power electronic devices may be used as switches, or as amplifiers. An ideal


switch is either open or closed and so dissipates no power; it withstands an applied
voltage and passes no current, or passes any amount of current with no voltage drop.
Semiconductor devices used as switches can approximate this ideal property and so
most power electronic applications rely on switching devices on and off, which makes
systems very efficient as very little power is wasted in the switch. By contrast, in the
case of the amplifier, the current through the device varies continuously according to a
controlled input. The voltage and current at the device terminals follow a load line, and the
power dissipation inside the device is large compared with the power delivered to the load.

Several attributes dictate how devices are used. Devices such as diodes conduct
when a forward voltage is applied and have no external control of the start of
conduction. Power devices such as silicon controlled rectifiers and thyristors (as
well as the mercury valve and thyratron) allow control of the start of conduction,
but rely on periodic reversal of current flow to turn them off. Devices such as gate turn-
off thyristors, BJT and MOSFET transistors provide full switching control and can be
turned on or off without regard to the current flow through them. Transistor devices also
allow proportional amplification, but this is rarely used for systems rated more than a
few hundred watts. The control input characteristics of a device also greatly affect
design; sometimes the control input is at a very high voltage with respect to ground and
must be driven by an isolated source.

11
As efficiency is at a premium in a power electronic converter, the losses that a power
electronic device generates should be as low as possible. Devices vary in switching
speed. Some diodes and thyristors are suited for relatively slow speed and are useful for
power frequency switching and control; certain thyristors are useful at a few kilohertz.
Devices such as MOSFETS and BJTs can switch at tens of kilohertz up to a few
megahertz in power applications, but with decreasing power levels. Vacuum tube devices
dominate high power (hundreds of kilowatts) at very high frequency (hundreds or
thousands of megahertz) applications. Faster switching devices minimize energy lost in
the transitions from on to off and back, but may create problems with radiated
electromagnetic interference. Gate drive (or equivalent) circuits must be designed to
supply sufficient drive current to achieve the full switching speed possible with a device.
A device without sufficient drive to switch rapidly may be destroyed by excess heating.

Practical devices have non-zero voltage drop and dissipate power when on, and take
some time to pass through an active region until they reach the "on" or "off" state. These
losses are a significant part of the total lost power in a converter.

Power handling and dissipation of devices is also a critical factor in design. Power
electronic devices may have to dissipate tens or hundreds of watts of waste heat, even
switching as efficiently as possible between conducting and non-conducting states. In
the switching mode, the power controlled is much larger than the power dissipated in the
switch. The forward voltage drop in the conducting state translates into heat that must be
dissipated. High power semiconductors require specialized heat sinks or active cooling
systems to manage their junction temperature; exotic semiconductors such as silicon
carbide have an advantage over straight silicon in this respect, and germanium, once the
main-stay of solid-state electronics is now little used due to its unfavorable high
temperature properties.

12
Semiconductor devices exist with ratings up to a few kilovolts in a single device.
Where every high voltage must be controlled, multiple devices must be used in series,
with networks to equalize voltage across all devices. Again, switching speed is a critical
factor since the slowest -switching device will have to withstand a disproportionate share of
the overall voltage. Mercury valves were once available with ratings to 100 kV in a
single unit, simplifying their application in HVDC systems.

The current rating of a semiconductor device is limited by the heat generated


within the dies and the heat developed in the resistance of the interconnecting leads.
Semiconductor devices must be designed so that current is evenly distributed within the
device across its internal junctions (or channels); once a "hot spot" develops, breakdown
effects can rapidly destroy the device. Certain SCRs are available with current ratings to
3000 amperes in a single unit.
DC to AC converters produce an AC output waveform from a DC source.
Applications include adjustable speed drives (ASD), uninterruptable power supplies
(UPS), active filters, Flexible AC transmission systems (FACTS), voltage compensators,
and photovoltaic generators. Topologies for these converters can be separated into two
distinct categories: voltage source inverters and current source inverters. Voltage source
inverters (VSIs) are named so because the independently controlled output is a voltage
waveform. Similarly, current source

inverters (CSIs) are distinct in that the controlled AC output is a current waveform.

Being static power converters, the DC to AC power conversion is the result of


power switching devices, which are commonly fully controllable semiconductor power
switches. The output waveforms are therefore made up of discrete values, producing fast
transitions rather than smooth ones. The ability to produce near sinusoidal waveforms
around the fundamental frequency is dictated by the modulation technique controlling
when, and for how long, the power valves are on and off. Common modulation
techniques include the carrier-based technique, or pulse width modulation, space- vector
technique, and the selective-harmonic technique.

13
Voltage source inverters have practical uses in both single-phase and three-phase
applications. Single-phase VSIs utilize half-bridge and full- bridge configurations, and are
widely used for power supplies, single-phase UPSs, and elaborate high-power topologies
when used in multicell configurations. Three-phase VSIs are used in applications that require
sinusoidal voltage waveforms, such as ASDs, UPSs, and some types of FACTS devices such
as the STATCOM. They are also used in applications where arbitrary voltages are required as
in the case of active filters and voltage compensators.

Current source inverters are used to produce an AC output current from a DC


current supply. This type of inverter is practical for three-phase applications in which
high-quality voltage waveforms are required.
A relatively new class of inverters, called multilevel inverters, has gained
widespread interest. Normal operation of CSIs and VSIs can be classified as two-level
inverters, due to the fact that power switches connect to either the positive or to the
negative DC bus. If more than two voltage levels were available to the inverter output
terminals, the AC output could better approximate a sine wave. It is for this reason that
multilevel inverters,although more complex and costly, offer higher performance.
Each inverter type differs in the DC links used, and in whether or not they
require freewheeling diodes. Either can be made to operate in square- wave or pulse-
width modulation (PWM) mode, depending on its intended usage. Square-wave mode
offers simplicity, while PWM can be implemented several different ways and produces
higher quality waveforms.
Voltage Source Inverters (VSI) feed the output inverter section from an
approximately constant-voltage source.
The desired quality of the current output waveform determines which

14
modulation technique needs to be selected for a given application. The output of a VSI
is composed of discrete values. In order to obtain a smooth current waveform, the
loads need to be inductive at the select harmonic frequencies. Without some sort of inductive
filtering between the source and load, a capacitive load will cause the load to receive a
choppy current waveform, with large and frequent current spikes.
The single-phase voltage source half-bridge inverters, are meant for lower
voltage applications and are commonly used in power supplies.

Low-order current harmonics get injected back to the source voltage by the
operation of the inverter. This means that two large capacitors are needed for filtering
purposes in this design. As Figure 2 illustrates, only one switch can be on at time in each
leg of the inverter. If both switches in a leg were on at the same time, the DC source will
be shorted out.

Inverters can use several modulation techniques to control their switching


schemes. The carrier-based PWM technique compares the AC output waveform, vc, to a
carrier voltage signal, vΔ. When vc is greater than vΔ, S+ is on, and when vc is less than
vΔ, S- is on. When the AC output is at frequency fc with its amplitude at vc, and the
triangular carrier signal is at frequency fΔ with its amplitude at vΔ, the PWM becomes a
special sinusoidal case of the carrier based PWM. This case is dubbed sinusoidal pulse-
width modulation (SPWM).For this, the modulation index, or amplitude-modulation
ratio, is defined as ma = vc / v∆ .

The normalized carrier frequency, or frequency-modulation ratio, is calculated


using the equation mf = f∆ / fc .

15
If the over-modulation region, ma, exceeds one, a higher fundamental AC output voltage
will be observed, but at the cost of saturation. For SPWM, the harmonics of the output
waveform are at well-defined frequencies and amplitudes. This simplifies the design of
the filtering components needed for the low-order current harmonic injection from the
operation of the inverter. The maximum output amplitude in this mode of operation is half
of the source voltage. If the maximum output amplitude, ma, exceeds 3.25, the output
waveform of the inverter becomes a square wave.
As was true for PWM, both switches in a leg for square wave modulation cannot
be turned on at the same time, as this would cause a short across the voltage source. The
switching scheme requires that both S+ and S- be on for a half cycle of the AC output
period. The fundamental AC output amplitude is equal to vo1 = vaN.
Therefore, the AC output voltage is not controlled by the inverter, but rather by
the magnitude of the DC input voltage of the inverter.
Using selective harmonic elimination (SHE) as a modulationtechnique allows the
switching of the inverter to selectively eliminate intrinsic harmonics. The fundamental
component of the AC output voltage can also be adjusted within a desirable range. Since
the AC output voltage obtained from this modulation technique has odd half and odd
quarter wave symmetry, even harmonics do not exist. Any undesirable odd (N-1)
intrinsic harmonics from the output waveform can be eliminated.

DC Link Converters, also referred to as AC/DC/AC converters, convert an AC


input to an AC output with the use of a DC link in the middle. Meaning that the power in
the converter is converted to DC from AC with the use of a rectifier, and then it is
converted back to AC from DC with the use of an inverter. The end result is an output
with a lower voltage and variable (higher or lower) frequency. Due to their wide area of
application, the AC/DC/AC converters are the most common contemporary solution. Other
advantages to AC/DC/AC converters is that they are stable inoverload and no-load
conditions, as well as they can be disengaged from a load without damage.

16
Hybrid matrix converters are relatively new for AC/AC converters. These
converters combine the AC/DC/AC design with the matrix converter design. Multiple
types of hybrid converters have been developed in this new category, an example being
a converter that uses uni-directional switches and two converter stages without the dc-
link; without the capacitors or inductors needed for a dc-link, the weight and size of the
converter is reduced. Two sub- categories exist from the hybrid converters, named hybrid
direct matrix converter (HDMC) and hybrid indirect matrix converter (HIMC). HDMC
convert the voltage and current in one stage, while the HIMC utilizes separate stages,
like the AC/DC/AC converter, but without the use of an intermediate storage element.
AC Voltage Controller: Lighting Control; Domestic and Industrial Heating;
Speed Control of Fan, Pump or Hoist Drives, Soft Starting of Induction Motors, Static
AC Switches (Temperature Control, Transformer Tap Changing, etc.)
Cycloconverter: High-Power Low-Speed Reversible AC Motor Drives; Constant
Frequency Power Supply with Variable Input Frequency; Controllable VAR Generators
for Power Factor Correction; AC System Interties Linking Two Independent Power
Systems.
Matrix Converter: Currently the application of matrix converters are limited due
to non- availability of bilateral monolithic switches capable of operating at high
frequency, complex control law implementation, commutation and other reasons. With
these developments, matrix converters could replace cycloconverters in many areas. DC
Link: Can be used for individual or multiple load applications of machine building and
construction.

17
Simulations of power electronic systems

Fig:1.3.1: Output voltage of a full-wave rectifier with controlled thyristors.

Power electronic circuits are simulated using computer simulation programs


such as PSIM and MATLAB/ Simulink. Circuits are simulated before they are produced
to test how the circuits respond under certain conditions. Also, creating a simulation is
both cheaper and faster than creating a prototype to use for testing.
Applications of power electronics range in size from a switched mode power
supply in an AC adapter, battery chargers, fluorescent lamp ballasts, through variable
frequency drives and DC motor drives used to operate pumps, fans, and manufacturing
machinery, up to gigawatt-scale high voltage direct current power transmission systems
used to interconnect electrical grids. Power electronic systems are found in virtually
every electronic device.
For example:
DC/DC converters are used in most mobile devices (mobile phones, PDA etc.) to
maintain the voltage at a fixed value whatever the voltage level of the battery is. These
converters are also used for electronic isolation and power factor correction.AC/DC
converters (rectifiers) are used every time an electronic device is connected to the mains
(computer, television etc.). These may simply change AC to DC or can also change the
voltage level aspart of their operation.

18
AC/AC converters are used to change either the voltage level or the
frequency(international power adapters, light dimmer). In power distribution networks
AC/AC converters may be used to exchange power between utility frequency 50 Hz and
60 Hz power grid.
DC/AC converters (inverters) are used primarily in UPS or renewable energy
systems or emergency lighting systems. Mains power charges the DC battery. If the
mains fail, an inverter produces AC electricity at mains voltage from the DC battery.

Motor drives are found in pumps, blowers, and mill drives for textile, paper,
cement and other such facilities. Drives may be used for power conversion and for
motion control.[19] For AC motors, applications include variable-frequency drives, motor
soft starters and excitation systems.[20] In hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), power
electronics are used in two formats: series hybrid and parallel hybrid. The difference
between a serieshybrid and a parallel hybrid is the relationship of the electric motor to
the internal combustion engine (ICE). Devices used in electric vehicles consist mostly
of dc/dc converters for battery charging and dc/ac converters to power the propulsion
motor. Electric trains use power electronic devices to obtain power, as well as for
vector control using pulse width modulation (PWM) rectifiers. The trains obtain
their power from power lines. Another new usage for power electronics is in elevator
systems.

These systems may use thyristors, inverters, permanent magnet motors, or


various hybrid systems that incorporate PWM systems and standard motors.

In general, inverters are utilized in applications requiring direct conversion of


electrical energy from DC to AC or indirect conversion from AC to AC. Dc to AC
conversion is useful for many fields, including power conditioning, harmonic
compensation, motor drives, and renewable energy grid-integration.

In power systems it is often desired to eliminate harmonic content found in line


currents. VSIs can be used as active power filters to provide this compensation. Based
on measured line currents and voltages, a control system determines reference current signals
for each phase.

19
This is fed back through an outer loop and subtracted from actual current signals
to create current signals for an inner loop to the inverter. These signals then cause the
inverter to generate output currents that compensate for the harmonic content. This
configuration requires no real power consumption, as it is fully fed by the line; the DC
link is simply a capacitor that is kept at a constant voltage by the control system. In this
configuration, output currents are in phase with line voltages to produce a unity power
factor. Conversely, VAR compensation is possible in a similar configuration where
output currents lead line voltages to improve the overall power are utilized. In a standby
system, an inverter is brought online when the normally supplying grid is interrupted. Power
is instantaneously drawn from onsite batteries and converted into usable AC voltage by
the VSI, until grid power is restored, or until backup generators are brought online. In an
online UPS system, a rectifier-DC-link-inverter is used to protect the load from
transients and harmonic content. A battery in parallel with the DC-link is kept fully
charged by the output in case the grid power is interrupted, while the output of the
inverter is fed through a low pass filter to the load. High power quality and independence
from disturbances is achieved.

Various AC motor drives have been developed for speed, torque, and position control of
AC motors. These drives can be categorized as low- performance or as high-
performance, based on whether they are scalar- controlled or vector-controlled,
respectively. In scalar-controlled drives, fundamental stator current, or voltage frequency
and amplitude, are the only controllable quantities. Therefore, these drives are employed
in applicationswhere high-quality control is not required, such as fans and compressors.
On the other hand, vector-controlled drives allow for instantaneous current and voltage
values to be controlled continuously. This high performance is necessary for applications
such as elevators and electric cars.
Inverters are also vital to many renewable energy applications. In photovoltaic
purposes, the inverter, which is usually a PWM VSI, gets fed by the DC electrical
energy output of a photovoltaic module or array. The inverter then converts this into an
AC voltage to be interfaced with either a load or the utility grid. Inverters may also be
employed in other renewable systems, such as wind turbines.

20
In these applications, the turbine speed usually varies causing changes in voltage
frequency and sometimes in the magnitude. In this case, the generated voltage can be
rectified and then inverted to stabilize frequency and magnitude.

A smart grid is a modernized electrical grid that uses information and communications
technology to gather and act on information, such as information about the behaviors of
suppliers and consumers, in an automated fashion to improve the efficiency, reliability,
economics, and sustainability of the production and distribution of electricity. Electric
power generated by wind turbines and hydroelectric turbines by using induction
generators can cause variances in the frequency at which power is generated. Power electronic
devices are utilized in these systems to convert the generated ac voltages into high -voltage
direct current (HVDC). The HVDC power can be more easily converted into three phase
power that is coherent with the power associated to the existing power grid. Through these
devices, the power systems optimum torque is obtained either through a gearbox or direct
drive technologies that can reduce the size of the power electronics device. Electric
power can be generated through photovoltaic cells by using power electronic devices.
The produced power is usually then transformed by inverters. Inverters are divided into
three different types: central, module- integrated and string. Central converters can be
connected either in parallel or in series on the DC side of the system. converters are
connected in series on either the DC or AC side. Normally several modules are used
within a photovoltaic system, since the system requires these converters on both DC and
AC terminals. A string converter is used in a system that utilizes photovoltaic cells that
are facing different directions. It is used to convert the power generated to each string, or
line, in which the photovoltaic cells are interacting. Power electronics can be used to
help utilities adapt to the rapid increase in distributed residential/commercial solar power
generation. Germany and parts of Hawaii, California and New Jersey require costly
studies to be conducted before approving new solar installations. Relatively small-scale
ground- or pole- mounted devices create the potential for a distributed control
infrastructure to monitor and manage the flow of power. Traditional electromechanical
systems, such as capacitor banks or voltage regulators at substations, can take minutes
to adjust voltage and can be distant from the solar installations where the problems
originate. If voltage on a neighborhood circuit goes too high, it can endanger utility
crews and cause damage to both utility and customer equipment. Further, spiking
demand for grid power. Smart grid- based regulators are more controllable than far more
numerous consumer devices.

21
1.3.2 PROPOSED VOLTAGE SOURCE INVERTER

Because thyristors can only be turned on (not off) by control action, and rely on
the external AC system to effect the turn-off process, the control system only has one
degree of freedom – when to turn on the thyristor. This limits the usefulness of HVDC in
some circumstances because it means that the AC system to which the HVDC converter
is connected must always contain synchronous machines in order to provide the
commutating voltage
– the HVDC converter cannot feed power into a passive system. With some other types
of semiconductor device such as the insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT), both turn-
on and turn-off can be controlled, giving a second degree of freedom. As a result, IGBTs
can be used to make self- commutated converters. In such converters, the polarity of DC
voltage is usually fixed and the DC voltage, being smoothed by a large capacitance, can
be considered constant. For this reason, an HVDC converter using IGBTs is usually
referred to as a voltage-source converter (or voltage- sourced converter). The additional
controllability gives many advantages, notably the ability to switch the IGBTs on and
off many times per cycle in order to improve the harmonic performance, and the fact that
(being self- commutated) the converter no longer relieson synchronous machines in the
AC system for its operation. A voltage-sourced converter can therefore feed power to an
AC network consisting only of passive loads, something which is impossible with LCC
HVDC. Voltage-source converters are also considerably more compact than line-
commutated converters (mainly because much less harmonic filtering is needed) and are
preferable to line- commutated converters in locations where space is at a premium, for
example on offshore platforms.
In contrast to line-commutated HVDC converters, voltage-source converters
maintain a constant polarity of DC voltage and power reversal is achieved instead by
reversing the direction of current. This makes voltage-source converters much
easier to connect into a Multi- terminal HVDC system or “DC Grid”. HVDC systems
based on voltage-source converters normally use the six-pulse connection because the
converter produces much less harmonic distortion than a comparable LCC and the
twelve-pulse connection is unnecessary. This simplifies the construction of the converter
transformer. However, there are several different configurations of voltage- source
converter and research is continuing to take place into new alternatives.

22
Two-level converter

From the very first VSC-HVDC scheme installed (the Hellsjön experimental link
commissioned in Sweden in 1997[7]) until 2012, most of the VSC HVDC systems built were
based on the two level converter. The two-level converter is the simplest type of three-phase
voltage-source converter and can be thought of asa six pulse bridge in which the thyristors have
been replaced by IGBTs with inverse- parallel diodes, and the DC smoothing reactors have
beenreplaced by DC smoothing capacitors. Such converters derive their name from the fact
that the voltage at the AC output of each phase is switched between two discrete voltage
levels, corresponding to the electrical potentials of the positive and negative DCterminals.
When the upper of the two valves in a phase is turned on, the AC output terminal is
connected to the positive DC terminal, resulting inan output voltage of +½ Ud with respect to
the midpoint potential of the converter.
Conversely when the lower valve in a phase is turned on, the ACoutput terminal is connected
to the negative DC terminal, resulting in an outputvoltage of -
½Ud. The two valves corresponding to one phase must never be turned on
simultaneously, as thiswould result in an uncontrolled discharge of theDC capacitor,
risking severe damage to the converter equipment.

Fig 1.3.3: Three-phase, two-level Voltage-source converter

23
The simplest (and also, the highest-amplitude) waveform that can be produced by a two-
level converter is a square wave; however this would produce unacceptable levels of
harmonic distortion, so some form of Pulse- width modulation (PWM) is always used to
improve the harmonic distortion of the converter. As a result of the PWM, the IGBTs are
switched on and off many times (typically 20) in each mains cycle. This results in high
switching losses in the IGBTs and reduces the overall transmission efficiency. Several
different PWM strategies are possible for HVDC but in all cases the efficiency of the two-
level converter is significantly poorer than that of a LCC because of the higher switching
losses. A typical LCC HVDC converter station has power losses of around 0.7% at full
load (per end, excluding the HVDC lineor cable) while with 2-level voltage-source converters
the equivalent figure is 2-3% per end. Another disadvantage of the two-level converter is that,
in order to achieve the very high operating voltages required for an HVDC scheme, several
hundred IGBTs have to be connected in series and switched simultaneously in each valve.
This requires specialized types of IGBT with sophisticated gate drive circuits, and can lead
to very high levels of electromagnetic interference. In an attempt to improve on the poor
harmonic performance of the two-level converter, some HVDC systems have been built
with three level converters.

Three-level converters can synthesize three (instead of only two) discrete voltage levels at
the AC terminalof each phase: +½ Ud, 0 and -½ Ud. A common type of three-level
converter is the diode- clamped (or neutral-point- clamped) converter, where each phase
contains four IGBT valves, each rated at half of the DC line to line voltage, along with two
clamping diode valves. The DC capacitor is split into two series-connected branches, with
the clamping diode valves connected between the capacitor midpoint and the one-quarter
and three-quarter points on each phase.

To obtain a positive output voltage (+½ Ud) the top two IGBT valves are turned on, to
obtain a negative output voltage (-½ Ud) the bottom two IGBT valvesare turned on and to obtain
zero output voltage the middle two IGBT valves areturned on. In this latter state, the two
clamping diode valves complete the current path through the phase.

24
In a refinement of the diode-clamped converter, the so-called active neutral- point
clamped converter, the clamping diode valves are replaced by IGBT valves, giving
additional controllability. Such converters were used on the Murraylink project in
Australia and the Cross Sound Cable link in the United States. However, the modest
improvement in harmonic performance came at a considerable price in terms of increased
complexity, and the design proved to be difficult to scale up to DC voltages higher than
the ±150 kV used on those two projects.

Another type of three-level converter, used in some adjustable-speed drives but never in HVDC,
replaces the clamping diode valves by a separate, isolated, flying capacitor connected
between the one-quarter and three-quarter points.

The operating principle is similar to that of the diode-clamped converter. Both the diode-
clamped and flying capacitor variants of three-level converter can be extended to higher
numbers of output levels (for example, five), but the complexity of the circuit increases
disproportionately and such circuits have not been considered practical for HVDC
applications.

Like the two-level converter and the six-pulse line-commutated converter, a MMC
consists of six valves, each connecting one AC terminal to one DC terminal. However,
where each valve of the two-level converter is effectively a high-voltage controlled
switch consisting of a large number of IGBTs connected in series, each valve of a MMC
is a separate controllable voltage source in its own right. Each MMC valve
consists of anumber of independent converter submodules,

each containing its own storage capacitor. In the most common form of the circuit, the half-
bridge variant, each submodule contains two IGBTs connected in series across the
capacitor, with the midpoint connection and one of the two capacitor terminals brought
out as external connections.

25
Depending on which of the two IGBTs in each submodule is turned on, the capacitor is either
bypassed or connected into the circuit. Each submodule therefore acts as an independent two-
level converter generating a voltage of either 0 or Usm (where Usm is the submodule capacitor
voltage). With a suitable number of submodules connected in series, the valve can synthesize a
stepped voltage waveform that approximates very closely to a sine -wave and contains very low
levels of harmonic distortion.
The MMC differs from other types of converters in that current flows continuously in all six
valves of the converter throughout the mains- frequency cycle. As a result, concepts such as
“on- state” and “off-state” have no meaning in the MMC. The direct current splits equally
into the three phases and the alternating current splits equally into the upper and lower valve
of each phase. The current in each valve is therefore related to the direct current Id and
alternating current Iac as follows:

Upper valve:

Lower valve:

A typical MMC for an HVDC application contains around 300 submodules connected in series in
each valve and is therefore equivalent to a 301-level converter. Consequently, the harmonic
performance is excellent and usuallyno filters are needed. A further advantage of the MMC is
that PWM is not necessary, with the result that the power losses are much lower than those of
the 2-level converter, ataround 1% per end.[36] Finally, because direct series-connection of
IGBTs is not necessary, the IGBT gate drives do not need to be as sophisticated as those for a
2- level converter.
The MMC has two principal disadvantages. Firstly, the control is much more complex than that
of a 2-level converter. Balancing the voltages of each of the submodule capacitors is a significant
challenge and requires considerable computing power and high-speed communications between
the central control unitand the valve.

26
Secondly, the submodule capacitors themselves are large and bulky. A MMC is
considerably larger than a comparable-rated 2-level converter, although this may be
offset by the saving in space from not requiring filters.

As of 2012 the largest-capacity MMC HVDC system in operation is still the 400 MW Trans
Bay Cable scheme but many larger schemes are under construction, including an
underground cable interconnection from France to Spain consisting of two 1000 MW
links in parallel at a voltage of ±320 kV.

A variant of the MMC, proposed by one manufacturer, involves connecting multiple


IGBTs in series in each of the two switches that make up the submodule. This gives an
output voltage waveform with fewer, larger, steps than the conventional MMC
arrangement. This arrangement is referred to as the Cascaded Two Level (CTL)
converter. Functionally it is exactly equivalentto the conventional half-bridge MMC in
every respect except for the harmonic performance, which is slightly inferior – although
still claimed to be good enough to avoid the need for filtering in most instances. Another
alternative replaces the half bridge MMC submodule described above, with a full bridge
sub module containing four IGBTs in an H bridge arrangement, instead of two. The full-
bridge variant of MMC allows the submodule capacitor to be inserted into the circuit in
either polarity. This confers additional flexibility in controlling the converter and allows
the converterto block the fault current which arises from a short-circuit between the positive and
negative DC terminals (something which is impossible with anyof the preceding types of
VSC). Furthermore, it allows the DC voltage to be of either polarity (like a LCC HVDC
scheme), giving rise to the possibility of hybrid LCC and VSC HVDC systems.
However, the full-bridge arrangement requires twice as many IGBTs and has higher
power losses than the equivalent half-bridge arrangement.

27
2. LITERATURE SURVEY

1. Dale Hall and Nic Lutsey (2017) have worked and explained on “Emerging best practices
for electric vehicle charging infrastructure”. Electric vehicles offer great potential to
dramatically reduce local air pollution, greenhouse gas emissions and resulting climate
change impacts, and oil use from the transport sector. With electric vehicle costs steadily
falling, the transition continues to become more feasible. This potential is enabled and
made compelling by the ubiquity of electricity and the growing availability of low-carbon,
renewable energy sources. Yet there are unanswered questions about the deployment of
electric vehicle charging infrastructure and the associated policy that will need to be
addressed to help pave the way for electrification. This report provides a global assessment
of charging infrastructure deployment practices, challenges, and emerging best practices in
major electric vehicle markets, with an emphasis on public charging facilities. Although
most early adopters charge their vehicles at home, public charging is an important part of the
electric vehicle ecosystem. We analyze public charging infrastructure in the top electric
vehicle markets globally, including a statistical analysis of the relationship between public
charging and electric vehicle uptake. Our analysis is at the metropolitan-area level to better
discern local infrastructure variation, practices, and circumstances.

2. G. R. Chandra Mouli, M. Kefayati, R. Baldick, and P. Bauer(2018) have elucidated on


“Integrated pv charging of ev fleet based on dynamic prices, v2g and offer of reserves,”
Workplace charging of electric vehicles (EVs) from photovoltaic (PV) panels installed on
an office building can provide several benefits. This includes the local production and use
of PV energy for charging the EV and making use of dynamic tariffs from the grid to
schedule the energy exchange with the grid. The long parking time at the workplace
provides the chance for the EV to support the grid via vehicle-to-grid technology, the use
of a single EV charger for charging several EVs by multiplexing and the offer of ancillary
services to the grid for up and down regulation. Further, distribution network constraints
can be considered to limit the power and prevent the overloading of the grid. A single mixed
integer linear programming (MILP) formulation that considers all the above applications
has been proposed in this paper for a charging a fleet of EVs from PV. The MILP is
implemented as a receding - horizon model predictive energy management system. Numerical
simulations based on market and PV data in Austin, TX, USA, have shown 32% to 651%
reduction in the net cost of EV charging from PV when compared to immediate and
average rate charging policies.

26
3. M. Vasiladiotis and A. Rufer(2015) have worked and explained on “A modular multiport
power electronic transformer with integrated split battery energy storage for versatile
ultrafast ev charging stations,”. In this a power converter architecture for the
implementation of an ultrafast charging station for electric vehicles (EVs). The versatile
converter topology is based on the concept of the power electronic transformer. For the
direct transformerless coupling to the medium-voltage grid, a cascaded H-bridge (CHB)
converter is utilized. On the level of each submodule, integrated split battery energy
storage elements play the role of power buffers, reducing thus the influence of the charging
station on the distribution grid. The power interface between the stationary split storage
stage and the EV batteries is performed through the use of parallel- connected dual-half-
bridge dc/dc converters, shifting the isolation requirements to the medium-frequency
range. By choosing several different submodule configurations for the parallel connection, a
multiport output concept is achieved, implying the ability to charge several EVs
simultaneously without the use of additional high-power chargers. All possible charging
station operating modes among with the designed necessary control functions are
analyzed. The state-of-charge self- balancing mode of the delta-connected CHB converter
is also introduced. Finally, the development of a downscaled laboratory prototype is
described, and preliminary experimental results are provided.

4. D. Menzi, D. Bortis, and J. W. Kolar(2018), have described on “Three- phase two-


phaseclamped boost-buck unity power factor rectifier employing novel variable dc link
voltage input current control,” Proc. of 2nd IEEE International Power Electronics and
Application Conference and Exposition (PEAC) Nov. 4-7, 2018. Battery chargers supplied
from the three-phase mains are typically realized as two-stage systems consisting ofa three-
phase PFC boost-type rectifier with an output DC link capacitor followed by a DC/DC
buck converter if boost and buck functionality is required. In this paper, a new
modulation scheme for this topology is presented, where always only one out of three
rectifier half-bridges is pulse width modulated, while the remaining two phases are clamped
and therefore a higher efficiency is achieved. This modulation concept with a minimum
number of active half-bridges, denoted as 1/3 rectifier, becomes possible if in contrast to
other modulation schemes the intermediate DC link voltage is varied in a six-pulse voltage
fashion, while still sinusoidal grid currents in phase with their corresponding phase
voltages and a constant battery output voltage are obtained. In this paper, a detailed
description of the novel 1/3 rectifier's operating principle and the corresponding control
structure are presented and the proper closed loop operation is verified by means of a
circuit simulation. Finally, the performance gain of the 1/3 rectifier control scheme
compared to conventional modulation schemes is evaluated by means of a virtual
prototype system.

27
5. T. B. Soeiro, and P. Bauer(2019), have elucidated on “Three-phase unidirectional quasi-
singlestage delta-switch rectifier + dc-dc buck converter,” in Proc. of 39th Ann. Conf. of
the Ind.Electr. Soc., (IECON), 2019. his work presents a unidirectional three-phase PFC
rectifier well- suited for application targeting high efficiency and/or high power density,
such as DC-type electric vehicle chargers. Herein, a quasi-single stage AC- DC converter is
proposed where a conventional three-phase DELTA- switch voltage source rectifier is
cascaded to a PWM interleaved buck-type DC-DC converter by means of a low energy
storage DC-link. The characteristics of the presented power electronics, including the
principles of operation, modulation strategy, suitable PWM control scheme, and
dimensioning equations are described in this paper. The presented circuit is benchmarked
against other solutions for a 50 kW power capability battery charger. The results show a
superior power efficiency of theproposed system.

6. L. K. Ries, T. B. Soeiro, M. S. Ortmann and M. L. Heldwein (2017) have demonstrated


on "Analysis of carrier-based pwm patterns for a three- phase five-level bidirectional buck +
boost-type rectifier”, This paper analyzes three different carrier-based modulation
patterns applied to a three-phase high-power-factor-corrected (PFC) five-level buck+boost-
type converter acting as an interface between dc distribution systems and an ac grid. The
modulation is analyzed employing the space vectors theory so that the achievable performance is
demonstrated. The main advantage of the analyzed modulation strategy is its simplicity, which
makes it suitable for digital signal controller (DSC) implementations. This seems straightforward
for voltage source converters, but is a challenge for current-multilevel converters that typically
employ field-programmable gate array devices to achieve better harmonic distortion performance.
This is due to modern power electronics DSCs being typically designed for other converter
topologies. The power converter is constructed with two phase-shift-modulated six-switch buck-
type PFC converters, paralleled by interphase transformers, and an inverting circuit. The system
features: bidirectional current carrying capability; relatively low parts count; high utilization of the
semiconductors; and low current and voltage ripple at its terminals. The principle of operation,
detailed description, analysis of the modulation strategy, and dimensioning equations for three
different power circuit realizations are described in this paper assuming the analyzed modulation
patterns. The feasibility of the presented converter is demonstrated by means of a constructed
hardware prototype.

28
7. J. C. Spoelstra and J. Helmus(2016), have elaborated on “Public charging infrastructure
use in the Netherlands: a rollout-strategy assessment,”. Over recent years numbers of public
charging points in the Netherlands have known a strong growth in order to facilitate
charging for electric vehicles of which the sales continue to increase as well. These charging
points were either installed following a request by electrical drivers with the need for
charging infrastructure in the vicinity of their home, the demand-driven rollout, or by local
and regional governments with the need to facilitate electric vehicle charging near public
facilities and strategic locations, the strategic rollout. With a new roll-out wave coming up
in the Netherlands, understanding how these charging infrastructure characteristics
influence the use of the infrastructure is essential. This paper provides a detailed analysis of
the use of these ‘demand-driven’ and ‘strategic’ public charging points and the implications of
these rollout-strategies by analysing charging transaction data from 788.336 transactions
on 1.913 public charging points between January 2012 and February 2015. Results show
that demand-driven charging points show higher energy transfers and longer connection
durations, and that strategic charging points generally have a higher number of unique users
and have a large share of rarely used charging points. With regard to charging profiles, most
demand-driven charging points, and well-used strategic charging points show high peak
loads during working days and especially demand-driven charging points show a high
share of nighttime chargers. These results provide insights in the use of public EV
charging points which could contribute to the development of new rollout-strategies.
8. A. Kuperman, U. Levy, J. Goren, A. Zafransky and A. Savernin(2013) have discussed
on “Battery charger for electric vehicle traction battery switch station,” IEEE Trans. Ind.
Electr., 2013. This paper presents the functionality of a commercialized fast charger for a
lithium-ion electric vehicle propulsion battery. The device is intended to operate in a
battery switch station, allowing an up-to 1-h recharge of a 25-kWh depleted battery,
removed from a vehicle. The charger is designed as a dual-stage- controlled ac/dc
converter. The input stage consists of a three-phase full- bridge diode rectifier combined
with a reduced rating shunt active power filter. The input stage creates an uncontrolled
pulsating dc bus while complying with the grid codes by regulating the total harmonic
distortion and power factor according to the predetermined permissible limits. The output
stage is formed by six interleaved groups of two parallel dc-dc converters, fed by the
uncontrolled dc bus and performing the battery charging process. The charger is capable of
operating in any of the three typical charging modes: constant current, constant voltage,
and constant power. Extended simulation and experimental results are shown to
demonstrate the functionality of the device.

29
9. A. Kuperman, U. Levy, J. Goren, A. Zafransky and A. Savernin(2013) have discussed
on “Battery charger for electric vehicle traction battery switch station,” IEEE Trans. Ind.
Electr., 2013. This paper presents the functionality of a commercialized fast charger for a
lithium-ion electric vehicle propulsion battery. The device is intended to operate in a
battery switch station, allowing an up-to 1-h recharge of a 25-kWh depleted battery,
removed from a vehicle. The charger is designed as a dual-stage- controlled ac/dc
converter. The input stage consists of a three-phase full- bridge diode rectifier combined
with a reduced rating shunt active power filter. The input stage creates an uncontrolled
pulsating dc bus while complying with the grid codes by regulating the total harmonic
distortion and power factor according to the predetermined permissible limits. The output
stage is formed by six interleaved groups of two parallel dc-dc converters, fed by the
uncontrolled dc bus and performing the battery charging process. The charger is capable of
operating in any of the three typical charging modes: constant current, constant voltage,
and constant power. Extended simulation and experimental results are shown to
demonstrate the functionality of the device.

10. T. B. Soeiro, G. J. M. de Sousa, M. S. Ortmann and M. L. Heldwein(2014), have


worked and explained on “Three-phase unidirectional buck-type third harmonic Injection
Rectifier Concepts,” in Proc. of 29th Ann. IEEE Appl. Power Electron. Conf. and Exp.
(APEC), 2014. his work introduces three-phase unidirectional buck-type unity power
factor rectifiers. The proposed rectifiers are assembled by incorporating auxiliary circuit
branches into standard three-phase buck- type PFC topologies, each comprising an active
switch and three diodes. These circuits can operate as active third harmonic current
injection PFC systems. The characteristics of the buck-type converters, including their
operation principle, appropriate modulation strategy and control structure, are described.
The proposed converters are compared to state-of-the-art buck-type rectifiers. According to
the results, the proposed rectifiers can achieve the highest efficiency and thus are the topology
of choice for a 2.5 kW three-phase buck-type PFC rectifier.

30
3. PROJECT DESIGN

3.0 OVERVIEW OF THE DESIGN

PEBB circuit is shown for a high power DC-type EV charger with connection to a MV grid
through a 50/60 Hz transformer. Advantageously, the battery charger can be fully assembled
with half-bridge power modules, which has a large number of manufacturers with several
current ratings and blocking voltage available. By close inspection of the circuit depicted in
Fig. 1, one can identify a well-known two-stage power conversion system, i.e. a three-phase AC-
DC converter + a DC-DC circuit. The back-end circuit works as a three-channel PWM
interleaved DC-DC buck-type converter. This features enhanced loss distribution among
semiconductors or better current shared between the parallel circuits than hard paralleling of
semiconductors. This results in improvements in the achievable total conduction and switching
losses. Additionally, the symmetric PWM interleaved operation will cancel out the high
frequency harmonics proportional to the number of employed parallel circuits in both voltages
and currents, lowering the rms current across the DC capacitors Cf and Co. This feature can be
used to enlarge the current ripple across each phase -leg of the back- end circuit in order to
achieve Zero-Voltage-Switching turn-on of the active switches and low reverse-recovery losses
of the antiparallel diodes. The front-end converter comprises a three phase three-wire two-level
six-switch voltage sourcerectifier (2L-VSR), which inherent features low complexity and low
cost. Note that with proper voltage conversion rate between the AC grid and EV battery
thecurrent stress across the front- and back-end circuits can be similar, which will bring a
manufacturing advantage. In this paper, the front- and back- end circuits are intentionally
connected through a DC-link employing capacitors with low energy storage capability, e.g.
electrolytic capacitor-less DC-link. This makes the operation of both circuits highly coupled to
each other. The DC-link or voltage across the terminals p and n (or upn) in Fig. 1 will follow
the rectified envelop of the AC capacitors line-to-line voltages, similarly to what is achieved by
a basic three-phase diode-bridge rectifier.

31
Fig 3.1: EV charger concept with back-end power conversion based on the PWM interleaved
Buck-converter and front-end circuit based on the two-level bidirectional six-switch voltage
source rectifier.

Note that the systems are connected to each other through a low energy storageDC-link.
This allows that the rectifier phase-legs operate with a unique discontinuous PWM
modulation (DPWM) where they can stop switching during two-thirds of the grid period or
240o, while the AC currents are at theirhighest values, i.e. only one phase-leg switch during
every 60o .

TABLE II. Electric Vehicle Fast DC-type charger specifications.

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Fig 3.2: Proposed system circuit configuration

Fig 3.3: Proposed controller

33
TABLE III: Comparison of active and passive component stresses determined by analytical calculations
and digital simulations.

3.1 EQUIPMENT ANALYSIS

INTRODUCTION
Simulink is a software package for modeling, simulating, and analyzing dynamical systems.
It supports linear and nonlinear systems, modeled in continuous time, sampled time, or a
hybrid of the two. For modeling, Simulink provides a graphical user interface (GUI) for
building models as block diagrams, using click-and-drag mouse operations. Models are
hierarchical, so we can build models using both top-down and bottom-up approaches. We can
view the system at a high level, then double-click on blocks to go down through the levels to
see increasing levels of model detail. This approach provides insight into how a model is
organized and how its parts interact. After we define a model, we can simulate it, using a
choice of integration methods, either from the Simulink menus or by entering commands in
MATLAB's command window. Using scopes and other display blocks, we can see the
simulation results while the simulation is running. In addition, we can change parameters
and immediately see what happens, for "what if" exploration.
The simulation results can be put in the MATLAB workspace for post processing and
visualization. Simulink can be used to explore the behavior of a wide range of real-world
dynamic systems, including electrical circuits, shock absorbers, braking systems, and many
other electrical, mechanical, and thermodynamic systems.

34
Simulating a dynamic system is a two-step process with Simulink. First, we create a
graphical model of the system to be simulated, using Simulink's model editor. The model
depicts the time-dependent mathematical relationships among the system’s inputs, states, and
outputs. Then, we use Simulink to simulate the behavior of the system over a specified time
span. Simulink uses information that you entered into the model to perform the simulation.

BLOCK DIAGRAM

A Simulink block diagram is a pictorial model of a dynamic system. It consists of a set of


symbols, called blocks, interconnected by lines. Each block represents an elementary
dynamic system that produces an output either continuously (a continuous block) or at
specific points in time (a discrete block). The lines represent connections of block inputs to
block outputs. Every block in a block diagram is an instance of a specific type of block.
The type of the block determines the relationship between a block's outputs and its inputs,
states, and time. A block diagram can contain any number of instances of any type of block
needed to model a system. Blocks represent elementary dynamic systems that Simulink
knows how to simulate. A block comprises one or more of the following:

1) A set of inputs,
2) A set of states, and
3) A set of outputs.

A block's output is a function of time and the block's inputs and states (if any). The
specific function that relates a block's output to its inputs, states, and time depends on
the type of block of which the block is an instance. Continuous Versus discrete Blocks
Simulink's standard block set includes continuous blocks and discrete blocks.
Continuous blocks respond continuously to continuously changing input. Discrete
blocks, by contrast, respond to changes in input only at integral multiples of a fixed
interval called the block's sample time. Discrete blocks hold their output constant
between successive sample time hits. Each discrete block includes a sample time
parameter that allows you to specify its sample rate. The Simulink blocks can be either
continuous or discrete, depending on whether they are driven by continuous or discrete
blocks. A block that can be either discrete or continuous is said to have an implicit
sample rate. The implicit sample time is continuous if any of the block's inputs are
continuous. The implicit sample time is equal to the shortest input sample time if all the
input sample times are integral multiples of the shortest time. Otherwise, the input
35
sample time is equal to the fundamental sample time of the inputs, where the
fundamental sample time of a set of sample times is defined as the greatest integer
divisor of the set of sample times.

A block's output is a function of time and the block's inputs and states (if
any). The specific function that relates a block's output to its inputs, states, and time
depends on the type of block of which the block is an instance. Continuous Versus
discrete Blocks Simulink's standard block set includes continuous blocks and discrete
blocks. Continuous blocks respond continuously to continuously changing input.
Discrete blocks, by contrast, respond to changes in input only at integral multiples of a
fixed interval called the block's sample time. Discrete blocks hold their output
constant between successive sample time hits. Each discrete block includes a sample
time parameter that allows you to specify its sample rate. The Simulink blocks can be
either continuous or discrete, depending on whether they are driven by continuous or
discrete blocks. A block that can be either discrete or continuous is said to have an
implicit sample rate. The implicit sample time is continuous if any of the block's inputs
are continuous. The implicit sample time is equal to the shortest input sample time if all the
input sample times are integral multiples of the shortest time. Otherwise, the input
sample time is equal to the fundamental sample time of the inputs, where the
fundamental sample time of a set of sample times is defined as the greatest integer
divisor of the set of sample times.

Simulink can optionally color code a block diagram to indicate the sample
times of the blocks it contains, e.g., black (continuous), magenta (constant), yellow
(hybrid), red (fastest discrete), and so on. The block contains block name, icon, and
block library that contain the block, the purpose of the block SIMULINK BLOCK
LIBRARIES
Simulink organizes its blocks into block libraries according to their behavior.

1) The Sources library contains blocks that generate signals.


2) The Sinks library contains blocks that display or write block output.
3) The Discrete library contains blocks that describe discrete-timecomponents.

36
4) The Continuous library contains blocks that describe linear functions.
5) The Math library contains blocks that describe general mathematics functions.
6) The Functions & Tables library contains blocks that describe general functions
and table look-up operations.
7) The Nonlinear library contains blocks that describe nonlinear functions.
8) The Signal & Systems library contains blocks that allow multiplexing and
demultiplexing, implement external input/output, pass data to other parts of the model,
and perform other functions.
9) The Subsystems library contains blocks for creating various types ofsubsystems.
10) The Block sets and Toolboxes library contains the Extras block library of specialized
blocks.

SUB SYSTEMS

Simulink allows to model a complex system as a set of interconnected subsystems


each of which is represented by a block diagram. We create a subsystem using Simulink's
Subsystem block and the Simulink model editor. We can embed subsystems with subsystems to
any depth to create hierarchical models. We can create conditionally executed subsystems
that are executed onlywhen a transition occurs on a triggering or enabling input.

SOLVERS
Simulink simulates a dynamic system by computing its states at successive time step solver a
specified time span, using information provided by the model. The process of computing the
successive states of a system from its model is known as solving the model. No single method
of solving a model suffices for all systems. Accordingly, Simulink provides a set of programs,
known as solvers, that each embody a particular approach to solving a model. The Simulation
Parameters dialog box allows us to choose the solver most suitable for our model.

Fixed-Step and Variable-Step Solvers


Fixed-step solvers solve the model at regular time intervals from the beginning to the
end of the simulation. The size of the interval is known as the step-size. We can specify the
step size or let the solver choose the step size. Generally decreasing the step size increases
the accuracy of the results while increasing the time required to simulate the system.

37
Variable-step solvers vary the step size during the simulation, reducing the step size
to increase accuracy when a model's states are changing rapidly and increasing the step size to
avoid taking unnecessary steps when the model's states are changing slowly. Computing the step
size adds to the computational overhead at each step but can reduce the total number of steps,
and hence simulation time, required to maintain a specified level of accuracy for models with
rapidly changing or piecewise continuous states.
Continuous and Discrete Solvers

Continuous solvers use numerical integration to compute a model's continuous states at the
current time step from the states at previous time steps and the state derivatives. Continuous
solvers rely on the model's blocks to compute the values of the model's discrete states at each
time step. Mathematicians have developed a wide variety of numerical integration techniques
for solving the ordinary differential equations (ODEs) that represent the continuous states of
dynamic systems. Simulink provides an extensive set of fixed-step and variable-step
continuous solvers, each implementing a specific ODE solution method. Some continuous
solvers subdivide the simulation time span into major and minor steps, where a minor time
step represents a subdivision of the major time step. The solver produces a result at each major
time step. It use results at the minor time steps to improve the accuracy of the result at the
majortime step.

Discrete solvers exist primarily to solve purely discrete models. They compute the
next simulation time-step for a model and nothing else. They do not compute continuous states
and they rely on the model's blocks to update the model's discrete states. We can use a
continuous solver, but not a discrete solver, to solve a model that contains both continuous and
discrete states. This is because a discrete solver does not handle continuous states. If you
select a discrete solver for a continuous model, Simulink disregards your selection and uses a
continuous solver instead when solving the model.
Simulink provides two discrete solvers, a fixed-step discrete solver and a variable-step
discrete solver. The fixed-step solver by default chooses a step size and hence simulation rate
fast enough to track state changes in the fastest block in our model. The variable-step solver
adjusts the simulation step size to keep pace with the actual rate of discrete state changes in
our model. This can avoid unnecessary steps and hence shorten simulation time for multirate
models.

38
MODEL EXECUTION PHASE

In the simulation model execution phase, Simulink successively computes the states and
outputs of the system at intervals from the simulation start time to the finish time, using
information provided by the model. The successive time points at which the states and
outputs are computed are called time steps. The length of time between steps is called the
step size. The step size depends on thetype of solver used to compute the system's continuous
states, the system's fundamental sample time, and whether the system's continuous states
have discontinuities (Zero Crossing Detection). At the start of the simulation, the model
specifies the initial states and outputs of the system to be simulated. At each step, Simulink
computes new values for the system's inputs, states, and outputs and updates the model to
reflect the computed values. At the end of the simulation, the model reflects the final values
of the system's inputs, states, and outputs. At each time step:

1) Simulink Updates the outputs of the models' blocks in sorted order. Simulink
computes a block's outputs by invoking the block's output function. Simulink passes
the current time and the block's inputs and states to the output function as it may
require these arguments to compute the block's output. Simulink updates the output of
a discrete block only if the current step is an integral multiple of the block's sample
time.
2) Updates the states of the model's blocks in sorted order. Simulink computes a block's
discrete states by invoking its discrete state update function. Simulink computes a
block's continuous states by numerically integrating the time derivatives of the
continuous states. It computes the time derivatives of the states by invoking the
block's continuous derivatives function.
3) Optionally checks for discontinuities in the continuous states of blocks. Simulink uses
a technique called zero crossing detection to detect discontinuities in continuous
states.
4) Computes the time for the next time step.
Simulink repeats steps 1 through 4 until the simulation stop time is reached.

39
Block Sorting Rules
Simulink uses the following basic update rules to sort the blocks:

1) Each block must be updated before any of the direct-feed through blocks that it drives.
This rule ensures that the inputs to direct-feed through blocks will be valid when they
are updated.
2) Non direct-feed through blocks can be updated in any order as long as they are updated
before any direct-feed through blocks that they drive. This rule can be met by putting all
non direct-feed through blocks at the head of the update list in any order. It thus allows
Simulink to ignore non direct-feed through blocks during the sorting process.
3) The result of applying these rules is an update list in which non direct- feed through
blocks appear at the head of the list in no particular order followed by direct-feed
through blocks in the order required to supply valid inputs to the blocks they drive.
During the sorting process, Simulink checks for and flags the occurrence of algebraic
loops, that is, signal loops in which an output of a direct - feed through block is connected
directly or indirectly to one of the block's inputs. Such loops seemingly create a deadlock
condition since Simulink needs the input of a direct-feed through block in order to
compute its output. However, an algebraic loop can represent a set of simultaneous
algebraic equations (hence the name) where the block's input and output are the
unknowns. Further, these equations can have valid solutions at each time step.
Accordingly, Simulink assumes that loops involving direct-feed through blocks do, in
fact, represent a solvable set of algebraic equations and attempts to solve them each time
the blockis updated during a simulation.

40
DETERMINING BLOCK UPDATE ORDER
During a simulation, Simulink updates the states and outputs of a model's blocks once
per time step. The order in which the blocks are updated is therefore critical to the validity of the
results. In particular, if a block's outputs are a function of its inputs at the current time step, the
block must be updated after the blocks that drive its inputs. Otherwise, the block's outputs will
be invalid. The order in which blocks are stored in a model file is not necessarily the order in
which they need to be updated during a simulation. Consequently, Simulink sorts the blocks into
the correct order during the model initialization phase.

In order to create a valid update ordering, Simulink categorizes blocks according to the
relationship of outputs to inputs. Blocks whose current outputs depend on their current inputs
are called direct feed through blocks. All other blocks are called non direct-feed through
blocks. Examples of direct-feed through blocks include the Gain, Product, and Sum blocks.
Examples of non direct-feed through blocks include the Integrator block (its output is a
function purely of its state), the Constant block (it does not have an input), and the Memory
block (its output is dependent on its input in the previous time step). Simulink allows you to
assign update priorities to blocks. Simulink updates higher priority blocks before lower
priority blocks. Simulink honors the priorities only if they are consistent with its block
sorting rules.
Some of SIMULINK blocks, which are used in this thesis, are given
below.

MATLAB is a high-performance language for technical computing. It integrates


computation, visualization, and programming in an easy-to-use environment where problems
and solutions are expressed in familiar mathematical notation. Typical uses include-

 Math and computation


 Algorithm development
 Data acquisition
 Modeling, simulation, and prototyping
 Data analysis, exploration, and visualization
 Scientific and engineering graphics

41
3.2 DEFINE THE MODULES

MATLAB is an interactive system whose basic data element is an array that does not require
dimensioning. This allows solving many technical computing problems, especially those with
matrix and vector formulations, in a fraction of the time it would take to write a program in a
scalar non-interactivelanguage such as C or FORTRAN.

The MATLAB system consists of six main parts:

(a) Development Environment

This is the set of tools and facilities that help to use MATLAB functions and files.
Many of these tools are graphical user interfaces. It includes the MATLAB desktop and
Command Window, a command history, an editor and debugger, and browsers for viewing
help, the workspace, files and the search path.

(b) The MATLAB Mathematical Function Library


This is a vast collection of computational algorithms ranging from elementary
functions, like sum, sine, cosine, and complex arithmetic, to more sophisticated functions like
matrix inverse, matrix Eigen values, Bessel functions, and fast Fourier transforms.

(c) The MATLAB Language

This is a high-level matrix/array language with control flow statements, functions,


data structures, input/output, and object-oriented programming features. It allows both
"programming in the small" to rapidly create quick and dirty throw-away programs, and
"programming in the large" to create large and complex application programs.

(d) Graphics
MATLAB has extensive facilities for displaying vectors and matrices as graphs, as
well as annotating and printing these graphs. It includes high-level functions for two-
dimensional and three-dimensional data visualization, image processing, animation, and
presentation graphics. It also includes low-level functions that allow to fully customize the
appearance of graphics as well as to build complete graphical user interfaces on MATLAB
applications.

42
(e) The MATLAB Application Program Interface (API)
This is a library that allows writing in C and FORTRAN programs that interact with
MATLAB. It includes facilities for calling routines from MATLAB (dynamic linking), calling
MATLAB as a computational engine, and for reading and writing MAT-files.

(f) MATLAB Documentation


MATLAB provides extensive documentation, in both printed and online format, to
help to learn about and use all of its features. It covers all the primary MATLAB features at a
high level, including many examples. The MATLAB online help provides task-oriented and
reference information about MATLAB features. MATLAB documentation is also available
in printed form and in PDF format.

3.3 MODULE FUNTIONALITIES

(1) Three phase source block

Fig 3.4: Three Phase Source Block


The Three-Phase Source block implements a balanced three-phase voltage source with internal
R-L impedance. The three voltage sources are connected in Y with a neutral connection that can
be internally ground.
(2) VI measurement block
The Three-Phase V-I Measurement block is used to measure three-phase voltages and
currents in a circuit. When connected in series with three-phase elements, it returns the three
phase-to-ground or phase-to-phase voltages and thethree line currents

Fig 3.5: Three Phase V-I Measurement

43
(1) Scope

Display signals generated during a simulation. The Scope block displays its input
with respect to simulation time. The Scope block can have multiple axes (one per port); all
axes have a common time range with independent y-axes. The Scope allows you to adjust the
amount of time and the range of input values displayed. You can move and resize the Scope
window and you can modify the Scope's parameter values during the simulation

Fig 3.6: Scope

(2) Three-Phase Series RLC Load

The Three-Phase Series RLC Load block implements a three-phase balanced load as a
series combination of RLC elements. At the specified frequency, the load exhibits constant
impedance. The active and reactive powers absorbed by the load are proportional to the square
of the applied voltage.

Fig 3.7: Three-Phase Series RLC Load

(3) Three-Phase Breaker block

The Three-Phase Breaker block implements a three-phase circuit breaker where the
opening and closing times can be controlled either from an external Simulink signal or from an
internal control signal

44
Fig 3.8: Three-Phase Breaker Block

(4) Integrator

Library: Continuous

Fig 3.9: Integrator

The integrator block outputs the integral of its input at the current time step. The
following equation represents the output of the block y as a function of its input u and an
initial condition y0, where y and u are vector functions of the current simulation time t.

(5) Breaker

Implement circuit breaker opening at current zero crossing.

Library: Elements

Fig 3.10: Circuit Breaker

Purpose: The Breaker block implements a circuit breaker where the opening and closing times
can be controlled either from an external SIMULINK signal (external control mode), or from
an internal control timer (internal control mode).

45
A series Rs-Cs snubber circuit is included in the model. It can be connected to the circuit
breaker. If the Breaker block happens to be in series with an inductive circuit, an open circuit
or a current source, you must use a snubber.

When the breaker block is set in external control mode, a SIMULINK input appears on
the block icon. The control signal connected to the SIMULINK input must be either 0 or 1 (0
to open the breaker, 1 to close it).

When the Breaker block is set in internal control mode, the switching times are specified
in the dialog box of the block.

(6) Three-Phase Programmable Voltage Source

Implement three-phase voltage source with programmable time variation of amplitude,


phase, frequency, and harmonics

Library: Electrical Sources

Fig 3.11: Three Phase Voltage Sources

Purpose: This block is used to generate a three-phase sinusoidal voltage with time-varying
parameters. It can be programmed with the time variation for the amplitude, phase or
frequency of the fundamental component of the source. In addition, two harmonics can be
programmed and superimposed on the fundamental signal.

(7) Trigonometric Function

Specified trigonometric function on input

Library: Math Operations

46
Fig 3.12: Trigonometric Function

Purpose: The Trigonometric Function block performs common trigonometric functions

(8) Three-Phase Transformer (Two Windings)

Implement three-phase transformer with configurable winding connectionsLibrary: Elements

Fig 3.13: Three Phase Transformer

Purpose: The Three-Phase Transformer (Two Windings) block implements a three-


phase transformer using three single-phase transformers. The saturation characteristic, when
activated, is the same as the one described for the saturable Transformer block, and the icon
of the block is automatically updated. If the fluxes are not specified, the initial values are
automatically adjusted so that the simulation starts in steady state.

(9) Three-Phase Transformer 12 Terminals

Implement three single-phase, two-winding transformers where all


terminals are accessible

47
Fig 3.14: Two winding Transformer
Purpose: The Three-Phase Transformer 12 Terminals block implements three single-phase,
two-winding linear transformers where all the twelve winding connectors are accessible. The
block can be used in place of the Three-Phase Transformer (Two Windings) block to implement
a three-phase transformer when primary and secondary are not necessarily connected in Star or
Delta.

(10) IGBT/Diode

Implements ideal IGBT, GTO, or MOSFET and antiparallel diode

Library: Power Electronics

Fig 3.15: IGBT

Purpose: The IGBT/Diode block is a simplified mode of an IGBT (or GTO or


MOSFET)/Diode pair where the forward voltages of the forced-commutated device and
diode are ignored.

48
3.4 RELATEDED DESIGNS/GRAPHS

Fig. 3.4.1: Grid sectors defined by the different relations of the instantaneous values of the grid
phase voltages ua,b,c.

49
Fig. 3.4.2: DPWM240 modulator main waveforms: a) input voltage ua; b) calculated
modulation function for front-end circuit ma and interleaved Buck-converter mBuck; and c)
the six reference AC voltage sectors, S1-6.

50
Fig. 3.4.3: Main simulated waveforms: a) AC voltages ua,b,c; DC-link voltage upn and output
voltage uo; b) converter side currents ia,c,b,c,c,c; and buckconverter partial currents
io1,o2,o3; c) Voltages between phase a and n terminals, uan.

51
Fig. 3.4.4. Fast charging profile of a 30 kWh Nissan Leaf EV from 0% to 90% of state-of-
charging.

52
Fig. 3.4.5. Suitable PWM modulation strategies for the grid-connected or frontend power
electronics of Fig. 1: a) SVPWM and b) DPWM120.

53
Fig. 3.4.6. Benchmark results of 50 kW fast chargers: Power loss and efficiency results for a
30 kWh Nissan Leaf charging from 0% to 90% SoC for SiC MOSFET- and Si IGBT/Diode-
based solutions.

54
4. PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION

4.0 IMPLEMTATION STAGES

Fig 4.1: Proposed system circuit configuration

55
Fig 4.2: Proposed controller

56
4.1 RESULTS

Fig 4.1.1: Input voltage for proposed system

Fig 4.1.2: DC-link voltage for proposed system

57
Fig 4.1.3: Battery voltage

58
5.PROJECT TESTING

5.0 OVERVIEW OF TESTING METHODS


Simulink simulates a dynamic system by computing its states at successive time step
solver a specified time span, using information provided by the model. The process of
computing the successive states of a system from its model is known as solving the model. No
single method of solving a model suffices for all systems. Accordingly, Simulink provides a set
of programs, known as solvers, that each embody a particular approach to solving a model.
The Simulation Parameters dialog box allows us to choose the solver most suitable for our model.
Fixed-Step and Variable-Step Solvers
Fixed-step solvers solve the model at regular time intervals from the beginning to the
end of the simulation. The size of the interval is known as the step-size. We can specify the
step size or let the solver choose the step size. Generally decreasing the step size increases
the accuracy of the results while increasing the time required to simulate the system.
Variable-step solvers vary the step size during the simulation, reducing the step size
to increase accuracy when a model's states are changing rapidly and increasing the step size to
avoid taking unnecessary steps when the model's states are changing slowly. Computing the step
size adds to the computational overhead at each step but can reduce the total number of steps,
and hence simulation time, required to maintain a specified level of accuracy for models with
rapidly changing or piecewise continuous states.
Continuous and Discrete Solvers

Continuous solvers use numerical integration to compute a model's continuous states


at the current time step from the states at previous time steps and the state derivatives.
Continuous solvers rely on the model's blocks to compute the values of the model's discrete
states at each time step.

59
Mathematicians have developed a wide variety of numerical integration techniques for
solving the ordinary differential equations (ODEs) that represent the continuous states of
dynamic systems. Simulink provides an extensive set of fixed-step and variable-step
continuous solvers, each implementing a specific ODE solution method. Some continuous
solvers subdivide the simulation time span into major and minor steps, where a minor time step
represents a subdivision of the major time step. The solver produces a result at each major time
step. It use results at the minor time steps to improve the accuracy of the result at the major
time step.

Discrete solvers exist primarily to solve purely discrete models. They compute the
next simulation time-step for a model and nothing else. They do not compute continuous states
and they rely on the model's blocks to update the model's discrete states. We can use a
continuous solver, but not a discrete solver, to solve a model that contains both continuous and
discrete states. This is because a discrete solver does not handle continuous states. If you
select a discrete solver for a continuous model, Simulink disregards your selection and uses a
continuous solver instead when solving the model.
Simulink provides two discrete solvers, a fixed-step discrete solver and a variable-
step discrete solver. The fixed-step solver by default chooses a step size and hence simulation
rate fast enough to track state changes in the fastest block in our model. The variable-step
solver adjusts the simulation step size to keep pace with the actual rate of discrete state
changes in our model. This can avoid unnecessary steps and hence shorten simulation time for
multirate models.

MODEL EXECUTION PHASE

In the simulation model execution phase, Simulink successively computes the states
and outputs of the system at intervals from the simulation start time to the finish time, using
information provided by the model. The successive time points at which the states and
outputs are computed are called time steps. The length of time between steps is called the step
size. The step size depends on the type of solver used to compute the system's continuous
states, the system's fundamental sample time, and whether the system's continuous states
havediscontinuities (Zero Crossing Detection).

60
At the start of the simulation, the model specifies the initial states and outputs of the
system to be simulated. At each step, Simulink computes new values for the system's inputs,
states, and outputs and updates the model to reflect the computed values. At the end of the
simulation, the model reflects the final values of the system's inputs, states, and outputs. At
each time step:

5) Simulink Updates the outputs of the models' blocks in sorted order. Simulink
computes a block's outputs by invoking the block's output function. Simulink passes
the current time and the block's inputs and states to the output function as it may
require these arguments to compute the block's output. Simulink updates the output of
a discrete block only if the current step is an integral multiple of the block's sample
time.
6) Updates the states of the model's blocks in sorted order. Simulink computes a block's
discrete states by invoking its discrete state update function. Simulink computes a
block's continuous states by numerically integrating the time derivatives of the
continuous states. It computes the time derivatives of the states by invoking the
block's continuous derivatives function.
7) Optionally checks for discontinuities in the continuous states of blocks. Simulink uses
a technique called zero crossing detection to detect discontinuities in continuous
states.
8) Computes the time for the next time step.
Simulink repeats steps 1 through 4 until the simulation stop time is reached.

61
Block Sorting Rules
Simulink uses the following basic update rules to sort the blocks:

3) Each block must be updated before any of the direct-feed through blocks that it drives.
This rule ensures that the inputs to direct-feed through blocks will be valid when they
are updated.
4) Non direct-feed through blocks can be updated in any order as long as they are updated
before any direct-feed through blocks that they drive. This rule can be met by putting all
non direct-feed through blocks at the head of the update list in any order. It thus allows
Simulink to ignore non direct-feed through blocks during the sorting process.
The result of applying these rules is an update list in which non direct- feed through
blocks appear at the head of the list in no particular order followed by direct-feed through
blocks in the order required to supply valid inputs to the blocks they drive. During the sorting
process, Simulink checks for and flags the occurrence of algebraic loops, that is, signal loops in
which an output of a direct - feed through block is connected directly or indirectly to one of the
block's inputs. Such loops seemingly create a deadlock condition since Simulink needs the input
of a direct-feed through block in order to compute its output. However, an algebraic loop can
represent a set of simultaneous algebraic equations (hence the name) where the block's input
and output are the unknowns. Further, these equations can have valid solutions at each time
step. Accordingly, Simulink assumes that loops involving direct-feed through blocks do, in
fact, represent a solvable set of algebraic equations and attempts to solve them each time the
blockis updated during a simulation.

62
6.CONCLUSION AND FUTURE ENHANCEMENT

The three-phase DC-type electric vehicle battery concept employing a back-end power
conversion based on the PWM interleaved Buck-converter and front-end circuit based on the
two-level bidirectional six-switch voltage source rectifier has been studied. The implementation
of a unique DPWM modulation, was explained. This ensures high power-factor operation while
the phase-leg can stop switching during two-thirds of the grid period or 240, reducing
considerably the semiconductor switching losses. The principle of operation, the main
designing expressions, suitable modulation scheme and PWM control have been described in
the project. The three-phase DC-type electric vehicle battery concept consisting a back-end
power conversion based on the PWM interleaved Buck- converter and front-end circuit based
on the two-level bidirectional six-switch voltage source rectifier has been studied. The
implementation of a unique DPWM modulation, was explained. This ensures high power-factor
operation. Reducing the semiconductor switching losses. The principle of operation, the main
designing expressions, suitable modulation scheme and PWM controller have been described
in the project. Based on fact, the average charge time by EV batteries is nearly 5-8 hours.
Thus, this creates a need for an adequate number of charging ports and further raise the
demand for fast charging points. DC fast stations which consist of these fast chargers, convert
AC power to DC within the station, delivering DC power directly to sources such as batteries
This also enables a much faster charge in a very less time.

63
REFERENCE
 Dale Hall and Nic Lutsey, “Emerging best practices for electric vehicle charging
infrastructure,” in Proc. of the international council on clean transportation
(ICCT), Oct. 2017.

 [2] IEA, “Global ev outlook 2017- two million and counting,” 2017.

 [3] NEA, “Electric transport in the Netherlands – 2016 highlights,” 2017.

 [4] Ministry of Economic Affairs, “Vision on the charging infrastructure for electric
transport – policy agenda looking ahead to 2020 for smart and clean transport,” 2017.

 [5] J. C. Spoelstra and J. Helmus, “Public charging infrastructure use inthe


Netherlands: a rollout-strategy assessment,” in Proc. of European Battery, Hybrid
and Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle Congress, Dec. 2016.

 [6] A. Kuperman, U. Levy, J. Goren, A. Zafransky and A. Savernin “Battery


charger for electic vehicle traction battery switch station,” IEEETrans. Ind. Electr.,
2013.

 [7] G. R. Chandra Mouli, M. Kefayati, R. Baldick, and P. Bauer, “Integrated


pv charging of ev fleet based on dynamic prices, v2g andoffer of reserves,” IEEE
Trans. Smart Grids, 2018.

 [8] M. Kesler, M. C. Kisacikoglu, and L. M. Tolbert, “Vehicle-to-gridreactive


power operation using plug-in electric vehicle bidirectional offboard charger,”
IEEE Trans. Ind. Electr., 2014.

 [9] J. C. Gomez and M. M. Morcos, “Impact of ev battery chargers on thepower


quality of distribution systems,” IEEE Power Delivery, 2003.

 [10] S. Rahman and G. B. Shrestha, “An investigation into the impact of electric
vehicle load on the electric utility distribution system,” IEEE Trans. Power
Delivery, 1993.

 [11] E. Sortomme and M. A. El-Sharkawi, “Optimal combined biddingof vehicle-


to-grid ancillary services,” IEEE Trans. Smart Grid, 2012.

 [12] C. C. Chan and K. T. Chau, “An overview of power electronics inelectric


vehicles,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electr., 1997.

64
 [13] J. Sallan, J. L. Villa, A. Llombart and J. F. Sanz, “Optimal design of icpt
systems applied to electric vehicle battery charge,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electr., 2009.

 [14] M. Vasiladiotis and A. Rufer, “A modular multiport power electronic


transformer with integrated split battery energy storage for versatile ultrafast ev
charging stations,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electr., 2015.

 [15] S. Bai and S. M. Lukic, “Unified active filter and energy storage system for
an mv electric vehicle charging station,” IEEE Trans. PowerElectr., 2013.

 [16] C. Jiang, R. Torquato, D. Salles and W. Xu, “Method to assess thepower


quality impact of plug-in electric vehicles,” IEEE Trans. Power Delivery, 2014.

 [17] D. Menzi, D. Bortis, and J. W. Kolar, “Three-phase two- phaseclamped


boost-buck unity power factor rectifier employing novelvariable dc link voltage
input current control,” Proc. of 2nd IEEE International Power Electronics and
Application Conference and Exposition (PEAC) Nov. 4-7, 2018.

 [18] J. A. Anderson, M. Haider, D. Bortis, J. W. Kolar, M. Kasper, and


G. Deboy, “New Synergetic Control of a 20 kW Isolated Vienna RectifierFront-End
EV Battery Charger,” Proc. of 20th IEEE Workshop on Control and Modeling for
Power Electronics (COMPEL) June 17-20, 2019.

 [19] T. B. Soeiro, and P. Bauer, “Three-phase unidirectional quasi- singlestage delta-


switch rectifier + dc-dc buck converter,” in Proc. of 39thAnn. Conf. of the Ind.Electr.
Soc., (IECON), 2019.

 [20] Ahmet Masum Hava, “Carrier based pwm-vsi drives in the


overmodulation region.” PhD thesis, 1998.

65
APPENDICES
MATLAB is a high-performance language for technical computing. It integrates
computation, visualization, and programming in an easy-to-use environment where problems
and solutions are expressed in familiar mathematical notation. Typical uses include-

 Math and computation


 Algorithm development
 Data acquisition
 Modeling, simulation, and prototyping
 Data analysis, exploration, and visualization
 Scientific and engineering graphics

MATLAB is an interactive system whose basic data element is an array that does not
require dimensioning. This allows solving many technical computing problems, especially
those with matrix and vector formulations, in a fraction of the time it would take to write a
program in a scalar non-interactive language such as C or FORTRAN.

The MATLAB system consists of six main parts:

(a) Development Environment

This is the set of tools and facilities that help to use MATLAB functions and files.
Many of these tools are graphical user interfaces. It includes the MATLAB desktop and
Command Window, a command history, an editor and debugger, and browsers for viewing
help, the workspace, files and the search path.

(b) The MATLAB Mathematical Function Library


This is a vast collection of computational algorithms ranging from elementary
functions, like sum, sine, cosine, and complex arithmetic, to more sophisticated functions like
matrix inverse, matrix Eigen values, Bessel functions, and fast Fourier transforms.

66
(c) The MATLAB Language
This is a high-level matrix/array language with control flow statements, functions,
data structures, input/output, and object-oriented programming features. It allows both
"programming in the small" to rapidly create quick and dirty throw-away programs, and
"programming in the large" to create large and complex application programs.

(d) Graphics
MATLAB has extensive facilities for displaying vectors and matrices as graphs, as
well as annotating and printing these graphs. It includes high-level functions for two-
dimensional and three-dimensional data visualization, image processing, animation, and
presentation graphics. It also includes low-level functions that allow to fully customize the
appearance of graphics as well as to build complete graphical user interfaces on MATLAB
applications.

(e) The MATLAB Application Program Interface (API)


This is a library that allows writing in C and FORTRAN programs that interact
with MATLAB. It includes facilities for calling routines from MATLAB (dynamic linking),
calling MATLAB as a computational engine, and for reading and writing MAT-files.

(f) MATLAB Documentation


MATLAB provides extensive documentation, in both printed and online format, to
help to learn about and use all of its features. It covers all the primary MATLAB features at a
high level, including many examples. The MATLAB online help provides task-oriented and
reference information about MATLAB features. MATLAB documentation is also available in
printed form and in PDF format.

67
(1) Three phase source block

Three Phase Source Block

The Three-Phase Source block implements a balanced three-phase voltagesource with internal
R-L impedance. The three voltage sources are connected in Y with a neutral connection that
can be internally ground.

(2) VI measurement block

The Three-Phase V-I Measurement block is used to measure three-phase voltages and
currents in a circuit. When connected in series with three-phase elements, it returns the three
phase-to-ground or phase-to-phase voltages and thethree-line currents

71

Three Phase V-I Measurement

(3) Scope

Display signals generated during a simulation. The Scope block displays its input
with respect to simulation time. The Scope block can have multiple axes (one per port); all
axes have a common time range with independent y-axes. The Scope allows you to adjust the
amount of time and the range of input values displayed. You can move and resize the Scope
window and you can modify the Scope's parameter values during the simulation

Scope
(4) Three-Phase Series RLC Load

The Three-Phase Series RLC Load block implements a three-phase balanced load as a
series combination of RLC elements. At the specified frequency, the load exhibits
constant impedance. The active and reactive powers absorbed by the load are proportional
to the square of the applied voltage.

(5) Three-Phase Breaker block


The Three-Phase Breaker block implements a three-phase circuit breaker where the
opening and closing times can be controlled either from an external Simulink signal or from an
internal control signal.

72

Three-Phase Breaker Block

(6) Integrator
Library: Continuous

Integrator

The integrator block outputs the integral of its input at the current time step. The following
equation represents the output of the block y as a function of its input u and an initial
condition y0, where y and u are vector functions of the current simulation time t.
(7) Breaker
Implement circuit breaker opening at current zero crossing.

Library: Elements

Circuit Breaker

Purpose: The Breaker block implements a circuit breaker where the opening and closing times
can be controlled either from an external SIMULINK signal (external control mode), or from
an internal control timer (internal control mode).
A series Rs-Cs snubber circuit is included in the model. It can be connected to the circuit
breaker. If the Breaker block happens to be in series with an inductive circuit, an open
circuit or a current source, you must use a snubber.
When the breaker block is set in external control mode, a SIMULINK input appears on the block
icon. The control signal connected to the SIMULINK input must be either 0 or 1 (0 to open the
breaker, 1 to close it).When the Breaker block is set in internal control mode, the switching times
are specified in the dialog box of the block.

When the breaker is closed, it is represented by a resistance Ron. The Ron value can be set as
small as necessary in order to be negligible compared with external components (a typical
value is 10 m ohms). When the breaker is open, it has an infinite resistance.

73
(8) Three-Phase Programmable Voltage Source
Implement three-phase voltage source with programmable time variation of
amplitude, phase, frequency, and harmonics

Library: Electrical Sources

Three Phase Voltage Sources

Purpose: This block is used to generate a three-phase sinusoidal voltage with time-varying
parameters. It can be programmed with the time variation for the amplitude, phase or
frequency of the fundamental component of the source. In addition, two harmonics can be
programmed and superimposed on the fundamental signal.

(9) Trigonometric Function

Specified trigonometric function on input


Library: Math Operations

Trigonometric Function
Purpose: The Trigonometric Function block performs common trigonometricfunctions

(10) Three-Phase Transformer (Two Windings)


Implement three-phase transformer with configurable winding connections Library: Elements

Three Phase Transformer

74
Purpose:

The Three-Phase Transformer (Two Windings) block implements a three- phase


transformer using three single-phase transformers. The saturation characteristic, when
activated, is the same as the one described for the saturable Transformer block, and the icon
of the block is automatically updated. If the fluxes are not specified, the initial values are
automatically adjusted so that the simulation starts in steady state.

(11) Three-Phase Transformer 12 Terminals


Implement three single-phase, two-winding transformers where all terminals areaccessible
Library: Elements

Two winding Transformer


Purpose: The Three-Phase Transformer 12 Terminals block implements three single-phase,
two-winding linear transformers where all the twelve winding connectors are accessible. The
block can be used in place of the Three-Phase Transformer (Two Windings) block to implement
a three-phase transformer when primary and secondary are not necessarily connected in Star or
Delta.

(12) IGBT/Diode
Implements ideal IGBT, GTO, or MOSFET and antiparallel diodeLibrary: Power

Electronics

IGBT

Purpose: The IGBT/Diode block is a simplified mode of an IGBT (or GTO or


MOSFET)/Diode pair where the forward voltages of the forced-commutated device and
diode are ignored.

75
A
PROJECT REPORT
On
A Novel Efficient Vehicle Fast Charging System
Structure with Low Order Harmonic Current
Suppression Capability
Submitted by

1) Ms. K. Kalyani (17K81A0228) 2) Ms. A. Chandana (17K81A0201)


3) Mr. L. Akhil (17K81A0230) 4) Ms. R. Mahesh (17K81A0236)

in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree


of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY

IN
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
Under The Guidance of
Mrs. S. Trilochana, M.Tech,(PhD)
Asst.Professor,
DEPARTMENT OF Electrical and Electronics Engineering

ST.MARTIN’S ENGINEERING COLLEGE


(An Autonomous Institute)
Dhulapally, Secunderabad – 500 100

JUNE 2021
BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project entitled A Novel Efficient Vehicle Fast Charging System
Structure with Low Order Harmonic Current Suppression Capability, is being submitted by
1.Ms. K. Kalyani (17K81A0228) 2. Ms. A. Chandana (17K81A0201) 3. Mr. L. Akhil
(17K81A0230) 4. Ms. R. Mahesh (17K81A0236) in partial fulfillment of the requirement
for the award of the degree of BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY IN Electrical and
Electronics Engineering department is recorded of bonafide work carried out by them. The
result embodied in this report have been verified and found satisfactory.

Head of the Department


Mrs. S. Trilochana Dr. N. Ramchandra
Department of EEE Department of EEE

Internal Examiner External Examiner

Place: Hyderabad

Date:

I
DECLARATION

We, the student of Bachelor of Technology in Department of Electrical and


Electronics Engineering, session:2017 – 2021, St. Martin’s Engineering College,
Dhulapally, Kompally, Secunderabad, hereby declare that work presented in this
Project Work entitled A Novel Efficient Vehicle Fast Charging System Structure with
Low Order Harmonic Current Suppression Capability is the outcome of our own
bonafide work and is correct to the best of our knowledge and this work has been
undertaken taking care of Engineering Ethics. This result embodied in this project
report has not been submitted in any university for award of any degree.

Ms. K. Kalyani (17K81A0228)


Ms. A. Chandana (17K81A0201)
Mr. L. Akhil (17K81A0230)
Ms. R. Mahesh (17K81A0236)

II
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The satisfaction and euphoria that accompanies the successful completion of any task
would be incomplete without the mention of the people who made it possible and
whose encouragements and guidance have crowded effects with success.
First and foremost, we would like to express my deep sense of gratitude and
indebtedness to our College Management for their kind support and permission to use
the facilities available in the Institute.
We especially would like to express my deep sense of gratitude and indebtedness to
Dr.P.Santosh Kumar Patra, our beloved Principal, St.Martin’s Engineering
College for his invaluable encouragement, suggestions and support from an early stage
of this research and providing me extraordinary experiences throughout the work. Above
all, his priceless and meticulous supervision at each and every phase of work inspired
me in innumerable ways.
We would like to express our gratitude to Dr.N.Ramchandra, Head &Professor, the
Dept. of Electrical and Electronics Engineering for his advice, supervision, and the vital
contribution as and when required during this research. We are proud to record that we
had the opportunity to work with an exceptionally experienced Professor like him. The
time spent with him will remain in my memory for years to come.
We would like to thank our supervisor Mrs.S.Trilochana, Assistant professor, Dept.
of EEE for his continuous support and valuable guidance for our research work.
We would like to express our gratitude to our dept .project coordinator Mr. K. V.
Govardhan Rao, Assistant Professor in EEE and Mr. T. Penchalaiah, Assistant Professor
in EEE for their involvement with originality has triggered and nourished my intellectual
maturity that will help me for a long time to come.
Finally, we are highly grateful and obliged to our college level Project Coordinators
Dr.Maalyadri, Professor in IT and Dr.R.Santhosh Kumar, Associate Professor in
CSE for their advice, supervision, and the vital contribution as and when required
during this research work and for their support and co- operation that is difficult to
express in words.
1. Ms. K.Kalyani
2. Ms. A.Chandana
3. Mr. L.Akhil
4. Mr. R.Mahesh

III
LIST OF CONTENTS

CERTIFICATE FROM COLLEGE I


DECLARATION II
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT III
LIST OF CONTENTS IV
LIST OF FIGURES VI
LIST OF OUTPUT SCREENS VI
NOMENCLATURE VII
ABSTRACT VIII

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION OF THE PROJECT 1
2. ELECTRIC VEHICLE CHARGING STATION
2.1 CHARGING STATIONS FALL INTO FOUR BASIC CATEGORIES 5
2.2 LOCATIONS 9
2.3 HISTORY 11
2.4 BENEFITS 11
2.5 MAIN ARTICLE 12
2.6 TESLA 13
2.7 BATTERY SWAP 14
2.8 CRITICISM 15
2.9 CHARGING STATION MANUFACTURERS 15
2.10 RENEWABLE ELECTRICITY AND RE CHARGING STATIONS 18
2.11 SPARC STATION 19
3. CONCEPT OF HARMONICS
3.1 INTRODUCTION 20
3.2 TOTAL HARMONIC DISTORTION(THD) 21
3.3 SOURCES OF HARMONICS 21
3.4 TYPES OF NONLINEAR LOADS 22
3.5 PROBLEMS RESULTING HARMONICS 23
3.6 METHODS TO REDUCE HARMONICS 26
3.7 ACTIVE POWER FILTERS 28
4. PROPOSED AC DC CONVERTER
4.1 THREE-PHASE RECTIFICATION 32
4.2 FULL-WAVE THREE-PHASE RECTIFIER CONDUCTION WAVEFORM 33
4.3 3-PHASE RECTIFICATION EXAMPLE NO2 34
4.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF BRIDGE RECTIFIER 36
5. PROPOSED SIMULATION SYSTEM
5.1 INTRODUCTION 38
5.2 CONVENTIONAL SYSTEM AND PROPOSED SYSTEM 39
5.3 BLOACK DIAGRAM 42
5.4 ADVANTAGES OF PROPOSED SYSTEM 43

IV
5.5 APPLICATIONS 43
6. PROPOSED SIMULATION SYSTEM
6.1 INTRODUCTION 44
6.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM 44
6.3 SIMULINK BLOCK LIBRARIES 45
6.4 SUB SYSYEMS 46
6.5 SOLVERS 46
6.6 MODEL EXECUTION PHASE 47
6.7 BLOCK SORTING RULES 48
6.8 PROPOSED SYSTEM SIMUTION CIRCUIT 49
7. RESULTS 50
8. CONCLUSIONS 51
8.1 CONCLUSION 54
8.2 FUTURE SCOPE 54
APPENDIX 1 55
APPENDIX 2 63
REFERENCES 63

V
LIST OF FIGURES
Fig 1.1 Two stage charging system 1
Fig:1.2 Proposed single stage charging system 2
Fig:1.3 Bidirectional half bridge DC/DC Converter. 2
Fig:1.4 Single stage charging system with DCAPF 3
Fig:2.1 Wireless charging station 10
Fig:2.2 Detail of the wireless inductive charging device 10
Fig:2.3 A Better Place battery switching station in Israel 12
Fig:2.4 Tesla Supercharger rapid charging station in Tejon, California. 13
Fig:2.5 Battery Swap Station for light commercial vehicles in Slovakia 14
Fig:2.6 Loading a Voltia electric LKW battery pack 14
Fig:2.7 Electric charging station signs 17
Fig:2.8 Public-domain international charge station sign 18
Fig:2.9 Charging station powered with solar panels 19
Fig: 3.1 Effect of harmonics on normal voltage or current waveform 20
Fig 3.2 Waveforms of thyristor rectifier 23
Fig 3.3 Waveforms of diode rectifier 24
Fig 3.4 Generalized block diagram for active Power filter 28
Fig:4.1 Three phase AC DC converter 31
Fig:4.2 Full-wave three phase Rectifier conduction waveform 33
Fig:4.3 Output waveforms of bridge rectifier 35
Fig:5.1 Two stage charging system 39
Fig:5.2 Proposed single stage charging system 40
Fig:5.3 Bidirectional half bridge DC/DC converter 41
Fig:5.4 Single stage charging system with DCAPF 41
Fig:5.5 Control diagram of DCAPF method 42
Fig:6.1 Proposed circuit configuration 49

LIST OF OUTPUT SCREENS


Fig:7.1 Input grid voltage 50
Fig:7.2 Input grid current 50
Fig:7.3 Main output waveforms 51
Fig:7.4 DC bus current 51
Fig:7.5 Inductor current 52
Fig:7.6 Battery current 52
Fig:7.7 DC link capacitor current 53
Fig:7.8 DCAPF voltage 53

VI
NOMENCLATURE
EV- Electric vehicle
V2G - Vehicle to grid
DC APF - DC Active Power Filter
ECS - Electronic Charging Station
EVSE - Electric vehicle supply equipment
CCS - Combined charging system
NEMA - National electrical manufacturers Association
SAE - Society of Automotive engineering
IEC - International electrochemical Commission
BSS - Battery swapping stations
FHWA - Federal Highway administration
MUTCD - Manual on uniform traffic control devices
SPARC - Solar powered automatic Recharging station
THD - Total harmonic distortion
CSNL - Current source non-linear loads
VSNL - Voltage source non-linear loads
PWM - Pulse width modulation
GUI - Graphical user interface
TIF - Telephone interference factor
THFF - Telephone harmonic form factor
HVDC - High Voltage direct current

VII
ABSTRACT
Aiming at improving the efficiency of the traditional electric vehicle (EV) fast chargers with two-stage
structure, this paper comes up with a novel charger with single-stage structure, where the turn ratio of the
transformer is specially designed to obtain a lower input line-to-line voltage (190V) for the single AC/DC
converter. Followed by a fair comparison method, the power losses of transformers and converters in both
two-stage and single-stage structures are analyzed. The better performances of the single-stage structure,
which includes lower costs and higher power conversion efficiency (up to 2%), are approved by the results of
calculation and simulation. To suppress the harmonic current getting into the battery packs in the single-stage
structure, a small capacity bidirectional half bridge DC/DC converter is designed to function as a DC active
power filter (DCAPF) to compensate the harmonics. Finally, both simulation and experimental results are
carried out to validate the low order harmonic current compensation effect.

VIII
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION TO THE PROJECT:
Efficiency is one of the key parameters to evaluate the performance of electric vehicle (EV) charging
system. Among many charging circuit topologies , fast charging systems seem to have a promising future for their
shorter charging time for EVs, especially those bidirectional fast chargers which accommodate to the concept
“vehicle-to-grid(V2G)”. Traditional fast charging system usually consists of two stages, namely an AC/DC
converter and a downstream DC/DC converter . Hence the output voltage could be freely adjusted to accommodate
the wide battery voltage range (280V-400V) for different EVs. In commercial EV fast chargers, the downstream
DC/DC converter is usually designed to be an isolated converter where a high frequency transformer is necessary
for isolation.

Fig:1.1 Two stage charging system

However the power conversion efficiency is limited a lot compared to non-isolated DC/DC converter.
Once the non-isolated DC/DC converter is adopted, there must be a power frequency transformer at the grid side
to ensure electrical safety as shown in Fig1.1. No matter which kind of two-stage converters, it seems difficult to
improve the system efficiency further with lower cost. In this paper, a single-stage AC/DC structure shown in
Fig1.2 is considered to replace two-stage structure with lower cost but higher efficiency. To accommodate the
battery voltage range, the turn ratio of power frequency transformer is designed to make the input voltage of the
AC/DC converter lower than the grid voltage.

1
Fig:1.2 proposed single stage charging system

A fair system efficiency comparison is carried out between the proposed structure and the traditional two-
stage structure. And the efficiency calculation results are validated by the SEMISEL simulation tool. Through the
analysis and calculation, the proposed single-stage structure has nearly more than 2% higher power conversion
efficiency compared to traditional two-stage structure with no additional cost. Furthermore based on the proposed
structure, there is another problem that the harmonic power from the grid can be directly transmitted to the battery
packs to be solved . Hence, a small capacity bidirectional half bridge DC/DC converter shown in Fig1.3 is applied
in this paper to work as an DC active power filter (DCAPF) to compensate the harmonic current as shown in
Fig1.4. Both the simulation and experimental results indicate that the DCAPF method is effective in battery
harmonic current compensation.

Fig:1.3 Bidirectional half bridge DC/DC Converter.

2
Fig:1.4 single stage charging system with DCAPF

To compare the efficiency of the two kinds of structure fairly, the power losses in both transformers and
power converters are considered in the following evaluation model. A. Power Loss Analysis for Transformers
Assuming that both transformers of the two structures have the same cost, namely the total transmitted power,
copper amount and iron core specifications are the same. Usually a transformer’s power loss consists of load loss
and no-load loss. For the primary side, the power losses are identical in the two transformers due to their same
settings. As for the secondary side, it is difficult to compare their power losses directly. Thus, it is necessary to
analyze their load losses and no load losses in detail. No-load loss commonly consists of hysteresis loss and eddy
current loss which can be expressed respectively as

where Ch and Ce are the loss coefficients severally, Δ is the thickness of the silicon steel sheet, Bm is the
flux density, V is the volume of the iron core, and f is the working frequency. Under the prerequisite that the iron
core specifications are the same in the two transformers, hysteresis loss and eddy current loss of them are
considered to be equal as well. As for the load loss, it consists of copper loss, eddy current loss in the winding,
and other stray loss. Due to the fact that stray loss is only a small part, it has been ignored in the evaluation.
Normally when ignoring the harmonic current in the transformer windings, the copper loss can be expressed as

3
where Rdc is the winding’s resistance, 1I is the fundamental current. When the transmitted power is the
same in the two transformers, the current of secondary winding at 190V will be twice as high as the secondary
winding at 380V. Meanwhile, according to the principle that the copper amount is the same, the cross-sectional
area of the secondary winding in (b) is twice as much as in (a), but its length is half of the secondary winding in
(a) as shown in Fig.5. Therefore, the dc resistance of secondary winding in (b) is a quarter of that in (a). According
to (3), naturally the copper losses are the same When considering the eddy current loss in the winding, it can be
calculated through a finite element method as

where Bi is the flux density in unit i ,ω is the angular frequency, ρ is the resistivity, b is the wire size, Ri
is the distance from the center of gravity of unit i to the center line of the core, i S is the area of conductors in unit
i . When the finite units are selected to be the same, parameters b , Ri and i S should be the same for both
transformer secondary windings. When the same wire, input source and current density are adopted, parameters
ρ , ω and Bi are also the same. Hence, the eddy current losses are the same for two transformers. According to the
analysis above, a conclusion can be got that the total power losses of the two transformers are actually identical
even under different secondary voltages.

4
CHAPTER 2

ELECTRIC VEHICLE CHARGING STATION

An electric vehicle charging station, also called EV charging station, electric recharging point, charging
point, charge point, electronic charging station (ECS), and electric vehicle supply equipment (EVSE), is an
element in an infrastructure that supplies electric energy for the recharging of plug-in electric vehicles—
including electric cars, neighborhood electric vehicles and plug-in hybrids.

For charging at home or work, some electric vehicles have converters on board that can plug into a standard
electrical outlet or a high-capacity appliance outlet. Others either require or can use a charging station that provides
electrical conversion, monitoring, or safety functionality. These stations are also needed when traveling, and many
support faster charging at higher voltages and currents than are available from residential EVSEs. Public charging
stations are typically on-street facilities provided by electric utility companies or located at retail shopping centers,
restaurants and parking places, operated by a range of private companies.

Charging stations provide a range of heavy duty or special connectors that conform to the variety of
standards. For common DC rapid charging, multi-standard chargers equipped with two or three of the Combined
Charging System (CCS), CHADEMO, and AC fast charging has become the de facto market standard in many
regions.

2.1 Charging stations fall into four basic categories:

1. Residential charging stations: An EV owner plugs into a standard receptacle (such as NEMA connector in
the US) when he or she returns home, and the car recharges overnight. A home charging station usually
has no user authentication, no separate metering, but may require wiring a dedicated circuit to have faster
charging. Some portable chargers can also be wall mounted as charging stations.
2. Charging while parked (including public charging stations) – a private or commercial venture for a fee or
free, sometimes offered in partnership with the owners of the parking lot. This charging may be slow or
high speed and often encourages EV owners to recharge their cars while they take advantage of nearby
facilities. It can include parking for an organization's own employees, parking at shopping malls, small
centers, and public transit stations. Typically, AC Type1 / Type2 plugs are used.
3. Fast charging at public charging stations >40 kW, capable of delivering over 60-mile (97 km) of range in
10–30 minutes. These chargers may be at rest stops to allow for longer distance trips. They may also be
used regularly by commuters in metropolitan areas, and for charging while parked for shorter or longer

5
periods. Common examples are J1772, Type 2 connector, Combined charging system, CHAdeMO,
and Tesla Superchargers.
4. Battery swaps or charges in under 15 minutes. A specified target for CARB credits for a zero-emission
vehicle is adding 200 miles (approx. 320 km) to its range in under 15 minutes. In 2014, this was not
possible for charging electric vehicles, but it is achievable with EV battery swaps. It intends to match the
refueling expectations of regular drivers and give crane mobile support for discharged vehicles where
there is no charging station.

Battery capacity and the capability of handling faster charging are both increasing, and methods of
charging have needed to change and improve. New options have also been introduced (on a small scale, including
mobile charging stations and charging via inductive charging mats). The differing needs and solutions of various
manufacturers has slowed the emergence of standard charging methods, and in 2015, there is a strong recognition
of the need for standardization.

The charging time depends on the battery capacity and the charging power. In simple terms, the time rate of
charge depends on the charging level used, and the charging level depends on the voltage handling of the batteries
and charger electronics in the car. The U.S.-based SAE International defines Level 1 (household 120V AC) as the
slowest, Level 2 (upgraded household 240 VAC) in the middle and Level 3 (super charging, 480V DC or higher)
as the fastest. Level 3 charge time can be as fast as 30 minutes for an 80% charge, although there has been serious
industry competition about whose standard should be widely adopted. Charge time can be calculated using the
formula: Charging Time [h] = Battery Capacity [kWh] / Charging Power [kW]

The usable battery capacity of a first-generation electric vehicle, such as the original Nissan Leaf, is about
20 kWh, giving it a range of about 100 mi (160 km). Tesla was the first company to introduce longer range mass
production electric vehicles, initially releasing their Model S with battery capacities of 40 kWh, 60 kWh and
85 kWh, with the latter having an estimated range of about 480 km (300 mi). Plug-in hybrid vehicles have capacity
of roughly 3 to 5 kWh, for an electrical range of 20 to 40 kilometers, but the gasoline engine ensures the full range
of a conventional vehicle.

For normal charging (up to 7.4 kW), car manufacturers have built a battery charger into the car. A charging
cable is used to connect it to the electrical network to supply 230 volt AC current. For quicker charging (22 kW,
even 43 kW and more), manufacturers have chosen two solutions:

• Use the vehicle's built-in charger, designed to charge from 3 to 43 kW at 230 V single-phase or 400 V three-
phase.

6
• Use an external charger, which converts AC current into DC current and charges the vehicle at 50 kW
(e.g. Nissan Leaf) or more (e.g. 120-135 kW Tesla Model S).

The user finds charging an electric vehicle as simple as connecting a normal electrical appliance; however to
ensure that this operation takes place in complete safety, the charging system must perform several safety
functions and dialogue with the vehicle during connection and charging.

Other charging networks are available for non-Tesla vehicles. The Blink network of chargers has both Level
2 and DC Fast Chargers and charges separate rates for members and non members. Their prices range from $0.39
to $0.69 per kWh for members and $0.49 to $0.79 per kWh for non members, depending on location. The
ChargePoint network has free chargers and paid chargers that drivers activate with a free membership card. The
paid charging stations' prices are based on local rates (similarly to Blink). Other networks use similar payment
methods as typical gas stations, in which one pays with cash or a credit card per kWh of electricity.

Although the rechargeable electric vehicles and equipment can be recharged from a domestic wall socket, a
charging station is usually accessible to multiple electric vehicles and has additional current or connection sensing
mechanisms to disconnect the power when the EV is not charging.

There are two main types of safety sensor:

• Current sensors which monitor the power consumed, and maintain the connection only if the demand is within
a predetermined range. Sensor wires react more quickly, have fewer parts to fail and are possibly less
expensive to design and implement. Current sensors however can use standard connectors and can readily
provide an option for suppliers to monitor or charge for the electricity actually consumed.
• Additional physical "sensor wires" which provide a feedback signal such as specified by the
undermentioned SAE J1772 and IEC 62196 schemes that require special (multi-pin) power plug fittings.

Until 2013, there was an issue where Blink chargers were overheating and causing damage to both charger
and car. The solution employed by the company was to reduce the maximum current.

The Society of Automotive Engineering (SAE) defines the general physical, electrical, communication and
performance requirements for the EV charging systems used in North America, as part of standard SAE J1772.
Below are the different charging levels that are practiced in North American market.

7
2.1.1 Based on the rated power, voltage and current, the charging levels in North America are classified
into three categories:

• Level 1: refers to the charging from the regular household 120V outlets with a maximum current of 12 or 15
A, which delivers a maximum power of 1.44KW or 1.92KW. Here the active charging element is inside the
car (EV's on-board charger).
• Level 2: can be from the 240V outlet or from a dedicated EV charge pint (EVSE) ; AC voltage at 240 V with
a maximum current of 80 A and a maximum power of 19.2KW. In level-2 also uses the EV's on-board charger.
• Level 3: Here, the charger is off-board (meaning the EV's on-board charger is by-passed and the charging
station provides DC voltage directly to the battery via a DC connector, with a maximum power of 240 kW.

Charging stations for electric vehicles may not need much new infrastructure in developed countries, less than
delivering a new alternative fuel over a new network. The stations can leverage the existing ubiquitous electrical
grid and home recharging is an option, since most driving is local over short distances which reduces the need for
charging mid-trip. For example, in the United States, 78% of commutes are less than 40 miles (64 km) round-
trip. Nevertheless, longer drives between cities and towns require a network of public charging stations or another
method to extend the range of electric vehicles beyond the normal daily commute. One challenge in such
infrastructure is the level of demand: an isolated station along a busy highway may see hundreds of customers per
hour if every passing electric vehicle has to stop there to complete the trip. In the first half of the 20th century,
internal combustion vehicles faced a similar infrastructure problem.

Currently charging stations are being installed by public authorities, commercial enterprises and some major
employers in order to stimulate the market for vehicles that use alternative fuels to gasoline and diesel fuels. For
this reason, most charge stations are currently either provided gratis or accessible to members of certain groups
without significant charge (e.g. activated by a free "membership card" or by a digital "day code").

As of December 2012, around 50,000 non-residential charging points were deployed in the U.S., Europe,
Japan and China. As of August 2014, there are 3,869 CHAdeMO quick chargers deployed around the world, with
1,978 in Japan, 1,181 in Europe and 686 in the United States, 24 in other countries. As of December 2013, Estonia
is the first and only country that had completed the deployment of an EV charging network with nationwide
coverage, with 165 fast chargers available along highways at a maximum distance of between 40 to 60 km (25 to
37 mi), and a higher density in urban areas.

As of August 2018, there were 800,000 electric vehicles and 18,000 charging stations in the United
States. As of March 2013, 5,678 public charging stations existed across the United States, with 16,256 public
8
charging points, of which 3,990 were located in California, 1,417 in Texas, and 1,141 in Washington. As of
November 2012, about 15,000 charging stations had been installed in Europe.

As of March 2013, Norway, which has the highest electric ownership per capita, had 4,029 charging points
and 127 quick charging stations. As part of its commitment to environmental sustainability, the Dutch government
initiated a plan to establish over 200 fast (DC) charging stations across the country by 2015. The rollout will be
undertaken by Switzerland-based power and automation company ABB and Dutch startup Fastned [nl], and will
aim to provide at least one station every 50 kilometres (31 miles) for the Netherlands' 16 million residents. In
addition to that, the E-laad foundation installed about 3000 public (slow) charge points since 2009.

As of December 2012, Japan had 1,381 public quick-charge stations, the largest deployment of fast
chargers in the world, but only around 300 slow chargers. As of December 2012, China had around 800 public
slow charging points, and no fast charging stations. As of December 2012, the country with the highest ratio of
quick chargers to electric vehicles (EVSE/EV) was Japan, with a ratio of 0.030, and the Netherlands had the
largest ratio of slow EVSE/EV, with more than 0.50, while the U.S had a slow EVSE/EV ratio of 0.20.

As of September 2013, the largest public charging networks in Australia exist in the capital cities
of Perth and Melbourne, with around 30 stations (7 kW AC) established in both cities – smaller networks exist in
other capital cities.

In April 2017, YPF, the state-owned oil company of Argentina, reported that it will install 220 fast-load stations
for electric vehicles in 110 of its service stations in national territory.

As of August 2019, in the U.S., there are 2,140 CHAdeMO charge stations (3,010 plugs), 1,888 SAE CCS1 charge
stations (3,525 plugs), and 678 Tesla super charger stations (6,340 plugs), according to the U.S. DoE's Alternative
Fuels Data Center.

2.2 LOCATIONS:
Charging stations can be found and will be needed where there is on-street parking, at taxi stands, in parking
lots (at places of employment, hotels, airports, shopping centers, convenience shops, fast food
restaurants, coffeehouses etc.), as well as in the workplaces, in driveways and garages at home. Existing filling
stations may also incorporate charging stations. As of 2017, charging stations have been criticized for being
inaccessible, hard to find, out of order, and slow; thus reducing EV expansion. At the same time more gas stations
add EV charging stations to meet the increasing demand among EV drivers. Worldwide, hotels are adopting a
policy of providing their guests with electric car charging.

Vehicle and charging station projects and joint ventures

9
Fig:2.1 Wireless charging station

Fig:2.2 Detail of the wireless inductive charging device

Electric car manufacturers, charging infrastructure providers, and regional governments have entered into
many agreements and ventures to promote and provide electric vehicle networks of public charging stations.

The EV Plug Alliance is an association of 21 European manufacturers which proposes an alternative


connecting solution. The project is to impose an IEC norm and to adopt a European standard for the connection
solution with sockets and plugs for electric vehicle charging infrastructure. Members (Schneider Electric,
Legrand, Scame, Nexans, etc.) argue that the system is safer because they use shutters. General consensus is that
the IEC 62196 and IEC 61851-1 already have taken care of safety by making parts non-live when touchable.

A battery swapping (or switching) station is a place at which a vehicle's discharged battery or battery pack
can be immediately swapped for a fully charged one, eliminating the delay involved in waiting for the vehicle's
battery to charge. Battery swapping is common in warehouses using electric forklift trucks.

10
2.3 HISTORY:
The concept of an exchangeable battery service was first proposed as early as 1896, in order to overcome
the limited operating range of electric cars and trucks. It was first put into practice between 1910 and 1924,
by Hartford Electric Light Company, through the GEVECO battery service, and was initially available for electric
trucks. The vehicle owner purchased the vehicle, without a battery, from General Vehicle Company (GEVECO),
part-owned by General Electric, and the electricity was purchased from Hartford Electric through the use of an
exchangeable battery. Both vehicles and batteries were modified to facilitate a fast battery exchange. The owner
paid a variable per-mile charge and a monthly service fee to cover maintenance and storage of the truck. During
the period of the service, the vehicles covered more than 6 million miles.

Beginning in 1917, a similar successful service was operated in Chicago for owners of Milburn
Electric cars, who also could buy the vehicle without the batteries. A rapid battery replacement system was
implemented to keep running 50 electric buses at the 2008 Summer Olympics.

In recent years, Better Place, Tesla, and Mitsubishi Heavy Industries have been involved with integrating
battery switch technology with their electric vehicles to extend driving range. In a battery switch station, the driver
does not need to get out of the car while the battery is swapped. Battery swap requires an electric car designed for
the "easy swap" of batteries. However, electric vehicle manufacturers working on battery switch technology have
not standardized on battery access, attachment, dimension, location, or type.

In 2013, Tesla announced a proprietary charging station service to support owners of Tesla vehicles. A
network of Tesla Supercharger stations was supposed to support both battery pack swaps for the Model S, along
with the more-widespread fast charging capability for both the Model S and the Tesla Roadster. However, Tesla
has abandoned their battery swap initiatives in favor of rapidly expanding fast-charging stations. This decision
has driven Tesla to be a market-leader in fast charging stations, amounting to 1,210 stations worldwide, as of
April 2018.

2.4 BENEFITS:
The following benefits are claimed for battery swapping:

• Fast battery swapping under five minutes.


• Unlimited driving range where there are battery switch stations available.
• The driver does not have to get out of the car while the battery is swapped.
• The driver does not own the battery in the car, transferring costs over the battery, battery life, maintenance,
capital cost, quality, technology, and warranty to the battery switch station company.

11
• Contract with battery switch company could subsidize the electric vehicle at a price lower than equivalent
petrol cars.
• The spare batteries at swap stations could participate in vehicle to grid storage.

Fig:2.3 A Better Place battery switching station in Israel

2.5 MAIN ARTICLE: Better Place (company)


The Better Place network was the first modern commercial deployment of the battery switching model.
The Renault Fluence Z.E. was the first electric car enabled with switchable battery technology available for the
Better Place network in operation in Israel and Denmark. Better Place used the same technology to swap batteries
that F-16 jet fighter aircraft use to load their bombs. Better Place launched its first battery-swapping station in
Israel, in Kiryat Ekron , near Rehovot in March 2011. The battery exchange process took five minutes. As of
December 2012, about 600 Fluence Z.E.s had been sold in the country. Sales during the first quarter of 2013
improved, with 297 cars sold, bringing the total fleet in Israel close to 900. As of December 2012, there were 17
battery switch stations fully operational in Denmark, enabling customers to drive anywhere across the country in
an electric car. Fluence Z.E. sales totaled 198 units through December 2012.

Better Place filed for bankruptcy in Israel in May 2013. The company's financial difficulties were caused
by the high investment required to develop the charging and swapping infrastructure, about US$850 million in
private capital, and a market penetration significantly lower than originally predicted by Shai Agassi. Fewer than
1,000 Fluence Z.E. cars had been deployed in Israel and only around 400 units in Denmark. Under Better Place's
business model, the company owned the batteries, so the court liquidator had to decide what to do with customers
who did not have ownership of the battery and risked being left with a useless car.

12
2.6 TESLA:

Fig:2.4 Tesla Supercharger rapid charging station in Tejon, California. The rooftop of the carport has a solar collector manufactured
by SolarCity feeding energy into the grid.

Tesla designed its Model S to allow fast battery swapping. In June 2013, Tesla announced its goal of
deploying a battery swapping station in each of its supercharging stations. At a demonstration event in 2013, Tesla
showed that a battery swap operation with the Model S took just over 90 seconds, about half the time it takes to
refill a gasoline-powered car used for comparison purposes during the event.

The first stations were planned to be deployed along Interstate 5 in California because, according to Tesla,
a large number of Model S sedans make the San Francisco-Los Angeles trip regularly. Those stations were to be
followed by ones on the Washington, DC, to Boston corridor. Elon Musk said the service would be offered for
the price of about 15 US gallons (57 l; 12 imp gal) of gasoline at the current local rate, around US$60 to US$80 at
June 2013 prices. Owners could pick up their battery pack fully charged on the return trip, which was included in
the swap fee. Tesla would also offer the option to keep the pack received on the swap and pay the price difference
if the battery received was newer, or to receive the original pack back from Tesla for a transport fee. Pricing had
not been determined.

In June 2015, Musk indicated that Tesla was likely to abandon its plans to build a network of swap stations.
He told his company's shareholders that, despite inviting all Model S owners in the California area to try out the
one existing facility, at Harris Ranch, only four or five people had done so. Consequently, it was unlikely that the
concept was worth expanding.

Gogoro has announced their intention to launch the Gogoro Energy Network in 2015. The network is built
on the idea of distributed Go Stations which will serve as battery swapping locations for Gogoro's Smart scooters.

RAIDO is a company created universal battery and charging station for light electric vehicles, like
scooters, bikes. The universal battery can be used in almost any light scooter or bike, accompanied with one of a
few RAIDO's designed battery mounts. The company main goal is to build charging infrastructure based on
vending machine-style charging stations for scooter and bike sharing networks.

13
2.7 BATTERY SWAP:
Battery Swap is a new European start-up with battery swap solution. It has a working prototype covered by seed
funding received from European angels. Swap station takes only 30 seconds to make a complete swap and is 10x
cheaper than Tesla supercharger to build.

Fig:2.5 Battery Swap Station for light commercial vehicles in Slovakia

Voltia (formerly Greenway Operator) designed and runs proprietary battery swapping stations (BSS) in
Slovakia for switching the batteries in light commercial vehicles. The stations have been in successful commercial
operation since 2012.

Voltia's BSS are drive up/drive in station, with a house for a number of batteries to be charged
simultaneously. The structure allows drivers to pull up and, using a hydraulic lift, switch their used battery with
a new, fully charged one in under 7 minutes. A computer system notifies drivers where to dock their old battery
and which new one to take. It is ideal for companies for whom time is of the essence and time spent recharging is
time and money.

Fig:2.6 Loading a Voltia electric LKW battery pack

The batteries come in a variety of sizes (40-90kWh), which offer different useful ranges (160–270 km).

14
2.8 CRITICISM :
These battery swapping solution have been criticized for being proprietary. By creating a monopoly
regarding the ownership of the batteries and the patent protected technologies the companies split up the market
and decrease the chances of a wider usage of battery swapping.

2.9 CHARGING STATION MANUFACTURERS :


The principal suppliers and manufacturers of charging stations offer a range of options from simple
charging posts for roadside use, charging cabinets for covered parking places to fully automated charging stations
integrated with power distribution equipment.

An operator manages charging stations from one or more manufacturers.

2.9.1 Block heater power supplies:


In colder areas such as Finland, some northern US states and Canada there already exists some
infrastructure for public power outlets provided primarily for use by block heaters and set with circuit
breakers that prevent large current draws for other uses. These can sometimes be used to recharge electric vehicles,
albeit slowly. In public lots, some such outlets are turned on only when the temperature falls below −20 °C, further
limiting their use.

The US-based SAE International defines Level 1 charging as using a standard 120 volt AC house outlet
to charge an electric vehicle. This will take a long time to fully charge the car but if only used to commute or
travel short distances, a full charge is not needed or can be done overnight. Level 1 is not used in countries where
houses typically have 200-240 V.240 volt AC charging is known as Level 2 charging. In North and South
America, 240 V is used for household appliances such as clothes driers but in many countries it is the default for
most households. Level 2 chargers range from chargers installed in consumer garages, to relatively slow public
chargers. They can charge an electric car battery in 4–10 hours. Level 2 chargers are often placed at destinations
so that drivers can charge their car while at work or shopping. Level 2 charge points are standard in many countries
outside of North and South America. In North and South America Level 2 home chargers are best for drivers who
use their vehicles more often or require more flexibility.

"AC Level 3" charging was defined in early editions of SAE J1772 at up to 400 amps, but has been
dropped. Edition 7 of J1772 (2017) states in Appendix M "AC Level 3 charging has never been implemented.
The following is historical information for reference only." The term "Level 3" appears to have been adopted
colloquially to mean DC "fast" charging, although "Level 3" was never defined to mean that in J1772. Table 17
in Appendix M of J1772 (2017) lists AC Level 2 and AC Level 3 from 208 to 240 VAC, and DC Charging with
208-600 V input and 0–1000 V DC output. A Level 3 charging station may cost $120,000.

15
DC charging generally supports charging up to 500 volts for passenger cars. Some newer high-end
passenger car EVs and many heavy duty EV trucks and buses use DC charging with a nominal DC voltage of 700
V or higher, but below 1000 V peak. The organization CHAdeMO was the world's first standardized fast charging
protocol with mass-produced EVs in the market. DC chargers in North America often use a 480 VAC input
delivering 62.5 kW (peak power can be as much as 120 kW and is varied across the charge. 208 VAC inputs to
the charger are also used, and 400 VAC is standard in Europe. The Tesla Supercharger is the most ubiquitous in
the United States. For a Tesla Model S75, a supercharger can add around 275 km (170 miles) of range in about
30 minutes or a full charge in around 75 minutes. As of April 2018, Tesla reports that they have 1,210
supercharging stations and is continuously expanding the network.

Another standards organization, The International Electrotechnical Commission, defines charging in modes (IEC
62196).

• Mode 1 – slow charging from a regular electrical socket (single- or three-phase)


• Mode 2 – slow charging from a regular socket but with some EV specific protection arrangement (e.g.,
the Park & Charge or the PARVE systems)
• Mode 3 – slow or fast charging using a specific EV multi-pin socket with control and protection functions
(e.g., SAE J1772 and IEC 62196)
• Mode 4 – fast charging using some special charger technology such as CHADEMO

There are three connection cases:

• Case A is any charger connected to the mains (the mains supply cable is usually attached to the charger)
usually associated with modes 1 or 2.
• Case B is an on-board vehicle charger with a mains supply cable which can be detached from both the supply
and the vehicle – usually mode 3.
• Case C is a dedicated charging station with DC supply to the vehicle. The mains supply cable may be
permanently attached to the charge-station such as in mode 4.

There are four plug types:

• Type 1 – single-phase vehicle coupler – reflecting the SAE J1772/2009 automotive plug specifications
• Type 2 – single- and three-phase vehicle coupler – reflecting the VDE-AR-E 2623-2-2 plug specifications
• Type 3 – single- and three-phase vehicle coupler equipped with safety shutters – reflecting the EV Plug
Alliance proposal
• Type 4 – fast charge coupler – for special systems such as CHADEMO

16
For Combined Charging System (CCS) DC charging which requires PLC (Powerline Communications), two
extra connectors are added at the bottom of Type 1 or Type 2 vehicle inlets and charging plugs to connect high
voltage DC charging stations to the battery of the vehicle. These are commonly known as Combo 1 or Combo 2
connectors. The choice of Combo 1 or Combo 2 style inlets is normally standardised on a per-country basis, so
that public charging providers do not need to fit cables with both variants. Generally, North America uses Combo
1 style vehicle inlets, most of the rest of the world uses Combo 2 style vehicle inlets for CCS.

Reports emerged in late July 2013 of a significant conflict between the companies responsible for the two
types of charging plugs. The Japanese-developed CHAdeMO standard is favored by Nissan, Mitsubishi,
and Toyota, while the SAE J1772 Combo standard is backed by GM, Ford, Volkswagen, and BMW. Both are
direct-current quick-charging systems designed to charge the battery of an electric vehicle to 80 percent in
approximately 20 minutes, but the two systems are completely incompatible. In light of an ongoing feud between
the two groups, experts in the field warned that the momentum of the electric vehicle market will be severely
affected. Richard Martin, editorial director for clean technology marketing and consultant firm Navigant
Research, stated:

Fast charging, however and whenever it gets built out, is going to be key for the development of a mainstream
market for plug-in electric vehicles. The broader conflict between the CHAdeMO and SAE Combo connectors,
we see that as a hindrance to the market over the next several years that needs to be worked out.

EV charging station signs:

Fig:2.7 electric charging station signs

17
US traffic sign used for EV charging station:

Fig:2.8 Public-domain international charge station sign

In the United States, the standard charging station sign is defined in the Federal Highway
Administration's Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD) 2009 edition.

In July 2013, FHWA released interim MUTCD approval for charging station signs located on public roads
governed by MUTCD standards.

There is an open source, public domain European charge station sign proposed.
Recharging a large battery pack presents a high load on the electrical grid, but this can be scheduled for
periods of reduced load or reduced electricity costs. In order to schedule the recharging, either the charging station
or the vehicle can communicate with the smart grid. Some plug-in vehicles allow the vehicle operator to control
recharging through a web interface or smartphone app. Furthermore, in a vehicle-to-grid scenario the vehicle
battery can supply energy to the grid at periods of peak demand. This requires additional communication between
the grid, charging station, and vehicle electronics. SAE International is developing a range of standards for energy
transfer to and from the grid including SAE J2847/1 "Communication between Plug-in Vehicles and the Utility
Grid". ISO and IEC are also developing a similar series of standards known as ISO/IEC 15118: "Road vehicles -
- Vehicle to grid communication interface".

2.10 RENEWABLE ELECTRICITY AND RE CHARGING STATIONS:

Charging stations are usually connected to the electrical grid, which often means that their electricity originates
from fossil-fuel power stations or nuclear power plants. Solar power is also suitable for electric vehicles. Nidec
Industrial Solutions has designed a system that can be powered by either the grid or renewable energy sources
like PV (50-320 kW). SolarCity is marketing its solar energy systems along with electric car charging
installations. The company has announced a partnership with Rabobank to make electric car charging available
18
for free to owners of Tesla vehicles traveling on Highway 101 between San Francisco and Los Angeles. Other
cars that can make use of same charging technology are welcome.

Fig:2.9 Several Chevrolet Volts at a charging station powered with solar panels in Frankfort, Illinois.

2.11 SPARC STATION:


The SPARC (Solar Powered Automotive Recharging Station) uses a single custom
fabricated monocrystalline solar panel capable of producing 2.7 kW of peak power to charge pure electric or plug-
in hybrid to 80% capacity without drawing electricity from the local grid. Plans for the SPARC include a non-
grid tied system as well as redundancy for tying to the grid through a renewable power plan. This supports their
claim for net-zero driving of electric vehicles.

19
CHAPTER:03

CONCEPT OF HARMONICS

3.1 INTRODUCTION

3.1.1 Harmonics:

“A sinusoidal component of a periodic wave or quantity having a frequency that is an integral multiple of
fundamental frequency is called as harmonics”. Harmonics are multiples of a fundamental frequency. In music,
they are called octaves, and are usually desirable. But in a plant's electrical power distribution system, they are
unwanted.

Harmonics cause trouble when combined with the fundamental electrical waveform. Since these
harmonics are multiples of the 60-Hz fundamental power frequency, harmonic frequencies can be 2-times at 120-
Hz, 3-times at 180-Hz, and soon. When harmonics mix with the fundamental, they distort the sine wave (Fig.3.1).
Any distorted /truncated waveform can be analyzed by Fourier series to obtain a multitude of frequencies,
superimposed upon on another.

Fig: 3.1 Effect of harmonics on normal voltage or current waveform

20
3.2 TOTAL HARMONIC DISTORTION(THD):
IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) defines harmonic content as "a measure of the
presence of harmonics in a voltage or current waveform expressed as a percentage of the amplitude of the
fundamental frequency at each harmonic frequency. The total harmonic content is expressed as the square root of
the sum of the squares of each of the harmonic amplitudes."

It is defined in the (IEEE) standard 519-1992 as “the ratio of RMS square values of all harmonics to the
RMS square values of the fundamental”. It is given by the formula.

%THD = (sum of squares of amplitudes of all harmonics)1/2 %

(Square of amplitude of fundamental)X 100

Vn2
%THD =  100.
V12
…………………………………….. (3.1)

Where, n = 2, 3, 4

V1 = Fundamental Voltage

ITHD is called current harmonic distortion

VTHD is called voltage harmonic distortion.

3.3 SOURCES OF HARMONICS:


Nonlinear loads are the primary sources of harmonics. These nonlinear loads include, but are not limited
to, variable speed drives, solid-state controls for heating and other applications, switched-mode power supplies
like those found in virtually every computerized piece of equipment, static Uninterruptible Power supply (UPS)
systems, electronic ballasts, electronic test equipment, and electronic office machines. Nonlinear loads draw short
bursts of current each waveform cycle, thereby distorting the sinusoidal waveform. Harmonic voltages are the
result of harmonic currents interacting with power system impedance.

21
3.4 TYPES OF NONLINEAR LOADS:
3.4.1 Current-Source Nonlinear Loads (CSNLs):

Thyristor converters are a common and typical source of harmonic currents. Fig: 3.2 Show a thyristor
rectifier where a sufficient dc inductance produces a dc current. Fig. 3.2 (a) shows the source voltage and rectifier
current waveforms. The current waveform distortion (i.e., the generation of harmonics) results from the switching
operation. Because the harmonic current contents and characteristics are less dependent on the ac side, this
nonlinear load behaves like a current source. Therefore, it is called a current-source nonlinear load and represented
as a current source shown in Fig3.2 Similarly, a diode rectifier with a sufficient dc inductance, a highly inductive
load with SCR ac power control, etc., are current-source nonlinear loads.

3.4.2 Voltage-Source Nonlinear Loads (VSNLs):

Another common type of harmonic source isa diode rectifier with smoothing dc capacitors, as shown in
Fig 3.2(a), Fig 3.2(c)shows typical current and voltage waveforms. Although the currentis highly distorted, its
harmonic amplitude is greatly affected by the ac side impedance and source voltage unbalance, whereas the
rectifier voltage (i.e., the voltage at the rectifier input terminal, as shown in Fig. 3.2) is characteristic and less
dependent on the ac impedance. Therefore, the diode rectifiers behave like a voltage source rather than a current
source.

Fig. 3.2 (b) shows the equivalent circuit of the diode rectifier system where the diode rectifier is
represented as a harmonic voltage source (or voltage source nonlinear load). It has been shown in that a parallel
active filter (PAF) or a parallel passive filter (PPF) is not effective for compensating for such voltage-source
nonlinear loads.

22
Fig 3.2: Typical voltage and current waveforms of thyristor rectifier, source voltage V sa, and line current Ila

3.5 PROBLEMS RESULTING HARMONICS:


The detrimental effects of harmonics include overheating of transformers, power cables, motors, and drives.
They cause inadvertent thermal tripping of relays and protective devices. Harmonics can even cause logic faults
in digital devices and incorrect voltage and current meter measurements. Any of these damaging results can cause
downtime in your plant. The potential for harmonic distortion problems is dependent on two important factors:

• The level of harmonic generation which can be associated with loads in the plant. Harmonic currents are
generated by loads which have nonlinear voltage-current characteristics. The number and sizes of these
devices at a given bus determines the level of harmonic current generation.

• The system frequency response characteristics at a given bus are dominated by the application of
capacitors at that bus. Series reactors for transient control or harmonic control significantly change the
frequency response. Problems occur when the system response exhibits a parallel resonance near one of
the harmonic components generated by the loads on the system (usually the 5th or 7th harmonic).
Resistive load provides damping near these resonant frequencies

23
Fig 3.3 Typical current and voltage waveforms of diode rectifier, line current I la, line to neutral voltage Vla, line to line voltage Vlab at
rectifier input.

Harmonic currents increase heating in motors, transformers, and power cables. According to the
specification, harmonics can cause electrical losses in transformer cores and motor rotors resulting from hysteretic
and eddy currents, making them overheat. Motors experience torque reduction. High harmonics cause electronic
equipment to operate erratically.

Harmonics affect different equipment differently. Some of the detrimental effects caused by harmonics are:

• Capacitors: Capacitors operate as sinks to increased harmonics and harmonic frequencies. Supply
system inductance can resonate with capacitors at some harmonic frequencies, causing large currents
and voltages to develop at these frequencies. Increased currents and voltages cause breakdown of
dielectric material within capacitors, which, in turn, causes the capacitors to heat.

As capacitor dielectrics dry out, they are less capable of dissipating heat, and become even more
susceptible to damage from harmonics. As this deterioration continues, short circuits or capacitor
explosions can occur.

24
• Transformers: Harmonic voltages cause higher transformer voltage and insulation stress, resulting in
transformer heating, reduced life, increased copper and iron losses through hysteretic and eddy
currents, and insulation stress.

• Motors : Harmonic voltages produce magnetic fields that rotate at speeds corresponding to the
harmonic frequencies, resulting in increased losses, motor heating, mechanical vibrations and noise,
pulsating torques, increased eddy current and hysteretic losses in stator and rotor windings, reduced
efficiency, reduced life, and voltage stress on motor winding insulation.

• CBs and Fuses: If the distortion results in a higher level of di/dt at zero crossing, load interruption
can be made difficult than for a sinusoidal waveform. Fuses mal-operate under the influence of
harmonics. These must be derated.

• Meters : Modern rms responding voltmeters and ammeters are relatively, immune to the influence of
waveform distortion .Normally harmonic affect induction disc drive meters peripherally and in both
directions.

• Watt-hour meters: Induction disks are calibrated for accurate operation on the fundamental frequency
only. Harmonics generate additional torque on these disks, causing improper operation and incorrect
readings.

• Rotating Machines: Harmonics increase dielectric losses in insulation, raise its hot spot temperature,
cause premature failure, increase iron and copper losses and reduce the overall operational efficiencies.
Fields produced by some harmonics, in the air gap, rotate in a reverse direction. This can cause
cogging, crawling or even shaft vibrations

• Telephones :The most common interference mechanism between power system harmonics and the
telephone circuit is induction coupling by the power line magnetic field and the loop formed by the
telephone conductor and ground.

• Conductors: Skin effect and proximity effect both proportional to the square of frequency and hence
increase with increasing harmonics. Hence cables have to be derated.

• Electronic and computer-controlled equipment: Some electronic equipment depends on zero-


crossing or voltage peaks for proper operation. Harmonics can alter these parameters, causing erratic
operation and premature equipment failure.

25
The IEEE specification requires that harmonic distortion of the current waveform be limited to 5%.
However, some engineers feel that operating a plant with harmonic distortion this high can cause significant
energy losses and shortened equipment life, and recommend that total harmonic distortion should not exceed 1.5%
under normal conditions.

3.5.1 Benefits of treating harmonics:

1. Reduction in energy losses.

2. Less equipment repair and replacement

3. Increased life of measuring instruments, cables and equipment’s.

4. Increased available capacity

5. Less work interruption

6. Lower maintenance costs

3.6METHODS TO REDUCE HARMONICS:


A power quality site survey can help you determine what, if any, power quality problems your plant has
on both sides of the power meter. Most surveys require the installation of power quality monitoring equipment or
software. Not only does the survey help determine the presence and the extent of harmonics, but it also reveals
other power quality problems such as voltage sags, power interruption, flicker, voltage unbalance, transients, poor
wiring, and poor or inadequate grounding.

Harmonics can be minimized and to some extent prevented by:

1. Designing electrical equipment and systems to prevent harmonics from causing equipment or system
damage

2. Analyzing harmonic symptoms to determine their causes and devise solutions

3. Identifying and reducing or eliminating the medium that is transmitting harmonics

4. Using power conditioning equipment to mitigate harmonics and other power quality problems when
they occur.

26
When the electrical transmission and distribution system acts as a conduit for harmonics, any user
connected to the grid could be responsible for generating them. In this case, work with your utility to identify
sources of harmonics and minimize their influence on your plant's electrical system. However, if harmonics are
generated within your plant, it's up to you to mitigate them effectively. Attacking the harmonics problem at the
source is always the best way to go.

At your plant, minimizing harmonics is better for your equipment and the price you pay for electricity.
Beyond that, it is your responsibility to keep your harmonics from feeding back into the electrical distribution
medium, thereby affecting power quality of others connected to the grid. Therefore , the supply current has
harmonics that will produce undesirable effects, such as source voltage fluctuation, signal interference, supply
distortion, additional heating and so on. In order to overcome such problems, a filter is used.

3.6.1 Filters:

A filter is a network which removes unwanted frequency components from the signal and to enhance
wanted ones. Filters used in HVDC stations not only for absorb harmonics but also provide VAR support for the
converters. The major objective of AC filter is to reduce “Telephone Interference”. This can be measured by any
one of the following performance indices:

a) Harmonic distortion
b) Telephone interference factor (TIF)
c) Telephone harmonic form factor(THFF)
d) IT product

3.6.2 Types of ac filters:

Various types of ac filter that can be used in the HVDC stations.

1) Single tuned filter


2) Double tuned filter
3) High pass filter:
I) 2nd order filter
II) C-type filter

The single tuned filters are designed to filter out characteristics harmonics of single frequency. The double
tuned filters are filter two discrete frequencies ,instead of two single tuned filters. The 2nd order filters HPF’s are
designed to filter out higher harmonics. The tuning of 2nd order filters is not critical. The losses at fundamental

27
frequency can be reduced by using a C-type filters where capacitor, where capacitor is connected in series with L
provides a low impedance path to fundamental component of current.

3.7ACTIVE POWER FILTERS:


3.7.1 Introduction to active power filter:

Fig 3.4 Generalized block diagram for active Power filter

Fig 3.4 shows the components of a typical active-power-filter system and their interconnections. The
information regarding the harmonic current, generated by a nonlinear load, for example, is supplied to the
reference current/voltage estimator together with information about other system variables. The reference signal
from the current estimator, as well as other signals, drives the overall system controller. This in turn provides the
control for the PWM switching pattern generator.

The output of the PWM pattern generator controls the power circuit via a suitable interface. Thus the
voltage or current generated by the power circuit will be coupled to the power system through a connection
transformer. The power circuit in the generalized block diagram can be connected in parallel, series or parallel
series configurations, depending on the connection transformer used.

28
3.7.2 CLASSIFICATION OF ACTIVE POWER FILTERS:

Active power filters can be classified using the following criteria.

(a) Classification based on the Converter type

(b) Classification based on the supply system

(c) Power-circuit configuration and connections

(d) System parameters to be compensated.

(e) Classification according to power rating and speed of response required in the compensated system.

(f)Classification based on the control technique.

(g) Classification based on current/voltage reference-estimation technique

29
CHAPTER 4

CONVERTERS
Many electronic circuits require a rectified DC power supply to power various electronic basic components
from the available AC mains supply. Rectifiers are used to convert an AC power to a DC power. Among the
rectifiers, the bridge rectifier is the most efficient rectifier circuit. We can define bridge rectifiers as a type of full-
wave rectifier that uses four or more diodes in a bridge circuit configuration to efficiently convert alternating (AC)
current to a direct (DC) current. In the next few sections, let us learn more about its construction, working, and
more.

The construction of a bridge rectifier is shown in the figure below. The bridge rectifier circuit is made of
four diodes D1, D2, D3, D4, and a load resistor RL. The four diodes are connected in a closed-loop configuration
to efficiently convert the alternating current (AC) into Direct Current (DC). The main advantage of this
configuration is the absence of the expensive center-tapped transformer. Therefore, the size and cost are reduced.

The input signal is applied across terminals A and B and the output DC signal is obtained across the load
resistor RL connected between terminals C and D. The four diodes are arranged in such a way that only two diodes
conduct electricity during each half cycle. D1 and D3 are pairs that conduct electric current during the positive
half cycle/. Likewise, diodes D2 and D4 conduct electric current during a negative half cycle.

When an AC signal is applied across the bridge rectifier, during the positive half cycle, terminal A becomes
positive while terminal B becomes negative. This results in diodes D1 and D3 to become forward biased while
D2 and D4 become reverse biased.

From the figures given above, we notice that the current flow across load resistor RL is the same during
the positive half cycle and the negative half cycles. The output DC signal polarity may be either completely
positive or negative. In our case, it is completely positive. If the direction of diodes is reversed then we get a
complete negative DC voltage.

30
Fig:4.1 Three phase AC DC converter
We saw in the previous tutorial that the process of converting an AC input supply into a fixed DC supply
is called Rectification with the most popular circuits used to perform this rectification process is one that is based
on solid-state semiconductor diodes. In fact, rectification of alternating voltages is one of the most popular
applications of diodes, as diodes are inexpensive, small and robust allowing us to create numerous types of
rectifier circuits using either individually connected diodes or with just a single integrated bridge rectifier module.

Single phase supplies such as those in houses and offices are generally 120 Vrms or 240 Vrms phase-to-
neutral, also called line-to-neutral (L-N), and nominally of a fixed voltage and frequency producing an alternating
voltage or current in the form of a sinusoidal waveform being given the abbreviation of “AC”.

Three-phase rectification, also known as poly-phase rectification circuits are similar to the previous single-
phase rectifiers, the difference this time is that we are using three, single-phase supplies connected together that
have been produced by one single three-phase generator.

The advantage here is that 3-phase rectification circuits can be used to power many industrial applications
such as motor control or battery charging which require higher power requirements than a single-phase rectifier
circuit is able to supply.

3-phase supplies take this idea one step further by combining together three AC voltages of identical
frequency and amplitude with each AC voltage being called a “phase”. These three phases are 120 electrical
degrees out-of-phase from each other producing a phase sequence, or phase rotation of: 360o ÷ 3 = 120o as shown.

The advantage here is that a three-phase alternating current (AC) supply can be used to provide electrical
power directly to balanced loads and rectifiers. Since a 3-phase supply has a fixed voltage and frequency it can
be used by a rectification circuit to produce a fixed voltage DC power which can then be filtered resulting in an
output DC voltage with less ripple compared to a single-phase rectifying circuit.

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4.1 THREE-PHASE RECTIFICATION:
Having seen that a 3-phase supply is just simply three single-phases combined together, we can use this
multi-phase property to create 3-phase rectifier circuits.

As with single-phase rectification, three-phase rectification uses diodes, thyristors, transistors, or


converters to create half-wave, full-wave, uncontrolled and fully-controlled rectifier circuits transforming a given
three-phase supply into a constant DC output level. In most applications a three-phase rectifier is supplied directly
from the mains utility power grid or from a three-phase transformer if different DC output level is required by the
connected load.

As with the previous single-phase rectifier, the most basic three-phase rectifier circuit is that of an
uncontrolled half-wave rectifier circuit which uses three semiconductor diodes, one diode per phase as shown.

As before, assuming a phase rotation of Red-Yellow-Blue (VA – VB – VC) and the red phase (VA) starts at
0o. Each phase connects between a pair of diodes as shown. One diode of the conducting pair powers the positive
(+) side of load, while the other diode powers the negative (-) side of load.

Thus diodes D1 D3 and D5 feed the positive rail and depending on which one has a more positive voltage
at its anode terminal conducts. Likewise, diodes D2 D4 and D6 feed the negative rail and whichever diode has a
more negative voltage at its cathode terminal conducts.

Then we can see that for three-phase rectification, the diodes conduct in matching pairs giving a conduction
pattern for the load current of: D1-2 D1-6 D3-6 D3-4 D5-4 D5-2 and D1-2 as shown.

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4.2 Full-wave Three-phase Rectifier Conduction Waveform:

Fig:4.2 full-wave three phase Rectifier conduction waveform


In 3-phase power rectifiers, conduction always occurs in the most positive diode and the corresponding
most negative diode. Thus as the three phases rotate across the rectifier terminals, conduction is passed from diode
to diode. Then each diode conducts for 120o (one-third) in each supply cycle but as it takes two diodes to conduct
in pairs, each pair of diodes will conduct for only 60o (one-sixth) of a cycle at any one time as shown above.

Therefore we can correctly say that for a 3-phase rectifier being fed by “3” transformer secondaries, each
phase will be separated by 360o/3 thus requiring 2*3 diodes. Note also that unlike the previous half-wave rectifier,
there is no common connection between the rectifiers input and output terminals. Therefore it can be fed by a star
connected or a delta connected transformer supply.

So the average DC value of the output voltage waveform from a 3-phase full-wave rectifier is given as:

……(4.1)

Where: VS is equal to (VL(PEAK) ÷ √3) and where VL(PEAK) is the maximum line-to-line voltage (VL*1.414).

33
4.3 3-phase Rectification Example No2:
A 3-phase full-wave bridge rectifier is required to fed a 150Ω resistive load from a 3-phase 127 volt, 60Hz
delta connected supply. Ignoring the voltage drops across the diodes, calculate: 1. the DC output voltage of the
rectifier and 2. the load current.

1. The DC output voltage:


The RMS (Root Mean Squared) line voltage is 127 volts. Therefore the line-to-line peak voltage (VL-L(PEAK)) will
be:

……..(4.2)

As the supply is 3-phase, the phase to neutral voltage (VP-N) of any phase will be:

………(4.3)

Note that this is basically the same as saying:

……….(4.4)

Thus the average DC output voltage from the 3-phase full-wave rectifier is given as:

………(4.5)

Again, we can reduce the maths a bit by correctly saying that for a given line-to-line RMS voltage value, in our
example 127 volts, the average DC output voltage is:

……..(4.6)
2. The rectifiers load current:
The output from the rectifier is feeding a 150Ω resistive load. Then using Ohms law the load current will
be:
…….(4.7)
Uncontrolled 3-phase rectification uses diodes to provide an average output voltage of a fixed value
relative to the value of the input AC voltages. But to vary the output voltage of the rectifier we need to replace
the uncontrolled diodes, either some or all of them, with thyristors to create what are called half-controlled or
fully-controlled bridge rectifiers.

34
Thyristors are three terminal semiconductor devices and when a suitable trigger pulse is applied to the the
thyristors gate terminal when its Anode–to-Cathode terminal voltage is positive, the device will conduct and pass
a load current. So by delaying the timing of the trigger pulse, (firing angle) we can delay the instant in time at
which the thyristor would naturally switch “ON” if it were a normal diode and the moment it starts to conduct
when the trigger pulse is applied.

Thus with a controlled 3-phase rectification which uses thyristors instead of diodes, we can control the
value of the average DC output voltage by controlling the firing angle of the thyristor pairs and so the rectified
output voltage becomes a function of the firing angle, α.

Therefore the only difference to the formula used above for the average output voltage of a 3-phase bridge
rectifier is in the cosine angle, cos(α) of the firing or triggering pulse. So if the firing angle is zero, (cos(0) = 1),
the controlled rectifier performs similar to the previous 3-phase uncontrolled diode rectifier with the average
output voltages being the same.

Thus, a bridge rectifier allows electric current during both positive and negative half cycles of the input
AC signal.

The output waveforms of the bridge rectifier are shown in the below figure.

Fig:4.3 output waveforms of bridge rectifier

35
4.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF BRIDGE RECTIFIER:
4.4.1 Ripple Factor:
The smoothness of the output DC signal is measured by a factor known as the ripple factor. The output
DC signal with fewer ripples is considered a smooth DC signal while the output with high ripples is considered a
high pulsating DC signal.

Mathematically, the ripple factor is defined as the ratio of ripple voltage to the pure DC voltage.
For bridge rectifiers, the ripple factor is 0.48.

4.4.2 Peak Inverse Voltage:


The maximum voltage that a diode can withstand in the reverse bias condition is known as a peak inverse
voltage. During the positive half cycle, the diodes D1 and D3 are in the conducting state while D2 and D4 are in
the non-conducting state. Similarly, during the negative half cycle, diodes D2 and D4 are in the conducting state,
and diodes D1 and D3 are in the non-conducting state.

4.4.3 Efficiency:
The rectifier efficiency determines how efficiently the rectifier converts Alternating Current (AC) into Direct
Current (DC). Rectifier efficiency is defined as the ratio of the DC output power to the AC input power. The
maximum efficiency of a bridge rectifier is 81.2%.

4.4.4 Advantages:

• The efficiency of the bridge rectifier is higher than the efficiency of a half-wave rectifier. However, the
rectifier efficiency of the bridge rectifier and the center-tapped full-wave rectifier is the same.
• The DC output signal of the bridge rectifier is smoother than the output DC signal of a half-wave rectifier.
• In a half-wave rectifier, only half of the input AC signal is used and the other half is blocked. Half of the
input signal is wasted in a half-wave rectifier. However, in a bridge rectifier, the electric current is allowed
during both positive and negative half cycles of the input AC signal. Hence, the output DC signal is almost
equal to the input AC signal.

36
4.4.5 Disadvantages:

• The circuit of a bridge rectifier is complex when compared to a half-wave rectifier and center-tapped full-
wave rectifier. Bridge rectifiers use 4 diodes while half-wave rectifiers and center tapped full wave
rectifiers use only two diodes.
• When more diodes are used more power loss occurs. In a center-tapped full-wave rectifier, only one diode
conducts during each half cycle. But in a bridge rectifier, two diodes connected in series conduct during
each half cycle. Hence, the voltage drop is higher in a bridge rectifier.

37
CHAPTER-5

CONVENTIONAL AND PROPOSED FAST CHARGING SYSTEM


STRUCTURES

5.1 INTRODUCTION:

Efficiency is one of the key parameters to evaluate the performance of electric vehicle (EV) charging system.
Among many charging circuit topologies, fast charging systems seem to have a promising future for their shorter
charging time for EVs, especially those bidirectional fast chargers which accommodate to the concept “vehicle-
to-grid(V2G)”. Traditional fast charging system usually consists of two stages, namely an AC/DC converter and
a downstream DC/DC converter .Hence the output voltage could be freely adjusted to accommodate the wide
battery voltage range (280V-400V) for different EVs. In commercial EV fast chargers, the downstream DC/DC
converter is usually designed to be an isolated converter where a high frequency transformer is necessary for
isolation.

However, conversion efficiency is limited a lot compared to non-isolated DC/DC converter. Once the non-isolated
DC/DC converter is adopted, there must be a power frequency transformer at the grid side to ensure electrical
safety. No matter which kind of two-stage converters, it seems difficult to improve the system efficiency further
with lower cost. In this project, a single-stage AC/DC structure is considered to replace two-stage structure with
lower cost but higher efficiency. To accommodate the battery voltage range, the turn ratio of power frequency
transformer is designed to make the input voltage of the AC/DC converter lower than the grid voltage.

A fair system efficiency comparison is carried out between the proposed structure and the traditional two-stage
structure. And the efficiency calculation results are validated by the SEMISEL simulation tool. Through the
analysis and calculation, the proposed single-stage structure has nearly more than 2% higher power conversion
efficiency compared to traditional two-stage structure with no additional cost.

38
5.2 CONVENTIONAL SYSTEM AND PROPOSED SYSTEM:
A. CONVENTIONAL SYSTEM:

Fig:5.1: Two stage charging system

Traditional fast charging system usually consists of two stages, namely an AC/DC converter and a downstream
DC/DC converter. Hence the output voltage could be freely adjusted to accommodate the wide battery voltage
range (280V-400V) for different EVs.

In commercial EV fast chargers, the downstream DC/DC converter is usually designed to be an isolated converter
where a high frequency transformer is necessary for isolation. However, the power conversion efficiency is limited
a lot compared to non-isolated DC/DC converter. Once the non-isolated DC/DC converter is adopted, there must
be a power frequency transformer at the grid side to ensure electrical safety as shown in Fig.5.1. No matter which
kind of two-stage converters, it seems difficult to improve the system efficiency further with lower cost.

39
B. PROPOSED SYSTEM:

Fig:5.2 Proposed single stage charging system

This project comes up with a novel charger with single-stage structure, where the turn ratio of the transformer is
specially designed to obtain a lower input line-to-line voltage (190V) for the single AC/DC converter.

In this project, a single-stage AC/DC structure shown in Fig5.2 is considered to replace two-stage structure with
lower cost but higher efficiency. To accommodate the battery voltage range, the turn ratio of power frequency
transformer is designed to make the input voltage of the AC/DC converter lower than the grid voltage. A fair
system efficiency comparison is carried out between the proposed structure and the traditional two-stage structure.
And the efficiency calculation results are validated by the SEMISEL simulation tool. Through the analysis and
calculation, the proposed single-stage structure has nearly more than 2% higher power conversion efficiency
compared to traditional two-stage structure with no additional cost. Furthermore based on the proposed structure,
there is another problem that the harmonic power from the grid can be directly transmitted to the battery packs to
be solved . Hence, a small capacity bidirectional half bridge DC/DC converter shown in Fig5.3 is applied in this
paper to work as an DC active power filter (DCAPF) to compensate the harmonic current as shown in Fig5.4.
Both the simulation and experimental results indicate that the DCAPF method is effective in battery harmonic

current compensation.

40
Single stage charging system with DCAPF

Fig:5.3 Bidirectional half bridge DC/DC converter

Fig:5.4 Single stage charging system with DCAPF

41
5.3 BLOCK DIAGRAM:

Fig:5.5 Control diagram of DCAPF method

➢ In single stage system,V2 is the output of DC/DC converter is taken as reference signal and is compared
with actual signal.
➢ Difference of those signals results in generation of error signal, which is given to PI controller.
➢ And there is a dc link current which is combination of both harmonic current and rated current.
➢ From this harmonic current is eliminated and dc current (I dc) is taken which generates error signal(I h).
➢ PI controller current and (I h ) current is differentiated to get error . This error is compared with load
current
➢ The resultant signal is fed to cascaded controller I.e PI and PR controllers.

➢ The output from this cascaded controller is given to PWM controller which generate pure pulsating signals
.Which in turn connected to the DC/DC converter ,so that harmonics can be eliminated.

➢ DC/DC Converter is connected to the dc bus to compensate the harmonic current which may be transmitted
to battery packs.

42
➢ For the harmonic current extraction, the dc component is obtained by sampling current through a low pass
filter.

➢ As for the voltage loop, it is used to stabilize the voltage of the capacitor C2. There-fore the reference
inductor current consists of a small dc component and the extracted harmonic component.

➢ Naturally the current loop should contain both PI & PR controllers to fit for dc and sinusoidal signals.

➢ To verify the DCAPF method, both simulations and experiments are conducted in this project.

5.4 ADVATAGES OF PROPOSED SYSTEM:

➢ The major advantage from this project proposed structure, we can have higher efficiency with lower cost.

➢ The battery charging will be done faster.

➢ Due to the fast charging capability , we can have quick travel.

➢ The harmonics induced in the battery packs are suppressed , which gives more dotage to the battery.

5.5 APPLICATIONS:

➢ Public transportation ,HEVs, start –stop system.

➢ Back up and ups systems.

➢ Systems of energy recuperation.

➢ Consumer electronics.

43
CHAPTER 6

PROPOSED SIMULATION SYSTEM


6.1 INTRODUCTION:
Simulink is a software package for modeling, simulating, and analyzing dynamical systems. It supports
linear and nonlinear systems, modeled in continuous time, sampled time, or a hybrid of the two. For modeling,
Simulink provides a graphical user interface (GUI) for building models as block diagrams, using click-and-drag
mouse operations. Models are hierarchical, so we can build models using both top-down and bottom-up
approaches. We can view the system at a high level, then double-click on blocks to go down through the levels to
see increasing levels of model detail. This approach provides insight into how a model is organized and how its
parts interact. After we define a model, we can simulate it, using a choice of integration methods, either from the
Simulink menus or by entering commands in MATLAB's command window. Using scopes and other display
blocks, we can see the simulation results while the simulation is running. In addition, we can change parameters
and immediately see what happens, for "what if" exploration.
The simulation results can be put in the MATLAB workspace for post processing and visualization.
Simulink can be used to explore the behavior of a wide range of real-world dynamic systems, including electrical
circuits, shock absorbers, braking systems, and many other electrical, mechanical, and thermodynamic systems.
Simulating a dynamic system is a two-step process with Simulink. First, we create a graphical model of the system
to be simulated, using Simulink's model editor. The model depicts the time-dependent mathematical relationships
among the system’s inputs, states, and outputs. Then, we use Simulink to simulate the behavior of the system over
a specified time span. Simulink uses information that you entered into the model to perform the simulation.

6.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM:


A Simulink block diagram is a pictorial model of a dynamic system. It consists of a set of symbols, called
blocks, interconnected by lines. Each block represents an elementary dynamic system that produces an output
either continuously (a continuous block) or at specific points in time (a discrete block). The lines represent
connections of block inputs to block outputs. Every block in a block diagram is an instance of a specific type of

44
block. The type of the block determines the relationship between a block's outputs and its inputs, states, and time.
A block diagram can contain any number of instances of any type of block needed to model a system. Blocks
represent elementary dynamic systems that Simulink knows how to simulate. A block comprises one or more of
the following:

1) A set of inputs,
2) A set of states, and
3) A set of outputs.
A block's output is a function of time and the block's inputs and states (if any). The specific function that
relates a block's output to its inputs, states, and time depends on the type of block of which the block is an instance.
Continuous Versus discrete Blocks Simulink's standard block set includes continuous blocks and discrete blocks.
Continuous blocks respond continuously to continuously changing input. Discrete blocks, by contrast, respond to
changes in input only at integral multiples of a fixed interval called the block's sample time. Discrete blocks hold
their output constant between successive sample time hits. Each discrete block includes a sample time parameter
that allows you to specify its sample rate. The Simulink blocks can be either continuous or discrete, depending on
whether they are driven by continuous or discrete blocks. A block that can be either discrete or continuous is said
to have an implicit sample rate. The implicit sample time is continuous if any of the block's inputs are continuous.
The implicit sample time is equal to the shortest input sample time if all the input sample times are integral
multiples of the shortest time. Otherwise, the input sample time is equal to the fundamental sample time of the
inputs, where the fundamental sample time of a set of sample times is defined as the greatest integer divisor of
the set of sample times.

Simulink can optionally color code a block diagram to indicate the sample times of the blocks it contains,
e.g., black (continuous), magenta (constant), yellow (hybrid), red (fastest discrete), and so on. The block contains
block name, icon, and block library that contain the block, the purpose of the block.

6.3 SIMULINK BLOCK LIBRARIES:


Simulink organizes its blocks into block libraries according to their behavior.

1) The Sources library contains blocks that generate signals.


2) The Sinks library contains blocks that display or write block output.
3) The Discrete library contains blocks that describe discrete-time components.
4) The Continuous library contains blocks that describe linear functions.
5) The Math library contains blocks that describe general mathematics functions.

45
6) The Functions & Tables library contains blocks that describe general functions and table look-up
operations.
7) The Nonlinear library contains blocks that describe nonlinear functions.
8) The Signal & Systems library contains blocks that allow multiplexing and demultiplexing, implement
external input/output, pass data to other parts of the model, and perform other functions.
9) The Subsystems library contains blocks for creating various types of subsystems.
10) The Block sets and Toolboxes library contains the Extras block library of specialized blocks.

6.4 SUB SYSTEMS:


Simulink allows to model a complex system as a set of interconnected subsystems each of which is
represented by a block diagram. We create a subsystem using Simulink's Subsystem block and the Simulink model
editor. We can embed subsystems with subsystems to any depth to create hierarchical models. We can create
conditionally executed subsystems that are executed only when a transition occurs on a triggering or enabling
input.

6.5 SOLVERS:
Simulink simulates a dynamic system by computing its states at successive time step solver a specified
time span, using information provided by the model. The process of computing the successive states of a system
from its model is known as solving the model. No single method of solving a model suffices for all systems.
Accordingly, Simulink provides a set of programs, known as solvers, that each embody a particular approach to
solving a model. The Simulation Parameters dialog box allows us to choose the solver most suitable for our model.

6.5.1 Fixed-Step and Variable-Step Solvers:

Fixed-step solvers solve the model at regular time intervals from the beginning to the end of the simulation.
The size of the interval is known as the step-size. We can specify the step size or let the solver choose the step
size. Generally decreasing the step size increases the accuracy of the results while increasing the time required to
simulate the system.
Variable-step solvers vary the step size during the simulation, reducing the step size to increase accuracy
when a model's states are changing rapidly and increasing the step size to avoid taking unnecessary steps when
the model's states are changing slowly. Computing the step size adds to the computational overhead at each step
but can reduce the total number of steps, and hence simulation time, required to maintain a specified level of
accuracy for models with rapidly changing or piecewise continuous states.

46
6.5.2 Continuous and Discrete Solvers:

Continuous solvers use numerical integration to compute a model's continuous states at the current time
step from the states at previous time steps and the state derivatives. Continuous solvers rely on the model's blocks
to compute the values of the model's discrete states at each time step. Mathematicians have developed a wide
variety of numerical integration techniques for solving the ordinary differential equations (ODEs) that represent
the continuous states of dynamic systems. Simulink provides an extensive set of fixed-step and variable-step
continuous solvers, each implementing a specific ODE solution method. Some continuous solvers subdivide the
simulation time span into major and minor steps, where a minor time step represents a subdivision of the major
time step. The solver produces a result at each major time step. It use results at the minor time steps to improve
the accuracy of the result at the major time step.

Discrete solvers exist primarily to solve purely discrete models. They compute the next simulation time-
step for a model and nothing else. They do not compute continuous states and they rely on the model's blocks to
update the model's discrete states. We can use a continuous solver, but not a discrete solver, to solve a model that
contains both continuous and discrete states. This is because a discrete solver does not handle continuous states.
If you select a discrete solver for a continuous model, Simulink disregards your selection and uses a continuous
solver instead when solving the model.
Simulink provides two discrete solvers, a fixed-step discrete solver and a variable-step discrete solver. The
fixed-step solver by default chooses a step size and hence simulation rate fast enough to track state changes in the
fastest block in our model. The variable-step solver adjusts the simulation step size to keep pace with the actual
rate of discrete state changes in our model. This can avoid unnecessary steps and hence shorten simulation time
for multirate models.

6.6 MODEL EXECUTION PHASE:


In the simulation model execution phase, Simulink successively computes the states and outputs of the
system at intervals from the simulation start time to the finish time, using information provided by the model. The
successive time points at which the states and outputs are computed are called time steps. The length of time
between steps is called the step size. The step size depends on the type of solver used to compute the system's
continuous states, the system's fundamental sample time, and whether the system's continuous states have
discontinuities (Zero Crossing Detection). At the start of the simulation, the model specifies the initial states and
outputs of the system to be simulated. At each step, Simulink computes new values for the system's inputs, states,

47
and outputs and updates the model to reflect the computed values. At the end of the simulation, the model reflects
the final values of the system's inputs, states, and outputs. At each time step:

1) Simulink Updates the outputs of the models' blocks in sorted order. Simulink computes a block's outputs
by invoking the block's output function. Simulink passes the current time and the block's inputs and states
to the output function as it may require these arguments to compute the block's output. Simulink updates
the output of a discrete block only if the current step is an integral multiple of the block's sample time.
2) Updates the states of the model's blocks in sorted order. Simulink computes a block's discrete states by
invoking its discrete state update function. Simulink computes a block's continuous states by numerically
integrating the time derivatives of the continuous states. It computes the time derivatives of the states by
invoking the block's continuous derivatives function.
3) Optionally checks for discontinuities in the continuous states of blocks. Simulink uses a technique called
zero crossing detection to detect discontinuities in continuous states.
4) Computes the time for the next time step.
Simulink repeats steps 1 through 4 until the simulation stop time is reached.

6.7 Block Sorting Rules:


Simulink uses the following basic update rules to sort the blocks:

1) Each block must be updated before any of the direct-feed through blocks that it drives. This rule
ensures that the inputs to direct-feed through blocks will be valid when they are updated.
2) Non direct-feed through blocks can be updated in any order as long as they are updated before any direct-
feed through blocks that they drive. This rule can be met by putting all non direct-feed through blocks at
the head of the update list in any order. It thus allows Simulink to ignore non direct-feed through blocks
during the sorting process.
The result of applying these rules is an update list in which non direct-feed through blocks appear at the
head of the list in no particular order followed by direct-feed through blocks in the order required to supply valid
inputs to the blocks they drive. During the sorting process, Simulink checks for and flags the occurrence of
algebraic loops, that is, signal loops in which an output of a direct-feed through block is connected directly or
indirectly to one of the block's inputs. Such loops seemingly create a deadlock condition since Simulink needs the
input of a direct-feed through block in order to compute its output. However, an algebraic loop can represent a set
of simultaneous algebraic equations (hence the name) where the block's input and output are the unknowns.
Further, these equations can have valid solutions at each time step. Accordingly, Simulink assumes that loops

48
involving direct-feed through blocks do, in fact, represent a solvable set of algebraic equations and attempts to
solve them each time the block is updated during a simulation.

6.8 PROPOSED SYSTEM SIMULATION CIRCUIT:

Fig:6.1 Proposed circuit configuration

49
CHAPTER 07
RESULTS

V
o
l
t
a
g
e

( Volts)

------------Time(sec)

Fig:7.1 Input grid voltage

• We can observe three phase balanced voltages coming from the grid side in this above figure.

C
u
r
r
e
n
t

(Amps)

-----------------Time(sec)

--Fig:7.2 Input grid current

• We can observe the three phase balanced currents at the grid in this figure
50
C
u
r
r
e
n
t
(Amps)

-----------------------Time(sec)

Fig:7.3 main output waveforms

C
u
r
r
e
n
t
(Amps)

-----------------------Time(sec)

fig:7.4 DC bus current

• As DC bus reduces some order of harmonics and provides better total harmonic distortion(THD),we can observe increase in
THD in this above figure

51
C
u
r
r
e
n
t
(Amps)

------------------Time(sec)

fig:7.5 Inductor current

• This is the waveform we can observe across the inductor in the converter .Here we can see, it is able to handle the peak
switching currents thus gives a constant current power supply.

C
u
r
r
e
n
t
(Amps)

---------------------Time(sec)

Fig:7.6 Battery current

• We can observe the harmonics suppressed and pure dc signal can be supplied for charging the electric vehicle in this above
figure.

52
C
u
r
r
e
n
t
(Amps)

--------------------Time(sec)

Fig:7.7 Dc link capacitor current

• This is the waveform across the DC link capacitor as it is an essential part of grid provides isolation and suppresses the
ripples. The function of the capacitor is energy storage as potential energy.

V
o
l
t
a
g
e

(Volts)

----------------------Time(sec)

Fig:7.8 DCAPF voltage

• Active power filters will improve the quality of the electrical energy and the efficiency by suppressing harmonics ,we can
observe the improvement in electrical energy without any harmonics in this above figure.

53
CHAPTER 8

CONCLUSIONS
8.1 CONCLUSION:
This paper proposes a novel single-stage EV fast charging system structure with lower cost and higher
efficiency. Both single-stage and two-stage structures are compared under fair efficiency analysis and evaluation
including the power loss comparison of the transformers and converters. The whole system efficiency calculation
results are also validated by the SEMISEL simulation. The comparison results indicate that the proposed single-
stage structure fast charging system could be more effective in efficiency improving while cutting the cost.
Besides, based on the proposed single-stage structure, a DCAPF method is also adopted in this paper to
compensate the harmonic current which may be directly transmitted to the battery packs. The compensation effect
is validated by both the simulation and experimental results. The proposed structure and lower order harmonic
current compensation method could be simply used for improving the EV’s fast charging system performance.

8.2 FUTURE SCOPE:


➢ The scope of this project is ,to design a better efficient filter than bidirectional dc/dc converter in order to
suppress the harmonics periodically.

➢ So that we have still better efficiency which includes less cost.

54
APPENDIX 1
MATLAB is a high-performance language for technical computing. It integrates computation,
visualization, and programming in an easy-to-use environment where problems and solutions are expressed in
familiar mathematical notation. Typical uses include-

➢ Math and computation


➢ Algorithm development
➢ Data acquisition
➢ Modeling, simulation, and prototyping
➢ Data analysis, exploration, and visualization
➢ Scientific and engineering graphics

MATLAB is an interactive system whose basic data element is an array that does not require dimensioning.
This allows solving many technical computing problems, especially those with matrix and vector formulations,
in a fraction of the time it would take to write a program in a scalar non-interactive language such as C or
FORTRAN.

The MATLAB system consists of six main parts:


(a) Development Environment:

This is the set of tools and facilities that help to use MATLAB functions and files. Many of these tools are
graphical user interfaces. It includes the MATLAB desktop and Command Window, a command history, an editor
and debugger, and browsers for viewing help, the workspace, files and the search path.

(b) The MATLAB Mathematical Function Library:

This is a vast collection of computational algorithms ranging from elementary functions, like sum, sine,
cosine, and complex arithmetic, to more sophisticated functions like matrix inverse, matrix Eigen values, Bessel
functions, and fast Fourier transforms.

55
(c) The MATLAB Language:

This is a high-level matrix/array language with control flow statements, functions, data structures,
input/output, and object-oriented programming features. It allows both "programming in the small" to rapidly
create quick and dirty throw-away programs, and "programming in the large" to create large and complex
application programs.

(d) Graphics:

MATLAB has extensive facilities for displaying vectors and matrices as graphs, as well as annotating and
printing these graphs. It includes high-level functions for two-dimensional and three-dimensional data
visualization, image processing, animation, and presentation graphics. It also includes low-level functions that
allow to fully customize the appearance of graphics as well as to build complete graphical user interfaces on
MATLAB applications.

(e) The MATLAB Application Program Interface (API):


This is a library that allows writing in C and FORTRAN programs that interact with MATLAB. It includes
facilities for calling routines from MATLAB (dynamic linking), calling MATLAB as a computational engine,
and for reading and writing MAT-files.

(f) MATLAB Documentation:


MATLAB provides extensive documentation, in both printed and online format, to help to learn about and
use all of its features. It covers all the primary MATLAB features at a high level, including many examples. The
MATLAB online help provides task-oriented and reference information about MATLAB features. MATLAB
documentation is also available in printed form and in PDF format.

(1) Three phase source block:

Three Phase Source Block

The Three-Phase Source block implements a balanced three-phase voltage source with internal R-L
impedance. The three voltage sources are connected in Y with a neutral connection that can be internally ground.

56
(2) VI measurement block:

The Three-Phase V-I Measurement block is used to measure three-phase voltages and currents in a circuit.
When connected in series with three-phase elements, it returns the three phase-to-ground or phase-to-phase
voltages and the three line currents

Three Phase V-I Measurement

(3) Scope:

Display signals generated during a simulation. The Scope block displays its input with respect to
simulation time. The Scope block can have multiple axes (one per port); all axes have a common time range with
independent y-axes. The Scope allows you to adjust the amount of time and the range of input values displayed.
You can move and resize the Scope window and you can modify the Scope's parameter values during the
simulation

Scope

57
(4) Three-Phase Series RLC Load:

The Three-Phase Series RLC Load block implements a three-phase balanced load as a series combination
of RLC elements. At the specified frequency, the load exhibits constant impedance. The active and reactive
powers absorbed by the load are proportional to the square of the applied voltage.

Three-Phase Series RLC Load

(5) Three-Phase Breaker block:

The Three-Phase Breaker block implements a three-phase circuit breaker where the opening and closing
times can be controlled either from an external Simulink signal or from an internal control signal.

Three-Phase Breaker Block

(6) Integrator:

Library: Continuous

Integrator
58
The integrator block outputs the integral of its input at the current time step. The following equation
represents the output of the block y as a function of its input u and an initial condition y0, where y and u are vector
functions of the current simulation time t.

(7) Breaker:

Implement circuit breaker opening at current zero crossing.

Library: Elements

Circuit Breaker

Purpose: The Breaker block implements a circuit breaker where the opening and closing times can be controlled
either from an external SIMULINK signal (external control mode), or from an internal control timer (internal
control mode).

A series Rs-Cs snubber circuit is included in the model. It can be connected to the circuit breaker. If the
Breaker block happens to be in series with an inductive circuit, an open circuit or a current source, you must use
a snubber.

When the breaker block is set in external control mode, a SIMULINK input appears on the block icon.
The control signal connected to the SIMULINK input must be either 0 or 1 (0 to open the breaker, 1 to close it).

When the Breaker block is set in internal control mode, the switching times are specified in the dialog box
of the block.

When the breaker is closed, it is represented by a resistance Ron. The Ron value can be set as small as
necessary in order to be negligible compared with external components (a typical value is 10 m ohms). When the
breaker is open, it has an infinite resistance.

59
(8) Three-Phase Programmable Voltage Source:

Implement three-phase voltage source with programmable time variation of amplitude, phase, frequency,
and harmonics

Library: Electrical Sources

Three Phase Voltage Sources

Purpose: This block is used to generate a three-phase sinusoidal voltage with time-varying parameters. It can be
programmed with the time variation for the amplitude, phase or frequency of the fundamental component of the
source. In addition, two harmonics can be programmed and superimposed on the fundamental signal.

(9) Trigonometric Function:

Specified trigonometric function on input

Library: Math Operations

Trigonometric Function

Purpose: The Trigonometric Function block performs common trigonometric functions

60
(10) Three-Phase Transformer (Two Windings):

Implement three-phase transformer with configurable winding connections

Library: Elements

Three Phase Transformer

Purpose: The Three-Phase Transformer (Two Windings) block implements a three-phase transformer using three
single-phase transformers. The saturation characteristic, when activated, is the same as the one described for the
saturable Transformer block, and the icon of the block is automatically updated. If the fluxes are not specified,
the initial values are automatically adjusted so that the simulation starts in steady state.

(11) Three-Phase Transformer 12 Terminals:

Implement three single-phase, two-winding transformers where all terminals are accessible

Library: Elements

Two winding Transformer

Purpose: The Three-Phase Transformer 12 Terminals block implements three single-phase, two-winding linear
transformers where all the twelve winding connectors are accessible. The block can be used in place of the
Three-Phase Transformer (Two Windings) block to implement a three-phase transformer when primary and
secondary are not necessarily connected in Star or Delta.

61
(12) IGBT/Diode:

Implements ideal IGBT, GTO, or MOSFET and antiparallel diode

Library: Power Electronics

IGBT

Purpose: The IGBT/Diode block is a simplified mode of an IGBT (or GTO or MOSFET)/Diode pair where the
forward voltages of the forced-commutated device and diode are ignored.

62
APPENDIX 2

REFERENCES
1. M.AI Sakka , J. Van Mierlo and H. Gualous, “DC/DC Converters for Electric Vehicles”,
DOL:10.5772/17048, 2020
2. S.Bansal , “Advances in automobile Engineering” , 2020
3. M. Khan, A. Ahmed, I. Husain, Y. Sozer and M. Badawy, “Performance Analysis of Bidirectional DC–
DC Converters for Electric Vehicles”. IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, 51(4), pp.3442-
3452, July-Aug. 2019.
4. K.Aseem, S.Selvakumar , “Closed loop control of dc-dc converters using PID and FOPID controllers”,
computer science 1 September 2020
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63
A
PROJECT REPORT

On

CONSTANT CURRENT FUZZY LOGIC


CONTROLLER FOR GRID CONNECTED
ELECTRICAL VEHICLE CHARGING
Submitted by
1)Ms.K.Bhavani(17K81A0227)
2)Ms.A.Kavya (17K81A0202)
3)Mr.K.Rakesh (17K81A0226)
4)Ms.A.Ramu(18K85A0222)

in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
Under The Guidance of
Mrs. C.N. Sangeetha, M.Tech,(PhD)
Asst. Professor
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

ST. MARTIN’S ENGINEERING COLLEGE


(An Autonomous Institute)
Dhulapally, Secunderabad – 500 100
BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project entitled CONSTANT CURRENT FUZZY LOGIC
CONTROLLER FOR GRID CONNECTED ELECTRICAL VEHICLE CHARGING,
is being submitted by1.Ms. K.Bhavani 17K81A0227,2.Ms. A.Kavya 17K81A0202 3.Mr.
K.Rakesh 17K81A0226 4. Mr. A.Ramu 18K85A0222 in partial fulfillment of the
requirement for the award of the degree of BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY IN Electrical
and Electronics Engineering is recorded of bonafide work carried out by them. The result
embodied in this report have been verified and found satisfactory.

Head of the Department


Mrs. C.N. Sangeetha Dr. N.Ramchandra
Department of EEE Department of EEE

Internal Examiner External Examiner

Place:

Date:

I
DECLARATION

We, the student of Bachelor of Technology in Department of Electrical and


Electronics Engineering ’, session: 2017 – 2021, St. Martin’s Engineering College,
Dhulapally, Kompally, Secunderabad, hereby declare that work presented in this
Project Work entitled CONSTANT CURRENT FUZZY LOGIC CONTROLLER
FOR GRID CONNECTED ELECTRICAL VEHICLE CHARGING is the
outcome of our own bonafide work and is correct to the best of our knowledge and this
work has been undertaken taking care of Engineering Ethics. This result embodied in
this project report has not been submitted in any university for award of any degree.

K. Bhavani (17K81A0227)
A. Kavya (17K81A0202)
K. Rakesh (17K81A0226)
A. Ramu (18K85A0222)

II
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The satisfaction and euphoria that accompanies the successful completion of any task
would be incomplete without the mention of the people who made it possible and
whose encouragements and guidance have crowded effects with success.
First and foremost, we would like to express my deep sense of gratitude and
indebtedness to our College Management for their kind support and permission to use
the facilities available in the Institute.
We especially would like to express my deep sense of gratitude and indebtedness to
Dr.P.Santosh Kumar Patra, our beloved Principal, St.Martin’s Engineering
College for his invaluable encouragement, suggestions and support from an early stage
of this research and providing me extraordinary experiences throughout the work.
Above all, his priceless and meticulous supervision at each and every phase of work
inspired me in innumerable ways.
We would like to express our gratitude to Dr.N.Ramchandra, Head &Professor, the
Dept. of Electrical and Electronics Engineering for his advice, supervision, and the vital
contribution as and when required during this research. We are proud to record that we
had the opportunity to work with an exceptionally experienced Professor like him. The
time spent with him will remain in my memory for years to come.
We would like to thank our supervisor, Mrs.C.N.Sangeetha, Assistant professor,
Dept. of EEE for her continuous support and valuable guidance for our research work.
We would like to express our gratitude to our dept. project coordinators Mr. K. V.
Govardhan Rao, Assistant Professor, Dept. of EEE and Mr. T. Penchalaiah, Assistant
Professor, Dept of EEE for their involvement with originality has triggered and
nourished my intellectual maturity that will help me for a long time to come.
Finally, we are highly grateful and obliged to our college level Project Coordinators
Dr.Maalyadri, Professor in IT and Dr.R.Santhosh Kumar, Associate Professor in
CSE for their advice, supervision, and the vital contribution as and when required
during this research work and for their support and co- operation that is difficult to
express in words.

1. K.Bhavani
2. A.Kavya
3. K.Rakesh
4. A.Ramu

III
TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER NO TITLE PAGE


NO

CERTIFICATE i
DECLARATION ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS iv-vi
LIST OF FIGURES vii-viii
LIST OF GRAPHS ix
NOMENCLATURE x
ABSTRACT xi

1. INTRODUCTION 1-3
1.1 Introduction to the project 1-3
2. LITERATURE SURVEY 4-5
2.1 Literature survey of the project 4-5
3. BATTERY STORAGE SYSTEM 6-15
3.1 Introduction to Battery Storage System 6-8
3.2 Classification of Batteries 8-9
3.2.1 Primary 9
3.2.2 Secondary 9-10
3.3 AGM 10
3.4 Cell types 10
3.4.1 Wet cell 11
3.4.2 Molten salt 12
3.5 Reserve 12
3.6 Cell performance 12-13
3.7 Fast-Charging,Large and light battery 14
3.8 Lifetime 14
IV
3.8.1 Cells discharge 14-15
3.9 Corrosion 15
4. VOLTAGE SOURCE CONVERTER 16-21
4.1 Introduction 16
4.2 Two level Converter 17-21
5. BUCK CONVERTER 22-30
5.1 Introduction 22-23
5.2 Theory of Operation 23-24
5.3 Concept 24-25
5.3.1 Continuous mode 25
5.3.2 Discontinuous mode 26-27
5.4 Effects of non-ideality on the efficiency 27-30
6. PROPOSED CONTROLLER 31-51
6.1 Introduction about Fuzzy Logic Technique 31-32
6.2 Uses of Fuzzy logic 32-33
6.3 Fuzzy Logic Controller 33
6.3.1 Simple fuzzy logic controller 33-34
6.3.2 General fuzzy logic controller 34-35
6.4 Membership Function 36
6.4.1 Types of memebership functions 36-38
6.5 Fuzzy Logic Tool Box 38-39
6.6 Working with the fuzzy logic tool box 39-40
6.6.1 Building a fuzzy inference system 40
6.7 Key Features 40-43
6.8 The FIS Editor 43-46
6.8.1 The membership function 46-49
6.8.2 The rule editor 49-51
7. PROPOSED SIMULATION RESULTS 52-60
7.1 Introduction 52
7.2 Block diagram 52-53
V
7.3 Simulation Block libraries 54
7.4 Sub Systems 54
7.5 Solvers 54-55
7.6 Fixed Step Variable step solvers 55
7.7 Continuous and Discrete Solvers 55-56
7.8 Model Execution Phase 56-57
7.9 Block Sorting rules 57-60
8. CONCLUSION 61
APPENDIX-I 62-69
REFERENCES 70-71

VI
LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO DESCRIPTION PAGE NO.

4.1 Three-Phase, Two level 17

Voltage source converter

5.1 Buck Converter Circuit Diagram 22

5.1 A Buck Converter 22

5.2 The Two circuit configurations 23

of a Buck Converter

5.3 Naming Conventions of the 23

Components

5.4 Evolution of the components 24

In an Ideal Buck Converter in

Continuous mode

5.5 Evolution of the components 26

In an Ideal Buck Converter in

Discontinuous mode

5.6 Synchronous converter 28

5.7 Synchronous n-phase Buck converter 28

5.8 AMD socket 939 processor 29

6.1 Fuzzy description 32

6.2 A Simple Logic control system 33

6.3 Fuzzy Inference System 40

VII
6.4 GUI Tools 41

6.5 The FIS editor 44

6.6 Sample Window 45

6.7 Updated FIS Editor 45

6.8 The Membership function 47

editor

6.9 MFs Window 48

6.10 Updated Membership 49

Editor

6.11 The Rule Editor 50

7.1 Proposed Circuit Simulation 58

7.2 Simulation Circuit 58

7.3 Proposed Battery Current 59

7.4 Battery Voltage 59

7.5 SOC for proposed system 60

VIII
LIST OF GRAPHS

FIGURE NO TITLE PAGE NO.

6.1 Straight line Membership function 36


6.2 Trapezoidal membership function 37
6.3 Gaussian membership function 37
6.4 Triangular membership function 38
6.5 The tipping function 43

IX
NOMENCLATURE

EV : Electrical Vehicle
HEVs : Hybrid Electrical Vehicle
ICE : Internal Combustion Engine
FLC : Fuzzy Logic Controller
BEVs : Battery Electrical Vehicles
VRLA : Valve regulated lead-acid battery
AGM : Absorbed Glass Mat

X
ABSTRACT

The increase in demand for clean sources of energy is getting more attention in recent time.
Electric vehicle (EV) is an important area to fulfil this demand. However, one of the major
obstacles in the growth of EV is the longer charging time. Therefore, there is a definite need
for the reduction of charging time in EVs. Constant current charging of EV can help to solve
this problem. That’s why, the role of DC-DC converter is very important. DC-DC converters
are commonly utilized in electronic devices such as mobile phones, computers etc. This paper
presents the possibility of grid connected constant current charging of EV with buck DC-DC
converter through fuzzy logic control (FLC). FLC is easy to implement without the requirement
of intensive mathematical modelling. The complete model of the considered system has been
developed in MATLAB/Simulink. The achieved simulation results show the viability and
capability of the proposed scheme. Keywords— DC-DC converter, fuzzy logic controller,
electric vehicle.

XI
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction to the project:

According to International Energy Agency, about 64% of global oil utilization originates
from transport sector. The increase in fossil fuel demand, coupled with the upsurge in climate
change, has led to control in the release of CO2 and NOx emissions. Eventually, there is an
increase in the demand for clean sources of energy. Electric vehicles (EV) can help to reduce
the menace related to climate change. Presently, a lot of research work is going on regrading
EV and viability of designing the charging process through power grid connection. However,
the charging system of EV needs to be improved considerably. Decrease in charging time is an
important requirement in making EV easy to use. As a result of this, fast DC and constant
current (CC) charging systems offer a fascinating opportunity. The author describes the two
levels of DC fast charging according to the international standard. The DC-DC bus connection
is more desirable because it requires lesser switching process which facilitates higher
efficiency. Moreover, according to algorithm developed, the CC charging can also be used to
determine the charging power requirement, based on the battery capacity, departure time,
arrival time and the battery state of charge. A comprehensive review of fast charging process
with required charging current and voltage is discussed. Power grid and photovoltaic connected
EV charging is developed but the detail design of the EV charging process is not illustrated. a
fast DC charging of EV is implemented with a proportional integral (PI) controller but generally
PI are often subjected to tuning. a voltage sensing smart charging is used for the energy
management with a PI controller for buck converter charging of the EV.

DC voltage source is used as the PV panel and the battery is modelled as a simple resistor
with a bang-bang fuzzy logic controller for the EV charging implementation. In contrast to
previous works, this paper focuses on buck DC-DC converter charging of grid connected
electric vehicles with a constant current fuzzy logic controller (FLC). In this paper, the actual
models of the grid connection as well as battery have been used in MATLAB/Simulink for the
analysis of the complete EV charging system. FLC can be used in various home and industrial
applications.FLC is easy to implement than the classical proportional integral (PI) controller
and it easily adjusts to changes in operating conditions.

Page | 1
It can be computed with linguistic variables rather than numbers. Membership functions (MF)
are used in describing fuzzy sets.
MF denotes degree of accuracy in fuzzy logic and it is mapped between 0 to 1.

A MF value of 0.2 denotes 20% degree of accuracy in a fuzzy logic. The control algorithm for
fuzzy set can be implemented through fuzzy rules by operators for difficult and non-linear
systems without the requirement for intensive numerical modelling.

It is also highly reliable and robust to change in circuit parameters and transient conditions .
Organized as follows: presents the design of buck converter and the grid connection. Describes
the constant current fuzzy logic controller for EV charging. Presents the simulation results.

The complete simulation diagram of the EV charging system is developed in


MATLAB/Simulink as presented In this figure, voltage source is modeled as a three phase
source and the transformer as a Star-Delta connection. A three-level bridge inverter is used for
AC to DC conversion. The adjustment of the DC bus voltage and reactive current of the grid
are done by the control system, DC regulator, This comprises of a DC voltage control and a
current control. A d-q transformation process is employed with phase loop. The current
reference is the output of the DC voltage regulator. The magnitude and voltage phase generated
by the current regulator is used to regulate the converter as presented Figure 3 shows DC-DC
buck converter system with output 𝑉𝑜. The converter allows the lowering of input voltage
magnitude to a desirable level in order to charge the EV. The input of the DC-DC buck
converter is connected to the output of the grid supply and the output of the converter is
connected to the battery. The duty cycle of the buck converter, which is the ratio of two
voltages, can be determined. Controllers are primarily employed to bridge the gap between the
measured output parameter and the reference value. The fuzzy logic controller in this paper is
based on the bang-bang control Bang-bang control system automatically turns on/off in order
to keep the measured output close to the reference value. It is basically known as a two-step
controller.
The main reasons for the invention of electric vehicles is the emission of toxic substances into
the air by the motor vehicles such as cars, buses, trucks, and so on causing air pollution but the
other reason for the development of electric vehicles is that the fossil fuels which are being
employed in our daily life will be exhausted not beyond a few years considering the rate of

Page | 2
usage. The electric vehicles must be developed in such a way that the vehicle must be charged
within a few seconds.
The PID controller used in a fast-charging electric vehicle is always a closed-loop
network and receives feedback. This feedback is employed to make adjustments to the
deviations in the output.
The capacitor bank is used to obstruct the variable DC voltage, the voltage in the transformer
is used to step-up or step-down as per the requirements. In the radial distribution system,
buffering loads are used, when there are no vehicles in the charging station these loads are
utilized to store the electrical energy, the battery is used as a rectifier, and for fast charging
purpose the PID controller along with buck-boost converter are used to control the circuit with
the FLC.

Buck-boost converter along with the PID controller and FLC is presented as the advanced
controlling circuit. The converter is connected to the electric vehicles which are attached
to the grid.
The FLC can be easily accessible in domestic and industrial based applications. The fuzzy
logic can be carried out easily when related with the PID controller and is adaptable to the
variations in the system.

Page | 3
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE SURVEY

2.1 Literature survey

Lisheng Shi et al

Presented the basic requirements and specifications for PHEV bidirectional ac dc


converter designs. Generally, there are two types of topologies used for PHEVs: an independent
topology and a combination topology that utilizes the drive motor’s inverter. Evaluations of
the two converter topologies are analysed in detail. The combination topology analysis is
emphasized because it has more advantages in PHEVs, in respect to savings in cost, volume
and weight.

Jia Ying Yong, Vigna K. Ramachandaramurthy, Kang Miao Tan, N. Mithulananthan.

Electrifying transportation is a promising approach to alleviate the climate change


issue. The adoption of electric vehicle into market has introduced significant impacts on various
fields, especially the power grid. Various policies have been implemented to foster the electric
vehicle deployment and the increasing trend of electric vehicle adoption in the recent years has
been satisfying. The continual development of electric vehicle power train, battery and charger
technologies have further improved the electric vehicle technologies for wider uptake. Despite
the environmental and economical benefits, electric vehicles charging introduce negative
impacts on the existing network operation. Appropriate charging management strategies can be
implemented to cater for this issue. Furthermore, electric vehicle integration in the smart grid
can bring many potential opportunities, especially from the perspective of vehicle-to-grid
technology and as the solution for the renewable energy intermittency issue. This project
reviews the latest development in electric vehicle technologies, impacts of electric vehicle roll
out and opportunities brought by electric vehicle deployment.

M. S. Perdigão, J. P. F. Trovão, J. M. Alonso and E. S. Saraiva

This project is focused on core size optimization of power inductors in bidirectional dc–
dc converters. It presents an experimental large-signal characterization procedure for power
inductors in electric vehicle applications and a method to obtain an inductance reference value
for the power inductor in dc–dc converters' simulation studies.
Page | 4
It discusses the importance of the inductor design project by describing important
constraints such as core size and saturation. The main contribution of this paper is related to the
proposed dc flux cancelation technique in the bidirectional converter. A variable inductor
prototype is used to replace the power inductor in order to decrease core size by improving the
ripple content of the inductor current. The saturation level of the core is controlled by means of
an auxiliary winding whether the converter operates in buck or boost mode. Experimental
results validate the proposed methodology showing more than 50% reduction in magnetic
material for similar current levels.

Young-Joo Lee et al

Formulated a novel integrated bidirectional ac/dc charger and dc/dc converter


(henceforth, the integrated converter) for PHEVs and hybrid/plug-in-hybrid conversions is
proposed.The integrated converter is able to function as an ac/dc battery charger and to transfer
electrical energy between the battery pack and the high-voltage bus of the electric traction
system.

Hyun-Wook Seong et al

Describes non-isolated high step-up DC-DC converters using zero voltage switching
(ZVS) boost integration technique (BIT) and their light-load frequency modulation (LLFM)
control. The proposed ZVS BIT integrates a bidirectional boost converter with a series output
module as a parallel-input and series-output (PISO) configuration.

Page | 5
CHAPTER 3
BATTERY STORAGE SYSTEM
3.1 Introduction:
A battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells with external
connections for powering electrical devices such as flashlights, mobile phones, and electric
cars. When a battery is supplying electric power, its positive terminal is the cathode and its
negative terminal is the anode. The terminal marked negative is the source of electrons that will
flow through an external electric circuit to the positive terminal. When a battery is connected
to an external electric load, a redox reaction converts high-energy reactants to lower-energy
products, and the free-energy difference is delivered to the external circuit as electrical
energy. Historically the term "battery" specifically referred to a device composed of multiple
cells, however the usage has evolved to include devices composed of a single cell.

Primary (single-use or "disposable") batteries are used once and discarded, as


the electrode materials are irreversibly changed during discharge; a common example is
the alkaline battery used for flashlights and a multitude of portable electronic
devices. Secondary (rechargeable) batteries can be discharged and recharged multiple times
using an applied electric current; the original composition of the electrodes can be restored by
reverse current. Examples include the lead-acid batteries used in vehicles and lithium-
ion batteries used for portable electronics such as laptops and mobile phones.

Batteries come in many shapes and sizes, from miniature cells used to power hearing
aids and wristwatches to small, thin cells used in smartphones, to large lead acid batteries or
lithium-ion batteries in vehicles, and at the largest extreme, huge battery banks the size of rooms
that provide standby or emergency power for telephone exchanges and computer data centers.
Batteries have much lower specific energy (energy per unit mass) than common fuels such as
gasoline. In automobiles, this is somewhat offset by the higher efficiency of electric motors in
converting chemical energy to mechanical work, compared to combustion engines.The usage
of "battery" to describe a group of electrical devices dates to Benjamin Franklin, who in 1748
described multiple Leyden jars by analogy to a battery of cannon (Benjamin Franklin borrowed
the term "battery" from the military, which refers to weapons functioning together).

Italian physicist Alessandro Volta built and described the first electrochemical battery,
the voltaic pile, in 1800.This was a stack of copper and zinc plates, separated by brine-soaked
Page | 6
paper disks, that could produce a steady current for a considerable length of time. Volta did not
understand that the voltage was due to chemical reactions.

He thought that his cells were an inexhaustible source of energy, and that the associated
corrosion effects at the electrodes were a mere nuisance, rather than an unavoidable
consequence of their operation, as Michael Faraday showed in 1834.

Although early batteries were of great value for experimental purposes, in practice their
voltages fluctuated and they could not provide a large current for a sustained period. The Daniel
cell, invented in 1836 by British chemist John Frederic Daniel, was the first practical source
of electricity, becoming an industry standard and seeing widespread adoption as a power source
for electrical telegraph networks. It consisted of a copper pot filled with a copper
sulfate solution, in which was immersed an unglazed earthenware container filled with sulfuric
acid and a zinc electrode. These wet cells used liquid electrolytes, which were prone to leakage
and spillage if not handled correctly. Many used glass jars to hold their components, which
made them fragile and potentially dangerous. These characteristics made wet cells unsuitable
for portable appliances. Near the end of the nineteenth century, the invention of dry cell
batteries, which replaced the liquid electrolyte with a paste, made portable electrical devices
practical. Batteries convert chemical energy directly to electrical energy. In many cases, the
electrical energy released is the difference in the cohesive or bond energies of the metals,
oxides, or molecules undergoing the electrochemical reaction. For instance, energy can be
stored in Zn or Li, which are high-energy metals because they are not stabilized by d-electron
bonding, unlike transition metals. Batteries are designed such that the energetically
favorable redox reaction can occur only if electrons move through the external part of the
circuit.

A battery consists of some number of voltaic cells. Each cell consists of two half-
cells connected in series by a conductive electrolyte containing metal cations. One half-cell
includes electrolyte and the negative electrode, the electrode to which anions (negatively
charged ions) migrate; the other half-cell includes electrolyte and the positive electrode, to
which cations (positively charged ions) migrate. Cations are reduced (electrons are added) at
the cathode, while metal atoms are oxidized (electrons are removed) at the anode. Some cells
use different electrolytes for each half-cell; then a separator is used to prevent mixing of the
electrolytes while allowing ions to flow between half-cells to complete the electrical circuit.
Each half-cell has an electromotive force (emf, measured in volts) relative to a standard.
Page | 7
The net emf of the cell is the difference between the emfs of its half cells. Thus, if the electrodes
have emfs and then the net emf is in other words, the net emf is the difference between
the reduction potentials of the half-reactions.

The electrical driving force or across the terminals of a cell is known as the terminal voltage
(difference) and is measured in volts. The terminal voltage of a cell that is neither charging nor
discharging is called the open-circuit voltage and equals the emf of the cell.

Because of internal resistance, the terminal voltage of a cell that is discharging is


smaller in magnitude than the open-circuit voltage and the terminal voltage of a cell that is
charging exceeds the open-circuit voltage. An ideal cell has negligible internal resistance, so it
would maintain a constant terminal voltage of until exhausted, then dropping to zero. If such a
cell maintained 1.5 volts and produce a charge of one coulomb then on complete discharge it
would have performed 1.5 joules of work. In actual cells, the internal resistance increases under
discharge and the open-circuit voltage also decreases under discharge. If the voltage and
resistance are plotted against time, the resulting graphs typically are a curve; the shape of the
curve varies according to the chemistry and internal arrangement employed.

The voltage developed across a cell's terminals depends on the energy release of the
chemical reactions of its electrodes and electrolyte. Alkaline and zinc–carbon cells have
different chemistries, but approximately the same emf of 1.5 volts;
likewise NiCd and NiMH cells have different chemistries, but approximately the same emf of
1.2 volts. The high electrochemical potential changes in the reactions of lithium compounds
give lithium cells emfs of 3 volts or more.

3.2 Batteries are classified into primary and secondary forms:

Primary batteries are designed to be used until exhausted of energy then discarded. Their
chemical reactions are generally not reversible, so they cannot be recharged. When the supply
of reactants in the battery is exhausted, the battery stops producing current and is useless.
Secondary batteries can be recharged; that is, they can have their chemical reactions reversed
by applying electric current to the cell. This regenerates the original chemical reactants, so they
can be used, recharged, and used again multiple times. Some types of primary batteries used,

Page | 8
for example, for telegraph circuits, were restored to operation by replacing the electrodes.
Secondary batteries are not indefinitely rechargeable due to dissipation of the active materials,
loss of electrolyte and internal corrosion.
3.2.1Primary:

Main article: Primary cell, Primary batteries, or primary cells, can produce current
immediately on assembly. These are most commonly used in portable devices that have low
current drain, are used only intermittently, or are used well away from an alternative power
source, such as in alarm and communication circuits where other electric power is only
intermittently available. Disposable primary cells cannot be reliably recharged, since the
chemical reactions are not easily reversible and active materials may not return to their original
forms.

Battery manufacturers recommend against attempting to recharge primary cells. In


general, these have higher energy densities than rechargeable batteries, but disposable batteries
do not fare well under high-drain applications with loads under 75 ohms (75 Ω). Common types
of disposable batteries include zinc–carbon batteries and alkaline batteries.
3.2.2 Secondary:

Main article: Rechargeable battery


Secondary batteries, also known as secondary cells, or rechargeable batteries, must be charged
before first use; they are usually assembled with active materials in the discharged state.
Rechargeable batteries are (re)charged by applying electric current, which reverses the chemical
reactions that occur during discharge/use. Devices to supply the appropriate current are called
chargers.

The oldest form of rechargeable battery is the lead–acid battery, which are widely used
in automotive and boating applications. This technology contains liquid electrolyte in an
unsealed container, requiring that the battery be kept upright and the area be well ventilated to
ensure safe dispersal of the hydrogen gas it produces during overcharging.
The lead–acid battery is relatively heavy for the amount of electrical energy it can supply. Its
low manufacturing cost and its high surge current levels make it common where its capacity
(over approximately 10 Ah) is more important than weight and handling issues.
Page | 9
A common application is the modern car battery, which can, in general, deliver a peak current
of 450 amperes.

The sealed valve regulated lead–acid battery (VRLA battery) is popular in the automotive
industry as a replacement for the lead–acid wet cell.

The VRLA battery uses an immobilized sulfuric acid electrolyte, reducing the chance of
leakage and extending shelf life. VRLA batteries immobilize the electrolyte. The two types are:
Gel batteries (or "gel cell") use a semi-solid electrolyte.

3.3 Absorbed Glass Mat (AGM) batteries absorb the electrolyte in a special
fiberglass matting.

Other portable rechargeable batteries include several sealed "dry cell" types, that are
useful in applications such as mobile phones and laptop computers. Cells of this type (in order
of increasing power density and cost) include nickel–cadmium (NiCd), nickel–
zinc (NiZn), nickel metal hydride (NiMH), and lithium-ion (Li-ion) cells. Li-ion has by far the
highest share of the dry cell rechargeable market.NiMH has replaced NiCd in most applications
due to its higher capacity, but NiCd remains in use in power tools, two-way radios, and medical
equipment.

In the 2000s, developments include batteries with embedded electronics such


as USBCELL, which allows charging an AA battery through a USB connector,[28] nanoball
batteries that allow for a discharge rate about 100x greater than current batteries, and smart
battery packs with state-of-charge monitors and battery protection circuits that prevent damage
on over-discharge. Low self-discharge (LSD) allows secondary cells to be charged prior to
shipping.

3.4 Cell types:

Many types of electrochemical cells have been produced, with varying chemical
processes and designs, including galvanic cells, electrolytic cells, fuel cells, flow cells and
voltaic piles.
Page | 10
3.4.1 Wet cell:

A wet cell battery has a liquid electrolyte. Other names are flooded cell, since the liquid
covers all internal parts, or vented cell, since gases produced during operation can escape to the
air. Wet cells were a precursor to dry cells and are commonly used as a learning tool
for electrochemistry. They can be built with common laboratory supplies, such as beakers, for
demonstrations of how electrochemical cells work. A particular type of wet cell known as
a concentration cell is important in understanding corrosion. Wet cells may be primary
cells (non-rechargeable) or secondary cells (rechargeable). Originally, all practical primary
batteries such as the Daniel cell were built as open-top glass jar wet cells. Other primary wet
cells are the Leclanche cell, Grove cell, Bunsen cell, Chromic acid cell, Clark cell, and Weston
cell.

The Leclanche cell chemistry was adapted to the first dry cells. Wet cells are still used
in automobile batteries and in industry for standby power for switchgear, telecommunication or
large uninterruptible power supplies, but in many places batteries with gel cells have been used
instead. These applications commonly use lead–acid or nickel–cadmium cells.

A dry cell uses a paste electrolyte, with only enough moisture to allow current to flow.
Unlike a wet cell, a dry cell can operate in any orientation without spilling, as it contains no
free liquid, making it suitable for portable equipment. By comparison, the first wet cells were
typically fragile glass containers with lead rods hanging from the open top and needed careful
handling to avoid spillage. Lead–acid batteries did not achieve the safety and portability of the
dry cell until the development of the gel battery. A common dry cell is the zinc–carbon battery,
sometimes called the dry Leclanché cell, with a nominal voltage of 1.5 volts, the same as
the alkaline battery (since both use the same zinc–manganese dioxide combination). A standard
dry cell comprises a zinc anode, usually in the form of a cylindrical pot, with a carbon cathode
in the form of a central rod. The electrolyte is ammonium chloride in the form of paste next to
the zinc anode.

The remaining space between the electrolyte and carbon cathode is taken up by a
second paste consisting of ammonium chloride and manganese dioxide, the latter acting as
a depolariser. In some designs, the ammonium chloride is replaced by zinc chloride.

Page | 11
3.4.2 Molten salt:

Molten salt batteries are primary or secondary batteries that use a molten salt as
electrolyte. They operate at high temperatures and must be well insulated to retain heat.

3.5 Reserve:

A reserve battery can be stored unassembled (un activated and supplying no power) for
a long period (perhaps years). When the battery is needed, then it is assembled (e.g., by adding
electrolyte); once assembled, the battery is charged and ready to work. For example, a battery
for an electronic artillery fuse might be activated by the impact of firing a gun. The acceleration
breaks a capsule of electrolyte that activates the battery and powers the fuse’s circuits. Reserve
batteries are usually designed for a short service life (seconds or minutes) after long storage
(years). A water-activated battery for oceanographic instruments or military applications
becomes activated on immersion in water.

3.6 Cell performance:

A battery's characteristics may vary over load cycle, over charge cycle, and over lifetime
due to many factors including internal chemistry, current drain, and temperature. At low
temperatures, a battery cannot deliver as much power. As such, in cold climates, some car
owners install battery warmers, which are small electric heating pads that keep the car battery
warm.

A battery's capacity is the amount of electric charge it can deliver at the rated voltage. The more
electrode material contained in the cell the greater its capacity. A small cell has less capacity
than a larger cell with the same chemistry, although they develop the same open-circuit voltage.
Capacity is measured in units such as amp-hour (Ah). The rated capacity of a battery is usually
expressed as the product of 20 hours multiplied by the current that a new battery can
consistently supply for 20 hours at 68 °F (20 °C), while remaining above a specified terminal
voltage per cell. For example, a battery rated at 100 Ah can deliver 5 A over a 20-hour period
at room temperature. The fraction of the stored charge that a battery can deliver depends on
multiple factors, including battery chemistry, the rate at which the charge is delivered (current),
Page | 12
the required terminal voltage, the storage period, ambient temperature and other factors.

The higher the discharge rate, the lower the capacity. The relationship between current,
discharge time and capacity for a lead acid battery is approximated (over a typical range of
current values) by Peukert's law:

Where is the capacity when discharged at a rate of 1 amp is the current drawn from
battery (A).
Is the amount of time (in hours) that a battery can sustain. is a constant around 1.3.
Batteries that are stored for a long period or that are discharged at a small fraction of the capacity
lose capacity due to the presence of generally irreversible side reactions that consume charge
carriers without producing current. This phenomenon is known as internal self-discharge.
Further, when batteries are recharged, additional side reactions can occur, reducing capacity for
subsequent discharges. After enough recharges, in essence all capacity is lost and the battery
stops producing power.

Internal energy losses and limitations on the rate that ions pass through the electrolyte
cause battery efficiency to vary. Above a minimum threshold, discharging at a low rate delivers
more of the battery's capacity than at a higher rate.

Installing batteries with varying Ah ratings does not affect device operation (although
it may affect the operation interval) rated for a specific voltage unless load limits are exceeded.
High-drain loads such as digital cameras can reduce total capacity, as happens with alkaline
batteries. For example, a battery rated at 2 Ah for a 10- or 20-hour discharge would not sustain
a current of 1 A for a full two hours as its stated capacity implies.

The C-rate is a measure of the rate at which a battery is being charged or discharged. It
is defined as the current through the battery divided by the theoretical current draw under which
the battery would deliver its nominal rated capacity in one hour. It has the units h−1.C-rate is
used as a rating on batteries to indicate the maximum current that a battery can safely deliver
on a circuit. Standards for rechargeable batteries generally rate the capacity over a 4-hour, 8
hour or longer discharge time. Types intended for special purposes, such as in a
computer uninterruptible power supply, may be rated by manufacturers for discharge periods
much less than one hour. Because of internal resistance loss and the chemical processes inside
the cells, a battery rarely delivers nameplate rated capacity in only one hour.
Page | 13
3.7 Fast-charging, large and light batteries:

As of 2017, the world's largest battery was built in South Australia by Tesla. It can store
129 MWh. A battery in Hebei Province, China which can store 36 MWh of electricity was built
in 2013 at a cost of $500 million. Another large battery, composed of Ni–Cd cells, was
in Fairbanks, Alaska. It covered 2,000 square meters (22,000 sq ft)—bigger than a football
pitch—and weighed 1,300 tons.It was manufactured by ABB to provide backup power in the
event of a blackout.
The battery can provide 40 MW of power for up to seven minutes. Sodium–sulfur batteries have
been used to store wind power. A 4.4 MWh battery system that can deliver 11 MW for 25
minutes stabilizes the output of the Auwahi wind farm in Hawaii.
Lithium–sulfur batteries were used on the longest and highest solar-powered flight.

3.8 Lifetime:

Battery life (and its synonym battery lifetime) has two meanings for rechargeable
batteries but only one for non-chargeables. For re chargeables, it can mean either the length of
time a device can run on a fully charged battery or the number of charge/discharge cycles
possible before the cells fail to operate satisfactorily. For a non-rechargeable these two lives are
equal since the cells last for only one cycle by definition. (The term shelf life is used to describe
how long a battery will retain its performance between manufacture and use.)

Available capacity of all batteries drops with decreasing temperature. In contrast to most
of today's batteries, the Zamboni pile, invented in 1812, offers a very long service life without
refurbishment or recharge, although it supplies current only in the nanoamp range. The Oxford
Electric Bell has been ringing almost continuously since 1840 on its original pair of batteries,
thought to be Zamboni piles.

3.8.1 Self-discharge:

Disposable batteries typically lose 8 to 20 percent of their original charge per year when
stored at room temperature (20–30 °C). This is known as the "self-discharge" rate, and is due
to non-current-producing "side" chemical reactions that occur within the cell even when no load
Page | 14
is applied. The rate of side reactions is reduced for batteries stored at lower temperatures,
although some can be damaged by freezing.

Old rechargeable batteries self-discharge more rapidly than disposable alkaline


batteries, especially nickel-based batteries; a freshly charged nickel cadmium (Ni Cd) battery
loses 10% of its charge in the first 24 hours, and thereafter discharges at a rate of about 10% a
month. However, newer low self-discharge nickel metal hydride (NiMH) batteries and modern
lithium designs display a lower self-discharge rate (but still higher than for primary batteries).
3.9 Corrosion:

Internal parts may corrode and fail, or the active materials may be slowly converted to
inactive forms. Physical component changes. The active material on the battery plates changes
chemical composition on each charge and discharge cycle; active material may be lost due to
physical changes of volume, further limiting the number of times the battery can be recharged.

Most nickel-based batteries are partially discharged when purchased, and must be charged
before first use. Newer NiMH batteries are ready to be used when purchased, and have only
15% discharge in a year.

Some deterioration occurs on each charge–discharge cycle. Degradation usually occurs because
electrolyte migrates away from the electrodes or because active material detaches from the
electrodes.

Low-capacity NiMH batteries (1,700–2,000 m Ah) can be charged some 1,000 times, whereas
high-capacity NiMH batteries (above 2,500 m Ah) last about 500 cycles. Ni Cd batteries tend
to be rated for 1,000 cycles before their internal resistance permanently increases beyond usable
values.

Page | 15
CHAPTER 4
VOLTAGE SOURCE CONVERTER
4.1 Introduction:

Because thyristors can only be turned on (not off) by control action, and rely on the
external AC system to effect the turn-off process, the control system only has one degree of
freedom – when to turn on the thyristor. This limits the usefulness of HVDC in some
circumstances because it means that the AC system to which the HVDC converter is connected
must always contain synchronous machines in order to provide the commutating voltage – the
HVDC converter cannot feed power into a passive system. With some other types of
semiconductor device such as the insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT), both turn-on and
turn-off can be controlled, giving a second degree of freedom. As a result, IGBTs can be used
to make self-commutated converters. In such converters, the polarity of DC voltage is usually
fixed and the DC voltage, being smoothed by a large capacitance, can be considered constant.
For this reason, an HVDC converter using IGBTs is usually referred to as a voltage-source
converter (or voltage-sourced converter). The additional controllability gives many advantages,
notably the ability to switch the IGBTs on and off many times per cycle in order to improve the
harmonic performance, and the fact that (being self-commutated) the converter no longer relies
on synchronous machines in the AC system for its operation. A voltage-sourced converter can
therefore feed power to an AC network consisting only of passive loads, something which is
impossible with LCC HVDC. Voltage-source converters are also considerably more compact
than line-commutated converters (mainly because much less harmonic filtering is needed) and
are preferable to line-commutated converters in locations where space is at a premium, for
example on offshore platforms.

In contrast to line-commutated HVDC converters, voltage-source converters maintain a


constant polarity of DC voltage and power reversal is achieved instead by reversing the
direction of current. This makes voltage-source converters much easier to connect into a Multi-
terminal HVDC system or “DC Grid”. HVDC systems based on voltage-source converters
normally use the six-pulse connection because the converter produces much less harmonic
distortion than a comparable LCC and the twelve-pulse connection is unnecessary.
This simplifies the construction of the converter transformer. However, there are
several different configurations of voltage-source converter and research is continuing to take
place into new alternatives.
Page | 16
4.2 Two-level Converter:

From the very first VSC-HVDC scheme installed (the Hellsjon experimental link
commissioned in Sweden in 1997) until 2012, most of the VSC HVDC systems built were
based on the two level converter. The two-level converter is the simplest type of three-phase
voltage-source converter and can be thought of as a six pulse bridge in which the thyristors
have been replaced by IGBTs with inverse-parallel diodes, and the DC smoothing reactors have
been replaced by DC smoothing capacitors. Such converters derive their name from the fact
that the voltage at the AC output of each phase is switched between two discrete voltage levels,
corresponding to the electrical potentials of the positive and negative DC terminals. When the
upper of the two valves in a phase is turned on, the AC output terminal is connected to the
positive DC terminal, resulting in an output voltage of +½ Ud with respect to the midpoint
potential of the converter. Conversely when the lower valve in a phase is turned on, the AC
output terminal is connected to the negative DC terminal, resulting in an output voltage of -½
Ud. The two valves corresponding to one phase must never be turned on simultaneously, as this
would result in an uncontrolled discharge of the DC capacitor, risking severe damage to the
converter equipment.

wqeFig 4.1: Three-phase, two-level voltage-source converter


The simplest (and also, the highest-amplitude) waveform that can be produced by a two-level
converter is a square wave; however this would produce unacceptable levels of harmonic
distortion, so some form of Pulse-width modulation (PWM) is always used to improve the
harmonic distortion of the converter.

Page | 17
As a result of the PWM, the IGBTs are switched on and off many times (typically 20)
in each mains cycle. This results in high switching losses in the IGBTs and reduces the overall
transmission efficiency.
Several different PWM strategies are possible for HVDC but in all cases the efficiency of the
two-level converter is significantly poorer than that of a LCC because of the higher switching
losses. A typical LCC HVDC converter station has power losses of around 0.7% at full load
(per end, excluding the HVDC line or cable) while with 2-level voltage-source converters the
equivalent figure is 2-3% per end.

Another disadvantage of the two-level converter is that, in order to achieve the very
high operating voltages required for an HVDC scheme, several hundred IGBTs have to be
connected in series and switched simultaneously in each valve. This requires specialized types
of IGBT with sophisticated gate drive circuits, and can lead to very high levels
of electromagnetic interference. In an attempt to improve on the poor harmonic performance of
the two-level converter, some HVDC systems have been built with three level converters.
Three-level converters can synthesize three (instead of only two) discrete voltage levels at the
AC terminal of each phase: +½ Ud, 0 and -½ Ud. A common type of three-level converter is the
diode-clamped (or neutral-point-clamped) converter, where each phase contains four IGBT
valves, each rated at half of the DC line to line voltage, along with two clamping diode valves.
The DC capacitor is split into two series-connected branches, with the clamping diode valves
connected between the capacitor midpoint and the one-quarter and three-quarter points on each
phase. To obtain a positive output voltage (+½ Ud) the top two IGBT valves are turned on, to
obtain a negative output voltage (-½ Ud) the bottom two IGBT valves are turned on and to
obtain zero output voltage the middle two IGBT valves are turned on. In this latter state, the
two clamping diode valves complete the current path through the phase.

In a refinement of the diode-clamped converter, the so-called active neutral-point


clamped converter, the clamping diode valves are replaced by IGBT valves, giving additional
controllability. Such converters were used on the Murray link project in Australia and the Cross
Sound Cable link in the United States.

However, the modest improvement in harmonic performance came at a considerable price in


terms of increased complexity, and the design proved to be difficult to scale up to DC voltages
higher than the ±150 kV used on those two projects. Another type of three-level converter, used

Page | 18
in some adjustable-speed drives but never in HVDC, replaces the clamping diode valves by a
separate, isolated, flying capacitor connected between the one-quarter and three-quarter
points. The operating principle is similar to that of the diode-clamped converter.

Both the diode-clamped and flying capacitor variants of three-level converter can be
extended to higher numbers of output levels (for example, five), but the complexity of the
circuit increases disproportionately and such circuits have not been considered practical for
HVDC applications.

First proposed for HVDC applications in 2003 by Marquardt and first used
commercially in the Trans Bay Cable project in San Francisco, the Modular
Multi-Level Converter (MMC) is now becoming the most common type of
voltage-source converter for HVDC.
Like the two-level converter and the six-pulse line-commutated converter, a MMC consists of
six valves, each connecting one AC terminal to one DC terminal.

However, where each valve of the two-level converter is effectively a high-voltage controlled
switch consisting of a large number of IGBTs connected in series, each valve of a MMC is a
separate controllable voltage source in its own right. Each MMC valve consists of a number of
independent converter submodules, each containing its own storage capacitor. In the most
common form of the circuit, the half-bridge variant, each submodule contains two IGBTs
connected in series across the capacitor, with the midpoint connection and one of the two
capacitor terminals brought out as external connections. Depending on which of the two IGBTs
in each submodule is turned on, the capacitor is either bypassed or connected into the circuit.
Each submodule therefore acts as an independent two-level converter generating a voltage of
either 0 or Usm (where Usm is the submodule capacitor voltage). With a suitable number of
submodules connected in series, the valve can synthesize a stepped voltage waveform that
approximates very closely to a sine-wave and contains very low levels of harmonic distortion.

The MMC differs from other types of converter in that current flows continuously in all six
valves of the converter throughout the mains-frequency cycle. As a result, concepts such as
“on-state” and “off-state” have no meaning in the MMC.

The direct current splits equally into the three phases and the alternating current splits equally
into the upper and lower valve of each phase. The current in each valve is therefore related to
Page | 19
the direct current Id and alternating current Iac as follows:

Upper valve:

Lower valve:

` A typical MMC for an HVDC application contains around 300 submodules connected in
series in each valve and is therefore equivalent to a 301 level converter. Consequently the
harmonic performance is excellent and usually no filters are needed. A further advantage of the
MMC is that PWM is not necessary, with the result that the power losses are much lower than
those of the 2-level converter, at around 1% per end. Finally, because direct series-connection
of IGBTs is not necessary, the IGBT gate drives do not need to be as sophisticated as those for
a 2-level converter.

The MMC has two principal disadvantages. Firstly, the control is much more complex
than that of a 2-level converter. Balancing the voltages of each of the submodule capacitors is
a significant challenge and requires considerable computing power and high-speed
communications between the central control unit and the valve. Secondly, the submodule
capacitors themselves are large and bulky. A MMC is considerably larger than a comparable-
rated 2-level converter, although this may be offset by the saving in space from not requiring
filters.

As of 2012 the largest-capacity MMC HVDC system in operation is still the


400 MW Trans Bay Cable scheme but many larger schemes are under construction, including
an underground cable interconnection from France to Spain consisting of two 1000 MW links
in parallel at a voltage of ±320 kV. A variant of the MMC, proposed by one manufacturer,
involves connecting multiple IGBTs in series in each of the two switches that make up the
submodule. This gives an output voltage waveform with fewer, larger, steps than the
conventional MMC arrangement. This arrangement is referred to as the Cascaded Two
Level (CTL) converter. Functionally it is exactly equivalent to the conventional half-bridge
MMC in every respect except for the harmonic performance, which is slightly inferior –
although still claimed to be good enough to avoid the need for filtering in most instances.
Another alternative replaces the half bridge MMC submodule described above, with a full
bridge submodule containing four IGBTs in an H bridge arrangement, instead of two.
Page | 20
The full-bridge variant of MMC allows the submodule capacitor to be inserted into the
circuit in either polarity.
This confers additional flexibility in controlling the converter and allows the converter to block
the fault current which arises from a short-circuit between the positive and negative DC
terminals (something which is impossible with any of the preceding types of VSC). Furthermore
it allows the DC voltage to be of either polarity (like a LCC HVDC scheme), giving rise to the
possibility of hybrid LCC and VSC HVDC systems. However, the full-bridge arrangement
requires twice as many IGBTs and has higher power losses than the equivalent half-bridge
arrangement.

Page | 21
CHAPTER 5
BUCK CONVERTER

5.1 INTRODUCTION:

A buck converter (step-down converter) is a DC-to-DC power converter which steps


down voltage (while stepping up current) from its input (supply) to its output (load). It is a class
of switched-mode power supply (SMPS) typically containing at least two semiconductors
(a diode and a transistor, although modern buck converters frequently replace the diode with a
second transistor used for synchronous rectification) and at least one energy storage element,
a capacitor, inductor, or the two in combination. To reduce voltage ripple, filters made of
capacitors (sometimes in combination with inductors) are normally added to such a converter's
output (load-side filter) and input (supply-side filter).

Fig. 5.1: Buck converter circuit diagram.

Fig.5.1. A buck converter

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Switching converters (such as buck converters) provide much greater power efficiency as DC-
to-DC converters than linear regulators, which are simpler circuits that lower voltages by
dissipating power as heat, but do not step up output current.

Buck converters can be highly efficient (often higher than 90%), making them useful
for tasks such as converting a computer's main (bulk) supply voltage (often 12 V) down to lower
voltages needed by USB, DRAM and the CPU (1.8 V or less).

5.2 Theory of operation:

Fig. 5.2: The two circuit configurations of a buck converter: on-state, when the switch is closed;
and off-state, when the switch is open (arrows indicate current according to the
direction conventional current model).

Fig. 5.3 : Naming conventions of the components, voltages and current of the
buck converter.

Page | 23
Fig. 5.4: Evolution of the voltages and currents with time in an ideal buck converter operating
in continuous mode.

The basic operation of the buck converter has the current in an inductor controlled by
two switches (usually a transistor and a diode). In the idealized converter, all the components
are considered to be perfect.

Specifically, the switch and the diode have zero voltage drop when on and zero current
flow when off, and the inductor has zero series resistance. Further, it is assumed that the input
and output voltages do not change over the course of a cycle (this would imply the output
capacitance as being infinite).

5.3 Concept:

The conceptual model of the buck converter is best understood in terms of the relation
between current and voltage of the inductor. Beginning with the switch open (off-state), the
current in the circuit is zero.
When the switch is first closed (on-state), the current will begin to increase, and the inductor
will produce an opposing voltage across its terminals in response to the changing current.

Page | 24
This voltage drop counteracts the voltage of the source and therefore reduces the net
voltage across the load. Over time, the rate of change of current decreases, and the voltage
across the inductor also then decreases, increasing the voltage at the load.

During this time, the inductor stores energy in the form of a magnetic field. If the switch
is opened while the current is still changing, then there will always be a voltage drop across the
inductor, so the net voltage at the load will always be less than the input voltage source.

When the switch is opened again (off-state), the voltage source will be removed from
the circuit, and the current will decrease.The decreasing current will produce a voltage drop
across the inductor (opposite to the drop at on-state), and now the inductor becomes a Current
Source. The stored energy in the inductor's magnetic field supports the current flow through the
load. This current, flowing while the input voltage source is disconnected, when concatenated
with the current flowing during on-state, totals to current greater than the average input current
(being zero during off-state). The "increase" in average current makes up for the reduction in
voltage, and ideally preserves the power provided to the load. During the off-state, the inductor
is discharging its stored energy into the rest of the circuit. If the switch is closed again before
the inductor fully discharges (on-state), the voltage at the load will always be greater than zero.

5.3.1 Continuous mode:

A buck converter operates in continuous mode if the current through the inductor never
falls to zero during the commutation cycle. In this mode, the operating principle is described
by the plots in figure 4.4: The current through the inductor rises linearly (in approximation, so
long as the voltage drop is almost constant).

As the diode is reverse-biased by the voltage source V, no current flows through it;
When the switch is opened (bottom of figure 2), the diode is forward biased. The voltage across
the inductor is (neglecting diode drop). Current decreases.

Page | 25
5.3.2 Discontinuous mode:

Fig.5.5: Evolution of the voltages and currents with time in an ideal buck converter operating
in discontinuous mode.

In some cases, the amount of energy required by the load is too small. In this case, the current
through the inductor falls to zero during part of the period. The only difference in the principle
described above is that the inductor is completely discharged at the end of the commutation
cycle (see figure 5). This has, however, some effect on the previous equations. The inductor
current falling below zero results in the discharging of the output capacitor during each cycle
and therefore higher switching losses. A different control technique known as Pulse-frequency
modulation can be used to minimize these losses.

we still consider that the converter operates in steady state. Therefore, the energy in the
inductor is the same at the beginning and at the end of the cycle (in the case of discontinuous
mode, it is zero).
This means that the average value of the inductor voltage (VL) is zero; i.e., that the area of the
yellow and orange rectangles in figure 5.5 are the same.

Page | 26
This yields: Qualitatively, as the output capacitor or switching frequency increase, the
magnitude of the ripple decreases.

Output voltage ripple is typically a design specification for the power supply and is selected
based on several factors. Capacitor selection is normally determined based on cost, physical
size and non-idealities of various capacitor types. Switching frequency selection is typically
determined based on efficiency requirements, which tends to decrease at higher operating
frequencies, as described below in Effects of non-ideality on the efficiency. Higher switching
frequency can also raise EMI concerns.

Output voltage ripple is one of the disadvantages of a switching power supply, and can also be
a measure of its quality.

5.4 Effects of non-ideality on the efficiency:

A simplified analysis of the buck converter, as described above, does not account for
non-idealities of the circuit components nor does it account for the required control circuitry.
Power losses due to the control circuitry are usually insignificant when compared with the
losses in the power devices (switches, diodes, inductors, etc.) The non-idealities of the power
devices account for the bulk of the power losses in the converter. Both static and dynamic power
losses occur in any switching regulator. Static power losses include (conduction) losses in the
wires or PCB traces, as well as in the switches and inductor, as in any electrical circuit. Dynamic
power losses occur as a result of switching, such as the charging and discharging of the switch
gate, and are proportional to the switching frequency.

For N-MOSFETs, the high-side switch must be driven to a higher voltage than Vi. To
achieve this, MOSFET gate drivers typically feed the MOSFET output voltage back into the
gate driver. The gate driver then adds its own supply voltage to the MOSFET output voltage
when driving the high-side MOSFETs to achieve a VGS equal to the gate driver supply
voltage. Because the low-side VGS is the gate driver supply voltage, this results in very
similar VGS values for high-side and low-side MOSFETs.
A complete design for a buck converter includes a tradeoff analysis of the various power losses.
Designers balance these losses according to the expected uses of the finished design. A
converter expected to have a low switching frequency does not require switches with low gate
transition losses.
Page | 27
A converter operating at a high duty cycle requires a low-side switch with low conduction
losses.

Fig. 5.6: Simplified schematic of a synchronous converter, in which D is replaced by a second


switch, S2.

A synchronous buck converter is a modified version of the basic buck converter circuit
topology in which the diode, D, is replaced by a second switch, S2. This modification is a
tradeoff between increased cost and improved efficiency.

In a standard buck converter, the flyback diode turns on, on its own, shortly after the switch
turns off, as a result of the rising voltage across the diode.

Page | 28
Fig. 5.7: Schematic of a generic synchronous n-phase buck converter.

Fig. 5.8: Closeup picture of a multiphase CPU power supply for an AMD Socket 939 processor.

The three phases of this supply can be recognized by the three black toroidal inductors in the
foreground. The smaller inductor below the heat sink is part of an input filter.

The multiphase buck converter is a circuit topology where basic buck converter circuits
are placed in parallel between the input and load. Each of the n "phases" is turned on at equally
spaced intervals over the switching period. This circuit is typically used with the synchronous
buck topology, described above.

This type of converter can respond to load changes as quickly as if it switched n times
faster, without the increase in switching losses that would cause. Thus, it can respond to rapidly
changing loads, such as modern microprocessors. There is also a significant decrease in
switching ripple. Not only is there the decrease due to the increased effective frequency, but
any time that n times the duty cycle is an integer, the switching ripple goes to 0; the rate at
which the inductor current is increasing in the phases which are switched on exactly matches
the rate at which it is decreasing in the phases which are switched off.

Another advantage is that the load current is split among the n phases of the multiphase
converter. This load splitting allows the heat losses on each of the switches to be spread across
a larger area. This circuit topology is used in computer motherboards to convert the

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12 VDC power supply to a lower voltage (around 1 V), suitable for the CPU.
Modern CPU power requirements can exceed 200 W, can change very rapidly, and have
very tight ripple requirements, less than 10 mV. Typical motherboard power supplies use 3 or
4 phases.

One major challenge inherent in the multiphase converter is ensuring the load current is
balanced evenly across the n phases. This current balancing can be performed in a number of
ways.
Current can be measured "loss lessly" by sensing the voltage across the inductor or the lower
switch (when it is turned on).

This technique is considered lossless because it relies on resistive losses inherent in the
buck converter topology. Another technique is to insert a small resistor in the circuit and
measure the voltage across it. This approach is more accurate and adjustable, but incurs several
costs—space, efficiency and money.
Finally, the current can be measured at the input. Voltage can be measured loss lessly, across
the upper switch, or using a power resistor, to approximate the current being drawn. This
approach is technically more challenging, since switching noise cannot be easily filtered out.
However, it is less expensive than emplacing a sense resistor for each phase.

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CHAPTER 6
PROPOSED CONTROLLER

6.1 Introduction about Fuzzy Logic Technique:

In recent years, the number and variety of applications of fuzzy logic have increased
significantly. The applications range from consumer products such as cameras, camcorders,
washing machines, and microwave ovens to industrial process control, medical instrumentation,
decision-support systems, and portfolio selection. Fuzzy logic has two different meanings. In a
narrow sense, fuzzy logic is a logical system, which is an extension of multivalve logic.
However, in a wider sense fuzzy logic (FL) is almost synonymous with the theory of fuzzy sets,
a theory which relates to classes of objects with un-sharp boundaries in which membership is a
matter of degree. In this perspective, fuzzy logic in its narrow sense is a branch of fl. Even in
its more narrow definition, fuzzy logic differs both in concept and substance from traditional
multivalve logical system.

The basic concept in FL, which plays a central role in most of its applications, is that of
a fuzzy if-then rule or, simply, fuzzy rule. Although rule-based systems have a long history of
use in Artificial Intelligence (AI), what is missing in such systems is a mechanism for dealing
with fuzzy consequents and fuzzy antecedents. In fuzzy logic, this mechanism is provided by
the calculus of fuzzy rules. The calculus of fuzzy rules serves as a basis for what might be called
the Fuzzy Dependency and Command Language (FDCL). Although FDCL is not used
explicitly in the toolbox, it is effectively one of its principal constituents. In most of the
applications of fuzzy logic, a fuzzy logic solution is, in reality, a translation of a human solution
into FDCL. A trend that is growing in visibility relates to the use of fuzzy logic in combination
with neuro computing and genetic algorithms. More generally, fuzzy logic, neuro-computing,
and genetic algorithms may be viewed as the principal constituents of what might be called soft
computing. Unlike the traditional, hard computing, soft computing accommodates the
imprecision of the real world. The guiding principle of soft computing is: Exploit the tolerance
for imprecision, uncertainty, and partial truth to achieve tractability, robustness, and low
solution cost. In the future, soft computing could play an increasingly important role in the
conception and design of systems who’s MIQ (Machine IQ) is much higher than that of systems
designed by conventional methods.

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Among various combinations of methodologies in soft computing, the one that has
highest visibility at this juncture is that of fuzzy logic and neuro computing, leading to neuro-
fuzzy systems. Within fuzzy logic, such systems play a particularly important role in the
induction of rules from observations.

Fuzzy logic is a fascinating area of research because it does a good job of trading off
between significance and precision. something that humans have been managing for a very long
time. In this sense, fuzzy logic is both old and new because, although the modern and
methodical science of fuzzy logic is still young, the concept of fuzzy logic relies on age-old
skills of human reasoning.

Fig. 6.1 Fuzzy Description

6.2. Uses of fuzzy logic:

Fuzzy logic is a convenient way to map an input space to an output space. Mapping input
to output is the starting point for everything. Consider the following examples:

• With information about how good your service was at a restaurant, a fuzzy logic system can tell
you what the tip should be.

• With your specification of how hot you want the water, a fuzzy logic system can adjust the faucet
valve to the right setting.

• With information about how far away the subject of your photograph is, a fuzzy logic system can
focus the lens for you.

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• With information about how fast the car is going and how hard the motor is working, a fuzzy
logic system can shift gears for you.

To determine the appropriate amount of tip requires mapping inputs to the appropriate
outputs.

Between the input and the output, the preceding figure shows a black box that can contain
any number of things: fuzzy systems, linear systems, expert systems, neural networks,
differential equations, interpolated multidimensional lookup tables, or even a spiritual advisor,
just to name a few of the possible options.

Clearly the list could go on and on. Fuzzy is faster and cheaper.

6.3. Fuzzy Logic Controller:

6.3.1. Simple Fuzzy Logic Controllers

First-generation simple fuzzy logic controllers can generally be depicted by a block diagram.

The knowledge-base module contains knowledge about all the input and output fuzzy
partitions. It will include the term set and the corresponding membership functions defining the
input variables to the fuzzy rule-base system and the output variables, or control actions, to the
plant under control.

Fig. 6.2 A Simple Fuzzy Logic Control System

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❖ The steps in designing a simple fuzzy logic control system are as follows:
❖ Identify the variables (inputs, states and outputs) of the plant. Partition the universe of discourse
or the interval spanned by each variable into a number of fuzzy subsets, assigning each a
linguistic label (subsets include all the elements in the universe).
❖ Assign or determine a membership function for each fuzzy subset.
❖ Assign the fuzzy relationships between the inputs or states fuzzy subsets on the one hand and
the outputs fuzzy subsets on the other hand, thus forming the rule-base.
❖ Choose appropriate scaling factors for the input and output variables in order to normalize the
variables to the [0, 1] or the [-1, 1] interval.
❖ Fuzzily the inputs to the controller.
❖ Use fuzzy approximate reasoning to infer the output contributed from each rule.
❖ Aggregate the fuzzy outputs recommended by each rule.
❖ Apply defuzzification to form a crisp output.

In a nonadaptive simple fuzzy logic controller, the methodology used and the results of
the nine steps mentioned above are fixed, whereas in an adaptive fuzzy logic controller, they
are adaptively modified based on some adaptation law in order to optimize the control.

A simple fuzzy logic control system has the following features:

❖ Fixed and uniform input- and output- scaling factors.


❖ Flat, single-partition rule-base with fixed and noninteractive rules. All the rules have the same
degree of certainty and confidence, equal to unity
❖ Fixed membership functions.
❖ Limited number of rules, which increase exponentially with the number of input variables.
❖ Fixed metaknowledge including the methodology for approximate reasoning, rules-
aggregation, and output defuzzification.
❖ Low-level control and no hierarchical rule structure.

6.3.2. General Fuzzy Logic Controllers:

The principal design elements in a general fuzzy logic control system are as follows:

1. Fuzzification strategies and the interpretation of a fuzzification operator, or fuzzifier.

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2. Knowledge base:

a. Discrimination/normalization of the universe of discourse.

b. Fuzzy partitions of the input and output spaces.

c. Completeness of the partitions.

d. Choice of the membership functions of a primary fuzzy set.

3. Rule-base:

a. Choice of process state (input) variables and control (output) variables.

b. Source of derivation of fuzzy control rules.

c. Types of fuzzy control rules.

d. Consistency, interactivity, and completeness of fuzzy control rules.

4. Decision-making logic:

a. Definition of a fuzzy implication.

b. Interpretation of sentence connective and

c. Interpretation of sentence connective or.

d. Inference mechanism.

5. Defuzzification strategies and the interpretation of a defuzzification operator (defuzzifier).

Adaptation or change in any of the five design parameters above creates an adaptive fuzzy
logic control system. If all are fixed, the fuzzy logic control system is simple and nonadaptive.

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6.4. Membership Functions:

Definition: A graph that defines how each point in the input space is mapped to
membership value between 0 and 1. Input space is often referred as the universe of discourse
or universal set (u), which contain all the possible elements of concern in each particular
application.

6.4.1. Types of membership functions:

Before we start defining different types of membership functions, let us consider


a Fuzzy IF-THEN rule for a car:

IF the speed of a car is high, THEN apply less force to the accelerator

IF the speed is low, THEN apply more force to the accelerator

Straight line:

The simplest membership function is formed by straight line. We consider the speed of
car in Fig. 6.3 and plot the membership function for high. Where the horizontal represent the
speed of the car and vertical axis represent the membership value for high.

Fig. 6.1 Straight Line Membership Function

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Trapezoidal:

If we consider the case 6.2 and plot the membership function for “less”, we get a
trapezoidal membership function. Fig. 6.2 shows a graphical representation, where the
horizontal axis represent the force applied to the accelerator and the vertical shows membership
value for “less”. The function is often represented by “trapmf”.

Fig. 6.2 Trapezoidal Membership Function

Gaussian:

Let say a fuzzy set Z which represent “number close to zero”. The possible membership
function for Z is

2
µ𝑍 (𝑥) = 𝑒 −𝑥 If we plot this function we get a graph shown in Fig 6.3 and are refer as
Gaussian membership function.

Fig. 6.3 Gaussian Membership Function

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Triangular:

This is formed by the combination of straight lines. The function is name as “trimf” .We
considers the above case i.e. fuzzy set Z to represent the “number close to zero”.

So mathematically we can also represent it as

0 if X<-1

µ𝑍 (𝑥) = X + 1 if -1 ≤ X <0

=1–X if 0 ≤ X <1

=0 if 1≤ X

Fig. 6.4 called “triangular membership function”

Fig. 6.4 Traingular Membership Function

6.5. Fuzzy Logic Tool Box:

In fuzzy Logic Toolbox software, fuzzy logic should be interpreted as FL, that is, fuzzy
logic in its wide sense. The basic ideas underlying FL are explained very clearly and insightfully
in Foundations of Fuzzy Logic. What might be added is that the basic concept underlying FL
is that of a linguistic variable, that is, a variable whose values are words rather than numbers.
In effect, much of FL may be viewed as a methodology for computing with words rather than
numbers.

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Although words are inherently less precise than numbers, their use is closer to human intuition.
Furthermore, computing with words exploits the tolerance for imprecision and thereby lowers
the cost of solution

The fuzzy logic toolbox is highly impressive in all respects. It makes fuzzy logic an effective
tool for the conception and design of intelligent systems. The fuzzy logic toolbox is easy to
master and convenient to use. And last, but not least important, it provides a reader friendly
and up-to-date introduction to methodology of fuzzy logic and its wide ranging applications.
You can create and edit fuzzy inference systems with Fuzzy Logic Toolbox software. You can
create these systems using graphical tools or command-line functions, or you can generate them
automatically using either clustering or adaptive neuro-fuzzy techniques.

If you have access to SIMULINK software, you can easily test your fuzzy system in a block
diagram simulation environment. The toolbox also lets you run your own stand-alone C
programs directly. This is made possible by a stand-alone Fuzzy Inference Engine that reads
the fuzzy systems saved from a MATLAB session.

You can customize the stand-alone engine to build fuzzy inference into your own code. All
provided code is ansi compliant. Because of the integrated nature of the MATLAB
environment, you can create your own tools to customize the toolbox or harness it with another
toolbox, such as the Control System Toolbox, Neural Network Toolbox, or Optimization
Toolbox software.

The Fuzzy Logic Toolbox extends the MATLAB technical computing environment with
tools for designing systems based on fuzzy logic. Graphical user interfaces (GUIs) guide you
through the steps of fuzzy inference system design. Functions are provided for many common
fuzzy logic methods, including fuzzy clustering and adaptive neuro fuzzy learning. The toolbox
lets you model complex system behaviors using simple logic rules and then implements these
rules in a fuzzy inference system. You can use the toolbox as a standalone fuzzy inference
engine. Alternatively, you can use fuzzy inference blocks in SIMULINK and simulate the fuzzy
systems within a comprehensive model of the entire dynamic system.

6.6 Working with the fuzzy logic toolbox:

The Fuzzy Logic Toolbox provides GUIs to let you perform classical fuzzy system
development and pattern recognition. Using the toolbox, you can develop and analyze fuzzy

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inference systems, develop adaptive neuro fuzzy inference systems, and perform fuzzy
clustering. In addition, the toolbox provides a fuzzy controller block that you can use in
SIMULINK to model and simulate a fuzzy logic control system. From SIMULINK, you can
generate C code for use in embedded applications that include fuzzy logic.
6.6.1. Building a fuzzy inference system:

Fuzzy inference is a method that interprets the values in the input vector and, based on
user defined rules, assigns values to the output vector. Using the GUI editors and viewers in the
Fuzzy Logic Toolbox, you can build the rules set, define the membership functions, and analyze
the behavior of a fuzzy inference system (FIS). The following editors and viewers are provided.

Fig. 6.3 Fuzzy Interference System

6.7 Key features:

■ Specialized GUIs for building fuzzy inference systems and viewing and analyzing results
■ Membership functions for creating fuzzy inference systems
■ Support for AND, OR, and NOT logic in user-defined rules
■ Standard Mamdani and Sugeno-type fuzzy inference systems
■ Automated membership function shaping through neuroadaptive and fuzzy clustering
learning techniques

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■ Ability to embed a fuzzy inference system in a SIMULINK model
■Ability to generate embeddable C code or stand-alone executable fuzzy inference engines.

In this section we'll be building a simple tipping example using the graphical user
interface (GUI) tools provided by the Fuzzy Logic Toolbox. Although it's possible to use the
Fuzzy Logic Toolbox by working strictly from the command line, in general it's much easier to
build a system graphically. There are five primary GUI tools for building, editing, and
observing fuzzy inference systems in the Fuzzy Logic Toolbox. The Fuzzy Inference System
or FIS Editor, the Membership Function Editor, the Rule Editor, the Rule Viewer, and the
Surface Viewer. These GUIs are dynamically linked, in that changes you make to the FIS using
one of them, can affect what you see on any of the other open GUIs.
You can have any or all of them open for any given system. These are shown in Fig. 6.4

Fig. 6.4 The Primary GUI Tools of the Fuzzy Logic Toolbox

The Fuzzy Logic Toolbox doesn't limit the number of inputs. However, the number of
inputs may be limited by the available memory of your machine. If the number of inputs is too
large, or the number of membership functions is too big, then it may also be difficult to analyze
the FIS using the other GUI tools .

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The Membership Function Editor is used to define the shapes of all the membership functions
associated with each variable. The Rule Editor is for editing the list of rules that defines the
behavior of the system.

The Rule Viewer and the Surface Viewer are used for looking at, as opposed to editing,
the FIS. They are strictly read-only tools. The Rule Viewer is a MATLAB-based display of the
fuzzy inference diagram shown at the end of the last section. Used as a diagnostic, it can show
(for example) which rules are active, or how individual membership function shapes are
influencing the results. The Surface Viewer is used to display the dependency of one of the
outputs on any one or two of the inputs that is, it generates and plots an output surface map for
the system. The five primary GUIs can all interact and exchange information.
Any one of them can read and write both to the workspace and to the disk (the read-only
viewers can still exchange plots with the workspace and/or the disk). For any fuzzy inference
system, any or all of these five GUIs may be open. If more than one of these editors is open for
a single system, the various GUI windows are aware of the existence of the others, and will, if
necessary, update related windows. Thus if the names of the membership functions are changed
using the Membership Function Editor, those changes are reflected in the rules shown in the
Rule Editor. The editors for any number of different FIS systems may be open simultaneously.
The FIS Editor, the Membership Function Editor, and the Rule Editor can all read and modify
the FIS data, but the Rule Viewer and the Surface Viewer do not modify the FIS data in any
way. The starting point is to write down the three golden rules of tipping, based on years of
personal experience in restaurants.

1. If the service is poor or the food is rancid, then tip is cheap.


2. If the service is good, then tip is average.
3. If the service is excellent or the food is delicious, then tip is generous.

We'll assume that an average tip is 15%, a generous tip is 25%, and a cheap tip is 5%.
It's also useful to have a vague idea of what the tipping function should look like. A simple
tipping function is shown as in Fig. 5.1. Obviously the numbers and the shape of the curve are
subject to local traditions, cultural bias, and so on, but the three rules are pretty universal. Now
we know the rules, and we have an idea of what the output should look like. Let's begin working
with the GUI tools to construct a fuzzy inference system for this decision process.

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Fig 6.7 The Tipping Function

6.8 The FIS editor:

The following discussion walks you through building a new fuzzy inference system
from scratch. If you want to save time and follow along quickly, you can load the already built
system by typing fuzzy tipper This will load the FIS associated with the file tipper. FIS (the
.FIS implied) and launch the FIS Editor. However, if you load the pre-built system, you will
not be building rules and constructing membership functions. The FIS Editor displays general
information about a fuzzy inference system. There's a simple diagram as shown in Fig. 6.5That
shows the names of each input variable on the left, and those of each output variable on the
right. The sample membership functions shown in the boxes are just icons and do not depict the
actual shapes of the membership functions. Below the diagram is the name of the system and
the type of inference used. The default, Madman-type inference, is what we'll continue to use
for this example. Another slightly different type of inference, called Surgeon-type inference, is
also available. Below the name of the fuzzy inference system, on the left side of the figure, are
the pop-up menus that allow you to modify the various pieces of the inference process. On the
right side at the bottom of the figure is the area that displays the name of an input or output
variable, its associated membership function type, and its range. The latter two fields are
specified only after the membership functions have been. Below that region are the Help and
Close buttons that call up online help and close the window, respectively. At the bottom is a
status line that relays information about the system. To start this system from scratch, type fuzzy
at the mat lab prompt. The generic untitled FIS Editor opens, with one input, labeled input1,
and one output, labeled output1.
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For this example, we will construct a two-input, one output system, so go to the Edit menu and
select Add input. A second yellow box labeled input2 will appear. The two inputs we will have
in our example are service and food. Our one output is tip.

Fig. 6.5 the FIS Editor


We'd like to change the variable names to reflect that, though:
• Click once on the left-hand (yellow) box marked input1 (the box will be highlighted in red).
• In the white edit field on the right, change input1 to service and press Return.
• Click once on the left-hand (yellow) box marked input2 (the box will be highlighted in red).
• In the white edit field on the right, change input2 to food and press Return.
• Click once on the right-hand (blue) box marked output1.
• In the white edit field on the right, change output1 to tip.
• From the File menu select Save to workspace as... and a window appears as shown in Fig. 6.6
• Enter the variable name tipper and click on ok.
You will see the diagram updated to reflect the new names of the input and output variables.
There is now a new variable in the workspace called tipper that contains all the information
about this system.

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Fig. 6.6 ‘saves to workspace as...’ Window
By saving to the workspace with a new name, you also rename the entire system. Your
window will look like as shown in Fig.6.6

Fig. 6.7the Updated FIS Editor


Leave the inference options in the lower left in their default positions for now. You've
entered all the information you need for this particular GUI.

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Next define the membership functions associated with each of the variables. To do this,
open the Membership Function Editor. You can open the Membership Function Editor in one
of three ways:

• Pull down the View menu item and select Edit Membership Functions....
• Double-click on the icon for the output variable, tip.
• Type MFEDIT at the command line.

6.8.1. The Membership Function:

The Membership Function Editor shares some features with the FIS Editor. In fact,
all of the five basic GUI tools have similar menu options, status lines, and Help and Close
buttons. The Membership Function Editor is the tool that lets you display and edits all of the
membership functions associated with all of the input and output variables for the entire fuzzy
inference system. Fig.6.7. shows the Membership Function Editor.

When you open the Membership Function Editor to work on a fuzzy inference system
that does not already exist in the workspace, there is not yet any membership functions
associated with the variables that you have just defined with the FIS Editor.

On the upper left side of the graph area in the Membership Function Editor is a
"Variable Palette" that lets you set the membership functions for a given variable. To set up
your membership functions associated with an input or an output variable for the FIS, select an
FIS variable in this region by clicking on it.

Next select the Edit pull-down menu, and choose Add MFs.... A new window will
appear which allows you to select both the membership function type and the number of
membership functions associated with the selected variable. In the lower right corner of the
window are the controls that let you change the name, type, and parameters (shape), of the
membership function, once it has been selected.

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Fig.6.8 The Membership Function Editor

The membership functions from the current variable are displayed in the main graph.
These membership functions can be manipulated in two ways. You can first use the mouse to
select a particular membership function associated with a given variable quality, (such as poor,
for the variable, service), and then drag the membership function from side to side. This will
affect the mathematical description of the quality associated with that membership function for
a given variable.

The selected membership function can also be tagged for dilation or contraction by
clicking on the small square drag points on the membership function, and then dragging the
function with the mouse toward the outside, for dilation, or toward the inside, for contraction.
This will change the parameters associated with that membership function.
Below the Variable Palette is some information about the type and name of the current variable.
There is a text field in this region that lets you change the limits of the current variable's range
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(universe of discourse) and another that lets you set the limits of the current plot (which has no
real effect on the system).
The process of specifying the input membership functions for this two input tipper problem is
as follows:
• Select the input variable, service, by double-clicking on it. Set both the Range and the Display
Range to the vector [0 10].
• Select Add MFs... from the Edit menu. A window pops open as shown in Fig.6.9.

Fig. 6.9 Add MFs… Window


• Use the pull-down tab to choose gauss mf for MF Type and 3 for Number of MFs. This adds
three Gaussian curves to the input variable service.
• Click once on the curve with the leftmost hump. Change the name of the curve to poor. To
adjust the shape of the membership function, either use the mouse, as described above, or type
in a desired parameter change, and then click on the membership function.
• The default parameter listing for this curve is [1.5 0].
• Name the curve with the middle hump, good, and the curve with the rightmost hump, excellent.
Reset the associated parameters if desired.
• Select the input variable, food, by clicking on it. Set both the Range and the Display Range to
the vector [0 10].
• Select Add MFs... From the Edit menu and add two trap mf curves to the input variable food.
• Click once directly on the curve with the leftmost trapezoid. Change the name of the curve to
rancid.
• To adjust the shape of the membership function, either use the mouse, as described above, or
type in a desired parameter change, and then click on the membership function. The default
parameter listing for this curve is [0 0 1 3].
Name the curve with the rightmost trapezoid, delicious, and reset the associated parameters if
desired.
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Next you need to create the membership functions for the output variable, tip. To create the
output variable membership functions, use the Variable Palette on the left, selecting the output
variable, tip. The inputs ranged from 0 to 10, but the output scale is going to be a tip between 5
and 25 percent. Use triangular membership function types for the output. First, set the Range
(and the Display Range) to [0 30], to cover the output range. Initially, the cheap membership
function will have the parameters [0 5 10], the average membership function will be [10 15 20],
and the generous membership function will be [20 25 30]. Your system should look something
like shown in Fig. 6.10

Fig. 6.10 The Updated Membership Function Editor


Now that the variables have been named, and the membership functions have
appropriate shapes and names, you're ready to write down the rules. To call up the Rule Editor,
go to the View menu and select Edit rules..., or type rule edit at the command line. The Rule
Editor Window pops open as shown in Fig. 6.10

6.8.2 The rule editor:


Constructing rules using the graphical Rule Editor interface is fairly self-evident. Based
on the descriptions of the input and output variables defined with the FIS Editor, the Rule Editor
allows you to construct the rule statements automatically, by clicking on and selecting one item
in each input variable box, one item in each output box, and one connection item.

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Choosing none as one of the variable qualities will exclude that variable from a given
rule. Choosing not under any variable name will negate the associated quality. Rules may be
changed, deleted, or added, by clicking on the appropriate button. The Rule Editor also has
some familiar landmarks, similar to those in the FIS Editor and the Membership Function
Editor, including the menu bar and the status line. The Format pop-up menu is available from
the Options pull-down menu from the top menu bar. Similarly, Language can be set from under

Options as well. The Help button will bring up a MATLAB Help window.

Fig. 6.11 The Rule Editor


To insert the first rule in the Rule Editor, select the following:
Poor under the variable service
• Rancid under the variable food
• The radio button, or, in the Connection block
• Cheap, under the output variable, tip.
The resulting rule is
1. If (service is poor) or (food is rancid) then (tip is cheap) (1)
The numbers in the parentheses represent weights that can be applied to each rule if desired.
You can specify the weights by typing in a desired number between zero and one under the
Weight setting.
If you do not specify them, the weights are assumed to be unity (1).
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Follow a similar procedure to insert the second and third rules in the Rule Editor to get

1. If (service is poor) or (food is rancid) then (tip is cheap) (1)


2. If (service is good) then (tip is average) (1)
3. If (service is excellent) or (food is delicious) then (tip is generous) (1)

To change a rule, first click on the rule to be changed. Next make the desired changes to that
rule, and then click on Change rule. For example, to change the first rule to
1. If (service not poor) or (food not rancid) then (tip is not cheap) (1)
Click not under each variable, and then click Change rule.

This is the version that the machine deals with. The first column in this structure corresponds
to the input variable, the second column corresponds to the output variable, the third column
displays the weight applied to each rule, and the fourth column is shorthand that indicates
whether this is an OR (2) rule or an AND (1) rule. The numbers in the first two columns refer
to the index number of the membership function.

A literal interpretation of rule 1 is: "if input 1 is MF1 (the first membership function
associated with input 1) then output 1 should be MF1 (the first membership function associated
with output 1) with the weight 1." Since there is only one input for this system, the AND
connective implied by the 1 in the last column is of no consequence.At this point, the fuzzy
inference system has been completely defined, in that the variables, membership functions, and
the rules necessary to calculate tips are in place. It would be nice, at this point, to look at a fuzzy
inference diagram like the one presented at the end of the previous section and verify that
everything is behaving the way we think it should. This is exactly the purpose of the Rule
Viewer, the next of the GUI tools we'll look at. From the View menu, select “View rules....”

Influences the overall result. Since it plots every part of every rule, it can become
unwieldy for particularly large systems, but, for a relatively small number of inputs and outputs,
it performs well (depending on how much screen space you devote to it) with up to 30 rules and
as many as 6 or 7 variables.

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CHAPTER 7
PROPOSED SIMULATION RESULTS

7.1 INTRODUCTION:

Simulink is a software package for modeling, simulating, and analyzing dynamical


systems. It supports linear and nonlinear systems, modeled in continuous time, sampled time,
or a hybrid of the two. For modeling, Simulink provides a graphical user interface (GUI) for
building models as block diagrams, using click-and-drag mouse operations. Models are
hierarchical, so we can build models using both top-down and bottom-up approaches. We can
view the system at a high level, then double-click on blocks to go down through the levels to
see increasing levels of model detail. This approach provides insight into how a model is
organized and how its parts interact. After we define a model, we can simulate it, using a choice
of integration methods, either from the Simulink menus or by entering commands in
MATLAB's command window. Using scopes and other display blocks, we can see the
simulation results while the simulation is running. In addition, we can change parameters and
immediately see what happens, for "what if" exploration.

The simulation results can be put in the MATLAB workspace for post processing and
visualization. Simulink can be used to explore the behavior of a wide range of real-world
dynamic systems, including electrical circuits, shock absorbers, braking systems, and many
other electrical, mechanical, and thermodynamic systems. Simulating a dynamic system is a
two-step process with Simulink. First, we create a graphical model of the system to be
simulated, using Simulink's model editor. The model depicts the time-dependent mathematical
relationships among the system’s inputs, states, and outputs. Then, we use Simulink to simulate
the behavior of the system over a specified time span. Simulink uses information that you
entered into the model to perform the simulation.

7.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM:

block diagram is a pictorial model of a dynamic system. It consists of a set of symbols,


called blocks, interconnected by lines. Each block represents an elementary dynamic system
that produces an output either A Simulink continuously (a continuous block) or at specific
points in time (a discrete block).
Page | 52
The lines represent connections of block inputs to block outputs.
Every block in a block diagram is an instance of a specific type of block. The type of the block
determines the relationship between a block's outputs and its inputs, states, and time.

A block diagram can contain any number of instances of any type of block needed to model
a system. Blocks represent elementary dynamic systems that Simulink knows how to simulate.

A block comprises one or more of the following:

1) A set of inputs,
2) A set of states, and
3) A set of outputs.

A block's output is a function of time and the block's inputs and states (if any). The
specific function that relates a block's output to its inputs, states, and time depends on the type
of block of which the block is an instance. Continuous Versus discrete Blocks Simulink's
standard block set includes continuous blocks and discrete blocks. Continuous blocks respond
continuously to continuously changing input. Discrete blocks, by contrast, respond to changes
in input only at integral multiples of a fixed interval called the block's sample time. Discrete
blocks hold their output constant between successive sample time hits. Each discrete block
includes a sample time parameter that allows you to specify its sample rate. The Simulink
blocks can be either continuous or discrete, depending on whether they are driven by continuous
or discrete blocks. A block that can be either discrete or continuous is said to have an implicit
sample rate. The implicit sample time is continuous if any of the block's inputs are continuous.
The implicit sample time is equal to the shortest input sample time if all the input sample times
are integral multiples of the shortest time. Otherwise, the input sample time is equal to the
fundamental sample time of the inputs, where the fundamental sample time of a set of sample
times is defined as the greatest integer divisor of the set of sample times.

Simulink can optionally color code a block diagram to indicate the sample times of the
blocks it contains, e.g., black (continuous), magenta (constant), yellow (hybrid), red (fastest
discrete), and so on. The block contains block name, icon, and block library that contain the
block, the purpose of the block

Page | 53
7.3 SIMULINK BLOCK LIBRARIES:
Simulink organizes its blocks into block libraries according to their behavior.

1) The Sources library contains blocks that generate signals.


2) The Sinks library contains blocks that display or write block output.
3) The Discrete library contains blocks that describe discrete-time components.
4) The Continuous library contains blocks that describe linear functions.
5) The Math library contains blocks that describe general mathematics functions.
6)The Functions & Tables library contains blocks that describe general function and table look-
up operations.
7)The Nonlinear library contains blocks that describe nonlinear functions.

8)The Signal & Systems library contains blocks that allow multiplexing and demultiplexing,
implement external input/output, pass data to other parts of the model, and perform other
functions.
9)The Subsystems library contains blocks for creating various types of subsystems.
10)The Block sets and Toolboxes library contains the Extras block library of specialized blocks.

7.4 SUB SYSTEMS:

Simulink allows to model a complex system as a set of interconnected subsystems each


of which is represented by a block diagram.

We create a subsystem using Simulink's Subsystem block and the Simulink model
editor. We can embed subsystems with subsystems to any depth to create hierarchical models.
We can create conditionally executed subsystems that are executed only when a transition
occurs on a triggering or enabling input.

7.5 SOLVERS:

Simulink simulates a dynamic system by computing its states at successive time step
solver a specified time span, using information provided by the model. The process of
computing the successive states of a system from its model is known as solving the model. No
single method of solving a model suffices for all systems.

Page | 54
Accordingly, Simulink provides a set of programs, known as solvers, that each embody
a particular approach to solving a model. The Simulation Parameters dialog box allows us to
choose the solver most suitable for our model.

7.6 Fixed-Step and Variable-Step Solvers:

Fixed-step solvers solve the model at regular time intervals from the beginning to the
end of the simulation. The size of the interval is known as the step-size. We can specify the step
size or let the solver choose the step size. Generally decreasing the step size increases the
accuracy of the results while increasing the time required to simulate the system.

Variable-step solvers vary the step size during the simulation, reducing the step size to
increase accuracy when a model's states are changing rapidly and increasing the step size to
avoid taking unnecessary steps when the model's states are changing slowly. Computing the
step size adds to the computational overhead at each step but can reduce the total number of
steps, and hence simulation time, required to maintain a specified level of accuracy for models
with rapidly changing or piecewise continuous states.

7.7. Continuous and Discrete Solvers:

Continuous solvers use numerical integration to compute a model's continuous states at


the current time step from the states at previous time steps and the state derivatives. Continuous
solvers rely on the model's blocks to compute the values of the model's discrete states at each
time step.

Mathematicians have developed a wide variety of numerical integration techniques for


solving the ordinary differential equations (ODEs) that represent the continuous states of
dynamic systems. Simulink provides an extensive set of fixed-step and variable-step continuous
solvers, each implementing a specific ODE solution method. Some continuous solvers
subdivide the simulation time span into major and minor steps, where a minor time step
represents a subdivision of the major time step. The solver produces a result at each major time
step. It use results at the minor time steps to improve the accuracy of the result at the major time
step.

Page | 55
Discrete solvers exist primarily to solve purely discrete models. They compute the next
simulation time-step for a model and nothing else. They do not compute continuous states and
they rely on the model's blocks to update the model's discrete states. We can use a continuous
solver, but not a discrete solver, to solve a model that contains both continuous and discrete
states. This is because a discrete solver does not handle continuous states. If you select a discrete
solver for a continuous model,.
Simulink disregards your selection and uses a continuous solver instead when solving the
model.

Simulink provides two discrete solvers, a fixed-step discrete solver and a variable-step discrete
solver. The fixed-step solver by default chooses a step size and hence simulation rate fast
enough to track state changes in the fastest block in our model. The variable-step solver adjusts
the simulation step size to keep pace with the actual rate of discrete state changes in our model.
This can avoid unnecessary steps and hence shorten simulation time for multi rate models.

7.8 MODEL EXECUTION PHASE:

In the simulation model execution phase, Simulink successively computes the states and
outputs of the system at intervals from the simulation start time to the finish time, using
information provided by the model. The successive time points at which the states and outputs
are computed are called time steps.

The length of time between steps is called the step size. The step size depends on the type of
solver used to compute the system's continuous states, the system's fundamental sample time,
and whether the system's continuous states have discontinuities (Zero Crossing Detection). At
the start of the simulation, the model specifies the initial states and outputs of the system to be
simulated.

At each step, Simulink computes new values for the system's inputs, states, and outputs and
updates the model to reflect the computed values. At the end of the simulation, the model
reflects the final values of the system's inputs, states, and outputs. At each time step:

Page | 56
Simulink Updates the outputs of the models' blocks in sorted order. Simulink computes a block's
outputs by invoking the block's output function. Simulink passes the current time and the block's
inputs and states to the output function as it may require these arguments to compute the block's
output. Simulink updates the output of a discrete block only if the current step is an integral
multiple of the block's sample time.
1) Updates the states of the model's blocks in sorted order. Simulink computes a block's discrete
states by invoking its discrete state update function. Simulink computes a block's continuous
states by numerically integrating the time derivatives of the continuous states. It computes the
time derivatives of the states by invoking the block's continuous derivatives function.
2) Optionally checks for discontinuities in the continuous states of blocks. Simulink uses a
technique called zero crossing detection to detect discontinuities in continuous states.
3) Computes the time for the next time step. Simulink repeats steps 1 through 4 until the simulation
stop time is reached.

7.9 Block Sorting Rules:

Simulink uses the following basic update rules to sort the blocks:
1) Each block must be updated before any of the direct-feed through blocks that it drives.This rule
ensures that the inputs to direct-feed through blocks will be valid when they are updated.
2) Non direct-feed through blocks can be updated in any order as long as they are updated before
any direct-feed through blocks that they drive. This rule can be met by putting all non direct-
feed through blocks at the head of the update list in any order. It thus allows Simulink to ignore
non direct-feed through blocks during the sorting process.

The result of applying these rules is an update list in which non direct-feed through
blocks appear at the head of the list in no particular order followed by direct-feed through blocks
in the order required to supply valid inputs to the blocks they drive. During the sorting process,
Simulink checks for and flags the occurrence of algebraic loops, that is, signal loops in which
an output of a direct-feed through block is connected directly or indirectly to one of the block's
inputs. Such loops seemingly create a deadlock condition since Simulink needs the input of a
direct-feed through block in order to compute its output.

However, an algebraic loop can represent a set of simultaneous algebraic equations (hence the
name) where the block's input and output are the unknowns. Further, these equations can have
valid solutions at each time step.
Page | 57
Accordingly, Simulink assumes that loops involving direct-feed through blocks do, in fact,
represent a solvable set of algebraic equations and attempts to solve them each time the block
is updated during a simulation.

Fig 7.1 Proposed circuit simulation system

Fig 7.2 Proposed circuit simulation

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Fig 7.3Proposed battery current

Fig 7.4 Battery voltage

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Fig 7.5 SOC for proposed system

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CHAPTER 8
CONCLUSION

In this project, the complete model of EV charging system with the utilization of fuzzy logic
controller is presented. The complete simulation model has been developed in MATLAB
/Simulink. The achieved simulation results show how easy FLC can be used in EV charging
without the requirement for any tuning like with PI controller. In perspective of this work,
experimental validation of the proposed scheme can be performed.

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APPENDIX
MATLAB is a high-performance language for technical computing. It integrates
computation, visualization, and programming in an easy-to-use environment where problems
and solutions are expressed in familiar mathematical notation. Typical uses include-

➢ Math and computation

➢ Algorithm development

➢ Data acquisition

➢ Modeling, simulation, and prototyping

➢ Data analysis, exploration, and visualization

➢ Scientific and engineering graphics

MATLAB is an interactive system whose basic data element is an array that does not
require dimensioning. This allows solving many technical computing problems, especially
those with matrix and vector formulations, in a fraction of the time it would take to write a
program in a scalar non-interactive language such as C or FORTRAN.
The MATLAB system consists of six main parts:

(a)Development Environment:

This is the set of tools and facilities that help to use MATLAB functions and files. Many
of these tools are graphical user interfaces. It includes the MATLAB desktop and Command
Window, a command history, an editor and debugger, and browsers for viewing help, the
workspace, files and the search path.
(b) The MATLAB Mathematical Function Library:

This is a vast collection of computational algorithms ranging from elementary functions,


like sum, sine, cosine, and complex arithmetic, to more sophisticated functions like matrix
inverse, matrix Eigen values, Bessel functions, and fast Fourier transforms.

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(c) The MATLAB Language:

This is a high-level matrix/array language with control flow statements, functions, data
structures, input/output, and object-oriented programming features.

It allows both "programming in the small" to rapidly create quick and dirty throw-away
programs, and "programming in the large" to create large and complex application programs.

(d) Graphics:

MATLAB has extensive facilities for displaying vectors and matrices as graphs, as well
as annotating and printing these graphs. It includes high-level functions for two-dimensional
and three-dimensional data visualization, image processing, animation, and presentation
graphics. It also includes low-level functions that allow to fully customize the appearance of
graphics as well as to build complete graphical user interfaces on MATLAB applications.

(e) The MATLAB Application Program Interface (API):

This is a library that allows writing in C and FORTRAN programs that interact with
MATLAB. It includes facilities for calling routines from MATLAB (dynamic linking), calling
MATLAB as a computational engine, and for reading and writing MAT-files.

(f) MATLAB Documentation:

MATLAB provides extensive documentation, in both printed and online format, to help
to learn about and use all of its features. It covers all the primary MATLAB features at a high
level, including many examples. The MATLAB online help provides task-oriented and
reference information about MATLAB features. MATLAB documentation is also available in
printed form and in PDF format.

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(1) Three phase source block

Three Phase Source Block


The Three-Phase Source block implements a balanced three-phase voltage source with
internal R-L impedance. The three voltage sources are connected in Y with a neutral connection
that can be internally ground.

(2) VI measurement block

The Three-Phase V-I Measurement block is used to measure three-phase voltages and
currents in a circuit. When connected in series with three-phase elements, it returns the three
phase-to-ground or phase-to-phase voltages and the three line currents.

Three Phase V-I Measurement

(3) Scope

Display signals generated during a simulation. The Scope block displays its input with
respect to simulation time. The Scope block can have multiple axes (one per port); all axes have
a common time range with independent y-axes.The Scope allows you to adjust the amount of
time and the range of input values displayed. You can move and resize the Scope window and
you can modify the Scope's parameter values during the simulation

Page | 64
Scope
(4) Three-Phase Series RLC Load

The Three-Phase Series RLC Load block implements a three-phase balanced load as a
series combination of RLC elements. At the specified frequency, the load exhibits constant
impedance. The active and reactive powers absorbed by the load are proportional to the square
of the applied voltage.

Three-Phase Series RLC Load

(5) Three-Phase Breaker block


The Three-Phase Breaker block implements a three-phase circuit breaker where the
opening and closing times can be controlled either from an external Simulink signal or from an
internal control signal.

Three-Phase Breaker Block

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(6) Integrator
Library: Continuous

Integrator
The integrator block outputs the integral of its input at the current time step. The
following equation represents the output of the block y as a function of its input u and an initial
condition y0, where y and u are vector functions of the current simulation time t.

(7) Breaker
Implement circuit breaker opening at current zero crossing.

Library: Elements

Circuit Breaker
Purpose: The Breaker block implements a circuit breaker where the opening and closing times
can be controlled either from an external SIMULINK signal (external control mode), or from
an internal control timer (internal control mode).

A series Rs-Cs snubber circuit is included in the model. It can be connected to the circuit
breaker. If the Breaker block happens to be in series with an inductive circuit, an open circuit
or a current source, you must use a snubber.
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When the breaker block is set in external control mode, a SIMULINK input appears on the
block icon. The control signal connected to the SIMULINK input must be either 0 or 1 (0 to
open the breaker, 1 to close it). When the Breaker block is set in internal control mode, the
switching times are specified in the dialog box of the block.
When the breaker is closed, it is represented by a resistance Ron. The Ron value can be
set as small as necessary in order to be negligible compared with external components (a typical
value is 10 m ohms). When the breaker is open, it has an infinite resistance.

(8) Three-Phase Programmable Voltage Source

Implement three-phase voltage source with programmable time variation of amplitude,


phase, frequency, and harmonics

Library: Electrical Sources

Three Phase Voltage Sources

Purpose: This block is used to generate a three-phase sinusoidal voltage with time-varying
parameters. It can be programmed with the time variation for the amplitude, phase or frequency
of the fundamental component of the source. In addition, two harmonics can be programmed
and superimposed on the fundamental signal.

(9) Trigonometric Function

Specified trigonometric function on input

Library: Math Operations

Page | 67
Trigonometric Function

Purpose: The Trigonometric Function block performs common trigonometric functions

(10) Three-Phase Transformer (Two Windings)

Implement three-phase transformer with configurable winding connections

Library: Elements

Three Phase Transformer

Purpose: The Three-Phase Transformer (Two Windings) block implements a three-phase


transformer using three single-phase transformers. The saturation characteristic, when
activated, is the same as the one described for the saturable Transformer block, and the icon of
the block is automatically updated. If the fluxes are not specified, the initial values are
automatically adjusted so that the simulation starts in steady state.

(11) Three-Phase Transformer 12 Terminals

Implement three single-phase, two-winding transformers where all terminals are accessible

Library: Elements

Two winding Transformer

Page | 68
Purpose: The Three-Phase Transformer 12 Terminals block implements three single-
phase, two-winding linear transformers where all the twelve winding connectors are accessible.
The block can be used in place of the Three-Phase Transformer (Two Windings) block to
implement a three-phase transformer when primary and secondary are not necessarily
connected in Star or Delta.

(12) IGBT/Diode

Implements ideal IGBT, GTO, or MOSFET and antiparallel diode

Library: Power Electronics

IGBT

Purpose: The IGBT/Diode block is a simplified mode of an IGBT (or GTO or MOSFET)/Diode
pair where the forward voltages of the forced-commutated device and diode are ignored.

Page | 69
REFERENCES
[1] F. Zhang, X. Zhang, M. Zhang and A. S. E. Edmonds, “Literature review of electric vehicle
technology and its applications,” 2016 5th International Conference on Computer Science and
Network Technology (ICCSNT), Changchun, 2016, pp. 832-837.
[2] A. Tiwari and O. P. Jaga, “Component selection for an electric vehicle: A review,”
International Conference on Computation of Power, Energy Information and Commuincation
(ICCPEIC), Melmaruvathur, 2017, pp. 492-499.
[3] Jia Ying Yong, Vigna K. Ramachandaramurthy, Kang Miao Tan, N. Mithulananthan, “A
review on the state-of-the-art technologies of electric vehicle, its impacts and prospects,”
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol: 49, 2015, pp: 365-385
[4] X. Nian, F. Peng and H. Zhang, “Regenerative Braking System of Electric Vehicle Driven
by Brushless DC Motor,” in IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, vol. 61, no. 10, pp.
5798-5808, Oct. 2014.
[5] Yanzhi Wang, Xue Lin, M. Pedram and N. Chang, “Joint automatic control of the
powertrain and auxiliary systems to enhance the electro mobility in hybrid electric vehicles,”
2015 52nd ACM/EDAC/IEEE Design Automation Conference (DAC), San Francisco, CA,
2015, pp. 1-6.
[6] J. Zhang, T. Shen, Receding Horizon “Optimal Control of PHEV with Demanded Torque
Estimation Model,” IFAC-PapersOnLine, Volume 51, vol: 31, 2018, pp: 183-187
[7] Z. Haishui, W. Dahu, Z. Tong and H. Keming, “Design on a DC Motor Speed Control,”
2010 International Conference on Intelligent Computation Technology and Automation,
Changsha, 2010, pp. 59- 63.
[8] S. J. Chapman, Electric Machine Fundamentals. New York: McGrawHill, 2005.
[9] J. Shen and A. Khaligh, “An energy management strategy for an EV with two propulsion
machines and a hybrid energy storage system,” IEEE Transportation Electrification Conference
and Expo (ITEC), Dearborn, MI, 2015, pp. 1-5.
[10] M. S. Perdigão, J. P. F. Trovão, J. M. Alonso and E. S. Saraiva, “Large-Signal
Characterization of Power Inductors in EV Bidirectional DC–DC Converters Focused on Core
Size Optimization,” IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, vol. 62, no. 5, 2015, pp. 3042-
3051.
[11] L. Albiol-Tendillo, E. Vidal-Idiarte, J. Maixé-Altés, J. M. BosqueMoncusí and H.
Valderrama-Blaví, “Design and control of a bidirectional DC/DC converter for an Electric

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Vehicle,” 15th International Power Electronics and Motion Control Conference (EPE/PEMC),
Novi Sad, 2012, pp.2-5
[12] I. Azizi and H. Radjeai, “A bidirectional DC-DC converter fed DC motor for electric
vehicle application,” 4th International Conference on Electrical Engineering (ICEE),
Boumerdes, 2015, pp. 1-5.
[13] R. Cipin, M. Mach, M. Toman and J. Knobloch, “Measurement and evaluation of DC
motor starting torque,” 2017 IEEE International Conference on Environment and Electrical
Engineering and 2017 IEEE Industrial and Commercial Power Systems Europe (EEEIC /
I&CPS Europe), Milan, 2017, pp. 1-5.
[14] Premananda P., Singh R.K, Tripathi R.K. “Bidirectional DC-DC converter fed drive for
electric vehicle system,” International Journal of Engineering, Science and Technology vol. 3,
no. 3, 2011, pp. 101- 110
[15] R. H. G. Tan and L. Y. H. Hoo, “DC-DC converter modeling and simulation using state
space approach,” 2015 IEEE Conference on Energy Conversion (CENCON), Johor Bahru,
2015, pp. 42-47.
[16] Modabbernia, M. R., Sahab, A. R., Mirzaee, M. T., & Ghorbany, K. “The State Space
Average Model of Boost Switching Regulator Including All of the System Uncertainties,”
Advanced Materials Research, vol: 403, 2012, pp: 3476–3483.
[17] M. S. Perdigão, J. P. F. Trovão, J. M. Alonso and E. S. Saraiva, “Large-Signal
Characterization of Power Inductors in EV Bidirectional DC–DC Converters Focused on Core
Size Optimization,” in IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, vol. 62, no. 5, 2015, pp.
3042-3051,
[18] Suresh, K., and R. Arulmozhiyal. “Design and Implementation of BiDirectional DC-DC
Converter for Wind Energy System,” Circuits and Systems, vol: l7 2016 pp: 3705-3722.
[19] R. Bayindir, I. Colak, E. Kabalci and E. Irmak, “The Fuzzy Logic Control of a Multilevel
Converter in a Variable Speed Wind Turbine,” 2009 International Conference on Machine
Learning and Applications, Miami Beach, FL, 2009, pp. 787-790
[20] Oscar Cordón, “A historical review of evolutionary learning methods for Mamdani-type
fuzzy rule-based systems: Designing interpretable genetic fuzzy systems,” International Journal
of Approximate Reasoning, Volume 52, Issue 6,2011, pp 894-913

Page | 71
A

PROJECT REPORT

On
A DESIGN AND CONTROL OF AN UPQC TO
ASSURE POWER QUALITY IN ELECTRIC
DISTRIBUTION GRIDS

Submitted by

1)P.RAMYA (18K85A0207) 2)M.RAJASHEKAR (18K85A0206)


3)T.MANEESHA(18K85A0208) 4)G.SAI PRASANNA (18K85A0215)

in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree


of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING


Under The Guidance of
T.V.SAI KALYANI
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS

ST.MARTIN’S ENGINEERING COLLEGE


(An Autonomous Institute)
Dhulapally, Secunderabad – 500 100
JUNE 2021
BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project entitled “A DESIGN AND CONTROL OF AN UPQC TO
ASSURE POWER QUALITY IN ELECTRIC DISTRIBUTION GRIDS”, is being
submitted by 1. P . RAMYA (18K85A0207) 2. M . RAJASHEKAR (18K85A0206)

3) T.MANEESHA(18K85A0208) 4. G.SAI PRASANNA (18K85A0215) in partial


fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the degree of BACHELOR OF
TECHNOLOGY IN Electrical and Electronics Engineering is recorded of bonafide work
carried out by them. The result embodied in this report have been verified and found
satisfactory.

Assistant Professor Head of the Department


T.V. SAI KALYANI Dr. N. RAMCHANDRA
Dept. of Electrical and Electronics Engineering Dept. of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Internal Examiner External Examiner

Place:

Date:

ii
DECLARATION

We, the students of Bachelor of Technology in Department of Electrical and


Electronics Engineering , session: 2017 – 2021, St. Martin’s Engineering College,
Dhulapally, Kompally, Secunderabad, hereby declare that work presented in this
Project Work entitled “A DESIGN AND CONTROL OF AN UPQC TO ASSURE
POWER QUALITY IN ELECTRIC DISTRIBUTION GRIDS” is the outcome of
our own bonafide work and is correct to the best of our knowledge and this work has
been undertaken taking care of Engineering Ethics. This result embodied in this project
report has not been submitted in any university for award of anydegree.

1)P.RAMYA (18K85A0207)
2) M.RAJASHEKAR (18K85A0206)
3) T.MANEESHA (18K85A0208)
4) G.SAI PRASANNA (18K85A0215)

iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The satisfaction and euphoria that accompanies the successful completion of any task
would be incomplete without the mention of the people who made it possible and whose
encouragements and guidance have crowded effects with success.
First and foremost, we would like to express my deep sense of gratitude and
indebtedness to our College Management for their kind support and permission to use
the facilities available in the Institute.
We especially would like to express my deep sense of gratitude and indebtedness to
Dr.P.Santosh Kumar Patra, our beloved Principal, St.Martin’s Engineering
College for his invaluable encouragement, suggestions and support from an early stage
of this research and providing me extraordinary experiences throughout the work. Above
all, his priceless and meticulous supervision at each and every phase of work inspired me
in innumerable ways.
We would like to express our gratitude to Dr.N.Ramchandra, Head &Professor,
the Dept. of Electrical and Electronics Engineering for his advice, supervision, and the
vital contribution as and when required during this research. We are proud to record that
we had the opportunity to work with an exceptionally experienced Professor like him.
The time spent with him will remain in my memory for years to come.
We would like to thank our supervisor, Miss.T.V.Sai Kalyani ,Assistant professor,
Department of EEE for her continuous support and valuable guidance for our research
work.
We would like to express our gratitude to our dept. project coordinators Mr.K.V.
Govardhan Rao, Assistant professor ,Department of EEE and Mr.T.Penchalaiah,
Assistant professor ,Department of EEE for their involvement originality has triggered
and nourished my intellectual maturity that will help me for a long time to come.
Finally, we are highly grateful and obliged to our college level Project Coordinators
Dr.Maalyadari, Professor in IT and Dr.R.Santhosh kumar,Associate Professor in
CSE for their advice, supervision, and the vital contribution as and when required during
this research work and for their support and co- operation that is difficult to express in
words.
1. P.Ramya
2. M.Rajashekar
3. T.Maneesha
4. G.Sai Prasanna
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER NO TITLE PAGE NO

CERTIFICATE i
BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE ii
DECLARATION iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv
LIST OF CONTENTS v-x
ABSTRACT xi
LIST OF FIGURES xii-xiv
LIST OF OUTPUT SCREENS xv
LIST OF ACRONYMS xvi

1 INTRODUCTION 1-12

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO THE PROJECT 1-3

1.2 LITERATURE SURVEY 3-4

1.3 BACKGROUND AND MOTIVATION 4-5

1.3.1 POWER QUALITY PROBLEMS 3-5

1.3.2 POWER QUALITY COMPENSATORS AVAILABLE IN MARKET 5-8

1.3.2.1 CAPACITOR BANKS 5

1.3.2.2 SVCS 6

1.3.2.3 DVRS 6-7


1.3.2.4 DSTATCOM 7-8

1.4 MOTIVATIONS OF APPLYING UP 8-9

1.5 OBJECTIVES OF THE THESIS 9-11

2 LITERATURE REVIEW OF UNIFIED POWER QUALITY CONDITIONER 12-15

2.1 LITERATURE 12-13

v
2.2 BASIC CONFIGURATION OF UPQC 13

2.2.1 SERIES CONVERTER 14

2.2.2 SHUNT CONVERTER 14

2.2.3 MIDPOINT-TO-GROUND DC CAPACITOR BANK 14

2.2.4 LOW PASS FILTER 15

2.2.5 HIGH-PASS FILTER 15

2.2.6 SERIES AND SHUNT TRANSFORMERS 15

2.3 EQUIVALENT SINGLE PHASE REPRESENTATION OF THE UPQC 15-17

2.4 FUNCTIONS PERFORMED BY UPQC 17

2.5 POWER CIRCUIT TOPOLOGIES OF UPQC 17-20

2.6 CONTROL TECHNIQUES OF UPQC TOPOLOGIES 20-21

2.7 UPQC IN SERVICE AND FUTURE TRENDS 21-22

2.8 SUMMARY 22

3 POWER QUALITY AND ITS PROBLEMS 23-49

3.1 DEFINITION OF POWER QUALITY 23-24

3.2 POWER SYSTEMS DISTORTION AND PROBLEMS 24

3.3 SOURCES OF POOR POWER QUALITY 25

3.4 NEED OF POWER QUALITY 25-26

3.5 CLASSIFICATION OF POWER QUALITY PROBLEMS 26-33

3.5.1 SHORT DURATION VOLTAGE VARIATION 26-27

3.5.1.1 VOLTAGE SAG 26

3.5.1.2 VOLTAGE SWELL 27

3.5.1.3 INTERRUPTION 27

3.5.2 LONG-DURATION VOLTAGE VARIATION 28

3.5.2.1 OVERVOLTAGE 28

3.5.2.2 UNDER VOLTAGE 28

3.5.3 SUSTAINED INTERRUPTIONS 28

vi
3.5.3.1 TRANSIENTS 29

3.5.3.2 IMPULSIVE TRANSIENT 29

3.5.3.3 OSCILLATORY TRANSIENT 29

3.5.4 VOLTAGE FLUCTUATIONS 29

3.5.5 VOLTAGE IMBALANCE 30

3.5.6 WAVEFORM DISTORTION 30

3.5.7 HARMONICS 30-31

3.5.7.1 SUB-HARMONICS 32

3.5.7.2 INTER-HARMONICS 32

3.5.8 ELECTRICAL NOISE 32

3.5.9 NOTCHING 33

3.6 EFFECTS OF HARMONICS 33

3.6.1 POWER FACTOR 34

3.6.2 DISTORTION FACTOR 35

3.6.3 CREST FACTOR 35

3.7 SOLUTIONS TO POWER QUALITY PROBLEMS 35-37

3.7.1 LIGHTENING AND SURGE ARRESTERS 36

3.7.2 THYRISTOR BASED STATIC SWITCHES 36

3.7.3 ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEMS 36

3.7.4 ELECTRONIC TAP CHANGING TRANSFORMER 37

3.7.5 HARMONIC FILTERS 37

3.8 CUSTOM POWER DEVICES 37-40

3.8.1 INTRODUCTION 37

3.8.2 NEED OF CUSTOM POWER 38

3.8.3 CUSTOM POWER DEVICES 38-39

3.8.4 SOLID STATE CURRENT LIMITER 39-40

3.9 SOLUTIONS FOR THE HARMONICS 40

3.9.1 IN-LINE REACTORS 41

vii
3.9.2 TRANSFORMERS WITH PASSIVE COUPLING 41

3.9.3 PASSIVE FILTERS 41

3.10 MODERN SOLUTIONS FOR HARMONIC PROBLEMS 42

3.10.1 SERIES ACTIVE POWER FILTER (SERIES APF) 43

3.10.2 SHUNT ACTIVE POWER FILTER 43-44


3.10.3 HYBRID FILTERS 44

3.10.4 NON-LINEAR LOADS 45

3.10.5 SHUNT ACTIVE POWER FILTER 45

3.10.6 DISTRIBUTION STATIC COMPENSATOR (DSTATCOM) 45

3.10.7 DYNAMIC VOLTAGE RESTORER (DVR) 46

3.10.8 UNIFIED POWER QUALITY CONDITIONER (UPQC) 47-49

3.11 SUPERIORITY OF UPQC OVER OTHER DEVICES 49

4 PROJECT DESIGN 50-62

4.1 OVERVIEW 50

4.2 HARMONIC CURRENT EXTRACTION METHODS 51

4.2.1 INSTANTANEOUS ACTIVE AND REACTIVE POWER THEORY 51-54

4.3 VOLTAGE SOURCE INVERTER 54-55

4.3.1 MODELING OF VOLTAGE SOURCE INVERTER 55-56

4.3.2 MODELLING OF ACTIVE POWER FILTER 56-57

4.3.3 CONTROL METHODS OF VSI 57

4.3.3.1 HYSTERESIS CONTROL METHOD 57-58

4.3.3.2 SPWM CONTROL 58

4.3.3.3 SPACE VECTOR PWM CONTROL (SVPWM) 59

4.4 CONTROL OF THE ACTIVE POWER FILTER 60

4.4.1 DIRECT CONTROL METHOD 60

4.4.2 INDIRECT CONTROL METHOD 60

4.5 DEVELOPMENT ENVIRONMENT 62

4.6 THE MATLAB MATHEMATICAL FUNCTION LIBRARY 62

viii
4.7 THE MATLAB LANGUAGE 62

4.8 GRAPHICS 62

4.9 THE MATLAB APPLICATION PROGRAM INTERFACE (API) 62

4.10 MATLAB DOCUMENTATION 62

4.11 THREE PHASE SOURCE BLOCK 63

4.12 VI MEASUREMENT BLOCK 63

4.13 SCOPE 63

4.14 THREE-PHASE SERIES RLC LOAD 64

4.15 THREE-PHASE BREAKER BLOCK 64

4.16 INTEGRATOR 64

4.17 BREAKER 65

4.18 THREE-PHASE PROGRAMMABLE VOLTAGE SOURCE 66

4.19 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTION 66

4.20 THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMER (TWO WINDINGS) 66

4.21 THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMER 12 TERMINALS 67

4.22 IGBT/DIODE 67

5 PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION 68-77

5.1 INTRODUCTION 69

5.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM 69-70

5.3 SIMULINK BLOCK LIBRARIES 70

5.4 SUB SYSTEMS 70

5.5 SOLVERS 70

5.5.1 FIXED-STEP AND VARIABLE-STEP SOLVERS 70

5.6 CONTINUOUS AND DISCRETE SOLVERS 71

5.7 MODEL EXECUTION PHASE 71-72

5.8 BLOCK SORTING RULES 72-73

5.9 DETERMINING BLOCK UPDATE ORDER 73

ix
5.10 SIMULATION RESULT ANALYSIS 74-77

6 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE 78-79


PUBLICATIONS 80
REFERENCES 81-82

x
ABSTRACT

In today’s world there is great importance of electrical energy as it is the most famous from of energy
and all are massively relying on it. Without supply of electricity life cannot be imagined. At the same
time the quality and continuousness of the electric power supplied is also very important for the
efficient functioning of the end user equipment. Many of the commercial and industrial loads require
high quality undisturbed and constant power. Thus maintaining thequalitative power is topmost
important in today’s world. Due to power electronics devices there is serious effect on quality and
continuousness of electric supply. Because of power electronics devices there is uninterrupted power
supply, flicker, harmonics, voltage fluctuations e.tc.

There is also PQ problems such as voltage rise/dip due to network faults, lightning, switching of
capacitor banks. With the excessive uses of non-linear load (computer, lasers, printers, rectifiers) there
is reactive power disturbances and harmonics in power distribution system. It is very essential to
overcome this type of problems as its effect may increase in future and cause adverse effect.
Traditionally passive filters were used for reactive power disturbances and harmonics generation but
there is many problems with them like they are large in size, resonance problem, effect of source
impedance on performance. Active Power Filters are used for power quality enhancement. Active
power filters can be classified according to system configuration. Active power filters are of two types
series and shunt. Combining both series APF & shunt APF we get a device known as UPQC. UPQC
eliminates the voltage and current based distortions together. A Shunt APF eliminates all kind of
current problems like current harmonic compensation, reactive power compensation, power factor
enhancement. A Series APF compensates voltage dip/rise so that voltage at load side is perfectly
regulated. The Shunt APF is connected in parallel with transmission line and series APF is connected
in series with transmission line. UPQC is formed by combining both series APF and shunt APF
connected back to back on DC side.

xi
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO. DESCRIPTION PAGE NO.

1.1 PERCENTAGE OF WORLD RENEWABLE ELECTRICITY GENERATION

OVER THE TOTAL ELECTRICITY GENERATION 4

1.2 SCHEMATIC OF CAPACITOR BANKS 5

1.3 SCHEMATIC OF STATIC VAR COMPENSATORS 6

1.4 SCHEMATIC OF DYNAMIC VOLTAGE RESTORERS 7

1.5 DISTRIBUTION STARCOM (DSTATCOM) 8

1.6 SCHEMATIC OF UNIFIED POWER QUALITY CONDITIONERS 9

2.1 BASIC REPRESENTATION OF UPQC 12

2.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF UPQC 13

2.3 EQUIVALENT SINGLE-PHASE REPRESENTATION OF THE UPQC 16

2.4 VARIOUS POWER CIRCUIT TOPOLOGIES 18

2.5 CONTROL UNIT OF UPQC WITH A SPECIFIED POWER CIRCUIT TOPOLOGY 21

3.1 VOLTAGE SAG 27

3.2 VOLTAGE SWELLS 27

3.3 INTERRUPTION 28

3.4 IMPULSIVE TRANSIENTS 29

3.5 OSCILLATORY TRANSIENTS 29

3.6 VOLTAGE FLUCTUATIONS OR FLICKER 29

3.7 VOLTAGE IMBALANCES 30

3.8 HARMONICS 31

3.9 ELECTRICAL NOISW WAVEFORM 32

3.10 NOTCHING WAVEFORM 33

3.11 SOLID STATE CURRENT LIMITER 38

3.12 SERIES ACTIVE POWER FILTER 42

3.13 SHUNT ACTIVE POWER FILTER 43

3.14 COMBINATION OF PARALLEL AND SERIES APF (UPQC) 44

xii
3.15 DISTRIBUTION STATCOM (DSTATCOM) 45

3.16 DYNAMIC VOLTAGE RESTORER (DVR) 45

3.17 UNIFIED POWER QUALITY CONDITIONER (UPQ) 47

4.1 COMPENSATION CHARACTERISTIC OF SHUNT ACTIVE POWER FILTER 49

4.2 DIAGRAM OF THE LOW PASS FILTER WITH FEED-FORWARD 52

4.3 PRINCIPLE OF INSTANTANEOUS ACTIVE AND REACTIVE POWER THEORY 53

4.4 THREE-PHASE TWO LEVELS VSI TOPOLOGY 54

4.5 SAPF CONNECTION TO THE PCC 56

4.6 HYSTERESIS CONTROL PRINCIPLE 57

4.7 THE PRINCIPLE OF SINUSOIDAL PWM CONTROL METHOD 58

4.8 DIRECT CONTROL METHOD DIAGRAM 60

4.9 INDIRECT CONTROL METHOD DIAGRAM 61

4.10 THREE PHASE SOURCE BLOCK 63

4.11 THREE PHASE V-I MEASUREMENT 63

4.12 SCOPE 63

4.13 THREE-PHASE SERIES RLC LOAD 64

4.14 THREE-PHASE BREAKER BLOCK 64

4.15 INTEGRATOR 64

4.16 CIRCUIT BREAKER 65

4.17 THREE PHASE VOLTAGE SOURCES 66

4.18 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTION 66

4.19 THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER 66

4.20 TWO WINDING TRANSFORMER 67

4.21 IGBT 67

5.1 PROPOSED CIRCUIT WITH OUT UPQC 74

5.2 OUTPUT VOLTAGE WITHOUT UPQC 74

5.3 OUTPUT CURRENT WAVEFORM 75

5.4 TOTAL HARMONIC DISTORTION 75

xiii
5.5 ACTIVE AND REACTIVE POWER VARIATIONS 75

5.6 SIMULATION CIRCUIT WITH UPQC 76

5.7 OUTPUT VOLTAGE WAVEFORM 76

5.8 OUTPUT CURRENT WAVEFORMS 76

5.9 THD WITH UPQC 77

5.10 ACTIVE AND REACTIVE POWER VARIATIONS 77

xiv
LIST OF OUTPUT SCREENS

FIGURE NO TITLE PAGE NO.

5.1 PROPOSED CIRCUIT WITH OUT UPQC 75

5.2 OUTPUT VOLTAGE WAVEFORM 75

5.3 OUTPUT CURRENT WAVEFORM 76

5.4 TOTAL HARMONIC DISORTION 76

5.5 ACTIVE AND REACTIVE POWER 76

5.6 SIMULATION CIRCUIT WITH UPQC 77

5.7 OUTPUT VOLTAGE WAVEFORM 77

5.8 OUTPUT CURRENT WAVEFORM 77

5.9 TOTAL HARMONIC DISORTION 78

5.10 ACTIVE AND REACTIVE POWER VARIATIONS 78

xv
LIST OF ACRONYMS

APF : ACTIVE POWER FILTER

UPQC : UNIFIED POWER QUALITY CONTROL

SPF : SERIES POWER FILTER

SHPF : SHUNT POWER FILTER

VSI : VOLTAGE SOURCE INVERTER

DSTATCOM : DISTRIBUTION STATIC COMPENSATOR

DVR : DYNAMIC VOLTAGE RESTORER

IGBT : INSULATED GATE BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR

xvi
CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION

The widespread use of non-linear loads is leading to a variety of undesirable phenomena in the
operation of power systems. The harmonic components in current and voltage waveforms are the
most important among these. Conventionally, passive filters have been used to eliminate line
current harmonics. However, they introduce resonance in the power system and tend to be bulky.
So, active power line conditioners have become more popular than passive filters as it compensates
the harmonics and reactive power simultaneously.

The active power filter topology can be connected in series or shunt and combinations of both.
Shunt active filter is more popular than series active filter because most of the industrial
applications require current harmonic compensation. Different types of active filters have been
proposed to increase the electric system quality. The classification is based on following criteria.
 Power rating and speed of response required in compensated system.
 System parameters to be compensated (e.g. current harmonics, power factor and voltage harmonics)
 Technique used for estimating the reference current/voltage.

Current controlled voltage source inverters can be utilized with an appropriate control strategy
to perform active filter functionality. The electrical grid will include a very large number of small
producers that use renewable energy sources, like solar panels or wind generators.
1.2. LITERATURE SURVEY

Johan H. R. Enslin and Peter J. M. Heskes,[1]


“Harmonic interaction between a large number of distributed power inverters and the distribution
network,”In this paper discussed the harmonic interaction between a large number of distributed
power inverters and the distribution network. This paper is to
analyze the observed phenomena of harmonic interference of large populations of these inverters
and to compare the network interaction of different inverter topologies and control options.
Uffe Borup, Frede Blaabjerg and Prasad N. Enjeti ,[2]
“Sharing of nonlinear load in parallel-connected three-phase converters,”
Presented about the sharing of linear and nonlinear loads in three-phase power converters
connected in parallel, without communication between the converters. The paper focuses on solving
the problem that arises when two converters with harmonic compensation are connected in parallel.
Pichai Jintakosonwit Hideaki Fujita, Hirofumi Akagi and Satoshi Ogasawara, [3]
“Implementation and performance of cooperative control of shunt active filters for harmonic
damping throughout a power distribution system,”
This paper proposes cooperative control of multipleactive filters based on voltage detection for
harmonic damping throughout a power distribution system. The arrangement of a real distribution system
would be changed according to system operation, and/or fault conditions. In addition, shunt capacitors and
loads are individually connected to, or disconnected from, the distribution system.
Pedro Rodríguez, JosepPou, Joan Bergas,J. Ignacio Candela , Rolando P. Burgos and
DushanBoroyevich ,[4]
“Decoupled double synchronous reference frame PLL for power converters control,”
Presented the detection ofthe fundamental-frequency positive-sequence component of
theutility voltage under unbalanced and distorted conditions. Specifically, it proposes a positive-
sequence detector based on a new decoupled double synchronous reference frame phase-locked
loop (PLL), which completely eliminates the detection errors of conventional synchronous
reference frame PLL’s. This is achieved by transforming both positive- and negative-sequence
components of the utility voltage into the double SRF, from which a decoupling network is
developed in order to cleanly extract and separate the positive- and negative-sequence components.
SoerenBaekhoejKjaer, John K. Pedersenand Frede Blaabjerg,[5]
“A review of single-phase grid-connected inverters for photovoltaic modules”
presents a Review of Single-Phase Grid-Connected Inverters for Photovoltaic Modules. This
paper focuses on inverter technologies forconnecting photovoltaic (PV) modules to a single-phase
grid. The inverters are categorized into four classifications: 1)

2
the number of power processing stages in cascade; 2) the type of power decoupling between the PV
module(s) and the single-phase grid; 3) whether they utilizes a transformer (either line or high
frequency) or not; and 4) the type of grid-connected power stage.
F. Blaabjerg, R. Teodorescu, M. Liserre, and A. V. Timbus,[6]
“Overview of control and grid synchronization for distributed power generation systems,” This
paper gives an overview of the structures for the DPGS based on fuel cell, photovoltaic, and wind
turbines. In addition, control structures of the grid-side converter are presented, and the possibility
of compensation for low-order harmonics is also discussed. Moreover, control strategies when
running on grid faults are treated. This paper ends up with an overview of synchronization methods
and a discussion about their
importance in the control.
J. M. Carrasco, L. G. Franquelo, J. T. Bialasiewicz, E. Galván, R. C. P. Guisado, M. Á. M.
Prats, J. I. León, and N. M. Alfonso,[7]
“Power electronicsystems for the grid integration of renewable energy sources: A survey,” This paper
proposes about distributed energy resource is increasingly being pursued as a supplement and an
alternative to large conventional central power stations. The specification of a power electronic
interface is subject to requirements related not only to the renewable energy source itself but also to
its effects on the power-system operation, especially where the intermittent energy source
constitutes a significant part of the total
system capacity.

1.3 BACKGROUND AND MOTIVATION


1.3.1 Power Quality Problems in Microgrids
A microgrid comprises a group of interconnected renewable energy sources, energy storage
units and loads . In a microgrid, some common renewable energy sources are wind power , solar
power, and wave power .

Nowadays, the usage of the renewable energy sources is growing rapidly. The percentage of world
renewable generation over the total electricity generation is illustrated in Figure 1-1

3
Figure 1.1: Percentage of world renewable electricity generation over the total
electricity generation .

By integrating these renewable energy sources into the microgrid system, it is a great opportunity to
reduce the fossil fuel consumption as well as the runningcost the system. However, due to the
unstable and intermittency nature of renewable energy sources, power reliability and quality
problems are more acute . The power quality issues in a microgrid are important since all the
renewable sources come with power electronic interfaces which generate undesirable voltage and
current harmonics.
It is well known that voltage sags and swells are the most common utility voltage quality
problems. These issues will worsen the power quality problems of the microgrid when it is
connected to the utility grid. Short circuit, switching on/off of large loads, and faults lead to voltage
sag and swell which result in disruption of critical loads in the system, and bring about substantial
financial losses .
Further more, the growing use of nonlinear power electronic loads such as static rectifiers, variable
speed drives, etc., also increases voltage and current distortions in microgrid operation . This will
degrade the power quality and also lower the power factor of the system. The distorted current
injected into the microgrid will cause the overheating of power factor correction capacitors motors
and transformers,tripping of protective relays, and deterioration in the accuracy of smart meters
Reactive power compensation is a very important issue in microgrids . A typical microgrid

4
consists of distribution transformers, distribution lines, motor loads, etc. All of whichare heavy
consumers of reactive power. By compensating the reactive power demand at load centers, the
system capacity of the microgrid can be utilized more effectively. This will in turn reduce greatly
the power drawn from the utility grid as well as the system losses . Therefore, there is an increasing
need to monitor and mitigate the power quality issues in the microgrid in order to better serve the
customers, to satisfy the operation and regulation requirements, and to enhance telecommunication
development and network planning.

1.3.2 Power Quality Compensators Available in Market


The advantages and disadvantages of the available power quality compensators in the
market will be introduced in this section. Capacitor banks , static var compensators
(SVCs) , dynamic voltage restorers (DVRs) - distribution static compensators
(DSTATCOMs) , etc. are the available power quality compensators that can be used to
mitigate the aforementioned power quality problems in the microgrids.
1.3.2.1. Capacitor Banks
The schematic of the capacitor banks is presented in Figure 1.2 . The switched capacitor
banks are traditionally used to provide reactive power compensation in the network .
Even though the switched capacitor is a simple and effective device to supply the reactive
power demand of the loads, it has major shortcomings, e.g., switching transient,
overcompensation on the power line, resonance with neighbouring loads, aging effect
and bulky size .

Figure 1.2: Schematic of capacitor banks.

5
1.3.2.2 SVCs
Figure 1-3 shows the schematic of the SVCs. The SVCs are the combination of a
thyristor-switched capacitor, a thyristor-controlled reactor, a mechanical switched reactor and
capacitor, and a harmonic filter . The inductive or capacitive characteristic is controlled by adjusting
the firing angle of the two parallel, reverse connected thyristors . The SVCs are able to increase the
power transmission ability of the transmission lines; improve the systems transient stability;
increase the power factor of the load, etc. The major reasons that SVCs are not suitable for their
introduction into the microgrids are: 1) limited bandwidth operation; 2) a larger number of passive
components that increases the size and losses; and 3) slower responses

Figure 1.3: Schematic of static var compensators

1.3.2.3 DVRs
The DVR is a cost-effective device to solve the voltage power quality problems
The basic topology of the DVRs is illustrated in Figure 1-4. A typical DVR consists of a
voltage source inverter (VSI) to achieve the DC/AC conversion, a DC voltage source to
supply the DC link of the VSI, a filter to suppress the switching harmonics of the VSI,
and a series transformer to obtain the series voltage injection at the distribution line. The
basic principle of the DVR is to inject a voltage of specific phase angle and magnitude in
series with the distribution line, so that the load voltage

6
can be maintained at the rated sinusoidal waveform . In the literatures, in addition to its basic
function, the DVR can provide other benefits. For example, in the pre-sag operation the DVR can
restore the exact amplitude and phase angle of the load voltage when the sag and phase jump
happens in the source voltage. In the in-phase method, the DVR can

Figure 1.4: Schematic of dynamic voltage restorers

inject the minimum amplitude of the compensation voltage. In the self-supported mode , the DVR
does not require external energy storages by utilizing the capacitor connected at the DC link of the
VSI. In the energy optimized strategy the energy handled by the DVR can be optimized.

Even though the DVR has shown satisfactory performance in mitigating the voltage sags, swells,
and harmonics, it cannot deal with the current related power quality problems. Moreover, the
traditional DVR requires external DC voltage sources, e.g., battery energy storage systems, DC
power sources, distributed generations (DGs).
1.3.2.4. DSTATCOM
The DSTATCOM is able to solve the current related power quality problems Figure 1.5 illustrates
the basic structure of the DSTATCOM. A typical DSTATCOM consists of a VSI to achieve the
DC/AC conversion, a capacitor to maintain the DC link voltage of the VSI, and a filter to suppress
the switching harmonics of the VSI. The operating principle of the DSTATCOM is to inject a shunt
current of specific phase angle and magnitude into the distribution line, so that the source current
can be maintained at the desired sinusoidal waveform

7
Figure 1.5: Distribution Starcom (DSTATCOM)
By injecting the shunt compensating current, the DSTATCOM can deal with power factor
correction, current harmonic elimination, etc. However, it still cannot handle the voltage power
quality problems, e.g., sags, swells, and harmonics.

1.4. Motivations of Applying Unified Power Quality Conditioner


It is noted that the capabilities of the aforementioned devices are limited because each device is
intended to solve only one or two specific power quality problems. They may work well for
traditional power transmission/distribution systems. But for newly developed microgrids where all
these power quality issues exist, they lose their efficacy. Under these circumstances, it is required
that all these equipment/devices be installed in order to solve the power quality issues in a
microgrid, which is obviously cost prohibitive. Additionally managing and maintaining these
individual components can be a complex and expensive task.

According to the aforementioned review, the motivation of this thesis is to utilize a highly
integrated power quality conditioner in the microgrids. In 1998, Fujita and Akagi proposed the
unified power quality conditioner (UPQC) system which has the capability of improving power
quality at both the source side and load side as shown in Figure 1.6

8
Figure 1.6: Schematic of unified power quality conditioners.
The UPQC system contains two major parts. One is the power electronic converters module where
the series and shunt converters are integrated together, and the other one is the series transformer
which handles the series injected voltage. Since then, UPQC has become one of the most attractive
solutions to improve power quality in the distribution system due to its superior performance in
mitigating almost all major power quality problems. However, UPQC is still at the research stage,
which has not been widely utilized so far. The reason is that the UPQC system contains two sets of
power converters and a transformer. This significantly increases the cost of producing and
marketing the system. It is important to reduce the rating of the UPQC system without any
compromise of the compensating capabilities. In this manner, it will increase the utilization of the
UPQC and reduce the cost of the system, which enhance the competitiveness of the whole system
Based on the review of the existing UPQC topologies and techniques it
is noted that there is no generalized strategy to optimize the rating of a UPQC system. The research
works in this thesis focus on optimal design of the UPQC system and the corresponding control
implementation of the designed UPQC without compromising its compensating capabilitie
1.5. Objectives Of The Thesis
As discussed previously, the optimization of the ratings of the UPQC system has seldom been
studied so far. This thesis mainly works on optimal design and control implementation of the UPQC
system.
The objectives of this thesis are summarized as follows

9
1. The first objective is to review the existing UPQC topologies and techniques. Specifically,
the UPQC topologies and techniques should be classified in order to provide a clear understanding
of the state-of-the-art techniques in the UPQCs, and to discover the research gaps in this area.

2. As mentioned previously, due to the unstable and intermittency nature of renewable energy
sources, power reliability and quality problems are more acute. The power quality issues in a
microgrid are important since all the renewable sources come with power electronic interfaces
which generate undesirable voltage and current harmonics. The second objective of this thesis is to
clarify the most common power quality problems which the UPQC has to mitigate. Furthermore,
the standards of the power quality of the grids have to be clarified. They are utilized to evaluate the
operating performance of the designed UPQC systems.

3. Before the optimal design and the corresponding control implementation of the UPQC
systems, the most popular control algorithm based on the traditional UPQC topology should be
introduced. The plant of the UPQC system should be built on the Matlab/Simulink platform. The
simulation results are supposed to demonstrate the performance of the UPQC system in mitigating
the major power quality problems in the microgrids.

4. Since the UPQC consists of two sets of power converters, i.e., a series converter and a
shunt converter, they increase the manufacturing cost of the setup compared with the traditional
power quality compensators. This is why the UPQC has not been commercialized so far. The
reduction of the ratings of the UPQC without compromising the compensation abilities becomes
essential, as it will increase the utilization rate of the converters and reduce the manufacturing cost
of the systems. In this way, the whole system will be more competitive. In this thesis, a search
strategy should be developed to determine the optimal VA ratings of series and shunt converters in
the UPQC. The corresponding controller should also be designed to satisfy the power quality
compensating requirement and safeguard the online operation of the UPQC system.

5. The UPQC system contains two major parts. One is the power electronic conversion where the
series and shunt converters are integrated together, and the other one is the series transformer which
handles the series injected voltage. As the VA ratings of the converters and the transformer will
affect each other, both the VA ratings of the converters and that of the series transformer should be
taken care of during the optimization process to obtain the optimal capital cost of the whole UPQC
10
system. A generalized strategy is supposed to be developed to optimize the capital cost of the
UPQC system which determines the fundamental VA ratings of the shunt converter, series
converter, and series transformer. The corresponding control method has to optimize the online
operating VA loadings of the UPQC, which can ensure the safe operation of the whole system

11
CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW OF UNIFIED POWER QUALITY CONDITIONER

Power quality issues are becoming more and more significant in these days because
of the increasing number of power electronic devices that behave as nonlinear loads.
A wide diversity of solutions to power quality problems is available for both the
distribution network operator and the end user. The power processing at supply, load
and for reactive and harmonic compensation by means of power electronic devices is
becoming more prevalent due to the vast advantages offered by them. The shunt APF
is usually connected across the loads to compensate for all current related problems
such as the reactive power compensation, power factor improvement, current
harmonic compensation and load unbalance compensation, whereas the series active
power filter is connected in a series with a line through series transformer. It acts as
controlled voltage supply and can compensate all voltage related problems, such as
voltage harmonics, voltage sag, voltage swell, flicker, etc. UPQC is a Custom Power
device and consists of combined series active power filter that compensates voltage
harmonics, voltage unbalance, voltage flicker, voltage sag/swell and shunt active
power filter that compensates current harmonics, current unbalance and reactive
current as shown in Figure

Figure 2.1: Basic representation of UPQC

12
The Unified Power Quality Conditioner is a custom power device that is employed in
the distribution system to mitigate the disturbances that affect the performance of
sensitive and/or critical load. It is a type of hybrid APF and is the only versatile
device which can mitigate several power quality problems related with voltage and
current simultaneously therefore is multi functioning devices that compensate various
voltage disturbances of the power supply, to correct voltage fluctuations and to
prevent harmonic load current from entering the power system. Figure shows the
system configuration of a single- phase UPQC. Unified Power Quality Conditioner
(UPQC) consists of two IGBT based Voltage source converters (VSC), one shunt and
one series cascaded by a common DC bus. The shunt converter is connected in
parallel to the load. It provides VAR support to the load and supply harmonic
currents. Whenever the supply voltage undergoes sag then series converter injects
suitable voltage with supply. Thus, UPQC improves the power quality by preventing
load current harmonics and by correcting the input power factor.

Figure 2.2: Block diagram of UPQC

13
2.2. Basic configuration of UPQC

The main components of a UPQC are series and shunt power converters, DC
capacitors, low-pass and high-pass passive filters, and series and shunt transformers.

2.2.1 Series converter

It is a voltage-source converter connected in series with the AC line and acts as a


voltage source to mitigate voltage distortions. It is used to eliminate supply voltage
27flickers or imbalance from the load terminal voltage and forces the shunt branch to
absorb current harmonics generated by the nonlinear load. Control of the series
converter output voltage is usually performed using sinusoidal pulse-width
modulation (SPWM). The gate pulses required for converter are generated by the
comparison of a fundamental voltage reference signal with a high-frequency
triangular waveform.

2.2.2 Shunt converter

It is a voltage-source converter connected in shunt with the same AC line and acts as
a current source to cancel current distortions, compensate reactive current of the load,
and improve the power factor. It also performs the DC- link voltage regulation,
resulting in a significant reduction of the DC capacitor rating. The output current of
the shunt converter is adjusted using a dynamic hysteresis band by controlling the
status of semiconductor switches so that output current follows the reference signal
and remains in a predetermined hysteresis band.

2.2.3 Midpoint-to-ground DC capacitor bank

It is divided into two groups, which are connected in series. The neutrals of the
secondary transformers are directly connected to the DC link midpoint. As the
connection of both three-phase transformers is Y/Yo, the zero-sequence voltage
appears in the primary winding of the series-connected transformer in order to
compensate for the zero-sequence voltage of the supply system. No zero-sequence
14
current flows in the primary side of both transformers. It ensures the system current
to be balanced even when the voltage disturbance occurs.

2.2.4 Low-pass filter

It is used to attenuate high frequency components at the output of the series


converter that are generated by high-frequency switching

2.2.5 High-pass filter

It is installed at the output of shunt converter to absorb current switching ripples

2.2.6 Series and shunt transformers

These are implemented to inject the compensation voltages and currents, and for the
purpose of electrical isolation of UPQC converters. The UPQC is capable of steady
state and dynamic series and/or shunt active and reactive power compensations at
fundamental and harmonic frequencies. However, the UPQC is only concerned about
the quality of the load voltage and the line current at the point of its installation, and it
does not improve the power quality of the entire system.

2.3 Equivalent single-phase representation of the UPQC

The equivalent single-phase representation of the UPQC in a power distribution


system is shown in Fig. 3.3. The distorted supply voltage vs at the point of common
coupling is modelled by the sum of two voltage sources, namely, its fundamental vsf
and its harmonics vsh. The nonlinear load is modelled by a distorted current source iL,
which is also made up of its fundamental iLf and its harmonics iLh that will change
with different loadings. The supply current and the load voltage are denoted by is and
vL, respectively.

15
Figure 2.3: Equivalent single-phase representation of the UPQC

Ideally, is and vL should be sine waves of 50 Hz without any harmonic distortions,


even though harmonics may exist in vs and iL. As such, this is one of the tasks to be
accomplished by the UPQC. vz in Fig.3.3models the voltage drop across the line
impedance Rl + jωLl. u1(Vdc/2) and u2(Vdc/2) model the series and shunt active
filters of the UPQC, respectively. Their associated low-pass interfacing filters and
losses are modelled by Lse, Cse, and Rse, and Lsh, Csh, and Rsh, respectively. iCsh is
the leakage capacitor current of the shunt low-pass interfacing filter. u1(Vdc/2) and
u2(Vdc/2) represent the switched voltages across the series and shunt VSI outputs of
the UPQC, respectively. vinj denotes the injected voltage of the series active filter,
while iinj denotes the injected current of the shunt active filter. u1 and U2 will be
determined by the ORC to be discussed later; they are supposed to take continuous
values between −1 and +1. These continuous values will be modulated by PWM to
become the switching signals for the VSIs. Vdc/2 is the desired voltage level of each
capacitor unit for the UPQC.

2.4 Functions performed by UPQC

• Convert the feeder (system) current into balanced sinusoids through the shunt

16
compensator.

• Convert the load voltage VL to balanced sinusoids through the series


compensator.

• Ensure zero real power injection (and/or absorption) by the compensators.

• Supply reactive power to the load (Q compensation).

UPQC is also known as the universal power quality conditioning system, universal
active power line conditioner and universal active. UPQC system can be divided
into two sections: The control unit and the power circuit.
Control unit includes disturbance detection, reference signal generation, gate signal
generation and voltage/current measurements. Power circuit consists of two voltage
source converters, standby and system protection system, harmonic filters and
injection transformers. The findings of the comprehensive literature survey summarize
the available studies related with control unit and power circuit of UPQC.

2.5 Power Circuit Topologies of UPQC

UPQC is a combination of a shunt (Active Power Filter) and a series compensator


(Dynamic Voltage Restorer) connected together via a common DC link capacitor,
which facilitates the sharing of the active power. Each Compensator consists of
IGBT inverters, which can be operated in current or voltage-controlled mode.
Depending upon the location of the shunt compensator with respect to series
compensator, UPQC model can be named as right shunt-UPQC or left shunt-UPQC.
Typically, the active power generated in one unit is consumed in the other unit
maintaining the energy balance overall characteristics of the right shunt-UPQC are
superior to those of the left shunt-UPQC. Basic topologies of UPQC are shown in
Figure 2.4.

17
Figure 2.4: Various power circuit topologies: (a) Left shunt-UPQC, (b) Right shunt-
UPQC, (c) OPEN UPQC, (d) Interline UPQC and(e) Multilevel UPQC

UPQC can be used for medium voltage and low voltage applications. In case of low
power applications, it is not convenient to install a UPQC, since DVR spends most of
its time in standby mode. UPQC is generally designed as 3- phase 3-wire (3P3W)
systems. 3-phase 4-wire (3P4W) system is also realized from (3P3W) system where
the neutral of series transformer used in series part UPQC is considered as the fourth
31wire for 3P4W system. There are Also single-phase UPQC systems. Various
topologies such as multilevel topology, single-phase UPQC with two half-bridge
converters, H bridge topology and single-phase UPQC with three legs are the
examined for UPQC applications. A new topology consists of the DC/DC converter
and the super capacitor is presented in. The series and parallel units do not have a
common DC link in Advanced renewable generation based distributed power
generation system is developed in UPQC is connected between two independent
feeders to regulate the bus voltage of one of the feeders while regulating the voltage
across a sensitive load in the other feeder in a new configuration, named multi
converter unified power quality conditioner (MC- UPQC), for simultaneous

18
compensation of voltage and current in adjacent feeders has been proposed in.
Compared to a conventional UPQC, MC-UPQC topology is capable of fully
protecting critical and sensitive loads against distortions, sags/swell and interruption in
two-feeder systems. The protection of a UPQC against voltage surges and short circuit
conditions to prevent its malfunction or destruction is discussed in.

The power circuit of UPQC generally consists of common energy storage unit, DC/AC
converter, LC filter and injection transformer. DC link (energy storage unit) supplies
required power for compensation of load voltage during voltage sag/swell or current
harmonics. UPQC generally consists of two

voltage source inverters (series and shunt) using IGBT which operate from a common
DC link storage capacitor. DC link (DC-DC converter) connected to the battery
energy storage system is used in. Voltage interruption can also be eliminated by the
use of a UPQC with distributed generation. Split capacitor topology is used in.
Photovoltaic generation as well as the functions of a unified power quality conditioner
is presented in. VSIs are preferred for both shunt and series sides. The series
converters are generally composed of 6 Bridges VSI and rarely composed of three
single-phase H Bridge VSIs. Shunt converters are generally composed of 6 bridge
VSIs for three-phase. There are also some studies using 6 bridge inverters for series
converter and three single-phase H bridge inverters for shunt converter. Current
source inverters are preferred for both shunt and series sides in. The effect of
harmonics generated by the inverter can be minimized using inverter side and line side
filtering. Inverter side LC filtering is generally preferred for both series sides and
inverter side L filtering is generally preferred for shunt side. Inverter side C filtering is
preferred for shunt side in. UPQC incorporating an LCL filter is presented in. Series
converter of UPQC is most of time in standby mode and conduction losses will
account for the bulk of converter losses during the operation. In this mode, the series
injection transformer works like a secondary shorted current transformer using bypass
switches delivering utility power directly to the load. A novel configuration of UPQC
19
which can be connected to the distribution system without series injection
transformers is presented in.

2.6 Control Techniques of UPQC Topologies

The control unit is the most important part of UPQC system. Rapid detection of
disturbance signal with high accuracy, fast processing of the reference signal and high
dynamic response of the controller are the prime requirements for desired
compensation. The main considerations for the control system of a UPQC include
(Figure 2.5):

• Series inverter control: Sag/swell detection, voltage reference generation,


voltage injection strategies and methods for generating of gating signals.

• Shunt inverter control: Current reference generation, methods for generating of


gating signals and capacitor voltage co

Figure 2.5: Control unit of UPQC with a specified power circuit topology

2.7 UPQC in Service and Future Trends

Digital controller based UPQC has been developed for a laboratory prototype in some

20
of the studies. As a large-scale structure, a 250kVA UPQC is developed at Centre for
the Development of Advanced Computing, Trivandrum, India and is under field trial
at the centre. Hykon Group Company installs IGBT based UPQC in the range of
10kVA to 250kVA connected to a low voltage level.Most of the proposed or practiced
control strategies for power quality conditioners have been reviewed with regard to
performance and implementation. The research reveals that there has been a
significant increase in interest of UPQC and associated control methods. This can be
attributed to the availability of suitable powerswitching devices at affordable price as
well as new generation of fast computing devices.
However, deregulation of electricity market may contribute to rising Penetration level
of distributed generation from renewable energy sources (e.g. wind, solar, biomass,
etc.) in the near future. This can lead to an increase in the number of UPQC studies
based on distributed generation.

2.8 Summary

Widespread applications of power electronic based devices/equipment in industry


have increased the importance and application of power quality studies. Decrease in
the cost of power electronic devices and improvement in the efficiency of both power
converters and energy storage components have increased the applicability of new
technological solutions such as Custom Power devices. CP devices including DVR,
APF and UPQC are showing tremendous development. These devices have become
very popular in recent years in both low voltage and medium voltage applications.

The comprehensive reviews of articles concerning CP devices are presented to show


the advantages and disadvantages of each possible configuration and control
techniques. The literature survey reveals that new control algorithms and topologies
for CP devices have been developed to minimize the power losses, increase the
system flexibility and efficiency. These reviews will help the researchers to select the
optimum control strategy and power circuit configuration for their CP applications.
21
CHAPTER 3

POWER QUALITY AND ITS PROBLEMS

Electric systems and grids are complex dynamic systems. These systems suffer usually from
unexpected or sudden changes of the currents and voltages. These changes are due mainly to the
different types of linear and non-linear loads to which they are connected. In addition, to different
types of accidents which can intervener into the grid. With the increasing use of power
semiconductors in the most of industrial and domestic procedures, the electric grids are polluted with
different harmonic currents and voltages. These harmonics affect the normal function of the most of
the grid connected devices; in addition to considerable economic losses. Many classic and modern
solutions have been proposed in the literary for the harmonic problems. In this chapter, the harmonic
problem as one of the most common power quality problems will be presented. The different modern
and traditional solutions will then be discussed.

3.1 Definition of Power Quality

Power quality is a term that means different things to different people. Institute of Electrical and
Electronic Engineers (IEEE) Standard IEEE1100 defines power quality as “The concept of powering
and grounding sensitive electronic equipment in a manner suitable for the equipment.” As appropriate
as this description might seem, the limitation of power quality to “sensitive electronic equipment”
might be subject to disagreement.

Electrical equipment susceptible to power quality or more appropriately to lack of power quality
would fall within a seemingly boundless domain. All electrical devices are prone to failure or
malfunction when exposed to one or more power quality problems. The electrical device might be an
electric motor, a transformer, a generator, a computer, a printer, communication equipment or a
household appliance. All of these devices and others react adversely to power quality issues,
depending on the severity of problems.

A simpler and perhaps more concise definition might state: “Power quality is a set of electrical
boundaries that allows a piece of equipment to function in its intended manner without significant
loss of performance or life expectancy.” This definition embraces two

22
things that we demand from an electrical device: performance and life expectancy. Any power-related
problem that compromises either attribute is a power quality concern.

Power quality can also be defined as a set of electrical boundaries that allows a piece of equipment to
function in its intended manner without significant loss of performance or life expectancy. Power
distribution systems should provide their customers with an uninterrupted flow of energy at smooth
sinusoidal voltage at the contracted magnitude level and frequency. However, in power systems,
especially the distribution systems have many nonlinear loads, which significantly affect the quality
of power supplies. As a result of the nonlinear loads, the pure sinusoidal waveform is lost. This ends
up producing many power quality problems.

3.2 Power Systems Distortion and Problems

In power systems, different voltage and current problems can be faced. The main voltage problems
can be summarized in short duration variations, voltage interruption, frequency variation, voltage dips
and harmonics. Harmonics represent the main problem of currents of power systems.

The main reasons for concern with power quality (PQ) are as following:

• End user devices become more sensitive to PQ due to many microprocessor-based controls

• Large computer systems in many businesses facilities.

• Power electronics equipment used for enhancing system stability, operation and efficiency.
These are major sources of bad Power Quality.

• Continuous development of high-performance equipment: Such equipment is more susceptible to


power disturbances.

The users always demand higher power quality. Some basic criterions for power quality are

constant rms value, constant frequency, symmetrical three-phases, pure sinusoidal wave

shape and limited THD.

23
3.2 Responsibilities of the suppliers and users of electrical power

The realization of quality electrical power is the responsibility of the suppliers and sers of electricity.
Suppliers are in the business of selling electricity to widely varying client. The need of one user is
usually not the same as the needs of other users. Most electrical equipment is designed to operate
within a voltage of ±5% of nominal with marginal decrease in performance. For the most part,
utilities are committed to adhering to these limits. At locations remote from substations supplying
power from small generating stations, voltages outside of the ±5% limit are occasionally seen. Such
variation could have a negative impact on loads such as motors and fluorescent lighting. The overall
effects of voltage outside the nominal are not that significant unless the voltage approaches the limits
of ±10% of nominal. Also, in urban areas, the utility frequencies are rarely outside ±0.1 Hz of the
nominal frequency. This is well within the operating tolerance of most sensitive.[1

3.3 Sources of Poor Power Quality

Sources of poor Power Quality are listed as follows:

• Adjustable –speed drives

• Switching Power supplies

• Arc furnaces

• Electronic Fluorescent lamp ballasts

• Lightning Strike

• L-G fault

• Non- linear load

• Starting of large motors

• Power electronic devices


3.4 Need of Power Quality

There is an increased concern of power quality due to the following reasons:

1. New-generation loads that use microprocessor and microcontroller-based

24
controls and power electronic devices, are more sensitive to power quality variations than that
equipment used in the past.

2. The demand for increased overall power system efficiency resulted in continued growth of
devices such as high-efficiency adjustable-speed motor drives and shunt capacitors for power factor
correction to reduce losses. This is resulting in increasing harmonic level on power systems and has
many people concerned about the future impact on system capabilities.

3. End users have an increased awareness of power quality issues. Utility customers are
becoming better informed about such issues as interruptions, sags, and switching transients and are
challenging the utilities to improve the quality of power delivered.

4. Most of the networks are interconnected these days. Integrated processes mean that the failure
of any component has much more important consequences

3.5 Classification of Power Quality Problems

3.5.1 Short Duration Voltage Variation

Depending on the fault location and the system conditions, the fault can cause either temporary
voltage drops (sags), voltage rises (swells), or a complete loss of voltage (interruptions). The duration
of short voltage variations is less than 1minute. These variations are caused by fault conditions, the
energization of large loads which require high starting currents, or intermittent loose connections in
power wiring.

3.5.1.1 Voltage Sag

Voltage sag (also called a “dip”) is a brief decrease in the rms line voltage of 10 to 90 percent of the
nominal line-voltage. The duration of a sag is 0.5 cycle to 1 minute. Common sources that contribute
to voltage sags are the starting of large induction motors and utility faults.

25
Figure 3.1: Voltage Sag

3.5.1.2 Voltage Swell

A swell is a brief increase in the rms line-voltage of 110 to 180 percent of the nominal line-voltage
for duration of 0.5 cycle to 1 minute. The main sources of voltage swells are line faults and incorrect
tap settings in tap changers in substations.InterruptionAn interruption is defined as a reduction in line-
voltage or current to less than 10 percent of the nominal, not exceeding 60 seconds in length.
Interruptions can occur due to power system faults, equipment failures and control malfunctions.

Figure 3.2: Voltage Swell

3.5.1.3 Interruption

An interruption is defined as a reduction in line-voltage or current to less than 10 percent of the


nominal, not exceeding 60 seconds in length. Interruptions can occur due to power system faults,
equipment failures and control malfunction

26
Figure 3.3: Interruption

3.5.2 Long-Duration Voltage Variation

Long-duration variations can be categorized as over voltages, under voltages or sustained

interruptions.

3.5.2.1 Overvoltage

An overvoltage is an increase in the rms ac voltage greater than 110 percent at the power frequency
for duration longer than 1 min. Over voltages are usually the results of load switching or incorrect tap
settings on transformers.

3.5.2.2 Under voltage

An under voltage is decreases in the rms ac voltage to less than 90 percent at the power frequency for
duration longer than 1 min. A load switching on or a capacitor bank switching off can cause an under
voltage until voltage regulation equipment on the system can restore the voltage back to within
tolerance limits. Also overloaded circuits can result in under voltage

3.5.2 Sustained Interruptions

When the supply voltage has been zero for a period of time in excess of 1 min the long- duration
voltage variation is considered a sustained interruption.

27
3.5.3 Transients

3.5.3.1 Impulsive Transient

An impulsive transient is a brief, unidirectional variation in voltage, current, or bothon a power line.
Lightning strikes, switching of inductive loads, or switching in the power distribution system are the
most common causes of impulsive transients. The effects of transients can be mitigated by the use of
transient voltage suppressors such as Zener diodes.

Figure 3.4: Impulsive Transients[2]

3.5.3.2 Oscillatory Transient

An oscillatory transient is a brief, bidirectional variation in voltage, current, or both on a power line.
These are caused due to the switching of power factor correction capacitors.

Figure 3.5: Oscillatory Transients[2]

3.5.4 Voltage Fluctuations

Voltage fluctuations are relatively small (less than 5 percent) variations in the rms line voltage.

Figure 3.6: Voltage Fluctuations or Flicker

Cyclo-converters, arc furnaces, and other systems that draw current not in synchronization with the
line frequency are the main contributors of these variations.

28
3.5.5 Voltage Imbalance

A voltage imbalance is a variation in the amplitudes of three-phase voltages, relative to one another.
Voltage imbalance can be the result of different loads on the phases, resulting in different voltage
drops through the phase-line impedances.

Figure 3.7: Voltage imbalance [2]

3.5.6 Waveform Distortion

Waveform distortion is defined as a steady-state deviation from an ideal sine wave of power
frequency principally characterized by the spectral content of the deviation.

(i) DC offset: The presence of a dc voltage or current in an ac power system is termed dc offset.

3.5.7 Harmonics

Harmonics are sinusoidal voltages or currents having frequencies that are integer multiples of the
frequency at which the supply system is designed to operate, and that is known as the fundamental
frequency which is usually 50 or 60 Hz. The harmonic distortion originates in the nonlinear
characteristics of devices and also on loads connected to the power system

29
Figure 3.8: Harmonics [2]

Harmonic distortion levels can be described by the calculating total harmonic distortion (THD) which
measures the complete harmonic spectrum with magnitudes and phase angles of each individual
harmonic component. THD is represented as the square-root of the sum of the squares of each
individual harmonic. Voltage THD is

Where V1 is the rms magnitude of the fundamental component, and Vn is the rms magnitude of
component n where n = 2,....., .∞ The problem with this approach is that THD become infinity if no
fundamental is present. A way to avoid this ambiguity is to use an alternate definition that represents
the harmonic distortion. This is called the distortion index (DIN) and is defined as

THD and DIN are interrelated by the following equations

30
3.5.7.1 Sub-harmonics

Sub harmonics can be defined as frequency components in voltage and current waveforms less than
the power system frequency. Cyclo-converters, adjustable speed drives, arc furnaces, wind generators
and other loads inject low frequency currents that produce sub harmonic distortion in voltage supply

3.5.7.2 Inter-harmonics

Voltages or currents having frequency components that are not integer multiples of the frequency at
which the supply system is designed to operate (50 or 60 Hz) are called inter- harmonics. Inter-
harmonics can appear as discrete frequencies or as a wideband spectrum. The main sources of inter-
harmonic waveform distortion are static frequency converters, induction furnaces, cyclo-converters
and arcing devices. Power line carrier signals can also be considered as inter-harmonics.

3.5.8 Electrical Noise

Noise is a high frequency distortion of the voltage waveform. Caused by disturbances on the utility
system or by equipment such as welders, switchgear and transmitters, noise can frequently go
unnoticed. Frequent or high levels of noise can cause equipment malfunction, overheating and
premature wear.

Figure 3.9: Electrical Noise Waveform

31
3.5.9 Notching

Notching is a disturbance of opposite polarity to the normal voltage waveform (which is


subtracted from the normal waveform) lasting for less than one-half cycle.Notching is usually caused
by malfunctioning of electronic switches or power conditioners. While it is generally not a major
problem, notching can cause equipment, especially electronics, to operate improperly.

Figure 3.10: Notching Waveform[3]

3.6 Effects of Harmonics

Harmonic currents will flow into the utility feeder and may create a number of problems in so
doing. They may be trapped by power factor correction capacitors and overload them or cause
resonant over-voltages. They can distort the feeder voltage enough to cause problems in computers,
telephone lines, motors, and power supplies, and may even cause transformer failures from eddy
current losses. The harmonic currents may be trapped by installing series LC filters resonant at the
offending frequencies. These filters should be designed to offer low impedance at the resonant
frequency compared to the source impedance at that frequency. But, again, there is a hidden “gotcha.”
If a filter is installed that has a series resonance at the 7th harmonic, it will also have a parallel
resonance with the utility at a lower frequency when the source inductance is added to the filter
inductance. If this parallel resonance should lie on or near the 5th harmonic, there is the possibility of
the resonant over-currents described earlier. The installation of series resonant traps will always
introduce parallel resonances at frequencies below the trap frequencies. Good practice dictates that
multiple resonant traps be installed first at the

32
lowest harmonic frequency of concern and then in sequence at the higher-frequency harmonics. If
switched, they should be switched on in sequence starting with the lowest frequency trap and
switched out in sequence starting from the highest frequency trap.

The voltage or current distortion limit is determined by the sensitivity of loads (also of power
sources), which are influenced by the distorted quantities. The least sensitive is heating equipment of
any kind. The most sensitive kind of equipment’s is those electronic devices which have been
designed assuming an ideal (almost) sinusoidal fundamental frequency voltage or current waveforms.
Electric motors are the most popular loads which are situated between these two categories.

3.6.1 Power Factor

Power factor is defined as the ratio of real power to volt-amperes and is the cosine of the phase angle
between the voltage and the current in an AC circuit. These are neatly defined quantities with
sinusoidal voltages and currents. Power factor can be improved by adding capacitors on the power
line to draw a leading current and supply lagging VArs to the system. Power factor correction
capacitors can be switched in and out as necessary to maintain VAr and voltage control.For a
sinusoidal signal, the power factor is given by the ratio between the active and the apparent power.
Electrical equipment’s’ parameters are normally given under nominal voltage and current. A low
power factor can indicate bad use of this equipment’s. The apparent power can be defined by:

S=V_rms.I_rms=V_rms.√(1/T) ∫_0^T▒i_L^2 dt (2.5)

The active power P can be given by the relation:

P=V_rms.I_rms.cos⁡〖(∝ 1)〗 (2.6)

The reactive power Q is defined by:

Q=V_rms.I_rms.sin⁡〖(∝ 1)〗 (2.7)The

power factor in this case can be given by Equation 2.8.

P.F=P/S=P/√(P^2+Q^2 ) (2.8)

33
In the case where there is harmonics, a supplementary power called the distorted power D appears.
This power can be given by the relation.

D=V_rms.√(∑_(n=2)^α▒I_Ln^2 ) (2.9)

The apparent power can then be expressed as:

S=√(P^2+Q^2+D^2 ) (2.10)

The power factor is then given by:

P.F=P/√(P^2+Q^2+D^2 ) (2.11)

From equation (2.11), we can notice that the power factor decreases because of the existence of
harmonics in addition to the reactive power consumption. The Fresnel diagram of the power is given
in Fig. 3.2.

3.6.2 Distortion Factor

The distortion factor Fd is defined as the ratio between the fundamental and the signal in RMS
values. It is given by:

F_(d=) I_L1/I_rms (2.3)

It is then equal to unity when the current is purely sinusoidal and decreases when the distortion
appears.

3.6.3 Crest Factor

The crest factor of a signal Fc is defined by Equation (2.4):

F_c=(crest value )/(effectivevalue ) (2.4)

For sinusoidal waves, the crest factor is 1.41. It can achieve the value of 5 in the case of highly
distorted waves.equipment, especially electronics, to operate improperly.

3.7 Solutions to Power Quality Problems

The mitigation of power quality problems can be achieved in two ways. It can be done from
either customer side or utility side. First approach used is load conditioning and the other is line
conditioning. Load conditioning ensures that the equipment is less

34
sensitive to power disturbances. They are based on PWM converters and connected in shunt or in
series to low and medium voltage

distribution system. Series active power filters operate in conjunction with shunt passive filters in
order to compensate load current harmonics. Series active power filters operates as a controllable
voltage source whereas shunt active power filters operate as a controllable current source. Both of
these schemes are implemented preferable with voltage source PWM inverters, with a dc bus having a
reactive element such as a capacitor. However, with the restructuring of power sector, the line
conditioning systems or utility side solutions will play a vital role in improving the inherent supply
quality. Some of the effective and economic measures can be identified as following: [3]

3.7.1 Lightening and Surge Arresters

Arresters are designed for lightening protection of transformers, but are not sufficient for limiting
voltage fluctuations to protect sensitive electronic control circuits.

3.7.2 Thyristor Based Static Switches

The static switch is a device for switching a new element into the circuit when the voltage support is
needed. It has a dynamic response time of about one cycle. It can be used in the alternate power line
applications. To correct quickly for voltage spikes, sags or interruptions, the static switch can be used
to switch one or more of devices such as filter, capacitor, alternate power line, energy storage systems
etc.

3.7.3 Energy Storage Systems

Storage systems can be used to protect sensitive equipment from shutdowns caused by voltage sags or
momentary interruptions. Energy is fed to the system to compensate for the energy that would be lost
by the voltage sag or interruption. The systems used are usually DC storage systems such as batteries,
UPS, superconducting magnet energy storage (SMES), storage capacitors or even fly wheels driving
DC generators. The output of these devices can be supplied to the system through an inverter on a
momentary basis

3.7.4 Electronic Tap Changing Transformer

A voltage-regulating transformer with an electronic load tap changer can be used with a single line
from the utility. It can regulate the voltage drops up to 50% and requires a stiff system (short circuit
power to load ratio of 10:1 or better).
35
3.7.5 Harmonic Filters

Filter are used where effective reduction or elimination of certain harmonics is required. If possible, it
is always preferable to use a 12-pulse or higher transformer connection, rather than a filter. Usually,
multiple filters are needed, each tuned to a separate harmonic. Each filter causes a parallel resonance
as well as a series resonance, and each filter slightly changes the resonances of other filters. [3]

3.8 Custom power devices

3.8.1 Introduction

For improving the system performance for distribution system and with the growing development of
the power semiconductor technology, the concepts of custom power were introduced to distribution
systems. The concept describes the value-added power that electric utilities will offer their customers
in the future, focusing on the quality of power flow and reliability. Due to this increasing demand and
the rapid development of the high- power semiconductor technology, the custom power solutions are
taking place rapidly. In a custom power system customer receives specified power quality from a
utility or a service provider or at-the-fence equipment installed by the customer in coordination with
the utility, which includes an acceptable combination of the following features:

• No (or rare) power interruptions

• Magnitude and duration of voltage reductions within specified limits.

• Low harmonic voltage.

• Low phase unbalance

This can be done on the basis of an individual, large customer, industry or a supply for a high-tech
community on a wide area basis.

3.8.2 Need of Custom Power

The increased use of automated equipment, like adjustable speed drives, programmable logic
controllers, switching power supplies, arc furnaces, electronic fluorescent lamp ballasts, automated
production lines are far more vulnerable to disturbances than were the previous generation equipment
and less automated production and information systems.Even though the power generation in most
advanced country is fairly reliable, the distribution is not always so. It is however not only reliability
36
that the consumers want these days, quality too is very important for them. With the deregulation of
the electric power energy market, the awareness regarding the quality of power is increasing day by
day among customers. Power quality is an issue that is becoming increasingly important to electricity
consumers at all levels of usage.In the several processes such as semiconductor manufacturing or
food processing plants, a batch of product can be ruined by a voltage dip of very short duration. Even
short dips are sufficient to cause contactors on motor drives to drop out. There are other loads which
are very sensitive such as hospitals, processing plants, air traffic control and numerous other data
processing and service providers that require clean and uninterrupted power. Thus, in this scenario in
which customers increasingly demand power quality, the term power quality attains increased
significance.The factors mentioned point out the problems faced by the industry and awareness of
consumers about quality of power due to which it has increasingly become important to provide the
consumers with the reliable as well as superior power quality. Thus,the development of custom power
has gained so much of widespread attention nowadays. [4]

3.8.3 Custom Power Devices

There are many types of Custom Power devices. Some of these devices include Active Power Filters
(APF), Surge Arresters (SA). Battery Energy Storage Systems(BESS), Super conducting Magnetic
Energy Systems (SMES), Static Electronic Tap Changers (SETC), Solid State Fault Current Limiter
(SSFCL), Solid-State Transfer Switches (SSTS), Static VAR Compensator (SVC), Distribution Series
Capacitors (DSC), Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR), Distribution Static synchronous Compensators
(DSTATCOM) and Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS) , Unified power quality
conditioner(UPQC).The classification of custom power devices can be done into two major
categories, one is network configuring type and the other is compensating type. The network
configuring type devices changes the configuration of the power system network for power quality
enhancement. SSCL (Solid State Current Limiter), SSCB (Solid State Circuit Breaker) and SSTS
(Solid State Transfer Switch) are the most representative in this category.The compensating type
devices are used for active filtering; load balancing, power factor correction and voltage regulation.
The family of compensating devices includes DSTATCOM (Distribution Static compensator), DVR
(Dynamic voltage restorer) and Unified power quality conditioner (UPQC). DSTATCOM is
connected in shunt with the power system while DVR is a series connected device that injects a rapid
series voltage to compensate the supply voltage. UPQC is the combination of DSTATCOM and
DVR. It injects series voltage and shunt currents to the system.Though there are many different
methods to mitigate voltage sags and swells, but the use of a custom power device is considered to be
the most efficient method to serve for different purposes. The term Custom Power pertains to the use
37
of power electronic controllers in a distribution system to deal with various power quality problems.
It makes sure that customers get pre-specified quality and reliability of power supply that may include
a single or the combination of the specifications like no power interruptions, low phase unbalance,
low harmonic distortion in load voltage, low flicker at the load voltage, acceptance of fluctuations,
magnitude and duration of overvoltage and under voltages within specified limits and poor factor
loads without significant effect on the terminal voltage.

3.8.4 Solid State Current Limiter

The most widely used solution for limitation of the fault currents is to use a transformer with a split
secondary winding (or a three windings transformer) and current limiting reactors. The basic
configuration of Solid-State Current Limiter is shown in Figure 3.1. However, the usage of fault
current limiting reactors with powerful motor loads has a negative impact on the stability of motors,
for example

when short-term voltage sags occur. It would be worthwhile to directly control transients, resulting
from faults, at primary circuits, thus alleviating effects of the faults.Series fault current limiters used
to limit the fault current by disconnecting solid-state switch and increasing the impedance. However,
such scheme has a disadvantage: the system should be operating in continuous mode, and
malfunction of the static switch could lead to interruption of power supply for the customer.Parallel
fault current limiters are activated only at the moment of fault and have the following functions:

• limit the peak fault current


• decrease the motors feeding into the fault
• shunt the consumer switches while disconnecting

38
Figure 3.11: Solid state current limiter[5]19

3.9 Solutions for the Harmonics

The filtering of the grid currents and voltage is a priory problem for the distributer as like as
the client. Because the limits on harmonic emission are not equally applied in the low of the different
countries, the producers of the different electrical devices try to construct devices that satisfy for the
conditions and limits of the international standards. The electric companies, from its side, use
different filtering equipment’s and encourage the researches toward finding new efficient solutions
for the power quality problems.

39
The clients install also sometimes reactive power and harmonic compensation batteries to
operate the power factor and reduce the energy consumption bill.

Many traditional and modern solutions for harmonics mitigation and power quality
improvement were proposed in literary. Some of these solutions investigate in the load to minimize
the harmonic emission while the others propose the use of external filtering equipment’s that prevent
the spread of harmonics into the grid.

3.9.1 In-Line Reactors

In-line reactor or choke is a simple solution to control harmonic distortion generated by adjustable
speed drives. The solution is come up with inserting a relatively small reactor, or choke, at the input
of the drive. The inductance prevents the capacitor to be charged in a short time and forces the drive
to draw current over a longer time and reduces the magnitude of the current with much less harmonic
content while still delivering the same energy.

3.9.2 Transformers with Passive Coupling

Some types of triangle zigzag coupling of transformers allow the elimination of the harmonics of
order 3 and its multiples. The cost of these coupling types is the augmentation of the source
impedance, and then the augmentation of voltage harmonic distortion.

3.9.3 Passive Filters

Passive filter, which is relatively inexpensive in comparison with the other harmonic reduction
methods, is the most used method. Inductance, capacitor and the load as a resistance are tuned in a
way to control the harmonics. However, they suffer from interfering with the power systems.
Actually, passive filters are designed to shunt harmonics from the lines or block their flow through
some parts of the systems by tuning the elements to create a resonance at the selected frequency.
These filters are tuned and fixed according to the impedance of the point at which they will be
connected and hence cannot be adjusted instantaneously in accordance to the load. As a result their
cutoff

40
frequency changes unexpectedly after any change in the load impedance resulting in producing a
resonance with other elements installed in the system.

3.10 Modern Solutions for Harmonic Problems

Modern solutions were proposed as efficient solutions for the elimination of electric grid harmonics
in order to defeat the disadvantages of the traditional methods like passive filters. Between these
solutions we find two categories which are the most used:

Active filters (series, parallel, or a combination of both of them in Unified Power


Quality Conditioner (UPQC)).

Hybrid filters composed of active and passive filters at once.Active Power


Filters

The increasing use of power electronics-based loads (adjustable speed drives, switch mode power
supplies, etc.) to improve system efficiency and controllability is increasing the concern for harmonic
distortion levels in end use facilities and on the overall power system. The application of passive
tuned filters creates new system resonances which are dependent on specific system
conditions.Passive filters often need to be significantly overrated to account for possible harmonic
absorption from the power system. Passive filter ratings must coordinate with reactive power
requirements of the loads and it is often difficult to design the filters to avoid leading power factor
operation for some load conditions.Active filters have the advantage of being able to compensate for
harmonics without fundamental frequency reactive power concerns. Currently they are based on
PWM converters and connect to low and medium voltage distribution system in shunt or in series.
Series active power filters must operate in conjunction with shunt passive filters in order to
compensate load current harmonics. Shunt active power filters operate as a controllable current source
and series active power filters operates as a controllable voltage source. Both schemes are
implemented preferable with voltage source PWM inverters, with a dc bus having a reactive element
such as a capacitor.Active power filters can perform one or more of the functions required to
compensate power systems and improving power quality. The rating of the active power can be less
than a conquerable

41
passive filter for the same nonlinear load and the active filter will not introduce system
resonances that can move a harmonic problem from one frequency to another. [6]

3.10.1 Series Active Power Filter (Series APF)

Fig 3.12: Series Active Power Filter

The aim of the series APF is to locally modify the impedance of the grid. It is considered as
harmonic voltage source which cancel the voltage perturbations which come from the grid or these
created by the circulation of the harmonic currents into the grid impedance. However, series APFs
can’t compensate the harmonic currents produced by the loads.

3.10.2 SHUNT ACTIVE POWER FILTER

Fig 3.13: Shunt Active Power Filter

42
The SAPFs are connected in parallel with the harmonic producing loads. They are expected to
inject in real time the harmonic currents absorbed by the pollutant loads. Thus, the grid current will
become sinusoidal.Fig. 3.13 Shunt APF Connected in Parallel with Non-Linear Load

3.15 Combination of Parallel and Series APF (UPQC)

Fig. 3.15 explains the combination of two APFs parallel and series, called also (Unified
Power Quality Conditioner). This structure combines the advantages of the two APF type’s series and
parallel. So it allows simultaneously achieving sinusoidal source current and voltage

3.10.3 Hybrid Filters

Hybrid filter is a filter topology which combines the advantages of the passive and active
filters. For this reason, it is considered as the best solution to eliminate the harmonic currents from the
grid. The principal reason for the use of hybrid filters is the development of the power
semiconductors like MOSFETs and IGBTs. Over more, from an economical point of view, the hybrid
power filters allow reducing the cost of APF.

Hybrid power filters can be classified according to the number of elements used in the
topology, the treated system (single phase, three phase three legs or four legs) and the used inverter
type (current source inverter or voltage source inverter).

3.10.4 Non-Linear Loads

When the input current into the electrical equipment does not follow the impressed voltage across the
equipment, then the equipment is said to have a nonlinear relationship between the input voltage and

43
input current. All equipment’s that employ some sort of rectification are examples of nonlinear loads.
Nonlinear loads generate voltage and current harmonics that can have adverse effects on equipment
designed for operation as linear loads. Transformers that bring power into an industrial environment
are subject to higher heating losses due to harmonic generating sources (nonlinear loads) to which
they are connected.

3.10.5 Shunt Active Power Filter

The concept of using active power filters to mitigate harmonic problems and to compensate reactive
power was proposed more than two decades ago. It has proven its ability to control the grid current
and to ameliorate the power quality. The theories and applications of active power filters have become
more popular and have attracted great attention. Without the drawbacks of passive harmonic filters,
such as component aging and resonant problems, the active power filter appears to be a viable
solution for reactive power compensation as well as for eliminating harmonic currents. As we
mentioned earlier, the SAPF is connected in parallel with the non-linear load to behave as another
controlled non-linear load. The system of the non-linear load and the SAPF will be seen by the grid as
a linear load connected to the PCC. In the case of compensation of reactive

power this load will be resistive. Otherwise it will be either inductive or capacitive linear load.

3.10.6 Distribution Static Compensator (DSTATCOM)

The purpose of the DSTATCOM is to cancel load harmonics fed to the supply. The coupling of
DSTATCOM is three phases, in parallel to network and load. It works as current sources, connected
in parallel with the nonlinear load, generating the harmonic currents the load requires also balance
them in addition to providing reactive power. In order to compensate undesirable components of the
load current the DSTATCOM injects currents into the point of common coupling. With an
appropriated control strategy, it is also possible to correct power factor and unbalanced loads. This
principle is applicable to any type of load considered a harmonic source.

44
Figure 3.16: Distribution Starcom (DSTATCOM)

Its advantage is that it of carries only the compensation current plus a small amount of active
fundamental current supplied to compensate for system losses. Shunt Active Power Filter in current
control mode is also called as DSTATCOM.

3.10.7 Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR):

Figure 3.17: Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR) [6

DVR injects a voltage component in series with the supply voltage, thus compensating voltage sags
and swells on the load side. Control response is on the order of 3msec, ensuring a secure voltage
supply under transient network conditions. Voltage injection of arbitrary phase with respect to the
load current implies active power transfer capability. This active power is transferred via the dc link,
and is supplied either by a diode bridge

45
connected to the ac network, a shunt connected PWM converter or by an energy storage device. It
works as a harmonic isolator to prevent the harmonics in the source voltage reaching the load in
addition to balancing the voltages and providing voltage regulation.

3.10.8 Unified Power Quality Conditioner (UPQC)

The best protection for sensitive loads from sources with inadequate quality, is shuntseries connection
i.e. unified power quality conditioner (UPQC) .Recent research efforts have been made towards
utilizing unified power quality conditioner (UPQC) to solve almost all power quality problems for
example voltage sag, voltage swell, voltage outage and over correction of power factor and
unacceptable levels of harmonics in the current and voltage The basic configuration of UPQC is
shown in fig

Figure 3.18: Unified Power Quality Conditioner (UPQC)

The main purpose of a UPQC is to compensate for supply voltage flicker/imbalance, reactive power,
negative-sequence current, and harmonics. In other words, the UPQC has the capability of improving
power quality at the point of installation on power distribution systems or industrial power systems.
The UPQC, therefore, is expected as one of the most powerful solutions to large capacity sensitive
loads to voltage flicker/imbalance.Unified Power Quality Conditioner (UPQC) for non-linear and a
voltage sensitive load has following facilities:

46
• It eliminates the harmonics in the supply current, thus improves utility current quality

for nonlinear loads.

• UPQC provides the VAR requirement of the load, so that the supply voltage and

current are always in phase, therefore, no additional power factor correction equipment

is necessary.

• UPQC maintains load end voltage at the rated value even in the presence of supply voltage

sag.

• The voltage injected by UPQC to maintain the load end voltage at the desired value is

taken from the same dc link, thus no additional dc link voltage support is required for the

series compensator.

The UPQC consists of two three phase inverters connected in cascade in such a manner that Inverter I
is connected in series with the supply voltage through a transformer inverter II is connected in parallel
with the load. The main purpose of the shunt compensator is to compensate for the reactive power
demanded by the load, to eliminate the harmonics and to regulate the common dc link voltage. The
series compensator is operated in PWM voltage-controlled mode. It injects voltage in quadrature
advance to the supply voltage (current) such that the load end voltage is always maintained at the
desired value. The two inverters operate in a coordinated manner

There are three principle elements to the custom power concept; these are:

 The Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR), it provides series compensationby voltage injection for
power system sag and swell
 The Distribution Static Compensator (D-STATCOM), it providescontinuously variable shunt
compensation by current injection foreliminating voltage fluctuations and obtaining correct
power factor in three phase systems. An ideal

47
 application of it is to prevent disturbing from polluting the rest of the distribution system.
 Unified Power Quality Conditioner (UPQC), it provides series and shunt compensation i.e. inject
voltage in sag and swell condition and injectcurrent for elimination of voltage fluctuations, correct
power factor,avoid pollution to rest of the distribution system.
 The proper selection of necessary custom power strategies in addition toaccurate system
modeling and appropriate protection devices will increase the power quality.

3.11 Superiority of UPQC over Other Devices

Each of Custom Power devices has its own benefits and limitations. The UPQC is expected to be one
of the most powerful solutions to large capacity loads sensitive to supply voltage and load current
disturbances /imbalance. The most effective type of these devices is considered to be the Unified
Power Quality Conditioner (UPQC). There are numerous reasons why the UPQC is preferred over the
others. UPQC is much flexible than any single inverter-based device. It can simultaneously correct
for the unbalance and distortion in the source voltage and load current whereas all other devices either
correct current or voltage distortion. Therefore, the purpose of two devices is served by UPQC only.
[6]

48
CHAPTER 4

PROJECT DESIGN

4.1 Overview

Shunt active power filter compensates current harmonics by injecting equal-but- opposite harmonic
compensating currents into the grid. In this case the shunt active power filter operates as a current
source injecting the harmonic components generated by the load but phase shifted by 180°. This
principle is applicable to any type of load considered as harmonic source. Moreover, with an
appropriate control scheme, the active power filter can also compensate the load power factor. In this
way, the power distribution system sees the non-linear load and the active power filter as an ideal
resistor. The current compensation characteristics of the shunt active power filter is shown in Fig. 3.1

Fig. 4.1 Compensation Characteristic of Shunt Active Power Filter

49
4.2 Harmonic Current Extraction Methods
The aim of active power filtering is to compensate the harmonic currents produced by the non-
linear loads, and to ensure the sinusoidal form of grid currents and voltages. The first step in active
filtering is the harmonic currents extraction to be injected into the grid. The good extraction of
harmonics is a keyword for a good active power filtering. Many extraction methods were proposed in
literary. They can be divided into two families: the first family uses the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT)
in the frequency domain to extract the current harmonics. The main disadvantages of this method are
the bad results in transient, the heavy amount of calculations, and the use of considerable memory. In
addition to a delay in the extraction of harmonics which can be at least one period.

The second family is based on the time domain calculations in the extraction of harmonics.
Some of its methods are based on the instantaneous active and reactive power. Others are based on
the calculation of direct and indirect current components. Recently, the neural networks and the
adaptive linear neural networks have been used in the extraction of harmonic components of current
and voltage.

4.2.1 Instantaneous Active and Reactive Power Theory


Most APFs have been designed on the basis of instantaneous active and reactive power theory
(p-q), first proposed by Akagi et al in 1983. Initially, it was developed only for three-phase systems
without neutral wire, being later worked by Watanabe and Aredes for three-phase four wires power
systems. The method uses the transformation of distorted currents from three phase frame abc into bi-
phase stationary frame αβ. The basic idea is that the harmonic currents caused by nonlinear loads in
the power system can be compensated with other nonlinear controlled loads. The p-q theory is based
on a set of 31 instantaneous powers defined in the time domain. The three-phase supply voltages (ua,
ub, uc) and currents (ia, ib, ic) are transformed using the Clarke (or α-β) transformation into a different
coordinate system yielding instantaneous active and reactive power components. This transformation
may be viewed as a projection of the three-phase quantities onto a stationary two-axis reference
frame. The Clarke transformation for the voltage variables is given by

50
1 1
1 −2 −2
𝑢∝ 𝑢𝑎
2 √ 3 √ 3
[𝑢𝛽 ] = √ 0 − 2 [𝑢 𝑏 ] (3.1)
3 2
𝑢0 1 1 1 𝑢𝑐
[ √2 √2 √2 ]

Similarly, this transform can be applied on the distorted load currents to give:
1 1
1 −2 −2
𝑖𝑙∝ 𝑖𝑙𝑎
2 √3 √3
[𝑖𝑙𝛽 ] = √3 0 − [𝑖𝑙𝑏 ] (3.2)
2 2
𝑖𝑙0 1 1 1 𝑖𝑙𝑐
[√2 √2 √2 ]

The instantaneous active power p(t) is defined by:

p(t)= 𝑢𝑎 𝑖𝑙𝑎 + 𝑢𝑏 𝑖𝑙𝑏 + 𝑢𝑐 𝑖𝑙𝑐 (3.3)

This expression can be given in the stationary frame by:

𝑝(𝑡) = 𝑢∝ 𝑖𝑙∝ + 𝑢𝛽 𝑖𝑙𝛽


{ (3.4)
𝑝𝑜 (𝑡) = 𝑢𝑜 𝑖𝑙𝑜

Where, p(t) is the instantaneous active power, p0(t) is the instantaneous homo-polar
sequence power. Similarly the instantaneous reactive power can be given by:

1
𝑞 (𝑡 ) = − [(𝑢𝑎 − 𝑢𝑏 )𝑖𝑙𝑐 + (𝑢𝑏 − 𝑢𝑐 )𝑖𝑙𝑎 + (𝑢𝑐 − 𝑢𝑎 )𝑖𝑙𝑏 ] = 𝑢∝ 𝑖𝑙𝛽 − 𝑢𝛽 𝑖𝑙∝ (3.5)
√3

It is important to notice that the instantaneous reactive power q(t) signify more than
the simple reactive power. The instantaneous reactive power take in consideration all the
current and voltage harmonics, where as the habitual reactive power consider just the
fundamentals of current and voltage.

From equations (3.4) and (3.5) the instantaneous active and reactive power can be given in
matrix form by:

51
52
𝑝 𝑢∝ 𝑢𝛽 𝑖𝑙𝛼
[𝑞 ] = [−𝑢 𝑢𝛼 ] [𝑖𝑙𝛽 ] (3.6)
𝛽

In general, each one of the active and reactive instantaneous power contains a
direct component and an alternating component. The direct component of each presents the
power of the fundamentals of current and voltage. The alternating term is the power of the
harmonics of currents and voltages.
In order to separate the harmonics from the fundamentals of the load currents, it is
enough to separate the direct term of the instantaneous power from the alternating one. A
Low Pass Filter (LPF) with feed-forward effect can be used to accomplish this task. Fig.
4.2 shows the principle of this extraction filter.

Fig. 4.2 Diagram of the Low Pass Filter with Feed-Forward.

After the separation of the direct and alternating terms of instantaneous power, the
harmonic components of the load currents can be given using the inverse of equation (3.6)
which gives:

𝑖𝑙𝛼 1 𝑣𝑠∝ −𝑣𝑠𝛽 𝑝̃𝑙


[𝑖 ] = 2 +𝑣 2 [𝑣 𝑣𝑠𝛼 ] [𝑞̃𝑙 ] (3.7)
𝑙𝛽 𝑣𝑠∝ 𝑠𝛽 𝑠𝛽

Where, the "~ "sign points to the alternating.


The APF reference current can be then given by:


𝑖𝑓𝑎 1 0
1 √3 𝑖̃𝑙𝛼
∗ 2 −
[𝑖𝑓𝑏 ] = √ 2 2 [𝑖̃ ] (3.8)
3 𝑙𝛽
∗ 1 √3
𝑖𝑓𝑐
[− 2 − ]
2

52
53
Fig. 3.3 presents the principle of the active and reactive instantaneous power.
This method offers the advantage of the possibility of harmonic compensation
and/or reactive power compensation. In the case of reactive power compensation it is
enough to send the reactive power q(t) directly to the reference current calculation bloc
without the use of any extraction filter.

Fig. 4.3 Principle of Instantaneous Active and Reactive Power Theory.

4.3 Voltage Source Inverter


Voltage source inverters (VSI) are one of the most important applications of power
electronics. The main purpose of these devices is to provide a three-phase voltage source,
where the amplitude, phase, and frequency of the voltages should always be controllable.
The important development of VSI is a result, from the one hand to the development of
fast, controllable, powerful, and robust semi-conductors, from the other hand to the use of
the so-called pulse width modulation (PWM) techniques. In the high power applications,
the three level VSIs are the most adopted in comparison with two levels ones. Because the
THD of the output voltage and current of the three levels VSI is clearly lower.
The standard three-phase VSI topology is shown in Fig. 4.4. It is composed of three legs
with current reversible switches, controlled for the open and close. These switches are
realized by controlled switches (GTO or IGBT) with anti-parallel diodes to allow the flow
of the free-wheeling currents.

54
53
The switches of any leg of the inverter (T1 and T4, T2 and T5, T3 and T6) cannot
be switched on simultaneously because this would result in a short circuit across the dc
link voltage supply. Similarly, in order to avoid undefined states in the VSI, and thus
undefined ac output line voltages, the switches of any leg of the inverter cannot be
switched off simultaneously as this will result in voltages that will depend upon the
respective line current polarity.

Fig. 4.4 Three-phase Two Levels VSI Topology

4.3.1 Modeling of Voltage Source Inverter


The output of the VSI which is shown in Fig. 4.4 can take two levels of voltage
(+Vdc, - Vdc) dependent on the dc source voltage and the switches states. Actually, the
control of the two switches on the same leg is complementary: the conduction of one of
them implies the blocking of the other.
The state of each one of the switches is defined by the control signals (Sa, Sb and
Sc) as follow:

1 𝑖𝑓 𝑇1𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒 , 𝑇4𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛
𝑆𝑎 = {
0 𝑖𝑓 𝑇1𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 , 𝑇4 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒

1 𝑖𝑓 𝑇2𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒 , 𝑇5𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛
𝑆𝑏 = {
0 𝑖𝑓 𝑇2𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 , 𝑇5𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒

55
54
1 𝑖𝑓 𝑇3𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒 , 𝑇6𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛
𝑆𝑐 = {
0 𝑖𝑓 𝑇3𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 , 𝑇6𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒

4.3.2 Modeling of Active Power Filter


The connection of the shunt active power filter to the point of common coupling of
the grid is done mostly by the mean of a RL low pass filter as shown in Fig. 4.1. The
voltage equation for each phase can be given by:

𝑣𝑠𝑘 = 𝑣𝑓𝑘 − 𝑣𝐿𝑓𝑘 − 𝑣𝑅𝑓𝑘

𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑘
𝑣𝑓𝑘 − 𝐿𝑓 − 𝑅𝑓 𝑖𝑓𝑘 , k=a,b,c (3.9)
𝑑𝑡

The three phase equations are then given by:

𝑖𝑓𝑎 𝑖𝑓𝑎 𝑣𝑓𝑎 𝑠𝑠𝑎


𝑑
𝐿𝑓 [𝑖𝑓𝑏 ] = −𝑅𝑓 [𝑖𝑓𝑏 ] + [𝑣𝑓𝑏 ] − [𝑣𝑠𝑏 ] (3.10)
𝑑𝑡
𝑖𝑓𝑐 𝑖𝑓𝑐 𝑣𝑓𝑐 𝑣𝑠𝑐

And for the dc side:

𝑑𝑉𝑑𝑐
𝐶𝑑𝑐 . = 𝑆𝑎 𝑖𝑓𝑎 + 𝑆𝑏 𝑖𝑏 + 𝑆𝑐 𝑖𝑓 (3.11)
𝑑𝑡

The equation system defining the SAPF in the three phase frame is then given
𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑎
𝐿𝑓 = −𝑅𝑓 𝑖𝑓𝑎 + 𝑣𝑓𝑎 − 𝑣𝑠𝑎
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑏
by: 𝐿𝑓 = −𝑅𝑓 𝑖𝑓𝑏 + 𝑣𝑓𝑏 − 𝑣𝑠𝑏 (3.12)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑐
{ 𝐿𝑓 𝑑𝑡
= −𝑅𝑓 𝑖𝑓𝑐 + 𝑣𝑓𝑐 − 𝑣𝑠𝑐

56
55
Fig.4.5 SAPF Connection to the PCC

4.3.3 Control Methods of VSI


The aim of the control of the VSC is to force the output currents of the inverter to follow their
predefined reference currents. The main principle is based on the comparison between the actual
current of the filter with the reference currents generated by the different extraction methods. In the
next section, we are going to discuss some different methods in VSC control.

4.3.3.1 Hysteresis Control Method


The current control strategy plays an important role in fast response current controlled
inverters such as the active power filters. The hysteresis current control method is the most
commonly proposed control method in time domain. This method provides instantaneous current
corrective response, good accuracy and unconditioned stability to the system. Besides that, this
technique is said to be the most suitable solution for current controlled inverters.
Hysteresis current control is a method of controlling a voltage source inverter so that an output
current is generated which follows a reference current waveform.

The basic structure of PWM voltage source inverter with hysteresis controller is shown in Fig.
4.6. The hysteresis control strategy aims to keep the controlled current inside a defined rejoin around
the desired reference current. The status of the switches is determined according to the error. When
the current is increasing and the error exceeds a certain positive value, the status of the switches
changes and the current begins to decrease until the error reaches a certain negative value, then the
switches status changes again.

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Fig. 4.6 Hysteresis Control Principle

In the fix hysteresis band control of the VSI, the switching frequency is a function of the
derivative of the output current. This one depends on the value of the inductance of the decoupling
filter and the voltage drop around it. It is important to notice that the coupling filter affects the
switching frequency and the dynamic behavior of the active filter. The simple implementation
procedure is the main advantage of this control method. However, the variable switching frequency is
the major draw-back of this method. This variable frequency affects mainly the function of power
electronic elements which can’t support high switching frequency in high power applications. In
order to solve the problem of variable switching frequency, a new hysteresis control strategies like
“modulated hysteresis control” and “variable hysteresis band” were proposed. In the modulated
hysteresis control it is difficult to define the hysteresis band width. Over more, the fix switching
frequency achieved using this method affects the rapidity obtained by hysteresis control.

4.3.3.2 Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation (SPWM) Control


The control techniques based on the PWM solve the problem of switching frequency of the
VSI. They use a fix switching frequency which makes it easier to cancel the switching harmonics.
The PWM can be realized using different techniques such as

57
carrier based PWM, PWM with harmonics minimization, and space vector PWM. The carrier PWM
can be natural PWM, symmetric PWM, and asymmetric PWM.

The most simple and well known PWM technique is the sinusoidal PWM. This technique uses
a controller which determines the voltage reference of the inverter from the error between the
measured current and its reference. This reference voltage is then compared with a triangular carrier
signal (with high frequency defining the switching frequency). The output of this comparison gives
the switching function of the VSI. The choice of the ratio between the frequency of the reference
signal and the frequency of the carrier signal is very important in the case of symmetric and periodic
reference. As a consequence, in the case of sinusoidal reference, the ratio between the two
frequencies must be integer to synchronize the carrier with the reference. Over more, it is preferable
that the carrier frequency be odd to conserve the reference symmetry. In all cases this ratio must be
sufficiently high to ensure the fast switching and to take the switching harmonics away from the
fundamental produced by the inverter.

Fig. 4.7 The Principle of Sinusoidal PWM Control Method

Recently, new control techniques called space vector PWM were implemented. The difference
between this technique and the sinusoidal technique is that it doesn’t use carrier signal to define
switching orders.

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4.3.3.3 Space Vector PWM Control (SVPWM)
Space vector modulation technique was first introduced by German researchers in the mid of
1980s. This technique showed several advantages over the traditional PWM technique and has been
proven to inherently generate superior PWM waveforms. By implementing the SVM technique, the
number of switching is reduced to about 30% at the same carrier frequency of the sinusoidal pulse
width modulation (SPWM) method. It offers better DC bus utilizations with lower THD in the AC
current and reduces of switching losses too. The maximum modulation index for the SPWM method
is 0.785 with the sinusoidal waveform between the phase and the neutral current of the system.
However, the modulation index can be increased to 0.907 for the SVPWM.

The basic principle of the SVM technique is that it treats the inverter as a whole unit, which is
different when compared to PWM technique. This technique is based on the decomposition of a
reference voltage vector into voltage vector realizable on a six pulse inverter.
The SVPWM technique is widely used in inverter and rectifier controls. Compared to the
sinusoidal pulse width modulation (SPWM), SVPWM is more suitable for digital implementation and
can increase the obtainable maximum output voltage with maximum line voltage approaching 70.7%
of the DC link voltage (compared to SPWM’s 61.2%) in the linear modulation range. Moreover, it
can obtain a better voltage total harmonic distortion factor. There are different algorithms for using
SVPWM to modulate the inverter or rectifier. Many SVPWM schemes have been investigated
extensively in literatures. The goal in each modulation strategy is to lower the switching losses,
maximize bus utilization, reduce harmonic content, and still achieve precise control.

In the SVPWM scheme, the 3-phase output voltage is represented by a reference vector
which rotates at an angular speed of ω =2π f. The task of SVM is to use the combinations of
switching states to approximate the reference vector. To approximate the locus of this vector, the
eight possible switching states of the inverter are represented as 2 null vectors and 6 active vectors.

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4.4 Control of the Active Power Filter
The researchers are always at the point of the research to ameliorate the control methods of
the SAPF to achieve better results either from the point of view of better perturbation extraction
methods, the amelioration of the dynamic regimes, decreasing the value of the THD,…etc., or the
development of new control methods to ameliorate the performance of the APF with the different
non-linear loads. There are principally two methods for the compensation of the harmonic currents
dependent on the measured current.

4.4.1 Direct Control Method


In this method the load currents are measured and the harmonic currents are extracted from the
load currents. Fig. 3.8 shows the diagram of the direct control method. Using this method, the SAPF
injects the harmonic currents without any information about the grid currents. All the errors in the
system like the parameters uncertainty, the measurement or control errors will appear in the grid
current as unfiltered harmonic contents. The main advantage of this method is the system stability.
However, this method needs an expanded control algorithm with large number of sensors.

Fig. 4.8 Direct Control Method Diagram

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4.4.2 Indirect Control Method
This method based on the measurement of the source currents, and then to impose the
sinusoidal form on these currents. The control algorithm is less complicated and needs fewer sensors
than the direct control. Fig. 3.9 shows the diagram of the indirect control method of the SAPF.

Fig. 4.9 Indirect Control Method Diagram

MATLAB is a high-performance language for technical computing. It integrates computation,


visualization, and programming in an easy-to-use environment where problems and solutions are
expressed in familiar mathematical notation. Typical uses include-

 Math and computation


 Algorithm development
 Data acquisition
 Modeling, simulation, and prototyping
 Data analysis, exploration, and visualization
 Scientific and engineering graphics

MATLAB is an interactive system whose basic data element is an array that does not require
dimensioning. This allows solving many technical computing problems, especially those with matrix
and vector formulations, in a fraction of the time it would take to write a program in a scalar non-
interactive language such as C or FORTRAN.

The MATLAB system consists of six main parts:

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4.5 Development Environment

This is the set of tools and facilities that help to use MATLAB functions and files. Many of these
tools are graphical user interfaces. It includes the MATLAB desktop and Command Window, a
command history, an editor and debugger, and browsers for viewing help, the workspace, files and
the search path.

4.6 The MATLAB Mathematical Function Library

This is a vast collection of computational algorithms ranging from elementary functions, like sum,
sine, cosine, and complex arithmetic, to more sophisticated functions like matrix inverse, matrix
Eigen values, Bessel functions, and fast Fourier transforms.

4.7 The MATLAB Language

This is a high-level matrix/array language with control flow statements, functions, data structures,
input/output, and object-oriented programming features. It allows both "programming in the small" to
rapidly create quick and dirty throw-away programs, and "programming in the large" to create large
and complex application programs.

4.8 Graphics

MATLAB has extensive facilities for displaying vectors and matrices as graphs, as well as annotating
and printing these graphs. It includes high-level functions for two- dimensional and three-dimensional
data visualization, image processing, animation, and presentation graphics. It also includes low-level
functions that allow to fully customize the appearance of graphics as well as to build complete
graphical user interfaces on MATLAB applications.

4.9 The MATLAB Application Program Interface (API)


This is a library that allows writing in C and FORTRAN programs that interact with MATLAB. It
includes facilities for calling routines from MATLAB (dynamic linking), calling MATLAB as a
computational engine, and for reading and writing MAT- files.

4.10 MATLAB Documentation


MATLAB provides extensive documentation, in both printed and online format, to help to learn about
and use all of its features. It covers all the primary MATLAB features at a high level, including many
examples. The MATLAB online help provides task- oriented and reference information about

62
MATLAB features. MATLAB documentation is also available in printed form and in PDF format.

4.11 Three phase source block

Fig 4.10 Three Phase Source Block

The Three-Phase Source block implements a balanced three-phase voltage source with internal R-L
impedance. The three voltage sources are connected in Y with a neutral connection that can be
internally ground.

4.12 VI measurement block

The Three-Phase V-I Measurement block is used to measure three-phase voltages and currents in a
circuit. When connected in series with three-phase elements, it returns the three phase-to-ground or
phase-to-phase voltages and the three line currents

Fig .4.11 Three Phase V-I Measurement

4.13 Scope

Display signals generated during a simulation. The Scope block displays its input with respect to
simulation time. The Scope block can have multiple axes (one per port); all axes have a common time
range with independent y-axes. The Scope allows you to adjust the amount of time and the range of
input values displayed. You can move and resize the Scope window and you can modify the Scope's
parameter values during the simulation

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Fig . 4.12 Scope

4.14 Three-Phase Series RLC Load

The Three-Phase Series RLC Load block implements a three-phase balanced load as a series
combination of RLC elements. At the specified frequency, the load exhibits constant impedance. The
active and reactive powers absorbed by the load are proportional to the square of the applied voltage.

Fig . 4.13 Three-Phase Series RLC Load

4.15 Three-Phase Breaker block

The Three-Phase Breaker block implements a three-phase circuit breaker where the opening and
closing times can be controlled either from an external Simulink signal or from an internal control
signal.

Fig.4.14 Three-Phase Breaker Block

4.16 Integrator Library:

Fig.4.15 Integrator

The integrator block outputs the integral of its input at the current time step. The following equation
represents the output of the block y as a function of its input u and an initial condition y0, where y and
u are vector functions of the current simulation time t.
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4.17 Breaker

Implement circuit breaker opening at current zero crossing.

Library: Elements

Fig.4.16 Circuit Breaker

Purpose: The Breaker block implements a circuit breaker where the opening and closing times can be
controlled either from an external SIMULINK signal (external control mode), or from an internal
control timer (internal control mode).

A series Rs-Cs snubber circuit is included in the model. It can be connected to the circuit
breaker. If the Breaker block happens to be in series with an inductive circuit, an open circuit or a
current source, you must use a snubber.

When the breaker block is set in external control mode, a SIMULINK input appears on the
block icon. The control signal connected to the SIMULINK input must be either 0 or 1 (0 to open the
breaker, 1 to close it).

When the Breaker block is set in internal control mode, the switching times are specified in
the dialog box of the block.

When the breaker is closed, it is represented by a resistance Ron. The Ron value can be set as
small as necessary in order to be negligible compared with external components (a typical value is 10
m ohms). When the breaker is open, it has an infinite resistance.

4.18 Three-Phase Programmable Voltage Source

Implement three-phase voltage source with programmable time variation of amplitude, phase,
frequency, and harmonics

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Library: Electrical Sources

Fig.4.17 Three Phase Voltage Sources

Purpose: This block is used to generate a three-phase sinusoidal voltage with time-varying
parameters. It can be programmed with the time variation for the amplitude, phase or frequency of the
fundamental component of the source. In addition, two harmonics can be programmed and
superimposed on the fundamental signal.

4.19 Trigonometric Function

Specified trigonometric function on input

Library: Math Operations

Fig.4.18 Trigonometric Function

Purpose: The Trigonometric Function block performs common trigonometric functions

4.20 Three-Phase Transformer (Two Windings)

Implement three-phase transformer with configurable winding connections Library:

Fig.4.19 Three Phase Transformer

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Purpose:

The Three-Phase Transformer (Two Windings) block implements a three-phase transformer using
three single-phase transformers. The saturation characteristic, when activated, is the same as the one
described for the saturable Transformer block, and the icon of the block is automatically updated. If
the fluxes are not specified, the initial values are automatically adjusted so that the simulation starts in
steady state.

4.21 Three-Phase Transformer 12 Terminals

Implement three single-phase, two-winding transformers where all terminals are accessible

Library: Elements

Fig.4.20 Two winding Transformer

Purpose: The Three-Phase Transformer 12 Terminals block implements three single- phase, two-
winding linear transformers where all the twelve winding connectors are accessible. The block can be
used in place of the Three-Phase Transformer (Two Windings) block to implement a three-phase
transformer when primary and secondary are not necessarily connected in Star or Delta.

4.22 IGBT/Diode

Implements ideal IGBT, GTO, or MOSFET and antiparallel diode Library: Power

Electronics

Fig. 4.21 IGBT

Purpose: The IGBT/Diode block is a simplified mode of an IGBT (or GTO or MOSFET)/Diode pair
where the forward voltages of the forced-commutated device and diode are ignored.

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CHAPTER 5

IMPLEMENTATION OF PROJECT

5.1 INTRODUCTION
Simulink is a software package for modeling, simulating, and analyzing dynamical systems. It
supports linear and nonlinear systems, modeled in continuous time, sampled time, or a hybrid of the
two. For modeling, Simulink provides a graphical user interface (GUI) for building models as block
diagrams, using click-and-drag mouse operations. Models are hierarchical, so we can build models
using both top-down and bottom-up approaches. We can view the system at a high level, then double-
click on blocks to go down through the levels to see increasing levels of model detail. This approach
provides insight into how a model is organized and how its parts interact. After we define a model, we
can simulate it, using a choice of integration methods, either from the Simulink menus or by entering
commands in MATLAB's command window. Using scopes and other display blocks, we can see the
simulation results while the simulation is running. In addition, we can change parameters and
immediately see what happens, for "what if" exploration.
The simulation results can be put in the MATLAB workspace for post processing and
visualization. Simulink can be used to explore the behavior of a wide range of real- world dynamic
systems, including electrical circuits, shock absorbers, braking systems, and many other electrical,
mechanical, and thermodynamic systems.
Simulating a dynamic system is a two-step process with Simulink. First, we create a graphical model
of the system to be simulated, using Simulink's model editor. The model depicts the time-dependent
mathematical relationships among the system’s inputs, states, and outputs. Then, we use Simulink to
simulate the behavior of the system over a specified time span. Simulink uses information that you
entered into the model to perform the simulation.

5.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM

A Simulink block diagram is a pictorial model of a dynamic system. It consists of a set of symbols,
called blocks, interconnected by lines. Each block represents an elementary dynamic system that
produces an output either continuously (a continuous block) or at specific points in time (a discrete
block). The lines represent connections of block inputs to block outputs. Every block in a block
diagram is an instance of a specific type of block. The type of the block determines the relationship
between a block's outputs and its inputs, states, and time. A block diagram can contain any number of
68
instances of any type of block needed to model a system. Blocks represent elementary dynamic
systems that Simulink knows how to simulate. A block comprises one or more of the following:

1) A set of inputs,
2) A set of states, and
3) A set of outputs.
A block's output is a function of time and the block's inputs and states (if any). The specific
function that relates a block's output to its inputs, states, and time depends on the type of block of
which the block is an instance. Continuous Versus discrete Blocks Simulink's standard block set
includes continuous blocks and discrete blocks. Continuous blocks respond continuously to
continuously changing input. Discrete blocks, by contrast, respond to changes in input only at integral
multiples of a fixed interval called the block's sample time. Discrete blocks hold their output constant
between successive sample time hits. Each discrete block includes a sample time parameter that
allows you to specify its sample rate. The Simulink blocks can be either continuous or discrete,
depending on whether they are driven by continuous or discrete blocks. A block that can be either
discrete or continuous is said to have an implicit sample rate. The implicit sample time is continuous if
any of the block's inputs are continuous. The implicit sample time is equal to the shortest input sample
time if all the input sample times are integral multiples of the shortest time. Otherwise, the input
sample time is equal to the fundamental sample time of the inputs, where the fundamental sample
time of a set of sample times is defined as the greatest integer divisor of the set of sample times.
Simulink can optionally color code a

Block diagram to indicate the sample times of the blocks it contains, e.g., black (continuous),
magenta (constant), yellow (hybrid), red (fastest discrete), and so on. The block contains block name,
icon, and block library that contain the block, the purpose of the block

5.3 SIMULINK BLOCK LIBRARIES

Simulink organizes its blocks into block libraries according to their behavior.

1) The Sources library contains blocks that generate signals.


2) The Sinks library contains blocks that display or write block output.
3) The Discrete library contains blocks that describe discrete-time components.
4) The Continuous library contains blocks that describe linear functions.
5) The Math library contains blocks that describe general mathematics functions.
6) The Functions & Tables library contains blocks that describe general functions and table look-up
69
operations.
7) The Nonlinear library contains blocks that describe nonlinear functions.
8) The Signal & Systems library contains blocks that allow multiplexing and demultiplexing, implement
external input/output, pass data to other parts of the model, and perform other functions.
9) The Subsystems library contains blocks for creating various types of subsystems.
10) The Block sets and Toolboxes library contains the Extras block library of specialized blocks.
5.4 SUB SYSTEMS

Simulink allows to model a complex system as a set of interconnected subsystems each of


which is represented by a block diagram. We create a subsystem using Simulink's Subsystem block
and the Simulink model editor. We can embed subsystems with subsystems to any depth to create
hierarchical models. We can create conditionally executed subsystems that are executed only when a
transition occurs on a triggering or enabling input.

5.4 SOLVERS
Simulink simulates a dynamic system by computing its states at successive time step solver a
specified time span, using information provided by the model. The process of computing the
successive states of a system from its model is known as solving the model. No single method of
solving a model suffices for all systems. Accordingly, Simulink provides a set of programs, known as
solvers, that each embody a particular approach to solving a model. The Simulation Parameters dialog
box allows us to choose the solver most suitable for our model.
5.5 Fixed-Step and Variable-Step Solvers
Fixed-step solvers solve the model at regular time intervals from the beginning to the end of
the simulation. The size of the interval is known as the step-size. We can specify the step size or let
the solver choose the step size. Generally decreasing the step size increases the accuracy of the results
while increasing the time required to simulate the system.
Variable-step solvers vary the step size during the simulation, reducing the step size to
increase accuracy when a model's states are changing rapidly and increasing the step size to avoid
taking unnecessary steps when the model's states are changing slowly. Computing the step size adds
to the computational overhead at each step but can reduce the total number of steps, and hence
simulation time, required to maintain a specified level of accuracy for models with rapidly changing
or piecewise continuous states.

70
5.6 Continuous and Discrete Solvers

Continuous solvers use numerical integration to compute a model's continuous states at the
current time step from the states at previous time steps and the state derivatives. Continuous solvers
rely on the model's blocks to compute the values of the model's discrete states at each time step.
Mathematicians have developed a wide variety of numerical integration techniques for solving the
ordinary differential equations (ODEs) that represent the continuous states of dynamic systems.
Simulink provides an extensive set of fixed-step and variable-step continuous solvers, each
implementing a specific ODE solution method. Some continuous solvers subdivide the simulation
time span into major and minor steps, where a minor time step represents a subdivision of the major
time step.

The solver produces a result at each major time step. It use results at the minor time steps to improve
the accuracy of the result at the major time step.

Discrete solvers exist primarily to solve purely discrete models. They compute the next
simulation time-step for a model and nothing else. They do not compute continuous states and they
rely on the model's blocks to update the model's discrete states. We can use a continuous solver, but
not a discrete solver, to solve a model that contains both continuous and discrete states. This is
because a discrete solver does not handle continuous states. If you select a discrete solver for a
continuous model, Simulink disregards your selection and uses a continuous solver instead when
solving the model.
Simulink provides two discrete solvers, a fixed-step discrete solver and a variable- step
discrete solver. The fixed-step solver by default chooses a step size and hence simulation rate fast
enough to track state changes in the fastest block in our model. The variable-step solver adjusts the
simulation step size to keep pace with the actual rate of discrete state changes in our model. This can
avoid unnecessary steps and hence shorten simulation time for multirate models.
5.7 MODEL EXECUTION PHASE

In the simulation model execution phase, Simulink successively computes the states and
outputs of the system at intervals from the simulation start time to the finish time, using information
provided by the model. The successive time points at which the states and outputs are computed are
called time steps. The length of time between steps is called the step size. The step size depends on
the type of solver used to compute the system's continuous states, the system's fundamental sample
71
time, and whether the system's continuous states have discontinuities (Zero Crossing Detection). At
the start of the simulation, the model specifies the initial states and outputs of the system to be
simulated. At each step, Simulink computes new values for the system's inputs, states, and outputs
and updates the model to reflect the computed values. At the end of the simulation, the model reflects
the final values of the system's inputs, states, and outputs. At each time step:

1) Simulink Updates the outputs of the models' blocks in sorted order. Simulink computes a block's
outputs by invoking the block's output function. Simulink passes the current time and the block's
inputs and states to the output function as it may require these arguments to compute the block's
output. Simulink updates the output of a discrete block only if the current step is an integral multiple
of the block's sample time.
2) Updates the states of the model's blocks in sorted order. Simulink computes a block's discrete states
by invoking its discrete state update function. Simulink computes a block's continuous states by
numerically integrating the time derivatives of the continuous states. It computes the time derivatives
of the states by invoking the block's continuous derivatives function.
3) Optionally checks for discontinuities in the continuous states of blocks. Simulink uses a technique
called zero crossing detection to detect discontinuities in continuous states.
4) Computes the time for the next time step.
Simulink repeats steps 1 through 4 until the simulation stop time is reached.

5.8 Block Sorting Rules


Simulink uses the following basic update rules to sort the blocks:

1) Each block must be updated before any of the direct-feed through blocks that it drives. This rule
ensures that the inputs to direct-feed through blocks will be valid when they are updated.
2) Non direct-feed through blocks can be updated in any order as long as they are updated before any
direct-feed through blocks that they drive. This rule can be met by putting all non direct-feed through
blocks at the head of the update list in any order. It thus allows Simulink to ignore non direct-feed
through blocks during the sorting process.
The result of applying these rules is an update list in which non direct-feed through blocks
appear at the head of the list in no particular order followed by direct-feed through blocks in the order
required to supply valid inputs to the blocks they drive. During the sorting process, Simulink checks
for and flags the occurrence of algebraic loops, that is, signal loops in which an output of a direct-
feed through block is connected directly or indirectly to one of the block's inputs. Such loops
72
seemingly create a deadlock condition since Simulink needs the input of a direct-feed through block
in order to compute its output. However, an algebraic loop can represent a set of simultaneous
algebraic equations (hence the name) where the block's input and output are the unknowns. Further,
these equations can have valid solutions at each time step. Accordingly, Simulink assumes that loops
involving direct-feed through blocks do, in fact, represent a solvable set of algebraic equations and
attempts to solve them each time the block is updated during a simulation.
5.9 DETERMINING BLOCK UPDATE ORDER
During a simulation, Simulink updates the states and outputs of a model's blocks once per
time step. The order in which the blocks are updated is therefore critical to the validity of the results.
In particular, if a block's outputs are a function of its inputs at the current time step, the block must be
updated after the blocks that drive its inputs. Otherwise, the block's outputs will be invalid. The order
in which blocks are stored in a model file is not necessarily the order in which they need to be
updated during a simulation. Consequently, Simulink sorts the blocks into the correct order during the
model initialization phase.
In order to create a valid update ordering, Simulink categorizes blocks according to the
relationship of outputs to inputs. Blocks whose current outputs depend on their current inputs are
called direct feed through blocks. All other blocks are called non direct-feed through blocks.
Examples of direct-feed through blocks include the Gain, Product, and Sum blocks. Examples of non
direct-feed through blocks include the Integrator block (its output is a function purely of its state), the
Constant block (it does not have an input), and the Memory block (its output is dependent on its input
in the previous time step). Simulink allows you to assign update priorities to blocks. Simulink updates
higher priority blocks before lower priority blocks. Simulink honors the priorities only if they are
consistent with its block sorting rules.

73
5.10 Simulation Result Analysis

Fig 5.1 proposed circuit with out upqc

Fig 5.2 Output voltage without UPQC

The system without UPQC experiences a voltage disturbance when a LLLG fault occurred this effects the
system power quality.

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Fig 5.3 Output current waveform
A high current is observed under LLLG fault condition to the circuit with PI controller. This increases the system
loses and effects the quality of power supply.

Fig 5.4 Total Harmonic Disortion


The above graph clearly describes the THD of the system with PI controller. It is observed a total harmonic distortion
of 19.42%.

Fig 5.5 Active and Reactive Power Variations


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Fig 5.6 Simulation circuit with UPQC

Fig 5.7 Output voltage waveform

The system with UPQC has generated a stabilized output voltage waveform without any distortions maintained
during the LLLG fault condition

Fig 5.8 Output current waveform


The current waveform is still have some distortions under LLLG fault condition with UPQC Controller. This effects the

system parameters.
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Fig 5.9 THD with UPQC

The THD of the system with UPQC controller has reduced the THD of 19.42% to 2.74%. this clearly shows that UPQC
has achieved high efficiency when compared to the PI controller.

Fig 5.10 Active and Reactive Power Variations

77
CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE

CONCLUSION

A noticeable trend in distribution systems is the emergence of distributed harmonic producing loads. These
loads typically have comparable sizes and are distributed all over an electric network. There is a need to
develop new techniques to assess harmonic distortions for systems with distributred harmonic sources. The
objective of the project is to minimize the power quality problems with the implementation of power quality
enhancement device UPQC. This device has the capacity to improve the power quality at the point of
installation. Without UPQC the system voltage and currents are unbalanced undar fault condition with THD
of 6.02%. When we applied UPQC with PI controller the vooutput voltage is balanced and still some
distortions observed in current waveforms under fault conditions the THD isss reduced to 2.74%. By using
the proposed Hybrid controller with UPQC the system output voltage and currents are balanced without any
distortion and the THD is reduced finally to 0.08%. Hence the analysis proves that the proposed Hybrid
controller with UPQC achieved better results when compared to the existing models.

78
FUTURE SCOPE

Now a day’s power quality has become the most essential factor for both power suppliers and consumers due
to the degradation of the electric power energy market. Efforts are being made to improve power quality.
Today in this modern world power quality has become a great issue. As many industries and for domestics
use we need a voltage and current free from all types of harmonics and unbalances. Due to problems in
power quality there is development of many methods to improve power quality by using active power filters.
The concept of power was introduced by the N.G. Hingrani. Power electronics devices consists of a diode,
thyristors, IGBT, diodes. The active power filters are used to remove harmonics from current of load side
and make supply current completely sinusoidal, and it also mitigate the problems of supply voltage
imbalance i.e. voltage rise/dip and make voltages at load side balanced of equal magnitude. The active power
filters can be combined together and made to remove both problems due to voltage and current harmonics.
There are wide range of controlling techniques for active power filters The reactive power theory was used to
do simulation of three phase three wire line which is valid for both of the transient and steady state. The
physical meaning of instantaneous reactive power theory was described in . The instantaneous reactive
power theory with the non-linear loads is described in . The DVR model is discussed in for removal of all
kinds of voltage related problems. Here the operating system consist of PLL and Park’s transformation is
used for simulation. In three phase simulation of series active power filter is done for removal of voltage
unbalances in supply side and make load voltage balanced and regulated. In chapter the operation of
DSTATCOM is explained. In the operation of three phase four wire shunt APF is explained which is used to
suppress load current harmonics which is due to non- linear loads. As the power quality is the most important
factor so to get improved power quality and removal of all type of harmonics from voltage and current we
study UPQC which is a very versatile device and can be used for both mitigate the problems due to current
harmonics and voltage disturbances. The voltage source inverter active filters are used for removal of power
quality problems. The shunt active power filer is used to remove all the problems related to current
harmonics and reactive power compensation so that the power quality will improve.

79
PUBLICATIONS

We have submitted our project to the international conference on “Recent


Developments in Power Engineering (ICRDPE-21)” conducted on 9th & 10th July 2021.

80
REFERENCES

[1] J. H. R. Enslin and P. J. M. Heskes, “Harmonic interaction betweena large number of distributed
power inverters and the distribution network,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 19, no. 6, pp. 1586–1593,
Nov. 2004.

[2] U. Borup, F. Blaabjerg, and P. N. Enjeti, “Sharing of nonlinear load in parallel-connected three- phase
converters,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 37, no. 6, pp. 1817–1823, Nov./Dec. 2001.

[3] P. Jintakosonwit, H. Fujita, H. Akagi, and S. Ogasawara, “Implementation and performance of


cooperative control of shunt active filters for harmonic damping throughout a power distribution system,”
IEEETrans. Ind. Appl., vol. 39, no. 2, pp. 556–564, Mar./Apr. 2003.

[4] P. Rodríguez, J. Pou, J. Bergas, J. I. Candela, R. P. Burgos, and D.Boroyevich, “Decoupled double
synchronous reference frame PLL for power converters control,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron, vol. 22, no.
2, pp. 584–592, Mar. 2007.

[5] S. B. Kjaer, J. K. Pedersen, and F. Blaabjerg, “A review of single-phase grid-connected inverters


for photovoltaic modules,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 41, no. 5, pp. 1292–1306, Sep./Oct. 2005.

[6] F. Blaabjerg, R. Teodorescu, M. Liserre, and A. V. Timbus, “Overview of control and grid
synchronization for distributed power generation systems,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 53, no. 5, pp.
1398–1409, Oct. 2006.

[7] J. M. Carrasco, L. G. Franquelo, J. T.Bialasiewicz, E. Galván, R. C. P. Guisado, M. Á. M. Prats, J. I.


León, and N. M. Alfonso, “Powerelectronicsystems for the grid integration of renewable energy sources: A
survey,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 53, no. 4, pp. 1002–1016, Aug. 2006.

[8] B. Renders, K. De Gusseme, W. R. Ryckaert, K. Stockman, L. Vandevelde, and M. H. J. Bollen,


“Distributed generation for mitigating voltage dips in low-voltage distribution grids,” IEEE Trans. Power.Del.,
vol. 23, no. 3, pp. 1581–1588, Jul. 2008.

[9] V. Khadkikar, A. Chandra, A. O. Barry, and T. D. Nguyen, “Application of UPQC to protect a sensitive
load on a polluted distribution network,” in Proc. Annu. Conf. IEEE Power Eng. Soc. Gen. Meeting, 2006,
pp. 867–872.

81
[10] M. Singh and A. Chandra, “Power maximization and voltage sag/swellride-through capability of
PMSG based variable speed wind energy conversion system,” in Proc. IEEE 34th Annu. Conf. Indus.
Electron.Soc., 2008, pp. 2206–2211.

[11] J. P. Pinto, R. Pregitzer, L. F. C. Monteiro, and J. L. Afonso, “3-phase4-wire shunt active power
filter with renewable energy interface,” presented at the Conf. IEEE Rnewable Energy& Power Quality,
Seville, Spain, 2007.

[12] M. Calais, J. Myrzik, T. Spooner, and V. G. Agelidis, “inverters for single-phase grid connected
photovoltaic systems—an overview”, in Proc. 33th IEEE Power Electronics Specialists Conf. (PESC’02),
Cairns, Australia, June 23–27, 2002.

82
A
PROJECT REPORT
On
SMART GRID POWER QUALITY
IMPROVEMENT USING MODIFIED UPQC
Submitted by

1)Ms. N.PALLAVI (17K81A0233)


2)Mr. G.NAGARAJU (18K85A0213)
3)Mr. P.SAI PAVAN (18K85A0219)
4)Mr. R.ASHISH (18K85A0220)

in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree


of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
Under The Guidance of
Mr. K.V.GOVARDHAN RAO M.TECH.,(Ph.D)
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

ST.MARTIN’S ENGINEERING COLLEGE


(An Autonomous Institute)
Dhulapally, Secunderabad – 500 100
JUNE 2021
BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project entitled SMART GRID POWER QUALITY
IMPROVEMENT USING MODIFIED UPQC, is being submitted by 1. N.Pallavi
(17K81A0233), 2. G.Nagaraju (18K85A0213), 3. P.Sai Pavan (18K85A0219), 4.
R.Ashish (18K85A0220) in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the degree
of BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY in Electrical and Electronics Engineering is a record
of bonafide work carried out by them. The result embodied in this report have been verified
and found satisfactory.

Head of the Department


Mr.K.V.Govardhan Rao Dr.N.Ramchandra
Department of EEE Department of EEE

Internal Examiner External Examiner

Place:

Date:

i
DECLARATION

We, the students of Bachelor of Technology in Department of Electrical and


Electronics Engineering, session: 2017 – 2021, St. Martin’s Engineering College,
Dhulapally, Kompally, Secunderabad, hereby declare that work presented in this
Project Work entitled SMART GRID POWER QUALITY IMPROVEMENT
USING MODIFIED UPQC is the outcome of our own bonafide work and is correct
to the best of our knowledge and this work has been undertaken taking care of
Engineering Ethics. This result embodied in this project report has not been submitted
in any university for award of any degree.

N.Pallavi 17K81A0233
G.Nagaraju 18K85A0213
P.Sai Pavan 18K85A0219
R.Ashish 18K85A0220

ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The satisfaction and euphoria that accompanies the successful completion of any task
would be incomplete without the mention of the people who made it possible and
whose encouragements and guidance have crowded effects with success.
First and foremost, we would like to express my deep sense of gratitude and
indebtedness to our College Management for their kind support and permission to use
the facilities available in the Institute.
We especially would like to express my deep sense of gratitude and indebtedness to
Dr.P.Santosh Kumar Patra, our beloved Principal, St.Martin’s Engineering
College for his invaluable encouragement, suggestions and support from an early stage
of this research and providing me extraordinary experiences throughout the work.
Above all, his priceless and meticulous supervision at each and every phase of work
inspired me in innumerable ways.
We would like to express our gratitude to Dr.N.Ramchandra, Head &Professor,
the Dept. of Electrical and Electronics Engineering for his advice, supervision, and the
vital contribution as and when required during this research. We are proud to record that
we had the opportunity to work with an exceptionally experienced Professor like him.
The time spent with him will remain in my memory for years to come.
We would like to thank our supervisor, Mr.K.V.Govardhan Rao, Assistant
Professor, Dept. of EEE for his continuous support and valuable guidance for our
research work.
We would like to express our gratitude to our dept. project coordinators Mr. K. V.
Govardhan Rao, Assistant Professor, Dept. of EEE and Mr. T. Penchalaiah,
Assistant Professor, Dept. of EEE for their involvement with originality has triggered
and nourished my intellectual maturity that will help me for a long time to come.
Finally, we are highly grateful and obliged to our college level Project Coordinators
Dr.Maalyadri, Professor in IT and Dr.R.Santhosh Kumar, Associate Professor in
CSE for their advice, supervision, and the vital contribution as and when required
during this research work and for their support and co- operation that is difficult to
express in words.
1. N.Pallavi
2. G.Nagaraju
3. P.Sai Pavan
4. R.Ashish

iii
ABSTRACT
The Smart Grid system typically deals with different issues involving security and Power
Quality (PQ) improvement. With massive usage of power electronic devices and growth of
nonlinear loads, harmonics are inserted into the system. So, it is important to maintain the
quality of the power for the efficient functioning of the end user equipment. The well-known
Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS) devices like Unified Power Quality Conditioners
(UPQC) are usually employed to resolve the issues related to voltage sag, swell, flicker, PQ,
and neutral current reduction of distribution systems. UPQC is a custom powered device which
is considered as the grouping of DVR and D-STATCOM which performs series, shunt
compensating and phase shifting at the same time. An UPQC itself inserts harmonics into the
system that affects the system stability for sensitive loads. This paper describes biogeography
based optimization (BBO) with harmonics elimination techniques for modified UPQC
connected with Smart Grid. At fault condition UPQC mitigate the fault with simultaneous or
individual operation of series-shunt converters. The excitation of Modified UPQC converters
with DC link capacitor are obtained from PV (Photo-Voltaic) panel.

iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER NO TITLE PAGE NO

CERTIFICATE i
DECLARATION ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iii
ABSTRACT iv
LIST OF FIGURES viii
LIST OF OUTPUT SCREENS ix
NOMENCLATURE x

Chapter-1 INTRODUCTION 1-14


1.1 DEFINITION OF POWER QUALITY 1
1.2 POWER SYSTEMS DISTORTION AND PROBLEMS 2
1.2.1 Voltage Variation for Short Duration 2
1.2.2 Voltage Interruption 2
1.2.3 Frequency Variations 3
1.2.4 Unbalance in Three Phase Systems 3
1.2.5 Voltage Dips 3
1.3 HARMONICS 3
1.3.1 Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) 5
1.3.2 Distortion Factor 6
1.3.3 Crest Factor 6
1.3.4 Effects of Harmonics 6
1.3.5 Power Factor 7
1.4 HARMONIC CURRENTS SOURCES 8
1.5 ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF HARMONICS 10
1.6 SOLUTIONS FOR THE HARMONICS 10
1.6.1 Inline Reactors 10
1.6.2 Transformers with Passive Coupling 11
1.6.3 Passive Filters 11

v
1.6.4 Modern Solutions for Harmonic 11
Problems
1.6.5 Active Power Filters 11
1.6.5.1 Series Active Power Filter (Series APF) 12
1.6.5.2 Shunt Active Power Filter (SAPF) 12
1.6.5.3 Combination of Parallel and Series APF 13
(UPQC)
1.6.6 Hybrid Filters 14
1.7 NON-LINEAR LOADS 14
1.8 SHUNT ACTIVE POWER FILTER 14
Chapter-2 LITERATURE SURVEY 15-19
2.1 INTRODUCTION 15
2.2 LITERATURE SURVEY 15
2.3 PROBLEM FORMULATION 18
Chapter-3 PROPOSED UPQC 20-35
3.1 OVERVIEW 20
3.2 HARMONIC CURRENT EXTRACTION METHODS 21
3.2.1 Instantaneous Active and Reactive 21
Power Theory
3.3 VOLTAGE SOURCE INVERTER 24
3.3.1 Modeling of Voltage Source Inverter 25
3.3.2 Modeling of Active Power Filter 25
3.3.3 Control Methods of VSI 26
3.3.3.1 Hysteresis Control Method 26
3.3.3.2 Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation (SPWM) 28
Control
3.3.3.3 Space Vector PWM Control (SVPWM) 29
3.4 CONTROL OF THE ACTIVE POWER FILTER 30
3.4.1 Direct Control Method 30
3.4.2 Indirect Control Method 31
Chapter-4 SIMULATION FOR PV POWERED UPQC 36-47
4.1 INTRODUCTION 36
4.2 BACKGROUND 37
4.3 HISTORY 39
4.4 NAVIGATION MARKET 40

vi
4.5 BLOCK DIAGRAM 41
4.6 SIMULINK BLOCK LIBRARIES 42
4.7 SUB SYSTEMS 43
4.8 SOLVERS 43
4.8.1 Fixed-Step and Variable-Step Solvers 43
4.8.2 Continuous and Discrete Solvers 44
4.9 MODEL EXECUTION PHASE 45
4.10 BLOCK SORTING RULES 46
4.11 DETERMINING BLOCK UPDATE ORDER 47
Chapter-5 SIMULATION RESULTS 48-51
Chapter-6 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE 52-53
6.1 CONCLUSION 52
6.2 ADVANTAGES 53
6.3 APPLICATIONS 53
REFERENCES 54-55
APPENDIX 56-61

vii
LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO TITLE PAGE NO


1.1 Harmonic Waveform Distortion 4
1.2 Harmonic Content of a Signal and its Fundamental 5
1.3 Fresnel Representation of the Power 8
1.4 Equivalent Circuit Per Phase of a Non-Linear Load 9
Connected to the Grid
1.5 Spread of Harmonic Currents into the Grid 9
1.6 Series Active Power Filter Connected to the Grid 12
1.7 Shunt APF Connected in Parallel with Non-Linear Load 13
1.8 Unified Power Flow Conditioner’s Diagram 13
3.1 Compensation Characteristic of Shunt Active Power Filter 20
3.2 Diagram of the Low Pass Filter with Feed-Forward 23
3.3 Principle of Instantaneous Active and Reactive Power Theory 24
3.4 Three-phase Two Levels VSI Topology 25
3.5 SAPF Connection to the PCC 26
3.6 Hysteresis Control Principle 27
3.7 The Principle of Sinusoidal PWM Control Method 28
3.8 Direct Control Method Diagram 30
3.9 Indirect Control Method Diagram 31
3.10 The AC input for an ASD 33
3.11 Single-Phase Half-Bridge Voltage Source Inverter 33
3.12 Single-Phase Voltage Source Full-Bridge Inverter 34
3.13 Carrier and Modulating Signals for the Bipolar Pulsewidth 34
Modulation Technique
4.1 Signals in the model along with solver steps for the variable- 44
Step discrete and the fixed-step discrete solvers
5.1 Proposed circuit without UPQC 48
5.5 Simulation circuit with PV UPQC 50

viii
LIST OF OUTPUT SCREENS

FIGURE NO TITLE PAGE NO


5.2 Output voltage without UPQC 48
5.3 Output current waveform 49
5.4 THD with PI controller 49
5.6 Output voltage waveform 50
5.7 Output current waveform 51
5.8 THD with UPQC 51

ix
NOMENCLATURE

UPQC : Unified Power Quality Conditioner

DVR : Dynamic Voltage Restorer

D-STATCOM : Distribution Static Compensator

PQ : Power Quality

THD : Total Harmonic Distortion

APF : Active Power Filter

VSI : Voltage Source Inverter

PWM : Pulse Width Modulation

PV : Photo Voltaic

FACTS : Flexible AC Transmission Systems

IEEE : Institute of Electrical & Electronics Engineering

x
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Electric systems and grids are complex dynamic systems. These systems suffer
usually from unexpected or sudden changes of the currents and voltages. These changes
are due mainly to the different types of linear and non-linear loads to which they are
connected. In addition, to different types of accidents which can intervener into the grid.
With the increasing use of power semiconductors in the most of industrial and domestic
procedures, the electric grids are polluted with different harmonic currents and voltages.
These harmonics affect the normal function of the most of the grid connected devices;
in addition to considerable economic losses. Many classic and modern solutions have
been proposed in the literary for the harmonic problems. In this chapter, the harmonic
problem as one of the most common power quality problems will be presented. The
different modern and traditional solutions will then be discussed.

1.1 DEFINITION OF POWER QUALITY:


Power quality is a term that means different things to different people. Institute
of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) Standard IEEE1100 defines power
quality as “The concept of powering and grounding sensitive electronic equipment in a
manner suitable for the equipment.” As appropriate as this description might seem, the
limitation of power quality to “sensitive electronic equipment” might be subject to
disagreement. Electrical equipment susceptible to power quality or more appropriately
to lack of power quality would fall within a seemingly boundless domain. All electrical
devices are prone to failure or malfunction when exposed to one or more power quality
problems. The electrical device might be an electric motor, a transformer, a generator,
a computer, a printer, communication equipment or a household appliance. All of these
devices and others react adversely to power quality issues, depending on the severity of
problems.
A simpler and perhaps more concise definition might state: “Power quality is a
set of electrical boundaries that allows a piece of equipment to function in its intended
manner without significant loss of performance or life expectancy.” This definition
embraces two things that we demand from an electrical device: performance and life

1
expectancy. Any power-related problem that compromises either attribute is a power
quality concern.
Power quality can also be defined as a set of electrical boundaries that allows a
piece of equipment to function in its intended manner without significant loss of
performance or life expectancy. Power distribution systems should provide their
customers with an uninterrupted flow of energy at smooth sinusoidal voltage at the
contracted magnitude level and frequency. However, in power systems, especially the
distribution systems have many nonlinear loads, which significantly affect the quality
of power supplies. As a result of the nonlinear loads, the pure sinusoidal waveform is
lost. This ends up producing many power quality problems.

1.2 POWER SYSTEMS DISTORTION AND PROBLEMS:


In power systems, different voltage and current problems can be faced. The
main voltage problems can be summarized in short duration variations, voltage
interruption, frequency variation, voltage dips and harmonics. Harmonics represent the
main problem of currents of power systems.

1.2.1 Voltage Variation For Short Duration:


The short duration voltage variation is the result of the problems in the function
of some systems or the start of many electric loads at the same time. The defaults can
increase or decrease the amplitude of the voltage or even cancel it during a short period
of time. The increase of voltage is a variation between 10-90% of the nominal voltage.
It can hold from half of a period to 1 minute according to the IEEE 1159-1995.
According to the same reference, the increase in voltage is defined when the amplitude
of the voltage is about 110-180% of its nominal value.

1.2.2 Voltage Interruption:


The cutoff of the voltage happens when the load voltage decreases until less
than 10% of its nominal value for a short period of time less than 1 minute. The voltage
interruption can be the effect of defaults in the electrical system, defaults in the
connected equipment’s or bad control systems. The main characteristic of the voltage
interruption is the period over which it happens.

2
1.2.3 Frequency Variations:
In the normal conditions the frequency of the distribution grid must be within
the interval 50±1 Hz. The variations of the frequency of the grid can appears to the
clients who are using auxiliary electric source (solar system, thermal station…etc.).
These variations are rare and happen in the case of exceptional conditions like the
defaults in the turbines.

1.2.4 Unbalance in Three Phase Systems:


The three phase system is unbalanced when the currents and voltages are not
identical in amplitude; or when the phase angle between each two phases is not 120°.
In the ideal conditions, the three phase system is balanced with identical loads. In
reality, the loads are not identical, in addition to the problems of the distribution grids
which can interfere.

1.2.5 Voltage Dips:


The voltage dips are periodic perturbations. They appear as a natural effect of
the switching of the transistors. They are due also to the start of big loads like motors.
Lifts, lights, heaters…etc. this phenomena causes bad functioning of the protection
equipment’s.

1.3 HARMONICS:
Harmonics are described by IEEE as sinusoidal voltages or currents having frequencies
that are integer multiples of the fundamental frequency at which the power system is
designed to operate. This means that for a 60-Hz system, the harmonic frequencies are
120 Hz (2nd harmonic), 180 Hz (3rd harmonic) and so on. Harmonics combine with
the fundamental voltage or current producing a non-sinusoidal shape, thus, a waveform
distortion power quality problem. The non-sinusoidal shape corresponds to the sum of
different sine waves with different magnitudes and phase angles, having frequencies
that are multiples of the system frequency.

3
Fig. 1.1 Harmonic Waveform Distortion

Harmonic distortion levels can be characterized by the complete harmonic spectrum


with magnitudes and phase angles of each individual harmonic component. It is also
common to use the Total Harmonic Distortion (THD), as a measure of the effective
value of harmonic distortion. It has become an increasing concern for many end-users
and for the overall power system because of the growing application of power
electronics equipment. Protection from high levels of harmonics includes isolation or
modification of the source, phase multiplication, pulse width modulator (PWM) and
application of passive or active harmonic filters.
Power systems are designed to operate at frequencies of 50 or 60 Hz. However,
certain types of loads produces currents and voltages with frequencies that are integer
multiples of the 50 or 60 Hz fundamental frequency. These frequencies components are
a form of electrical pollution known as harmonic distortion.
There are two types of harmonics that can be encountered in a power system.
➢ Synchronous harmonics.
➢ Asynchronous harmonics.
Synchronous harmonics are sinusoids with frequencies which are multiples of the
fundamental frequency. The multiplication factor is often referred to as the harmonic
number. The synchronous harmonics can be subdivided into two categories.
➢ Sub-harmonics: when the harmonic frequency is less than the fundamental
frequency.
➢ Super harmonics: when the harmonic frequency is more than the fundamental
frequency.
Harmonics are familiar to the musicians as the overtones from an instrument. They are
the integer multiples of the instrument’s fundamental or natural frequency that are

4
produced by a series of standing waves of higher and higher order. Exactly the same
thing happens in power circuits when non-linear loads create harmonic currents that are
integer multiples of the supply fundamental frequency. The rapid growth of solid-state
power electronics has greatly increased the number and size of these loads.
The concept of harmonics was introduced in the beginning of the 19th century by
Joseph Fourier. Fourier has demonstrated that all periodic non-sinusoidal signals can
be represented by infinitive sum or series of sinusoids with discontinuous frequencies
as given by Equation (1.1).
𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐼0 + ∑∝ℎ=1 𝐼ℎ cos(ℎ𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑ℎ ) …… (1.1)
The component I0 in the Fourier series is the direct component. The first term
of the sum with the index h=1 is the fundamental of the signal. The rest of the series
components are called the harmonics of the range h. Fig. 1.1 Shows the form of a wave
containing the third harmonic (h=3). In the three phase electric grid, the principle
harmonic components are the harmonics of ranges (6*h±1).

Fig. 1.2 Harmonic Content of a Signal and its Fundamental.


Transformer exciting current, arc furnaces, rectifiers and many other loads will
produce harmonics in the utility lines. Most utilities limit the allowable harmonic
current levels to the values shown in IEEE 519.

1.3.1 Total Harmonic Distortion (THD):


The total harmonic distortion of a signal is a measurement of the harmonic
distortion present in current or voltage. It is defined as the ratio of the sum of the powers
of all harmonic components to the power of the fundamental frequency. Harmonic
distortion is caused by the introduction of waveforms at frequencies in multiplies of the
fundamental.

5
√∑𝛼 2
𝑖=2 𝑥𝑖
𝑇𝐻𝐷(%) = |𝑥1 |
(1.2)

The THD is a very useful quantity for many applications. It is the most commonly used
harmonic index. However, it has the limitation that, it is not a good indicator of voltage
stress within a capacitor because that is related to the peak value of voltage waveform.

1.3.2 Distortion Factor:


The distortion factor Fd is defined as the ratio between the fundamental and the signal
in RMS values. It is given by:
𝐼𝐿1
𝐹𝑑= (1.3)
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠

It is then equal to unity when the current is purely sinusoidal and decreases when the
distortion appears.

1.3.3 Crest Factor:


The crest factor of a signal Fc is defined by Equation (1.4):
crest value
𝐹𝑐 = (1.4)
effectivevalue

For sinusoidal waves, the crest factor is 1.41. It can achieve the value of 5 in the case
of highly distorted waves.

1.3.4 Effects of Harmonics:


Harmonic currents will flow into the utility feeder and may create a number of
problems in so doing. They may be trapped by power factor correction capacitors and
overload them or cause resonant over-voltages. They can distort the feeder voltage
enough to cause problems in computers, telephone lines, motors, and power supplies,
and may even cause transformer failures from eddy current losses. The harmonic
currents may be trapped by installing series LC filters resonant at the offending
frequencies.
These filters should be designed to offer low impedance at the resonant
frequency compared to the source impedance at that frequency. But, again, there is a
hidden “gotcha.” If a filter is installed that has a series resonance at the 7th harmonic, it
will also have a parallel resonance with the utility at a lower frequency when the source

6
inductance is added to the filter inductance. If this parallel resonance should lie on or
near the 5th harmonic, there is the possibility of the resonant over-currents described
earlier. The installation of series resonant traps will always introduce parallel
resonances at frequencies below the trap frequencies. Good practice dictates that
multiple resonant traps be installed first at the lowest harmonic frequency of concern
and then in sequence at the higher-frequency harmonics. If switched, they should be
switched on in sequence starting with the lowest frequency trap and switched out in
sequence starting from the highest frequency trap.
The voltage or current distortion limit is determined by the sensitivity of loads
(also of power sources), which are influenced by the distorted quantities. The least
sensitive is heating equipment of any kind.
The most sensitive kind of equipment’s is those electronic devices which have been
designed assuming an ideal (almost) sinusoidal fundamental frequency voltage or
current waveforms. Electric motors are the most popular loads which are situated
between these two categories.

1.3.5 Power Factor:


Power factor is defined as the ratio of real power to volt-amperes and is the
cosine of the phase angle between the voltage and the current in an AC circuit. These
are neatly defined quantities with sinusoidal voltages and currents.
Power factor can be improved by adding capacitors on the power line to draw a
leading current and supply lagging VArs to the system. Power factor correction
capacitors can be switched in and out as necessary to maintain VAr and voltage control.
For a sinusoidal signal, the power factor is given by the ratio between the active
and the apparent power. Electrical equipment’s’ parameters are normally given under
nominal voltage and current. A low power factor can indicate bad use of this
equipment’s. The apparent power can be defined by:
1 𝑇
𝑆 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 . 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 . √𝑇 ∫0 𝑖𝐿2 𝑑𝑡 (1.5)

The active power P can be given by the relation:


𝑃 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 . 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 . cos(∝ 1) (1.6)
The reactive power Q is defined by:
𝑄 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 . 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 . sin(∝ 1) (1.7)

7
The power factor in this case can be given by Equation 1.8.
𝑃 𝑃
𝑃. 𝐹 = = (1.8)
𝑆 √𝑃 2 +𝑄2

In the case where there is harmonics, a supplementary power called the distorted power
D appears. This power can be given by the relation.
𝐷 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 . √∑𝛼𝑛=2 𝐼𝐿𝑛
2
(1.9)
The apparent power can then be expressed as:
𝑆 = √𝑃2 + 𝑄 2 + 𝐷2 (1.10)
The power factor is then given by:
𝑃
𝑃. 𝐹 = (1.11)
√𝑃 2 +𝑄2 +𝐷 2

From equation (1.11), we can notice that the power factor decreases because of the
existence of harmonics in addition to the reactive power consumption. The Fresnel
diagram of the power is given in Fig. 1.3.

Fig. 1.3 Fresnel Representation of the Power

1.4 HARMONIC CURRENTS SOURCES:


The main cause of harmonics is the injection of harmonic currents by the non-linear
loads. The bridges of diodes are the most non-linear loads present in the power
applications because they don’t need a control and they have long life duration with
low cost. There are also many other harmonic producing loads such as:
➢ Industrial equipment’s (welding machines, arc furnaces, induction furnaces,
rectifiers).
➢ Offices equipment’s (computers, photocopiers,…etc.).
➢ Domestic devices (TVs, micro-wave furnaces, neon lightening,…etc.).
➢ Power inverters.
➢ Power transformers when working in the saturation zone also are considered as
non-linear loads that produce harmonics.

8
The feeding of non-linear loads generates harmonic currents which spread into the
electrical grid. The spread of current harmonics into the feeding impedances
(transformers and grid) creates harmonic voltages in these feeders. Remembering that
the conductor impedance increases with the frequencies of the currents which pass
through it, different impedance will appear for each range of current harmonics. The
harmonic current of range h will create through the impedance harmonic voltage. All
the loads connected to the same point will be fed with the same perturbed voltages. The
equivalent circuit per phase of a non-linear load connected to the grid is given by Fig.
1.4.

Fig. 1.4 Equivalent Circuit Per Phase of a Non-Linear Load Connected to the Grid.
The spread of harmonic currents from different loads can be represented as in Fig. 1.5

Fig. 1.5 Spread of Harmonic Currents into the Grid

9
1.5 ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF HARMONICS:
➢ Premature aging of materials which forces its replacement, in addition to an
initial over sizing of these materials.
➢ The overloading of the grid which implies to increase the nominal power and to
oversize the installations, causing more and more losses.
➢ The current distortions cause sudden triggers and the stop of production
equipment’s.
These material costs, energetic and production losses affect the competitiveness and the
productivity of factories and companies.

1.6 SOLUTIONS FOR THE HARMONICS:


The filtering of the grid currents and voltage is a priory problem for the
distributer as like as the client. Because the limits on harmonic emission are not equally
applied in the low of the different countries, the producers of the different electrical
devices try to construct devices that satisfy for the conditions and limits of the
international standards. The electric companies, from its side, use different filtering
equipment’s and encourage the researches toward finding new efficient solutions for
the power quality problems. The clients install also sometimes reactive power and
harmonic compensation batteries to ameliorate the power factor and reduce the energy
consumption bill.
Many traditional and modern solutions for harmonics mitigation and power
quality improvement were proposed in literary. Some of these solutions investigate in
the load to minimize the harmonic emission while the others propose the use of external
filtering equipment’s that prevent the spread of harmonics into the grid.

1.6.1 Inline Reactors:


In-line reactor or choke is a simple solution to control harmonic distortion
generated by adjustable speed drives. The solution is come up with inserting a relatively
small reactor, or choke, at the input of the drive. The inductance prevents the capacitor
to be charged in a short time and forces the drive to draw current over a longer time and
reduces the magnitude of the current with much less harmonic content while still
delivering the same energy.

10
1.6.2 Transformers with Passive Coupling:
Some types of triangle zigzag coupling of transformers allow the elimination of
the harmonics of order 3 and its multiples. The cost of these coupling types is the
augmentation of the source impedance, and then the augmentation of voltage harmonic
distortion.

1.6.3 Passive Filters:


Passive filter, which is relatively inexpensive in comparison with the other
harmonic reduction methods, is the most used method. Inductance, capacitor and the
load as a resistance are tuned in a way to control the harmonics. However, they suffer
from interfering with the power systems. Actually, passive filters are designed to shunt
harmonics from the lines or block their flow through some parts of the systems by
tuning the elements to create a resonance at the selected frequency. These filters are
tuned and fixed according to the impedance of the point at which they will be connected
and hence cannot be adjusted instantaneously in accordance to the load. As a result their
cutoff frequency changes unexpectedly after any change in the load impedance
resulting in producing a resonance with other elements installed in the system.

1.6.4 Modern Solutions for Harmonic Problems:


Modern solutions were proposed as efficient solutions for the elimination of electric
grid harmonics in order to defeat the disadvantages of the traditional methods like
passive filters. Between these solutions we find two categories which are the most used:
➢ Active filters (series, parallel, or a combination of both of them in Unified
Power Quality Conditioner (UPFC)).
➢ Hybrid filters composed of active and passive filters at once.

1.6.5 Active Power Filters:


The function of the active power filters (APF) is to generate either harmonic
currents or voltages in a manner such that the grid current or voltage waves conserve
the sinusoidal form. The APFs can be connected to the grid in series (Series APF), shunt
(SAPF) to compensate voltage harmonics or current harmonics respectively. Or can be
associated with passive filters to construct the hybrid filters (HAPF).

11
Active filters are relatively new types of devices for eliminating harmonics. This
kind of filter is based on power electronic devices and is much more expensive than
passive filters. They have the distinct advantage that they do not resonate with the
power system and they work independently with respect to the system impedance
characteristics. They are used in difficult circumstances where passive filters don’t
operate successfully because of resonance problems and they don’t have any
interference with other elements installed anywhere in the power system.
The active filters present many other advantages over the traditional methods for
harmonic compensation such as:
➢ Adaptation with the variation of the loads.
➢ Possibility of selective harmonics compensation.
➢ Limitations in the compensation power.
➢ Possibility of reactive power compensation.

1.6.5.1 Series Active Power Filter (Series APF):


The aim of the series APF is to locally modify the impedance of the grid. It is
considered as harmonic voltage source which cancel the voltage perturbations which
come from the grid or these created by the circulation of the harmonic currents into the
grid impedance. However, series APFs can’t compensate the harmonic currents
produced by the loads.

Fig. 1.6 Series Active Power Filter Connected to the Grid

12
1.6.5.2 Shunt Active Power Filter (SAPF):
The SAPFs are connected in parallel with the harmonic producing loads. They
are expected to inject in real time the harmonic currents absorbed by the pollutant loads.
Thus, the grid current will become sinusoidal.

Fig. 1.7 Shunt APF Connected in Parallel with Non-Linear Load

1.6.5.3 Combination of Parallel and Series APF (UPQC):


Fig. 1.8 explains the combination of two APFs parallel and series, called also
(Unified Power Quality Conditioner). This structure combines the advantages of the
two APF type’s series and parallel. So it allows simultaneously achieving sinusoidal
source current and voltage.

Fig. 1.8 Unified Power Flow Conditioner’s Diagram

13
1.6.6 Hybrid Filters:
Hybrid filter is a filter topology which combines the advantages of the passive
and active filters. For this reason, it is considered as the best solution to eliminate the
harmonic currents from the grid. The principal reason for the use of hybrid filters is the
development of the power semiconductors like MOSFETs and IGBTs. Over more, from
an economical point of view, the hybrid power filters allow reducing the cost of APF.
Hybrid power filters can be classified according to the number of elements used
in the topology, the treated system (single phase, three phase three legs or four legs)
and the used inverter type (current source inverter or voltage source inverter).

1.7 NON-LINEAR LOADS:


When the input current into the electrical equipment does not follow the
impressed voltage across the equipment, then the equipment is said to have a nonlinear
relationship between the input voltage and input current. All equipment’s that employ
some sort of rectification are examples of nonlinear loads. Nonlinear loads generate
voltage and current harmonics that can have adverse effects on equipment designed for
operation as linear loads. Transformers that bring power into an industrial environment
are subject to higher heating losses due to harmonic generating sources (nonlinear
loads) to which they are connected.

1.8 SHUNT ACTIVE POWER FILTER:


The concept of using active power filters to mitigate harmonic problems and to
compensate reactive power was proposed more than two decades ago.
It has proven its ability to control the grid current and to ameliorate the power
quality. The theories and applications of active power filters have become more popular
and have attracted great attention. Without the drawbacks of passive harmonic filters,
such as component aging and resonant problems, the active power filter appears to be
a viable solution for reactive power compensation as well as for eliminating harmonic
currents. As we mentioned earlier, the SAPF is connected in parallel with the non-linear
load to behave as another controlled non-linear load. The system of the non-linear load
and the SAPF will be seen by the grid as a linear load connected to the PCC.

14
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE SURVEY
2.1 INTRODUCTION:
The widespread use of non-linear loads is leading to a variety of undesirable
phenomena in the operation of power systems. The harmonic components in current
and voltage waveforms are the most important among these. Conventionally, passive
filters have been used to eliminate line current harmonics. However, they introduce
resonance in the power system and tend to be bulky. So, active power line conditioners
have become more popular than passive filters as it compensates the harmonics and
reactive power simultaneously.
The active power filter topology can be connected in series or shunt and
combinations of both. Shunt active filter is more popular than series active filter
because most of the industrial applications require current harmonic compensation.
Different types of active filters have been proposed to increase the electric system
quality. The classification is based on following criteria.
➢ Power rating and speed of response required in compensated system.
➢ System parameters to be compensated (e.g. current harmonics, power factor
and voltage harmonics)
➢ Technique used for estimating the reference current/voltage.
Current controlled voltage source inverters can be utilized with an appropriate
control strategy to perform active filter functionality. The electrical grid will include a
very large number of small producers that use renewable energy sources, like solar
panels or wind generators.

2.2 LITERATURE SURVEY:


Johan H. R. Enslin and Peter J. M. Heskes,[1]
“Harmonic interaction between a large number of distributed power inverters and the
distribution network,”
In this paper discussed the harmonic interaction between a large number of
distributed power inverters and the distribution network. This paper is to analyze the
observed phenomena of harmonic interference of large populations of these inverters

15
and to compare the network interaction of different inverter topologies and control
options.

Uffe Borup, Frede Blaabjerg and Prasad N. Enjeti ,[2]


“Sharing of nonlinear load in parallel-connected three-phase converters,”
Presented about the sharing of linear and nonlinear loads in three-phase power
converters connected in parallel, without communication between the converters. The
paper focuses on solving the problem that arises when two converters with harmonic
compensation are connected in parallel.

Pichai Jintakosonwit Hideaki Fujita, Hirofumi Akagi and Satoshi Ogasawara, [3]
“Implementation and performance of cooperative control of shunt active filters for
harmonic damping throughout a power distribution system,”
This paper proposes cooperative control of multipleactive filters based on
voltage detection for harmonic damping throughout a power distribution system. The
arrangement of a real distribution system would be changed according to system
operation, and/or fault conditions. In addition, shunt capacitors and loads are
individually connected to, or disconnected from, the distribution system.

Pedro Rodríguez, JosepPou, Joan Bergas,J. Ignacio Candela , Rolando P. Burgos


and DushanBoroyevich ,[4]
“Decoupled double synchronous reference frame PLL for power converters control,”
Presented the detection ofthe fundamental-frequency positive-sequence
component of theutility voltage under unbalanced and distorted conditions.
Specifically, it proposes a positive-sequence detector based on a new decoupled double
synchronous reference frame phase-locked loop (PLL), which completely eliminates
the detection errors of conventional synchronous reference frame PLL’s. This is
achieved by transforming both positive- and negative-sequence components of the
utility voltage into the double SRF, from which a decoupling network is developed in
order to cleanly extract and separate the positive- and negative-sequence components.

16
SoerenBaekhoejKjaer, John K. Pedersenand Frede Blaabjerg,[5]
“A review of single-phase grid-connected inverters for photovoltaic modules”
presents a Review of Single-Phase Grid-Connected Inverters for Photovoltaic
Modules. This paper focuses on inverter technologies forconnecting photovoltaic (PV)
modules to a single-phase grid. The inverters are categorized into four classifications:
1) the number of power processing stages in cascade; 2) the type of power decoupling
between the PV module(s) and the single-phase grid; 3) whether they utilizes a
transformer (either line or high frequency) or not; and 4) the type of grid-connected
power stage.

F. Blaabjerg, R. Teodorescu, M. Liserre, and A. V. Timbus,[6]


“Overview of control and grid synchronization for distributed power generation
systems,”
This paper gives an overview of the structures for the DPGS based on fuel cell,
photovoltaic, and wind turbines. In addition, control structures of the grid-side
converter are presented, and the possibility of compensation for low-order harmonics
is also discussed. Moreover, control strategies when running on grid faults are treated.
This paper ends up with an overview of synchronization methods and a discussion about
their importance in the control.

J. M. Carrasco, L. G. Franquelo, J. T. Bialasiewicz, E. Galván, R. C. P. Guisado,


M. Á. M. Prats, J. I. León, and N. M. Alfonso,[7]
“Power electronicsystems for the grid integration of renewable energy sources: A
survey,”
This paper proposes about distributed energy resource is increasingly being
pursued as a supplement and an alternative to large conventional central power stations.
The specification of a power electronic interface is subject to requirements
related not only to the renewable energy source itself but also to its effects on the power-
system operation, especially where the intermittent energy source constitutes a
significant part of the total system capacity.

17
2.3 PROBLEM FORMULATION:
One of the most common problems when connecting small renewable energy
systems to the electric grid concerns the interface unit between the power sources and
the grid, because it can inject harmonic components that may detoriate the power
quality.
The increasing use in the industry of non-linear loads based on the power
electronic elements also introduced serious perturbation problems in the electric power
distribution grids. Also, regular increase in the harmonic emissions and current
unbalance in addition to high consumption of reactive power can be noticed. The flow
of harmonic currents in the electric grids can also cause voltage harmonics and
disturbance. These harmonic currents can interact adversely with a wide range of power
system equipment’s, control systems, protection circuits and other harmonic sensible
loads. The energy distributers like consumers were concerned by imposing some
regulation protection against the expansion of harmonic problem.
In order to face the problem of harmonics, many solutions have been
proposed. These solutions included modifications on the load itself for less harmonic
emissions like the case of special structure single phase and three phase rectifier and
PWM rectifiers or the connection on the polluted power grids of other traditional or
modern compensation systems.
In order to face the problem of harmonics, many researches were
encouraged to develop modern, flexible and more efficient solutions for power quality
problems including harmonics problem. These modern solutions have been given the
name of active compensators or active power filters. The objective of these active
power filter abbreviated mostly APF is to compensate harmonic currents and voltages
in addition to selective reactive power compensation.
Many types of APF have been proposed and used in harmonic compensation.
Series APF is used for voltage harmonics compensation. Shunt APF was proposed for
current harmonics and reactive power compensation.
The Unified Power Quality Filter or Conditioner combines the two types Shunt
and Series APF in one device responsible for the simultaneous compensation of voltage,
current harmonics and reactive power. Although there are different types of APF, the
Shunt APF is still the most famous and used type APF.

18
The main function of Shunt Active Power Filter is to cancel harmonic currents
occurring in power grids. The principle of SAPF is to generate harmonic currents equal
in magnitude and opposite in phase to those harmonics that circulate in the grid. The
non-linear loads absorb non-sinusoidal currents from the grid. Whereas, the SAPF
current is generated in a manner that grid current keeps the sinusoidal form. SAPF is
controlled to be seen with the non-linear load by the grid either as linear resistive load.
There are two main structures for the control of Shunt Active Power Filter; these
are the direct control and the indirect control of APF. In the direct control the main idea
is to generate filter current references using the appropriate methods. The generated
reference currents are then to be compared with the measured APF currents. The error
is then used to produce control signals of the filter. The indirect control interests in
controlling the grid currents instead of filter currents. It compares the measured grid
currents with their generated references. The error is then sent to the control circuit
which determines the control signal of the APF.

19
CHAPTER 3
PROPOSED UPQC
3.1 OVERVIEW:
Shunt active power filter compensates current harmonics by injecting equal-but-
opposite harmonic compensating currents into the grid. In this case the shunt active
power filter operates as a current source injecting the harmonic components generated
by the load but phase shifted by 180°. This principle is applicable to any type of load
considered as harmonic source. Moreover, with an appropriate control scheme, the
active power filter can also compensate the load power factor. In this way, the power
distribution system sees the non-linear load and the active power filter as an ideal
resistor. The current compensation characteristics of the shunt active power filter is
shown in Fig. 3.1

Fig. 3.1 Compensation Characteristic of Shunt Active Power Filter

20
3.2 HARMONIC CURRENT EXTRACTION METHODS:
The aim of active power filtering is to compensate the harmonic currents
produced by the non-linear loads, and to ensure the sinusoidal form of grid currents and
voltages.
The first step in active filtering is the harmonic currents extraction to be injected
into the grid. The good extraction of harmonics is a keyword for a good active power
filtering. Many extraction methods were proposed in literary.
They can be divided into two families: the first family uses the Fast Fourier
Transform (FFT) in the frequency domain to extract the current harmonics. The main
disadvantages of this method are the bad results in transient, the heavy amount of
calculations, and the use of considerable memory. In addition to a delay in the
extraction of harmonics which can be at least one period.
The second family is based on the time domain calculations in the extraction of
harmonics. Some of its methods are based on the instantaneous active and reactive
power. Others are based on the calculation of direct and indirect current components.
Recently, the neural networks and the adaptive linear neural networks have been used
in the extraction of harmonic components of current and voltage.

3.2.1 Instantaneous Active and Reactive Power Theory:


Most APFs have been designed on the basis of instantaneous active and reactive
power theory (p-q), first proposed by Akagi et al in 1983. Initially, it was developed
only for three-phase systems without neutral wire, being later worked by Watanabe and
Aredes for three-phase four wires power systems. The method uses the transformation
of distorted currents from three phase frame abc into bi-phase stationary frame αβ. The
basic idea is that the harmonic currents caused by nonlinear loads in the power system
can be compensated with other nonlinear controlled loads. The p-q theory is based on
a set of 31 instantaneous powers defined in the time domain. The three-phase supply
voltages (ua, ub, uc) and currents (ia, ib, ic) are transformed using the Clarke (or α-β)
transformation into a different coordinate system yielding instantaneous active and
reactive power components. This transformation may be viewed as a projection of the
three-phase quantities onto a stationary two-axis reference frame. The Clarke
transformation for the voltage variables is given by

21
1 1
1 −2 −2
𝑢∝ 𝑢𝑎
2 √3 √3
[𝑢𝛽 ] = √3 0 −2 [𝑢𝑏 ] (3.1)
2
𝑢0 1 1 1 𝑢𝑐
[√2 √2 √2 ]
Similarly, this transform can be applied on the distorted load currents to give:
1 1
1 −2 −2
𝑖𝑙∝ 𝑖𝑙𝑎
2 √3 √3
[𝑖𝑙𝛽 ] = √3 0 − 2 [𝑖𝑙𝑏 ] (3.2)
2
𝑖𝑙0 1 1 1 𝑖𝑙𝑐
[√2 √2 √2 ]
The instantaneous active power p(t) is defined by:

p(t)= 𝑢𝑎 𝑖𝑙𝑎 + 𝑢𝑏 𝑖𝑙𝑏 + 𝑢𝑐 𝑖𝑙𝑐 (3.3)

This expression can be given in the stationary frame by:

𝑝(𝑡) = 𝑢∝ 𝑖𝑙∝ + 𝑢𝛽 𝑖𝑙𝛽


{ (3.4)
𝑝𝑜 (𝑡) = 𝑢𝑜 𝑖𝑙𝑜
Where, p(t) is the instantaneous active power, p0(t) is the instantaneous homo-polar
sequence power. Similarly the instantaneous reactive power can be given by:
1
𝑞(𝑡) = − [(𝑢𝑎 − 𝑢𝑏 )𝑖𝑙𝑐 + (𝑢𝑏 − 𝑢𝑐 )𝑖𝑙𝑎 + (𝑢𝑐 − 𝑢𝑎 )𝑖𝑙𝑏 ] = 𝑢∝ 𝑖𝑙𝛽 − 𝑢𝛽 𝑖𝑙∝
√3

(3.5)
It is important to notice that the instantaneous reactive power q(t) signify more
than the simple reactive power. The instantaneous reactive power take in consideration
all the current and voltage harmonics, where as the habitual reactive power consider
just the fundamentals of current and voltage.
From equations (3.4) and (3.5) the instantaneous active and reactive power can be
given in matrix form by:
𝑝 𝑢∝ 𝑢𝛽 𝑖𝑙𝛼
[𝑞 ] = [−𝑢 𝑢𝛼 ] [𝑖𝑙𝛽 ] (3.6)
𝛽

In general, each one of the active and reactive instantaneous power contains a
direct component and an alternating component. The direct component of each presents
the power of the fundamentals of current and voltage. The alternating term is the power
of the harmonics of currents and voltages.

22
In order to separate the harmonics from the fundamentals of the load currents,
it is enough to separate the direct term of the instantaneous power from the alternating
one. A Low Pass Filter (LPF) with feed-forward effect can be used to accomplish this
task. Fig. 3.2 shows the principle of this extraction filter.

Fig. 3.2 Diagram of the Low Pass Filter with Feed-Forward.

After the separation of the direct and alternating terms of instantaneous power,
the harmonic components of the load currents can be given using the inverse of equation
(3.6) which gives:
𝑖𝑙𝛼 1 𝑣𝑠∝ −𝑣𝑠𝛽 𝑝̃𝑙
[𝑖 ] = 𝑣 2 +𝑣 2 [𝑣 𝑣𝑠𝛼 ] [𝑞̃𝑙 ] (3.7)
𝑙𝛽 𝑠∝ 𝑠𝛽 𝑠𝛽

Where, the "~ "sign points to the alternating.


The APF reference current can be then given by:


𝑖𝑓𝑎 1 0
1 √3 𝑖̃𝑙𝛼
[𝑖𝑓𝑏 ] = √3 − 2
∗ 2
2 [𝑖̃ ] (3.8)
∗ 1 𝑙𝛽
𝑖𝑓𝑐 √3

[ 2 −
2]

Fig. 3.3 presents the principle of the active and reactive instantaneous power.
This method offers the advantage of the possibility of harmonic compensation and/or
reactive power compensation. In the case of reactive power compensation it is enough
to send the reactive power q(t) directly to the reference current calculation bloc without
the use of any extraction filter.

23
Fig. 3.3 Principle of Instantaneous Active and Reactive Power Theory.

3.3 VOLTAGE SOURCE INVERTER:


Voltage source inverters (VSI) are one of the most important applications of
power electronics. The main purpose of these devices is to provide a three-phase
voltage source, where the amplitude, phase, and frequency of the voltages should
always be controllable.
The important development of VSI is a result, from the one hand to the
development of fast, controllable, powerful, and robust semi-conductors, from the other
hand to the use of the so-called pulse width modulation (PWM) techniques.
In the high power applications, the three level VSIs are the most adopted in
comparison with two levels ones. Because the THD of the output voltage and current
of the three levels VSI is clearly lower.
The standard three-phase VSI topology is shown in Fig. 3.4. It is composed of three
legs with current reversible switches, controlled for the open and close. These switches
are realized by controlled switches (GTO or IGBT) with anti-parallel diodes to allow
the flow of the free-wheeling currents.
The switches of any leg of the inverter (T1 and T4, T2 and T5, T3 and T6)
cannot be switched on simultaneously because this would result in a short circuit across
the dc link voltage supply. Similarly, in order to avoid undefined states in the VSI, and
thus undefined ac output line voltages, the switches of any leg of the inverter cannot be
switched off simultaneously as this will result in voltages that will depend upon the
respective line current polarity.

24
Fig. 3.4 Three-phase Two Levels VSI Topology

3.3.1 Modeling of Voltage Source Inverter:


The output of the VSI which is shown in Fig. 3.4 can take two levels of voltage
(+Vdc, - Vdc) dependent on the dc source voltage and the switches states. Actually, the
control of the two switches on the same leg is complementary: the conduction of one
of them implies the blocking of the other.
The state of each one of the switches is defined by the control signals (Sa, Sb
and Sc) as follow:
1 𝑖𝑓 𝑇1 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒 , 𝑇4 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛
𝑆𝑎 = {
0 𝑖𝑓 𝑇1 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 , 𝑇4 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒
1 𝑖𝑓 𝑇2 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒 , 𝑇5 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛
𝑆𝑏 = {
0 𝑖𝑓 𝑇2 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 , 𝑇5 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒
1 𝑖𝑓 𝑇3 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒 , 𝑇6 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛
𝑆𝑐 = {
0 𝑖𝑓 𝑇3 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 , 𝑇6 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒

3.3.2 Modeling of Active Power Filter:


The connection of the shunt active power filter to the point of common coupling
of the grid is done mostly by the mean of a RL low pass filter as shown in Fig. 3.1. The
voltage equation for each phase can be given by:
𝑣𝑠𝑘 = 𝑣𝑓𝑘 − 𝑣𝐿𝑓𝑘 − 𝑣𝑅𝑓𝑘
𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑘
𝑣𝑓𝑘 − 𝐿𝑓 − 𝑅𝑓 𝑖𝑓𝑘 , k=a,b,c (3.9)
𝑑𝑡

25
The three phase equations are then given by:
𝑖𝑓𝑎 𝑖𝑓𝑎 𝑣𝑓𝑎 𝑠𝑠𝑎
𝑑
𝐿𝑓 [𝑖𝑓𝑏 ] = −𝑅𝑓 [𝑖𝑓𝑏 ] + [𝑣𝑓𝑏 ] − [𝑣𝑠𝑏 ] (3.10)
𝑑𝑡
𝑖𝑓𝑐 𝑖𝑓𝑐 𝑣𝑓𝑐 𝑣𝑠𝑐
And for the dc side:
𝑑𝑉𝑑𝑐
𝐶𝑑𝑐 . = 𝑆𝑎 𝑖𝑓𝑎 + 𝑆𝑏 𝑖𝑏 + 𝑆𝑐 𝑖𝑓 (3.11)
𝑑𝑡
The equation system defining the SAPF in the three phase frame is then given
𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑎
𝐿𝑓 = −𝑅𝑓 𝑖𝑓𝑎 + 𝑣𝑓𝑎 − 𝑣𝑠𝑎
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑏
by: 𝐿𝑓 = −𝑅𝑓 𝑖𝑓𝑏 + 𝑣𝑓𝑏 − 𝑣𝑠𝑏 (3.12)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑐
{ 𝐿𝑓 𝑑𝑡
= −𝑅𝑓 𝑖𝑓𝑐 + 𝑣𝑓𝑐 − 𝑣𝑠𝑐

Fig. 3.5 SAPF Connection to the PCC

3.3.3 Control Methods of VSI:


The aim of the control of the VSC is to force the output currents of the inverter
to follow their predefined reference currents. The main principle is based on the
comparison between the actual current of the filter with the reference currents generated
by the different extraction methods. In the next section, we are going to discuss some
different methods in VSC control.

3.3.3.1 Hysteresis Control Method:


The current control strategy plays an important role in fast response current
controlled inverters such as the active power filters. The hysteresis current control
method is the most commonly proposed control method in time domain. This method
provides instantaneous current corrective response, good accuracy and unconditioned
stability to the system. Besides that, this technique is said to be the most suitable
solution for current controlled inverters.

26
Hysteresis current control is a method of controlling a voltage source inverter so that
an output current is generated which follows a reference current waveform.
The basic structure of PWM voltage source inverter with hysteresis controller
is shown in Fig. 3.6. The hysteresis control strategy aims to keep the controlled current
inside a defined rejoin around the desired reference current. The status of the switches
is determined according to the error. When the current is increasing and the error
exceeds a certain positive value, the status of the switches changes and the current
begins to decrease until the error reaches a certain negative value, then the switches
status changes again.

Fig. 3.6 Hysteresis Control Principle

In the fix hysteresis band control of the VSI, the switching frequency is a
function of the derivative of the output current.
This one depends on the value of the inductance of the decoupling filter and the
voltage drop around it. It is important to notice that the coupling filter affects the
switching frequency and the dynamic behavior of the active filter. The simple
implementation procedure is the main advantage of this control method. However, the
variable switching frequency is the major draw-back of this method. This variable
frequency affects mainly the function of power electronic elements which can’t support
high switching frequency in high power applications. In order to solve the problem of
variable switching frequency, a new hysteresis control strategies like “modulated
hysteresis control” and “variable hysteresis band” were proposed. In the modulated
hysteresis control it is difficult to define the hysteresis band width. Over more, the fix

27
switching frequency achieved using this method affects the rapidity obtained by
hysteresis control.

3.3.3.2 Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation (SPWM) Control:


The control techniques based on the PWM solve the problem of switching
frequency of the VSI. They use a fix switching frequency which makes it easier to
cancel the switching harmonics. The PWM can be realized using different techniques
such as carrier based PWM, PWM with harmonics minimization, and space vector
PWM. The carrier PWM can be natural PWM, symmetric PWM, and asymmetric
PWM.
The most simple and well known PWM technique is the sinusoidal PWM. This
technique uses a controller which determines the voltage reference of the inverter from
the error between the measured current and its reference. This reference voltage is then
compared with a triangular carrier signal (with high frequency defining the switching
frequency). The output of this comparison gives the switching function of the VSI.
The choice of the ratio between the frequency of the reference signal and the
frequency of the carrier signal is very important in the case of symmetric and periodic
reference. As a consequence, in the case of sinusoidal reference, the ratio between the
two frequencies must be integer to synchronize the carrier with the reference. Over
more, it is preferable that the carrier frequency be odd to conserve the reference
symmetry. In all cases this ratio must be sufficiently high to ensure the fast switching
and to take the switching harmonics away from the fundamental produced by the
inverter.

Fig. 3.7 The Principle of Sinusoidal PWM Control Method

28
Recently, new control techniques called space vector PWM were implemented.
The difference between this technique and the sinusoidal technique is that it doesn’t use
carrier signal to define switching orders.

3.3.3.3 Space Vector PWM Control (SVPWM):


Space vector modulation technique was first introduced by German researchers
in the mid of 1980s. This technique showed several advantages over the traditional
PWM technique and has been proven to inherently generate superior PWM waveforms.
By implementing the SVM technique, the number of switching is reduced to about 30%
at the same carrier frequency of the sinusoidal pulse width modulation (SPWM)
method. It offers better DC bus utilizations with lower THD in the AC current and
reduces of switching losses too. The maximum modulation index for the SPWM
method is 0.785 with the sinusoidal waveform between the phase and the neutral current
of the system. However, the modulation index can be increased to 0.907 for the
SVPWM.
The basic principle of the SVM technique is that it treats the inverter as a whole
unit, which is different when compared to PWM technique. This technique is based on
the decomposition of a reference voltage vector into voltage vector realizable on a six
pulse inverter.
The SVPWM technique is widely used in inverter and rectifier controls.
Compared to the sinusoidal pulse width modulation (SPWM), SVPWM is more suitable
for digital implementation and can increase the obtainable maximum output voltage
with maximum line voltage approaching 70.7% of the DC link voltage (compared to
SPWM’s 61.2%) in the linear modulation range.
Moreover, it can obtain a better voltage total harmonic distortion factor. There
are different algorithms for using SVPWM to modulate the inverter or rectifier. Many
SVPWM schemes have been investigated extensively in literatures. The goal in each
modulation strategy is to lower the switching losses, maximize bus utilization, reduce
harmonic content, and still achieve precise control.
In the SVPWM scheme, the 3-phase output voltage is represented by a reference
vector which rotates at an angular speed of ω =2π f. The task of SVM is to use the
combinations of switching states to approximate the reference vector. To approximate

29
the locus of this vector, the eight possible switching states of the inverter are represented
as 2 null vectors and 6 active vectors.

3.4 CONTROL OF THE ACTIVE POWER FILTER:


The researchers are always at the point of the research to ameliorate the control
methods of the SAPF to achieve better results either from the point of view of better
perturbation extraction methods, the amelioration of the dynamic regimes, decreasing
the value of the THD,…etc.
or the development of new control methods to ameliorate the performance of
the APF with the different non-linear loads. There are principally two methods for the
compensation of the harmonic currents dependent on the measured current.

3.4.1 Direct Control Method:


In this method the load currents are measured and the harmonic currents are
extracted from the load currents. Fig. 3.8 shows the diagram of the direct control
method. Using this method, the SAPF injects the harmonic currents without any
information about the grid currents. All the errors in the system like the parameters
uncertainty, the measurement or control errors will appear in the grid current as
unfiltered harmonic contents. The main advantage of this method is the system stability.
However, this method needs an expanded control algorithm with large number of
sensors.

Fig. 3.8 Direct Control Method Diagram

30
3.4.2 Indirect Control Method:
This method based on the measurement of the source currents, and then to
impose the sinusoidal form on these currents. The control algorithm is less complicated
and needs fewer sensors than the direct control. Fig. 3.9 shows the diagram of the
indirect control method of the SAPF.

Fig. 3.9 Indirect Control Method Diagram

DC to AC converters produce an AC output waveform from a DC source.


Applications include adjustable speed drives (ASD), uninterruptable power supplies
(UPS), active filters, Flexible AC transmission systems (FACTS), voltage
compensators, and photovoltaic generators. Topologies for these converters can be
separated into two distinct categories: voltage source inverters and current source
inverters. Voltage source inverters (VSIs) are named so because the independently
controlled output is a voltage waveform. Similarly, current source inverters (CSIs) are
distinct in that the controlled AC output is a current waveform.
Being static power converters, the DC to AC power conversion is the result of
power switching devices, which are commonly fully controllable semiconductor power
switches. The output waveforms are therefore made up of discrete values, producing
fast transitions rather than smooth ones. The ability to produce near sinusoidal
waveforms around the fundamental frequency is dictated by the modulation technique
controlling when, and for how long, the power valves are on and off. Common
modulation techniques include the carrier-based technique, or pulse width modulation,
space-vector technique, and the selective-harmonic technique.
Voltage source inverters have practical uses in both single-phase and three-
phase applications. Single-phase VSIs utilize half-bridge and full-bridge

31
configurations, and are widely used for power supplies, single-phase UPSs, and
elaborate high-power topologies when used in multicell configurations. Three-phase
VSIs are used in applications that require sinusoidal voltage waveforms, such as ASDs,
UPSs, and some types of FACTS devices such as the STATCOM. They are also used
in applications where arbitrary voltages are required as in the case of active filters and
voltage compensators.
Current source inverters are used to produce an AC output current from a DC
current supply. This type of inverter is practical for three-phase applications in which
high-quality voltage waveforms are required.
A relatively new class of inverters, called multilevel inverters, has gained
widespread interest. Normal operation of CSIs and VSIs can be classified as two-level
inverters, due to the fact that power switches connect to either the positive or to the
negative DC bus. If more than two voltage levels were available to the inverter output
terminals, the AC output could better approximate a sine wave. It is for this reason that
multilevel inverters, although more complex and costly, offer higher performance.
Each inverter type differs in the DC links used, and in whether or not they
require freewheeling diodes. Either can be made to operate in square-wave or pulse-
width modulation (PWM) mode, depending on its intended usage. Square-wave mode
offers simplicity, while PWM can be implemented several different ways and produces
higher quality waveforms.
Voltage Source Inverters (VSI) feed the output inverter section from an
approximately constant-voltage source.
The desired quality of the current output waveform determines which
modulation technique needs to be selected for a given application. The output of a VSI
is composed of discrete values. In order to obtain a smooth current waveform, the loads
need to be inductive at the select harmonic frequencies. Without some sort of inductive
filtering between the source and load, a capacitive load will cause the load to receive a
choppy current waveform, with large and frequent current spikes.
There are three main types of VSIs:
• Single-phase half-bridge inverter
• Single-phase full-bridge inverter
• Three-phase voltage source inverter

32
Single-phase half-bridge inverter

Fig. 3.10 The AC input for an ASD.

Fig. 3.11 Single-Phase Half-Bridge Voltage Source Inverter

The single-phase voltage source half-bridge inverters, are meant for lower
voltage applications and are commonly used in power supplies. Fig. 3.11 shows the
circuit schematic of this inverter.
Low-order current harmonics get injected back to the source voltage by the
operation of the inverter. This means that two large capacitors are needed for filtering
purposes in this design.As Fig. 3.11 illustrates, only one switch can be on at time in
each leg of the inverter. If both switches in a leg were on at the same time, the DC
source will be shorted out.
Inverters can use several modulation techniques to control their switching
schemes. The carrier-based PWM technique compares the AC output waveform, vc, to
a carrier voltage signal, vΔ. When vc is greater than vΔ, S+ is on, and when vc is less
than vΔ, S- is on.
When the AC output is at frequency fc with its amplitude at vc, and the triangular
carrier signal is at frequency fΔ with its amplitude at vΔ, the PWM becomes a special
sinusoidal case of the carrier based PWM.[8] This case is dubbed sinusoidal pulse-width
modulation (SPWM).For this, the modulation index, or amplitude-modulation ratio, is
defined asma = vc / v∆ .
The normalized carrier frequency, or frequency-modulation ratio, is calculated using
the equation mf = f∆ / fc .

33
If the over-modulation region, ma, exceeds one, a higher fundamental AC output
voltage will be observed, but at the cost of saturation. For SPWM, the harmonics of the
output waveform are at well-defined frequencies and amplitudes. This simplifies the
design of the filtering components needed for the low-order current harmonic injection
from the operation of the inverter. The maximum output amplitude in this mode of
operation is half of the source voltage. If the maximum output amplitude, m a, exceeds
3.24, the output waveform of the inverter becomes a square wave.
As was true for PWM, both switches in a leg for square wave modulation cannot
be turned on at the same time, as this would cause a short across the voltage source.
The switching scheme requires that both S+ and S- be on for a half cycle of the AC
output period. The fundamental AC output amplitude is equal to vo1 = vaN.
Therefore, the AC output voltage is not controlled by the inverter, but rather by
the magnitude of the DC input voltage of the inverter.
Using selective harmonic elimination (SHE) as a modulation technique allows
the switching of the inverter to selectively eliminate intrinsic harmonics. The
fundamental component of the AC output voltage can also be adjusted within a
desirable range. Since the AC output voltage obtained from this modulation technique
has odd half and odd quarter wave symmetry, even harmonics do not exist. Any
undesirable odd (N-1) intrinsic harmonics from the output waveform can be eliminated.
Single-phase full-bridge inverter

Fig. 3.12 Single-Phase Voltage Source Full-Bridge Inverter

Fig 3.13 Carrier and Modulating Signals for the Bipolar Pulsewidth Modulation Technique

34
The full-bridge inverter is similar to the half bridge-inverter, but it has an
additional leg to connect the neutral point to the load. Figure 3.12 shows the circuit
schematic of the single-phase voltage source full-bridge inverter.
To avoid shorting out the voltage source, S1+ and S1- cannot be on at the same
time, and S2+ and S2- also cannot be on at the same time. Any modulating technique
used for the full-bridge configuration should have either the top or the bottom switch
of each leg on at any given time. Due to the extra leg, the maximum amplitude of the
output waveform is Vi, and is twice as large as the maximum achievable output
amplitude for the half-bridge configuration.
States 1 and 2 from Table 2 are used to generate the AC output voltage with
bipolar SPWM. The AC output voltage can take on only two values, either Vi or –Vi.
To generate these same states using a half-bridge configuration, a carrier based
technique can be used. S+ being on for the half-bridge corresponds to S1+ and S2-
being on for the full-bridge.
Similarly, S- being on for the half-bridge corresponds to S1- and S2+ being on
for the full bridge. The output voltage for this modulation technique is more or less
sinusoidal, with a fundamental component that has an amplitude in the linear region of
ma less than or equal to one[8] vo1 =vab1= vi • ma.
Unlike the bipolar PWM technique, the unipolar approach uses states 1, 2, 3 and 4
from Table 2 to generate its AC output voltage. Therefore, the AC output voltage can
take on the values Vi, 0 or –V [1]i. To generate these states, two sinusoidal modulating
signals, Vc and –Vc, are needed, as seen in Figure 3.13.
Vc is used to generate VaN, while –Vc is used to generate VbN. The following
relationship is called unipolar carrier-based SPWM vo1 =2 • vaN1= vi • ma.
The phase voltages VaN and VbN are identical, but 180 degrees out of phase
with each other. The output voltage is equal to the difference of the two phase voltages,
and do not contain any even harmonics. Therefore, if mf is taken, even the AC output
voltage harmonics will appear at normalized odd frequencies, fh. These frequencies are
centered on double the value of the normalized carrier frequency. This particular feature
allowas the case for the half-bridge SHE, the AC output voltage contains no even
harmonics due to its odd half and odd quarter wave symmetry.

35
CHAPTER 4
SIMULATION FOR PV POWERED UPQC

4.1 INTRODUCTION:
The continuous increase in the electrical energy with the clean environment
needs the decentralized renewable energy production. The increasing energy
consumption may overload the distribution grid as well as power station and may
cause the negative impact on power availability, security and quality. The
only solution to overcome this problem is integrating the utility grid with
the renewable energy systems like solar, wind or hydro. The grid can be connected
to the energy system as per the availability of renewable energy sources. Recently
the solar power generation systems are getting more attention because solar energy
is abundantly available, more efficient and more environment friendly as compared
to the conventional power generation systems such as fossil fuel, coal or nuclear.
The PV systems are still very expensive because of higher manufacturing cost
of the PV panels, but the energy that drives them -the light from the sun- is free,
available almost everywhere and will still be present for millions of years, even
all non-renewable energy sources might be depleted. One of the major
advantages of PV technology is that it has no moving parts. Therefore, the PV
system is very robust, it has a long lifetime and low maintenance
requirements. And, most importantly, it is one solution that offers
environmentally friendly power generation.
The most important issue of all is probably why solar energy is important to you,
personally.
• Fossil fuels, like gas and oil, are not renewable energy. Once they are gone
they can't be replenished. Someday these fuels will run out and then mankind
will either need to come up with a new way to provide power or go back to
life as it was prior to man's use of these things.
• Fossil fuels create massive pollution in the environment. This pollution
affects waterways, the air you breathe, and even the meat and vegetables that
you eat.

36
• These fuels are expensive to retrieve from the earth and they are expensive to
use. Other, more Eco-friendly energy sources like wind and solar energies are
relatively inexpensive and easy to produce.
The disadvantage of the PV system is that it can supply the load only in sunny
days. Therefore, for improving the performance and supplying the power in
all day, it is necessary to hybrid the PV system into another power
generation systems or to integrate with the utility grid. The integration of the
PV system with the utility grid requires the PWM voltage source converter for
interfacing the utility grid and results some interface issues.
A prototype current- controlled power conditioning system has been
developed and tested. This prototype sources 20 kW of power from a photovoltaic
array with a maximum power point tracking control. The disadvantage of this
system is the need of high bandwidth current measurement transducers (dc to
several times the switching frequency), and the need for relatively high precision
in the reference signal generation. Hence, this increases the cost of the system. The
inverters suitable for the PV system are central inverters, string inverters, Module
integrated or module oriented inverters, multi string PV inverter with new
trends has been described . If these solar inverters are connected with the grid, the
control of these inverters can be provided using the phase locked loop . The need and
benefits of the distribution technology has been presented . Single-phase Grid
connected PV inverters with the control has been described with its advantages
and disadvantages. The three-phase Photovoltaic power conditioning system with
line connection has been proposed with the disturbance of the line voltage which
is detected using a fast sensing technique. The control of the system is provided
through the microcontroller. Power electronic systems can also be used for controlling
the solar inverter for interfacing the Solar Power Generation system with the grid.
The complete design and modeling of the grid connected PV system has been
developed to supply the local loads.

4.2 BACKGROUND:
World is moving towards the greener sources of energy to make the planet
pollution free and environment friendly. The major utilization of these sources with
grid integration is the challenging task. It is therefore Distribution Generation (DGs)

37
particularly single phase rooftop PV system are major research area for grid integration,
since these sources have huge opportunity of generation near load terminal.
The rooftop application involving single phase DG’s fed with PV source can be not
only utilized for household use but the excess energy can be transferred to the grid
through proper control scheme and adequate hardware. Control scheme based on
instantaneous PQ theory has been presented in some literatures for single phase system.
Other control scheme such as synchronous reference frame (SRF) is mainly used with
three phase system in which sinusoidal varying quantities are being transferred to dc
quantities that provides better and precise control than PQ based control even under
distorted condition of mains. But SRF based control scheme can be customized for
single phase which can’t be utilized to get the desired dc quantity to generate required
reference command. PV sources are interfaced with the grid through voltage source
converters (VSC’s). VSC’s can be controlled either in PWM based voltage control
method or hysteresis based current controlled method (HCC). HCC based controller
gives fast response and better regulation but its major drawback lies with Variable
frequency. On the other hand the PWM based control gives fixed switching frequency
that could be utilized easily for proper design of LC or LCL filters. With PV sources
connected at the DC side of the inverter, it is utmost essential to fetch maximum power
from the source to make the system efficient.
Out of different algorithm to track maximum power point (MPP) such as perturb
and observe (P&O), Incremental Conductance (IC) etc., IC based method provides fast
dynamics and control over fast changing insolation condition. In this paper new control
scheme based on SRF theory has been proposed for single phase rooftop PV grid
connected system. The VSC controller is designed in taking the advantage of both
current and voltage controller which is called current driven PWM based voltage
controller. Through the VSC the maximum tracked power is pumped into the grid
through proper control on DC link voltage. By maintaining the DC link voltage constant
during operation, is ensured the total power being generated by PV transferred across
the DC bus by the inverter to the grid. Apart from active power transfer the system
could be well utilized for providing limited reactive power compensation based on
available capacity of the VSC. The detailed system configuration and various control
schemes are briefly discussed and explained. The rooftop PV system with proposed
scheme is simulated under the MATLAB simulink environment for grid connection to

38
push real power into the grid along with limited power conditioning. The contents are
dealt in the following sections: (II) System Configuration (III) PV array modeling and
IC MPPT techniques, (IV) Control, (V) MATLAB Simulation, (VI) Performance
evaluation.

4.3 HISTORY:
The photovoltaic effect was experimentally demonstrated first by French
physicist Edmond Becquerel. In 1839, at age 19, he built the world's first photovoltaic
cell in his father's laboratory. Willoughby Smith first described the "Effect of Light on
Selenium during the passage of an Electric Current" in a 20 February 1873 issue of
Nature. In 1883 Charles Fritts built the first solid state photovoltaic cell by coating
the semiconductor selenium with a thin layer of gold to form the junctions; the device
was only around 1% efficient. In 1888 Russian physicist Aleksandr Stoletov built the
first cell based on the outer photoelectric effect discovered by Heinrich Hertz in 1887.
Albert Einstein explained the underlying mechanism of light instigated carrier
excitation—the photoelectric effect—in 1905, for which he received the Nobel Prize in
Physics in 1921. Russell Ohl patented the modern junction semiconductor solar cell in
1946 while working on the series of advances that would lead to the transistor.
The first practical photovoltaic cell was publicly demonstrated on 25 April 1954
at Bell Laboratories. The inventors were Daryl Chapin, Calvin Souther Fuller and
Gerald Pearson.
Solar cells gained prominence when they were proposed as an addition to the
1958 Vanguard I satellite. By adding cells to the outside of the body, the mission time
could be extended with no major changes to the spacecraft or its power systems. In
1959 the United States launched Explorer 6, featuring large wing-shaped solar arrays,
which became a common feature in satellites. These arrays consisted of 9600 Hoffman
solar cells.
Improvements were gradual over the next two decades. The only significant use
was in space applications where they offered the best power-to-weight ratio. However,
this success was also the reason that costs remained high, because space users were
willing to pay for the best possible cells, leaving no reason to invest in lower-cost, less-
efficient solutions. The price was determined largely by the semiconductor industry;
their move to integrated circuits in the 1960s led to the availability of larger boules at

39
lower relative prices. As their price fell, the price of the resulting cells did as well. These
effects lowered 1971 cell costs to some $100 per watt.
In late 1969, Elliot Berman was investigating organic solar cells, when he joined
a team at Exxon SPC who were looking for projects 30 years in the future. The group
had concluded that electrical power would be much more expensive by 2000, and felt
that this increase in price would make alternative energy sources more attractive,
finding solar the most interesting. He conducted a market study and concluded that
a price per watt of about $20/watt would create significant demand.
The first improvement was the realization that the standard semiconductor
manufacturing process was not ideal. The team eliminated the steps of polishing the
wafers and coating them with an anti-reflective layer, relying on the rough-sawn wafer
surface. The team also replaced the expensive materials and hand wiring used in space
applications with a printed circuit board on the back, acrylic plastic on the front,
and silicone glue between the two, "potting" the cells. Solar cells could be made using
cast-off material from the electronics market.

4.4 NAVIGATION MARKET:


SPC convinced Tideland Signal to use its panels to power navigational buoys,
after finding that Automatic Power, the market leader, had purchased and shelved a
solar navigation aid prototype from Hoffman Electronics to protect its battery business.
Tideland's solar-powered buoy quickly overtook Automatic.
The rapidly increasing number of offshore oil platforms and loading facilities
led Arco to buy Solar Power International (SPI), forming ARCO Solar. ARCO Solar's
factory in Camarillo, California was the first dedicated to building solar panels, and was
in continual operation from its purchase by ARCO in 1977 until 2011 when it was
closed by Solar World.
Following the 1973 oil crisis oil companies used their higher profits to start
solar firms, and were for decades the largest producers. Exxon, ARCO, Shell, Amoco
(later purchased by BP) and Mobil all had major solar divisions during the 1970s and
1980s. Technology companies also participated, including General Electric, Motorola,
IBM, Tyco and RCA.
Simulink is a software package for modeling, simulating, and analyzing
dynamical systems. It supports linear and nonlinear systems, modeled in continuous

40
time, sampled time, or a hybrid of the two. For modeling, Simulink provides a graphical
user interface (GUI) for building models as block diagrams, using click-and-drag
mouse operations. Models are hierarchical, so we can build models using both top-
down and bottom-up approaches. We can view the system at a high level, then double-
click on blocks to go down through the levels to see increasing levels of model detail.
This approach provides insight into how a model is organized and how its parts interact.
After we define a model, we can simulate it, using a choice of integration methods,
either from the Simulink menus or by entering commands in MATLAB's command
window. Using scopes and other display blocks, we can see the simulation results while
the simulation is running. In addition, we can change parameters and immediately see
what happens, for "what if" exploration.
The simulation results can be put in the MATLAB workspace for post
processing and visualization. Simulink can be used to explore the behavior of a wide
range of real-world dynamic systems, including electrical circuits, shock absorbers,
braking systems, and many other electrical, mechanical, and thermodynamic systems.
Simulating a dynamic system is a two-step process with Simulink. First, we create a
graphical model of the system to be simulated, using Simulink's model editor. The
model depicts the time-dependent mathematical relationships among the system’s
inputs, states, and outputs. Then, we use Simulink to simulate the behavior of the
system over a specified time span. Simulink uses information that you entered into the
model to perform the simulation.

4.5 BLOCK DIAGRAM:


A Simulink block diagram is a pictorial model of a dynamic system. It consists of
a set of symbols, called blocks, interconnected by lines. Each block represents an
elementary dynamic system that produces an output either continuously (a continuous
block) or at specific points in time (a discrete block). The lines represent connections
of block inputs to block outputs. Every block in a block diagram is an instance of a
specific type of block. The type of the block determines the relationship between a
block's outputs and its inputs, states, and time. A block diagram can contain any number
of instances of any type of block needed to model a system. Blocks represent
elementary dynamic systems that Simulink knows how to simulate. A block comprises
one or more of the following:

41
1) A set of inputs,
2) A set of states, and
3) A set of outputs.
A block's output is a function of time and the block's inputs and states (if any).
The specific function that relates a block's output to its inputs, states, and time depends
on the type of block of which the block is an instance.
Continuous Versus discrete Blocks Simulink's standard block set includes
continuous blocks and discrete blocks. Continuous blocks respond continuously to
continuously changing input. Discrete blocks, by contrast, respond to changes in input
only at integral multiples of a fixed interval called the block's sample time. Discrete
blocks hold their output constant between successive sample time hits. Each discrete
block includes a sample time parameter that allows you to specify its sample rate. The
Simulink blocks can be either continuous or discrete, depending on whether they are
driven by continuous or discrete blocks. A block that can be either discrete or
continuous is said to have an implicit sample rate. The implicit sample time is
continuous if any of the block's inputs are continuous. The implicit sample time is equal
to the shortest input sample time if all the input sample times are integral multiples of
the shortest time. Otherwise, the input sample time is equal to the fundamental sample
time of the inputs, where the fundamental sample time of a set of sample times is
defined as the greatest integer divisor of the set of sample times.
Simulink can optionally color code a block diagram to indicate the sample times
of the blocks it contains, e.g., black (continuous), magenta (constant), yellow (hybrid),
red (fastest discrete), and so on. The block contains block name, icon, and block library
that contain the block, the purpose of the block.

4.6 SIMULINK BLOCK LIBRARIES:


Simulink organizes its blocks into block libraries according to their behavior.
1) The Sources library contains blocks that generate signals.
2) The Sinks library contains blocks that display or write block output.
3) The Discrete library contains blocks that describe discrete-time components.
4) The Continuous library contains blocks that describe linear functions.
5) The Math library contains blocks that describe general mathematics functions.
6) The Functions & Tables library contains blocks that describe general functions
and table look-up operations.

42
7) The Nonlinear library contains blocks that describe nonlinear functions.
8) The Signal & Systems library contains blocks that allow multiplexing and
demultiplexing, implement external input/output, pass data to other parts of the
model, and perform other functions.
9) The Subsystems library contains blocks for creating various types of
subsystems.
10) The Block sets and Toolboxes library contains the Extras block library of
specialized blocks.

4.7 SUB SYSTEMS:


Simulink allows to model a complex system as a set of interconnected
subsystems each of which is represented by a block diagram. We create a subsystem
using Simulink's Subsystem block and the Simulink model editor. We can embed
subsystems with subsystems to any depth to create hierarchical models. We can create
conditionally executed subsystems that are executed only when a transition occurs on
a triggering or enabling input.

4.8 SOLVERS:
Simulink simulates a dynamic system by computing its states at successive time
step solver a specified time span, using information provided by the model. The process
of computing the successive states of a system from its model is known as solving the
model. No single method of solving a model suffices for all systems. Accordingly,
Simulink provides a set of programs, known as solvers, that each embody a particular
approach to solving a model. The Simulation Parameters dialog box allows us to choose
the solver most suitable for our model.

4.8.1 Fixed-Step and Variable-Step Solvers:


Fixed-step solvers solve the model at regular time intervals from the beginning
to the end of the simulation. The size of the interval is known as the step-size. We can
specify the step size or let the solver choose the step size.

43
Generally decreasing the step size increases the accuracy of the results while increasing
the time required to simulate the system.Variable-step solvers vary the step size during
the simulation, reducing the step size to increase accuracy when a model's states are
changing rapidly and increasing the step size to avoid taking unnecessary steps when
the model's states are changing slowly. Computing the step size adds to the
computational overhead at each step but can reduce the total number of steps, and hence
simulation time, required to maintain a specified level of accuracy for models with
rapidly changing or piecewise continuous states.

Fig. 4.1 Signals in the model along with the solver steps for the variable-step discrete and the fixed-
step discrete solvers

4.8.2 Continuous and Discrete Solvers:


Continuous solvers use numerical integration to compute a model's continuous
states at the current time step from the states at previous time steps and the state
derivatives. Continuous solvers rely on the model's blocks to compute the values of the
model's discrete states at each time step. Mathematicians have developed a wide variety
of numerical integration techniques for solving the ordinary differential equations
(ODEs) that represent the continuous states of dynamic systems. Simulink provides an
extensive set of fixed-step and variable-step continuous solvers, each implementing a
specific ODE solution method. Some continuous solvers subdivide the simulation time
span into major and minor steps, where a minor time step represents a subdivision of
the major time step. The solver produces a result at each major time step. It use results
at the minor time steps to improve the accuracy of the result at the major time step.

44
Discrete solvers exist primarily to solve purely discrete models. They compute
the next simulation time-step for a model and nothing else. They do not compute
continuous states and they rely on the model's blocks to update the model's discrete
states. We can use a continuous solver, but not a discrete solver, to solve a model that
contains both continuous and discrete states. This is because a discrete solver does not
handle continuous states. If you select a discrete solver for a continuous model,
Simulink disregards your selection and uses a continuous solver instead when solving
the model.
Simulink provides two discrete solvers, a fixed-step discrete solver and a
variable-step discrete solver. The fixed-step solver by default chooses a step size and
hence simulation rate fast enough to track state changes in the fastest block in our
model. The variable-step solver adjusts the simulation step size to keep pace with the
actual rate of discrete state changes in our model. This can avoid unnecessary steps and
hence shorten simulation time for multirate models.

4.9 MODEL EXECUTION PHASE:


In the simulation model execution phase, Simulink successively computes the
states and outputs of the system at intervals from the simulation start time to the finish
time, using information provided by the model. The successive time points at which the
states and outputs are computed are called time steps. The length of time between steps
is called the step size. The step size depends on the type of solver used to compute the
system's continuous states, the system's fundamental sample time, and whether the
system's continuous states have discontinuities (Zero Crossing Detection). At the start
of the simulation, the model specifies the initial states and outputs of the system to be
simulated. At each step, Simulink computes new values for the system's inputs, states,
and outputs and updates the model to reflect the computed values. At the end of the
simulation, the model reflects the final values of the system's inputs, states, and outputs.
At each time step:
1) Simulink Updates the outputs of the models' blocks in sorted order. Simulink
computes a block's outputs by invoking the block's output function. Simulink
passes the current time and the block's inputs and states to the output function
as it may require these arguments to compute the block's output. Simulink

45
updates the output of a discrete block only if the current step is an integral
multiple of the block's sample time.
2) Updates the states of the model's blocks in sorted order. Simulink computes a
block's discrete states by invoking its discrete state update function. Simulink
computes a block's continuous states by numerically integrating the time
derivatives of the continuous states. It computes the time derivatives of the
states by invoking the block's continuous derivatives function.
3) Optionally checks for discontinuities in the continuous states of blocks.
Simulink uses a technique called zero crossing detection to detect
discontinuities in continuous states.
4) Computes the time for the next time step.Simulink repeats steps 1 through 4
until the simulation stop time is reached.

4.10 BLOCK SORTING RULES:


Simulink uses the following basic update rules to sort the blocks:
1) Each block must be updated before any of the direct-feed through blocks that it
drives.This rule ensures that the inputs to direct-feed through blocks will be
valid when they are updated.
2) Non direct-feed through blocks can be updated in any order as long as they are
updated before any direct-feed through blocks that they drive. This rule can be
met by putting all non direct-feed through blocks at the head of the update list
in any order. It thus allows Simulink to ignore non direct-feed through blocks
during the sorting process.
The result of applying these rules is an update list in which non direct-feed
through blocks appear at the head of the list in no particular order followed by direct-
feed through blocks in the order required to supply valid inputs to the blocks they drive.
During the sorting process, Simulink checks for and flags the occurrence of algebraic
loops, that is, signal loops in which an output of a direct-feed through block is connected
directly or indirectly to one of the block's inputs. Such loops seemingly create a
deadlock condition since Simulink needs the input of a direct-feed through block in
order to compute its output. However, an algebraic loop can represent a set of
simultaneous algebraic equations (hence the name) where the block's input and output
are the unknowns. Further, these equations can have valid solutions at each time step.

46
Accordingly, Simulink assumes that loops involving direct-feed through blocks do, in
fact, represent a solvable set of algebraic equations and attempts to solve them each
time the block is updated during a simulation.

4.11 DETERMINING BLOCK UPDATE ORDER:


During a simulation, Simulink updates the states and outputs of a model's blocks
once per time step. The order in which the blocks are updated is therefore critical to the
validity of the results. In particular, if a block's outputs are a function of its inputs at the
current time step, the block must be updated after the blocks that drive its inputs.
Otherwise, the block's outputs will be invalid. The order in which blocks are stored in
a model file is not necessarily the order in which they need to be updated during a
simulation. Consequently, Simulink sorts the blocks into the correct order during the
model initialization phase.
In order to create a valid update ordering, Simulink categorizes blocks
according to the relationship of outputs to inputs. Blocks whose current outputs depend
on their current inputs are called direct feed through blocks. All other blocks are called
non direct-feed through blocks. Examples of direct-feed through blocks include the
Gain, Product, and Sum blocks. Examples of non direct-feed through blocks include
the Integrator block (its output is a function purely of its state), the Constant block (it
does not have an input), and the Memory block (its output is dependent on its input in
the previous time step). Simulink allows you to assign update priorities to blocks.
Simulink updates higher priority blocks before lower priority blocks. Simulink honors
the priorities only if they are consistent with its block sorting rules.

47
CHAPTER 5
SIMULATION RESULTS
Using the MATLAB/Simulink software, several simulations are implemented to
evaluate the proposed model and the results obtained are as shown. The Simulation
circuit with PV UPQC is implemented and the simulation results are then compared
with the circuit model without UPQC.
The below Fig. 5.1, shows the circuit model without UPQC. The circuit is simulated
and the output voltage, output current waveforms and the THD of the system are
observed.

Fig. 5.1 Proposed circuit without UPQC

Fig. 5.2 Output voltage without UPQC

Fig. 5.2 shows the output voltage waveform without UPQC.The system without
UPQC experiences a voltage disturbance when a LLLG fault occurred this effects the
system power quality.

48
Fig. 5.3 Output current waveform

As shown in Fig. 5.3, A high current is observed under LLLG fault condition to the
circuit with PI controller. This increases the system loses and effects the quality of
power supply.

Fig. 5.4 THD with PI controller

The above graph clearly describes the THD of the system with PI controller. It is
observed a total harmonic distortion of 6.02%.

49
The below Fig. 5.5 shows the simulation circuit with PV UPQC. The circuit is
simulated and the results obtained are observed and the performance of PV UPQC is
evaluated.

Fig. 5.5 Simulation circuit with PV UPQC

Fig. 5.6 Output voltage waveform

As shown in Fig. 5.6, the system with UPQC has generated a stabilized output
voltage waveform without any distortions maintained during the LLLG fault
condition.

50
Fig. 5.7 Output current waveform

As shown in Fig. 5.7, the current waveform still have some distortions under LLLG
fault condition with UPQC Controller. This effects the system parameters.

Fig. 5.8 THD with UPQC

The above figure shows that, the THD of the system with UPQC controller has
reduced the THD of 6.02% to 2.74%. this clearly shows that UPQC has achieved high
efficiency when compared to the PI controller.

51
CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE

6.1 CONCLUSION:
A noticeable trend in distribution systems is the emergence of distributed
harmonic producing loads. These loads typically have comparable sizes and are
distributed all over an electric network. There is a need to develop new techniques to
assess harmonic distortions for systems with distributred harmonic sources. The
objective of the project is to minimize the power quality problems with the
implementation of power quality enhancement device pv UPQC. This device has the
capacity to improve the power quality at the point of installation. Without pv UPQC
the system voltage and currents are unbalanced undar fault condition with THD of
6.02%. When we applied pv UPQC with PI controller the output voltage is balanced
and still some distortions observed in current waveforms under fault conditions the
THD is reduced to 2.74%. By using the proposed Hybrid controller with pv UPQC the
system output voltage and currents are balanced without any distortion and the THD is
reduced finally to 0.08%. Hence the analysis proves that the proposed Hybrid controller
with UPQC achieved better results when compared to the existing models.

52
6.2 ADVANTAGES:
➢ UPQC can compensate voltage related power quality issues such as voltage
harmonics, voltage swag/swell, voltage flicker etc.
➢ UPQC can also compensate current related issues like reactive power
compensation, power factor correction, current harmonics and load unbalance
compensation.
➢ There is significant increase in interest for using UPQC in distribution
generation associated with smart grids because of availability of high frequency
switching devices and fast computing devices at lower cost.

6.3 APPLICATIONS:
➢ It can be used for mitigation of voltage sag, swell and voltage dip.
➢ It is useful for balancing power factor, voltage and current harmonic mitigation.
➢ Source current THD and load voltage THD can be improved.
➢ The performance of UPQC has been found satisfactory during transient
condition.

53
REFERENCES
[1] J. H. R. Enslin and P. J. M. Heskes, “Harmonic interaction betweena large number
of distributed power inverters and the distribution network,” IEEE Trans. Power
Electron., vol. 19, no. 6, pp. 1586–1593, Nov. 2004.
[2] U. Borup, F. Blaabjerg, and P. N. Enjeti, “Sharing of nonlinear load in parallel-
connected three-phase converters,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 37, no. 6, pp. 1817–
1823, Nov./Dec. 2001.
[3] P. Jintakosonwit, H. Fujita, H. Akagi, and S. Ogasawara, “Implementation and
performance of cooperative control of shunt active filters for harmonic damping
throughout a power distribution system,” IEEETrans. Ind. Appl., vol. 39, no. 2, pp.
556–564, Mar./Apr. 2003.
[4] P. Rodríguez, J. Pou, J. Bergas, J. I. Candela, R. P. Burgos, and D.Boroyevich,
“Decoupled double synchronous reference frame PLL for power converters control,”
IEEE Trans. Power Electron, vol. 22, no. 2, pp. 584–592, Mar. 2007.
[5] S. B. Kjaer, J. K. Pedersen, and F. Blaabjerg, “A review of single-phase grid-
connected inverters for photovoltaic modules,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 41, no. 5,
pp. 1292–1306, Sep./Oct. 2005.
[6] F. Blaabjerg, R. Teodorescu, M. Liserre, and A. V. Timbus, “Overview of control
and grid synchronization for distributed power generation systems,” IEEE Trans. Ind.
Electron., vol. 53, no. 5, pp. 1398–1409, Oct. 2006.
[7] J. M. Carrasco, L. G. Franquelo, J. T.Bialasiewicz, E. Galván, R. C. P. Guisado, M.
Á. M. Prats, J. I. León, and N. M. Alfonso, “Powerelectronicsystems for the grid
integration of renewable energy sources: A survey,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol.
53, no. 4, pp. 1002–1016, Aug. 2006.
[8] B. Renders, K. De Gusseme, W. R. Ryckaert, K. Stockman, L. Vandevelde, and M.
H. J. Bollen, “Distributed generation for mitigating voltage dips in low-voltage
distribution grids,” IEEE Trans. Power.Del., vol. 23, no. 3, pp. 1581–1588, Jul. 2008.
[9] V. Khadkikar, A. Chandra, A. O. Barry, and T. D. Nguyen, “Application of UPFC
to protect a sensitive load on a polluted distribution network,” in Proc. Annu. Conf.
IEEE Power Eng. Soc. Gen. Meeting, 2006, pp. 867–872.
[10] M. Singh and A. Chandra, “Power maximization and voltage sag/swellride-
through capability of PMSG based variable speed wind energy conversion system,” in
Proc. IEEE 34th Annu. Conf. Indus. Electron.Soc., 2008, pp. 2206–2211.

54
[11] J. P. Pinto, R. Pregitzer, L. F. C. Monteiro, and J. L. Afonso, “3-phase4-wire shunt
active power filter with renewable energy interface,” presented at the Conf. IEEE
Rnewable Energy & Power Quality, Seville, Spain, 2007.
[12] M. Calais, J. Myrzik, T. Spooner, and V. G. Agelidis, “inverters for single-phase
grid connected photovoltaic systems—an overview”, in Proc. 33th IEEE Power
Electronics Specialists Conf. (PESC’02), Cairns, Australia, June 23–27, 2002.
[13] Y. J. Shin , E.J. Powers , M. Grady , A. Arapostathis, “Power quality indices for
transient disturbances”, IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol. 21 , no. 1, pp. 253
– 261, 2006.
[14] S. L. Nikam , K. K. Sandeep, “Analysis of modified three-phase fourwire UPQC
design”, Third International Conference on Science Technology Engineering &
Management, India,2017.
[15] R. Brindha , R. Kavitha, “Harmonic optimization in seven level inverter
employing hybrid BBO/MADS algorithm”, International Conference on Innovations in
Information, Embedded and Communication Systems (ICIIECS), India, 2015.
[16] S. Devassy , B. Singh, “Control of solar energy integrated active power filter in
weak grid system”, 7th International Conference on Power Systems (ICPS), India,
2017.
[17] R. K. Varma , R. Salehi, “SSR Mitigation With a New Control of PV Solar Farm
as STATCOM (PV-STATCOM)”, IEEE Transactions on Sustainable Energy, Vol. 8 ,
no. 4, pp. 1473 – 1483, 2017.
[18] S. Dan, “Biogeography based optimizations”, IEEE Trans Evol Comput, vol. 12,
no. 6, pp. 702-713, 2008.
[19] S. Samineni ; C. Labuschagne ; J. Pope, “Principles of shunt capacitor bank
application and protection”, 63rd Annual Conference for Protective Relay Engineers,
U.S.A , 2010.
[20] S. Devassy ,B. Singh, “Control of solar photovoltaic integrated universal active
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3003-3012, Jul. 2018.
[21] S. Kadam, Y. Kanse, “DSTATCOM for Power Quality Improvement”,
International Conference on Circuits and Systems in Digital Enterprise Technology
(ICCSDET), 2018.

55
APPENDIX
MATLAB is a high-performance language for technical computing. It integrates
computation, visualization, and programming in an easy-to-use environment where
problems and solutions are expressed in familiar mathematical notation. Typical uses
include-
➢ Math and computation
➢ Algorithm development
➢ Data acquisition
➢ Modeling, simulation, and prototyping
➢ Data analysis, exploration, and visualization
➢ Scientific and engineering graphics
MATLAB is an interactive system whose basic data element is an array that
does not require dimensioning. This allows solving many technical computing
problems, especially those with matrix and vector formulations, in a fraction of the time
it would take to write a program in a scalar non-interactive language such as C or
FORTRAN.
The MATLAB system consists of six main parts:
(a) Development Environment
This is the set of tools and facilities that help to use MATLAB functions and
files. Many of these tools are graphical user interfaces. It includes the MATLAB
desktop and Command Window, a command history, an editor and debugger, and
browsers for viewing help, the workspace, files and the search path.
(b) The MATLAB Mathematical Function Library
This is a vast collection of computational algorithms ranging from elementary
functions, like sum, sine, cosine, and complex arithmetic, to more sophisticated
functions like matrix inverse, matrix Eigen values, Bessel functions, and fast Fourier
transforms.
(c) The MATLAB Language
This is a high-level matrix/array language with control flow statements,
functions, data structures, input/output, and object-oriented programming features. It
allows both "programming in the small" to rapidly create quick and dirty throw-away
programs, and "programming in the large" to create large and complex application
programs.

56
(d) Graphics
MATLAB has extensive facilities for displaying vectors and matrices as graphs,
as well as annotating and printing these graphs. It includes high-level functions for two-
dimensional and three-dimensional data visualization, image processing, animation,
and presentation graphics. It also includes low-level functions that allow to fully
customize the appearance of graphics as well as to build complete graphical user
interfaces on MATLAB applications.
(e) The MATLAB Application Program Interface (API)
This is a library that allows writing in C and FORTRAN programs that interact
with MATLAB. It includes facilities for calling routines from MATLAB (dynamic
linking), calling MATLAB as a computational engine, and for reading and writing
MAT-files.
(f) MATLAB Documentation
MATLAB provides extensive documentation, in both printed and online format,
to help to learn about and use all of its features. It covers all the primary MATLAB
features at a high level, including many examples. The MATLAB online help provides
task-oriented and reference information about MATLAB features. MATLAB
documentation is also available in printed form and in PDF format.
The various MATLAB tools used are:
(1) Three phase source block

Three Phase Source Block


The Three-Phase Source block implements a balanced three-phase voltage
source with internal R-L impedance. The three voltage sources are connected in Y with
a neutral connection that can be internally ground.
(2) VI measurement block
The Three-Phase V-I Measurement block is used to measure three-phase
voltages and currents in a circuit. When connected in series with three-phase elements,
it returns the three phase-to-ground or phase-to-phase voltages and the three line
currents.

57
Three Phase V-I Measurement
(3) Scope
Display signals generated during a simulation. The Scope block displays its
input with respect to simulation time. The Scope block can have multiple axes (one per
port); all axes have a common time range with independent y-axes. The Scope allows
you to adjust the amount of time and the range of input values displayed. You can move
and resize the Scope window and you can modify the Scope's parameter values during
the simulation.

Scope
(4) Three-Phase Series RLC Load
The Three-Phase Series RLC Load block implements a three-phase balanced load
as a series combination of RLC elements. At the specified frequency, the load exhibits
constant impedance. The active and reactive powers absorbed by the load are
proportional to the square of the applied voltage.

Three-Phase Series RLC Load


(5) Three-Phase Breaker block
The Three-Phase Breaker block implements a three-phase circuit breaker where
the opening and closing times can be controlled either from an external Simulink signal
or from an internal control signal.

Three-Phase Breaker Block

58
(6) Integrator
Library: Continuous

Integrator
The integrator block outputs the integral of its input at the current time step. The
following equation represents the output of the block y as a function of its input u and
an initial condition y0, where y and u are vector functions of the current simulation time
t.
(7) Breaker
Implement circuit breaker opening at current zero crossing.
Library: Elements

Circuit Breaker
Purpose: The Breaker block implements a circuit breaker where the opening and
closing times can be controlled either from an external SIMULINK signal (external
control mode), or from an internal control timer (internal control mode).
A series Rs-Cs snubber circuit is included in the model. It can be connected to
the circuit breaker. If the Breaker block happens to be in series with an inductive circuit,
an open circuit or a current source, you must use a snubber.
When the breaker block is set in external control mode, a SIMULINK input
appears on the block icon. The control signal connected to the SIMULINK input must
be either 0 or 1 (0 to open the breaker, 1 to close it).
When the Breaker block is set in internal control mode, the switching times are
specified in the dialog box of the block.
When the breaker is closed, it is represented by a resistance Ron. The Ron value
can be set as small as necessary in order to be negligible compared with external
components (a typical value is 10 m ohms). When the breaker is open, it has an infinite
resistance.

59
(8) Three-Phase Programmable Voltage Source
Implement three-phase voltage source with programmable time variation of
amplitude, phase, frequency, and harmonics
Library: Electrical Sources

Three Phase Voltage Sources


Purpose: This block is used to generate a three-phase sinusoidal voltage with time-
varying parameters. It can be programmed with the time variation for the amplitude,
phase or frequency of the fundamental component of the source. In addition, two
harmonics can be programmed and superimposed on the fundamental signal.
(9) Trigonometric Function
Specified trigonometric function on input
Library: Math Operations

Trigonometric Function
Purpose: The Trigonometric Function block performs common trigonometric
functions.

(10) Three-Phase Transformer (Two Windings)


Implement three-phase transformer with configurable winding connections
Library: Elements

Three Phase Transformer

60
Purpose:
The Three-Phase Transformer (Two Windings) block implements a three-
phase transformer using three single-phase transformers. The saturation characteristic,
when activated, is the same as the one described for the saturable Transformer block,
and the icon of the block is automatically updated. If the fluxes are not specified, the
initial values are automatically adjusted so that the simulation starts in steady state.
(11) Three-Phase Transformer 12 Terminals
Implement three single-phase, two-winding transformers where all terminals
are accessible
Library: Elements

Two winding Transformer


Purpose: The Three-Phase Transformer 12 Terminals block implements three single-
phase, two-winding linear transformers where all the twelve winding connectors are
accessible. The block can be used in place of the Three-Phase Transformer (Two
Windings) block to implement a three-phase transformer when primary and secondary
are not necessarily connected in Star or Delta.

(12) IGBT/Diode
Implements ideal IGBT, GTO, or MOSFET and antiparallel diode
Library: Power Electronics

IGBT
Purpose: The IGBT/Diode block is a simplified mode of an IGBT (or GTO or
MOSFET)/Diode pair where the forward voltages of the forced-commutated device and
diode are ignored.

61
A
PROJECT REPORT
on

Vehicle-To-Grid Technology in a Micro-grid Using DC


Fast Charging Architecture
Submitted by

1) Ms. H.Priyanka (18K85A0210)


2) Mr. K.Yoghessh (16K81A0219)
3) Mr. Ravi Chandra (16K81A0228)
4) Mr. S.Hari Charan Reddy (17K81A0245)

In partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
Under The Guidance of
V.Bharath Kumar, M.Tech,(PhD)
Assistant Professor
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELCTRONICS ENGINEERING

ST.MARTIN’S ENGINEERING COLLEGE


(An Autonomous Institute)
Dhulapally, Secunderabad – 500 100
JUNE 2021

I
BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project entitled “Vehicle-To-Grid Technology in a Micro-grid


Using DC Fast Charging Architecture”, is being submitted by 1.Ms. H.Priyanka
(18K85A0210), 2.Mr. K.Yoghessh (16K81A0219), 3.Mr. Ravi Chandra (16K81A0228)
4.Mr. S.Hari Charan Reddy (17K81A0245) in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the
award of the degree of BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY IN ELETRICAL AND
ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING is recorded of bonafide work carried out by them. The
result embodied in this report have been verified and found satisfactory.

Head of the Department


V.BharathKumar Dr.N. Ramchandra
Department of EEE Department of EEE

Internal Examiner External Examiner

Place:

Date:

II
DECLARATION

We, the student of Bachelor of Technology in Department of Electrical And Electronics


Engineering’, session: 2017 – 2021, St. Martin’s Engineering College, Dhulapally,
Kompally, Secunderabad, hereby declare that work presented in this Project Work
entitled Vehicle-To-Grid Technology in a Micro-grid Using DC Fast Charging
Architecture is the outcome of our own bonafide work and is correct to the best of our
knowledge and this work has been undertaken taking care of Engineering Ethics. This
result embodied in this project report has not been submitted in any university for award
of any degree.

1) Ms. H.Priyanka (18K85A0210)


2) Mr. K.Yoghessh (16K81A0219)
3) Mr. Ravi Chandra (16K81A0228)
4) Mr. S.Hari Charan Reddy (17K81A0245)

III
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The satisfaction and euphoria that accompanies the successful completion of any task
would be incomplete without the mention of the people who made it possible and whose
encouragements and guidance have crowded effects with success.
First and foremost, we would like to express my deep sense of gratitude and
indebtedness to our College Management for their kind support and permission to use
the facilities available in the Institute.
We especially would like to express my deep sense of gratitude and indebtedness to
Dr.P.Santosh Kumar Patra, our beloved Principal, St.Martin’s Engineering College
for his invaluable encouragement, suggestions and support from an early stage of this
research and providing me extraordinary experiences throughout the work. Above all, his
priceless and meticulous supervision at each and every phase of work inspired me in
innumerable ways.
We would like to express our gratitude to Dr.N. Ramchandra, Head &Professor,
the Dept. of Electrical and Electronics Engineering for his advice, supervision, and the
vital contribution as and when required during this research. We are proud to record
that we had the opportunity to work with an exceptionally experienced Professor like
him. The time spent with him will remain in my memory for years to come.
We would like to thank our supervisor, Mr.V.Bharath Kumar, Assistant professor,
Dept. of EEE for his/her continuous support and valuable guidance for our research work.
We would like to express our gratitude to our dept. project coordinators Mr. K. V.
Govardhan Rao, Assistant Professor, Dept. of EEE and Mr. T. Penchalaiah, Assistant
Professor, Dept of EEE for their involvement with originality has triggered and nourished
my intellectual maturity that will help me for a long time to come.
Finally, we are highly grateful and obliged to our college level Project Coordinators
Dr.Maalyadri, Professor in IT and Dr.R.Santhosh Kumar, Associate Professor in
CSE for their advice, supervision, and the vital contribution as and when required during
this research work and for their support and co- operation that is difficult to express in
words.
1. Ms. H.Priyanka (18K85A0210)
2. Mr. K.Yoghessh (16K81A0219)
3. Mr. Ravi Chandra (16K81A0228)
4. Mr. S.Hari Charan Reddy (17K81A0245)

IV
INDEX

CHAPTER NO. TITLE PAGE NO

CERTIFICATE I
DECLERATION III
ACKNOWLDGEMENT IV
ABSTRACT V
LIST OF FIGURES VI-VII
LIST OF OUTPUT SCREENS VIII

1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.2 DC Fast Charging Station Configuration for V2G 2
1.2.1 Boost Mode of Operation(Discharging Mode) 3
2 BATTERY STORAGE SYSTEM 4
2.1 Batteries are Classified into Primary and Secondary Form 7
2.1.2 Main Article Primary Cell 7
2.1.3 Main Article rechargeable Battery 7
2.2 Absorbed Glass Mat(AGM) Batteries Absorb the
Electrolyte in a special Fibre Glass Matting 8
2.2.1 Cell types 9
2.2.2 Wet cells 9
2.3 Molten Salt 10
2.4 Reserve 10
2.5 Cell Performance 10
2.6 Fast Charging, Large and Light Batteries 12
2.6.1 Life time 12
2.6.2 Self Discharge 13
2.6.3 Corrosion 13
2.6.4 Physical Components Changes 13
3 PROPOSED DC DC CONVERTER 15
3.1 Introduction to Buck Boost Converter 16
3.2 Buck Boost Converter can be Operated in two modes 16
3.2.1 Circuit Analysis of Buck Converter 17
4 SIMULATION RESULTS AND ANALYSIS 20
4.1 Introduction 20
4.2 Block Diagram 20
4.3 Simulink Block libraries 22
4.4 Sub Systems 22
4.4.1 Solvers 22
4.4.2 Fixed step and Variable step Solvers 23
4.5 Continuous and Discrete Solver 23
4.6 Model Execution Phase 24
4.6.1 Block Sorting Rules 25
4.6.2 Determining Block Update Order 26
4.6.3 Library Element 32
5 PROPOSED SYSTEM SIMULATION 34
5.1 Two Level converter 35
5.2 Simulation Evaluation 43
CONCLUSION 48
REFERENCES 49
ABSTRACT

Electric Vehicle (EV) batteries can be utilized as potential energy storage devices in
micro-grids. They can help in micro-grid energy management by storing energy when there is
surplus (Grid-To-Vehicle, G2V) and supplying energy back to the grid (Vehicle-To-Grid,
V2G) when there is demand for it. Proper infrastructure and control systems have to be
developed in order to realize this concept. Architecture for implementing a V2G-G2V system
in a micro-grid using level-3 fast charging of EVs is presented in this paper. A micro-grid test
system is modeled which has a dc fast charging station for interfacing the EVs. Simulation
studies are carried out to demonstrate V2G-G2V power transfer. Test results show active power
regulation in the micro-grid by EV batteries through G2V-V2G modes of operation. The
charging station design ensures minimal harmonic distortion of grid injected current and the
controller gives good dynamic performance in terms of dc bus voltage stability.

V
LIST OF FIGURES

FIG NO TITLE PAGE


NO.
1 EV CHARGING STATION FOR FAST DC CHARGING 3
1.1 BATTERY CHARGER CONFIGURATION 3
3.1 PROPOSED CONVERTER 15
4.1 THREE PHASE SOURCE BLOCK 28
4.2 THREE PHASE V-I MEASUREMENTS 28
4.3 SCOPE 29
4.4 THREE PHASE SERIES RLC LOAD 29
4.5 THREEE PHASE BREAKER BLOCK 29
4.6 INTEGRATOR 30
4.7 CIRCUIT BREAKER 30
4.8 THREE PHASE VOLTAGE SOURCES 31
4.9 TRIGNOMETRIC FUNTION 32
4.1 THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER 32
4.11 TWO WINDING TRANSFORMER 33
4.12 IGBT 33
5.1 THREE PHASE,TWO LEVEL VOLTAGE SOURCE CONVERTER 35
VOLTAGE,CURRENT AND SOC (OR) EV1 BATTERY DURING V2G
5.2
OPERATION 40
5.3 VOLTAGE,CURRENT AND SOC (OR) EV2 DURING G2V OPERATION 40
5.4 VARIATION IN DC BUS VOLTAGE 41
5.5 REFERENCE CURRENT TRACKING BY INVERTER CONTROLLER 41
GRID VOLTAGE AND GRID INJECTED CURRENT DURING V2G & G2V
5.6
OPERATION 41
5.7 HARMONIC SPECTRUM AND THD OF GRID INJECTED CURRENT 42
5.8 V2G TECHNOLOGY OF SIMULATION CIRCUIT 43
5.9 SUBSYSTEM (INVERTER CONTROL SYSTEM) 43
5.1 SUBSYSTEM (OFF-BOARD CHARGER) 44
5.11 TOTAL HARMONIC DISTORTION 44
5.12 V2G VOLTAGE,CURRENT & SOC 45

VI
5.13 VOLTAGE AND CURRENT DURING V2G OPERATION 45
GRID VOLTAGE & INJECTED CURRENT DURING V2G & G2V
5.14
OPERATION 46
5.15 THREE PHASE POWER SIGNAL 46
5.16 DC INPUT VOLTAGE 47

VII
LIST OF OUTPUT SCREENS

FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

5.8 V2G Technology Simulation Circuit 43

5.9 Subsystem (Inverter Control System) 43

5.10 Subsystem (Off - Board Charger) 44

5.11 Total Harmonic Distortion 44

5.12 V2G Voltage, Current SOC 45

5.13 Voltage and Current during V2G Operation 45

5.14 Grid Voltage and Injected Current during V2G and G2V 46
Operation
5.15 Three Phase signal 46

5.16 DC Input Voltage 47

VIII
Vehicle-to-grid Technology in a micro grid using DC fast charging architecture

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION:

Energy storage systems are important components of a micro-grid as they


enable the integration of intermittent renewable energy sources. Electric vehicle (EV)
batteries can be utilized as effective storage devices in micro-grids when they are
plugged-in for charging. Most personal transportation vehicles sit parked for about 22
hours each day, during which time they represent an idle asset. EVs could potentially help
in micro-grid energy management by storing energy when there is surplus (Grid-To-
Vehicle, G2V) and feeding this energy back to the grid when there is demand for it
(Vehicle-To-Grid). V2G applied to the general power grid faces some challenges such as;
it is complicated to control, needs large amount of EVs and is hard to realize in short term
[1]. In this scenario, it is easy to implement V2G system in a micro-grid. The Society of
Automotive Engineers defines three levels of charging for EVs. Level 1 charging uses a
plug to connect to the vehicle’s on-board charger and a standard household (120 V)
outlet.

This is the slowest form of charging and works for those who travel less than 60
kilometers a day and have all night to charge. Level 2 charging uses a dedicated Electric
Vehicle Supply Equipment (EVSE) at home or at a public station to provide power at 220
V or 240 V and up to 30 A. The level 3 charging is also referred to as dc fast charging.
DC fast charging stations provide charging power up to 90 kW at 200/450 V, reducing the
charging time to 20-30 mins. DC fast charging is preferred for implementing a V2G
architecture in micro-grid due to the quick power transfer that is required when EVs are
utilized for energy storage. Also the dc bus can be used for integrating renewable
generation sources into the system. In majority of the previous studies, V2G concept has
been applied in the general power grid for services like peak shaving, valley filling,
regulation and spinning reserves.

The V2G development in a micro-grid facility to support power generation from


intermittent renewable sources of energy is still at its infancy. Also, level 1 and level 2 ac
charging is utilized for V2G technology in most of the works reported. These ac charging

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Vehicle-to-grid Technology in a micro grid using DC fast charging architecture

systems are limited by the power rating of the on-board charger. An additional issue is
that the distribution grid has not been designed for bi-directional energy flow. In this
scenario, there is a research need for developing technically viable charging station
architectures to facilitate V2G technology in micro-grids. This work proposes a dc quick
charging station infrastructure with V2G capability in a micro-grid facility. The dc bus
used to interface EVs is also used for integrating a solar photo-voltaic (PV) array into the
micro-grid. The proposed architecture allows high power bi-directional charging for EVs
through off-board chargers. Effectiveness of the proposed model is evaluated based on
MATLAB/Simulink simulations for both V2G and G2V modes of operation.

1.2 DC FAST CHARGING STATION CONFIGURATION FOR V2G:

The configuration for dc fast charging station to implement V2G-G2V


infrastructure in a micro-grid. EV batteries are connected to the dc bus through off-board
chargers. A grid connected inverter connects the dc bus to the utility grid through an
LCL filter and a step-up transformer. The important components of the charging station
are described below. For dc fast charging, the chargers are located off-board and are
enclosed in an EVSE. A bidirectional dc-dc converter forms the basic building block of
an off-board charger with V2G capability. It forms the interface between EV battery
system and the dc distribution grid. The converter configuration is shown in Fig. 2. It
consists of two IGBT/MOSFET switches that are always operated by complimentary
control signals. Buck mode of operation (charging mode): When the upper switch is
operating, the converter acts as a buck converter stepping down the input voltage to
battery charging voltage. During the on state, current flows through the switch and
inductor to the battery. This is the charging operation, where the power flow is from the
grid to vehicle (G2V). When the switch is off, the current takes its return path through
the inductor and diode of lower switch and completes the circuit. If is the duty ratio of
the upper switch, the battery voltage is given by:

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Vehicle-to-grid Technology in a micro grid using DC fast charging architecture

Fig.1.0. ev charging station for fast dc charging

Fig.1.1..battery charger configuration

1.2.1 Boost mode of operation (discharging mode):

When the lower switch is operating, the converter acts as a boost converter
stepping up the battery voltage to the dc bus voltage. When the switch is in on state,
current continues to flow through the inductor and completes its circuit through the anti-
parallel diode of the upper switch, and the capacitor. The net power flow in this case is
from the vehicle to the grid (V2G) and the battery operates in the discharge mode. If the
capacitor is large enough to provide a constant dc voltage, the output voltage during boost
mode of operation is given by Where D is the duty cycle of the lower switch.

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Vehicle-to-grid Technology in a micro grid using DC fast charging architecture

CHAPTER 2

BATTERY STORAGE SYSTEM

A battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells with external


connections for powering electrical devices such as flashlights, mobile phones,
and electric cars. When a battery is supplying electric power, its positive terminal is
the cathode and its negative terminal is the anode.[2] The terminal marked negative is the
source of electrons that will flow through an external electric circuit to the positive
terminal. When a battery is connected to an external electric load, a redox reaction
converts high-energy reactants to lower-energy products, and the free-energy difference is
delivered to the external circuit as electrical energy. Historically the term "battery"
specifically referred to a device composed of multiple cells, however the usage has
evolved to include devices composed of a single cell.

Primary ( “single-use” or "disposable") batteries are used once and discarded, as


the electrode materials are irreversibly changed during discharge; a common example is
the alkaline battery used for flashlights and a multitude of portable electronic
devices. Secondary (rechargeable) batteries can be discharged and recharged multiple
times using an applied electric current; the original composition of the electrodes can be
restored by reverse current. Examples include the lead-acid batteries used in vehicles
and lithium-ion batteries used for portable electronics such as laptops and mobile phones.

Batteries come in many shapes and sizes, from miniature cells used to power hearing
aids and wristwatches to small, thin cells used in smartphones, to large lead acid
batteries or lithium-ion batteries in vehicles, and at the largest extreme, huge battery
banks the size of rooms that provide standby or emergency power for telephone
exchanges and computer data centers.

Batteries have much lower specific energy (energy per unit mass) than
common fuels such as gasoline. In automobiles, this is somewhat offset by the higher
efficiency of electric motors in converting chemical energy to mechanical work,
compared to combustion engines.

The usage of "battery" to describe a group of electrical devices dates to Benjamin


Franklin, who in 1748 described multiple Leyden jars by analogy to a battery of

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Vehicle-to-grid Technology in a micro grid using DC fast charging architecture

cannon (Benjamin Franklin borrowed the term "battery" from the military, which refers to
weapons functioning together).

Italian physicist Alessandro Volta built and described the first electrochemical
battery, the voltaic pile, in 1800.This was a stack of copper and zinc plates, separated by
brine-soaked paper disks, that could produce a steady current for a considerable length of
time. Volta did not understand that the voltage was due to chemical reactions. He thought
that his cells were an inexhaustible source of energy, and that the associated corrosion
effects at the electrodes were a mere nuisance, rather than an unavoidable consequence of
their operation, as Michael Faraday showed in 1834.

Although early batteries were of great value for experimental purposes, in practice
their voltages fluctuated and they could not provide a large current for a sustained period.
The Daniell cell, invented in 1836 by British chemist John Frederic Daniell, was the first
practical source of electricity, becoming an industry standard and seeing widespread
adoption as a power source for electrical telegraph networks. It consisted of a copper pot
filled with a copper sulfate solution, in which was immersed an
unglazed earthenware container filled with sulfuric acid and a zinc electrode. These wet
cells used liquid electrolytes, which were prone to leakage and spillage if not handled
correctly. Many used glass jars to hold their components, which made them fragile and
potentially dangerous. These characteristics made wet cells unsuitable for portable
appliances. Near the end of the nineteenth century, the invention of dry cell batteries,
which replaced the liquid electrolyte with a paste, made portable electrical devices
practical.

Batteries convert chemical energy directly to electrical energy. In many cases, the
electrical energy released is the difference in the cohesive[13] or bond energies of the
metals, oxides, or molecules undergoing the electrochemical reaction.[3] For instance,
energy can be stored in Zn or Li, which are high-energy metals because they are not
stabilized by d-electron bonding, unlike transition metals. Batteries are designed such that
the energetically favorable redox reaction can occur only if electrons move through the
external part of the circuit.

A battery consists of some number of voltaic cells. Each cell consists of two half-
cells connected in series by a conductive electrolyte containing metal cations. One half-

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Vehicle-to-grid Technology in a micro grid using DC fast charging architecture

cell includes electrolyte and the negative electrode, the electrode to


which anions (negatively charged ions) migrate; the other half-cell includes electrolyte
and the positive electrode, to which cations (positively charged ions) migrate. Cations are
reduced (electrons are added) at the cathode, while metal atoms are oxidized (electrons
are removed) at the anode.[14] Some cells use different electrolytes for each half-cell; then
a separator is used to prevent mixing of the electrolytes while allowing ions to flow
between half-cells to complete the electrical circuit.

Each half-cell has an electromotive force (emf, measured in volts) relative to


a standard. The net emf of the cell is the difference between the emfs of its half-
cells.[15] Thus, if the electrodes have emfs and then the net emf is; in other words, the net
emf is the difference between the reduction potentials of the half-reactions.

The electrical driving force or across the terminals of a cell is known as the terminal
voltage (difference) and is measured in volts. The terminal voltage of a cell that is neither
charging nor discharging is called the open-circuit voltage and equals the emf of the cell.
Because of internal resistance, the terminal voltage of a cell that is discharging is smaller
in magnitude than the open-circuit voltage and the terminal voltage of a cell that is
charging exceeds the open-circuit voltage. An ideal cell has negligible internal resistance,
so it would maintain a constant terminal voltage of until exhausted, then dropping to zero.
If such a cell maintained 1.5 volts and produce a charge of one coulomb then on complete
discharge it would have performed 1.5 joules of work.[ In actual cells, the internal
resistance increases under discharge and the open-circuit voltage also decreases under
discharge. If the voltage and resistance are plotted against time, the resulting graphs
typically are a curve; the shape of the curve varies according to the chemistry and internal
arrangement employed.

The voltage developed across a cell's terminals depends on the energy release of the
chemical reactions of its electrodes and electrolyte. Alkaline and zinc–carbon cells have
different chemistries, but approximately the same emf of 1.5 volts;
likewise NiCd and NiMH cells have different chemistries, but approximately the same
emf of 1.2 volts. The high electrochemical potential changes in the reactions
of lithium compounds give lithium cells emfs of 3 volts or more.

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Vehicle-to-grid Technology in a micro grid using DC fast charging architecture

2.1 BATTERIES ARE CLASSIFIED INTO PRIMARY AND


SECONDARY FORMS:

Primary batteries are designed to be used until exhausted of energy then discarded.
Their chemical reactions are generally not reversible, so they cannot be recharged. When
the supply of reactants in the battery is exhausted, the battery stops producing current and
is useless.[22]

Secondary batteries can be recharged; that is, they can have their chemical reactions
reversed by applying electric current to the cell. This regenerates the original chemical
reactants, so they can be used, recharged, and used again multiple times.

Some types of primary batteries used, for example, for telegraph circuits, were
restored to operation by replacing the electrodes. Secondary batteries are not indefinitely
rechargeable due to dissipation of the active materials, loss of electrolyte and internal
corrosion.

2.1.2 Main article Primary cell :

Primary batteries, or primary cells, can produce current immediately on assembly.


These are most commonly used in portable devices that have low current drain, are used
only intermittently, or are used well away from an alternative power source, such as in
alarm and communication circuits where other electric power is only intermittently
available. Disposable primary cells cannot be reliably recharged, since the chemical
reactions are not easily reversible and active materials may not return to their original
forms. Battery manufacturers recommend against attempting to recharge primary
cells.[25] In general, these have higher energy densities than rechargeable batteries,[26] but
disposable batteries do not fare well under high-drain applications with loads under
75 ohms (75 Ω). Common types of disposable batteries include zinc–carbon
batteries and alkaline batteries.

2.1.3 Main article Rechargeable battery :

Secondary batteries, also known as secondary cells, or rechargeable batteries, must be


charged before first use; they are usually assembled with active materials in the
discharged state. Rechargeable batteries are (re)charged by applying electric current,

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Vehicle-to-grid Technology in a micro grid using DC fast charging architecture

which reverses the chemical reactions that occur during discharge/use. Devices to supply
the appropriate current are called chargers.

The oldest form of rechargeable battery is the lead–acid battery, which are widely
used in automotive and boating applications. This technology contains liquid electrolyte
in an unsealed container, requiring that the battery be kept upright and the area be well
ventilated to ensure safe dispersal of the hydrogen gas it produces during overcharging.
The lead–acid battery is relatively heavy for the amount of electrical energy it can supply.
Its low manufacturing cost and its high surge current levels make it common
where its capacity (over approximately 10 Ah) is more important than weight and
handling issues. A common application is the modern car battery, which can, in general,
deliver a peak current of 450 amperes.

The sealed valve regulated lead–acid battery (VRLA battery) is popular in the
automotive industry as a replacement for the lead–acid wet cell. The VRLA battery uses
an immobilized sulfuric acid electrolyte, reducing the chance of leakage and
extending shelf life.[27] VRLA batteries immobilize the electrolyte. The two types are :
Gel batteries (or "gel cell") use a semi-solid electrolyte.

2.2 ABSORBED GLASS MAT (AGM) BATTERIES ABSORB THE


ELECTROLYTE IN A SPECIAL FIBERGLASS MATTING:

Other portable rechargeable batteries include several sealed "dry cell" types, that are
useful in applications such as mobile phones and laptop computers. Cells of this type (in
order of increasing power density and cost) include nickel–cadmium (NiCd), nickel–
zinc (NiZn), nickel metal hydride (NiMH), and lithium-ion (Li-ion) cells. Li-ion has by
far the highest share of the dry cell rechargeable market. NiMH has replaced NiCd in
most applications due to its higher capacity, but NiCd remains in use in power tools, two-
way radios, and medical equipment.

In the 2000s, developments include batteries with embedded electronics such


as USBCELL, which allows charging an AA battery through a USB connector, nanoball
batteries that allow for a discharge rate about 100x greater than current batteries,
and smart battery packs with state-of-charge monitors and battery protection circuits that

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Vehicle-to-grid Technology in a micro grid using DC fast charging architecture

prevent damage on over-discharge. Low self-discharge (LSD) allows secondary cells to


be charged prior to shipping.

2.2.1 Cell types :

Many types of electrochemical cells have been produced, with varying chemical
processes and designs, including galvanic cells, electrolytic cells, fuel cells, flow cells and
voltaic piles.[29]

2.2.2 Wet cell :

A wet cell battery has a liquid electrolyte. Other names are flooded cell, since the
liquid covers all internal parts, or vented cell, since gases produced during operation can
escape to the air. Wet cells were a precursor to dry cells and are commonly used as a
learning tool for electrochemistry. They can be built with common laboratory supplies,
such as beakers, for demonstrations of how electrochemical cells work. A particular type
of wet cell known as a concentration cell is important in understanding corrosion. Wet
cells may be primary cells (non-rechargeable) or secondary cells (rechargeable).
Originally, all practical primary batteries such as the Daniell cell were built as open-top
glass jar wet cells. Other primary wet cells are the Leclanche cell, Grove cell, Bunsen
cell, Chromic acid cell, Clark cell, and Weston cell. The Leclanche cell chemistry was
adapted to the first dry cells. Wet cells are still used in automobile batteries and in
industry for standby power for switchgear, telecommunication or large uninterruptible
power supplies, but in many places batteries with gel cells have been used instead. These
applications commonly use lead–acid or nickel–cadmium cells.

A dry cell uses a paste electrolyte, with only enough moisture to allow current to
flow. Unlike a wet cell, a dry cell can operate in any orientation without spilling, as it
contains no free liquid, making it suitable for portable equipment. By comparison, the
first wet cells were typically fragile glass containers with lead rods hanging from the open
top and needed careful handling to avoid spillage. Lead–acid batteries did not achieve the
safety and portability of the dry cell until the development of the gel battery.

A common dry cell is the zinc–carbon battery, sometimes called the dry Leclanché
cell, with a nominal voltage of 1.5 volts, the same as the alkaline battery (since both use
the same zinc–manganese dioxide combination). A standard dry cell comprises

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Vehicle-to-grid Technology in a micro grid using DC fast charging architecture

a zinc anode, usually in the form of a cylindrical pot, with a carbon cathode in the form of
a central rod. The electrolyte is ammonium chloride in the form of a paste next to the zinc
anode. The remaining space between the electrolyte and carbon cathode is taken up by a
second paste consisting of ammonium chloride and manganese dioxide, the latter acting
as a depolariser. In some designs, the ammonium chloride is replaced by zinc chloride.

2.3 MOLTEN SALT:

Molten salt batteries are primary or secondary batteries that use a molten salt
as electrolyte. They operate at high temperatures and must be well insulated to retain heat.

2.4 RESERVE:

reserve battery can be stored unassembled (unactivated and supplying no power) for a
long period (perhaps years). When the battery is needed, then it is assembled (e.g., by
adding electrolyte); once assembled, the battery is charged and ready to work. For
example, a battery for an electronic artillery fuze might be activated by the impact of
firing a gun. The acceleration breaks a capsule of electrolyte that activates the battery and
powers the fuze's circuits. Reserve batteries are usually designed for a short service life
(seconds or minutes) after long storage (years). A water-activated battery for
oceanographic instruments or military applications becomes activated on immersion in
water.

2.5 CELL PERFORMANCE:

A battery's characteristics may vary over load cycle, over charge cycle, and over
lifetime due to many factors including internal chemistry, current drain, and temperature.
At low temperatures, a battery cannot deliver as much power. As such, in cold climates,
some car owners install battery warmers, which are small electric heating pads that keep
the car battery warm.

A battery's capacity is the amount of electric charge it can deliver at the rated voltage.
The more electrode material contained in the cell the greater its capacity. A small cell has
less capacity than a larger cell with the same chemistry, although they develop the same
open-circuit voltage.[30] Capacity is measured in units such as amp-hour (A·h). The rated
capacity of a battery is usually expressed as the product of 20 hours multiplied by the

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Vehicle-to-grid Technology in a micro grid using DC fast charging architecture

current that a new battery can consistently supply for 20 hours at 68 °F (20 °C), while
remaining above a specified terminal voltage per cell. For example, a battery rated at 100
A·h can deliver 5 A over a 20-hour period at room temperature. The fraction of the stored
charge that a battery can deliver depends on multiple factors, including battery chemistry,
the rate at which the charge is delivered (current), the required terminal voltage, the
storage period, ambient temperature and other factors.[30]

The higher the discharge rate, the lower the capacity. The relationship between
current, discharge time and capacity for a lead acid battery is approximated (over a
typical range of current values) by Peukert's law:

where

is the capacity when discharged at a rate of 1 amp.

is the current drawn from battery (A).

is the amount of time (in hours) that a battery can sustain.

is a constant around 1.3.

Batteries that are stored for a long period or that are discharged at a small fraction of
the capacity lose capacity due to the presence of generally irreversible side reactions that
consume charge carriers without producing current. This phenomenon is known as
internal self-discharge. Further, when batteries are recharged, additional side reactions
can occur, reducing capacity for subsequent discharges. After enough recharges, in
essence all capacity is lost and the battery stops producing power.

Internal energy losses and limitations on the rate that ions pass through the
electrolyte cause battery efficiency to vary. Above a minimum threshold, discharging at a
low rate delivers more of the battery's capacity than at a higher rate. Installing batteries
with varying A·h ratings does not affect device operation (although it may affect the
operation interval) rated for a specific voltage unless load limits are exceeded. High-drain
loads such as digital cameras can reduce total capacity, as happens with alkaline batteries.

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Vehicle-to-grid Technology in a micro grid using DC fast charging architecture

For example, a battery rated at 2 A·h for a 10- or 20-hour discharge would not sustain a
current of 1 A for a full two hours as its stated capacity implies.

The C-rate is a measure of the rate at which a battery is being charged or discharged.
It is defined as the current through the battery divided by the theoretical current draw
under which the battery would deliver its nominal rated capacity in one hour. It has the
units h−1.

C-rate is used as a rating on batteries to indicate the maximum current that a battery can
safely deliver on a circuit. Standards for rechargeable batteries generally rate the capacity
over a 4-hour, 8 hour or longer discharge time. Types intended for special purposes, such
as in a computer uninterruptible power supply, may be rated by manufacturers for
discharge periods much less than one hour. Because of internal resistance loss and the
chemical processes inside the cells, a battery rarely delivers nameplate rated capacity in
only one hour.

2.6 FAST-CHARGING, LARGE AND LIGHT BATTERIES:

As of 2017, the world's largest battery was built in South Australia by Tesla. It can
store 129 MWh. A battery in Hebei Province, China which can store 36 MWh of
electricity was built in 2013 at a cost of $500 million. Another large battery, composed
of Ni–Cd cells, was in Fairbanks, Alaska. It covered 2,000 square metres (22,000 sq ft)—
bigger than a football pitch—and weighed 1,300 tonnes. It was manufactured by ABB to
provide backup power in the event of a blackout. The battery can provide 40 MW of
power for up to seven minutes. Sodium–sulfur batteries have been used to store wind
power. A 4.4 MWh battery system that can deliver 11 MW for 25 minutes stabilizes the
output of the Auwahi wind farm in Hawaii.

2.6.1 Life time :

Battery life (and its synonym battery lifetime) has two meanings for rechargeable
batteries but only one for non-chargeables. For rechargeable, it can mean either the length
of time a device can run on a fully charged battery or the number of charge/discharge
cycles possible before the cells fail to operate satisfactorily. For a non-rechargeable these
two lives are equal since the cells last for only one cycle by definition. (The term shelf
life is used to describe how long a battery will retain its performance between

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Vehicle-to-grid Technology in a micro grid using DC fast charging architecture

manufacture and use.) Available capacity of all batteries drops with decreasing
temperature. In contrast to most of today's batteries, the Zamboni pile, invented in 1812,
offers a very long service life without refurbishment or recharge, although it supplies
current only in the nanoamp range. The Oxford Electric Bell has been ringing almost
continuously since 1840 on its original pair of batteries, thought to be Zamboni
piles.[citation needed]

2.6.2 Self-discharge :

Disposable batteries typically lose 8 to 20 percent of their original charge per year
when stored at room temperature (20–30 °C).[40] This is known as the "self-discharge"
rate, and is due to non-current-producing "side" chemical reactions that occur within the
cell even when no load is applied. The rate of side reactions is reduced for batteries stored
at lower temperatures, although some can be damaged by freezing.

Old rechargeable batteries self-discharge more rapidly than disposable alkaline batteries,
especially nickel-based batteries; a freshly charged nickel cadmium (NiCd) battery loses
10% of its charge in the first 24 hours, and thereafter discharges at a rate of about 10% a
month. However, newer low self-discharge nickel metal hydride (NiMH) batteries and
modern lithium designs display a lower self-discharge rate (but still higher than for
primary batteries).

2.6.3 Corrosion:

Internal parts may corrode and fail, or the active materials may be slowly converted to
inactive forms.

2.6.4 Physical component changes :

The active material on the battery plates changes chemical composition on each
charge and discharge cycle; active material may be lost due to physical changes of
volume, further limiting the number of times the battery can be recharged. Most nickel-
based batteries are partially discharged when purchased, and must be charged before first
use. Newer NiMH batteries are ready to be used when purchased, and have only 15%
discharge in a year.

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Vehicle-to-grid Technology in a micro grid using DC fast charging architecture

Some deterioration occurs on each charge–discharge cycle. Degradation usually


occurs because electrolyte migrates away from the electrodes or because active material
detaches from the electrodes. Low-capacity NiMH batteries (1,700–2,000 mA·h) can be
charged some 1,000 times, whereas high-capacity NiMH batteries (above 2,500 mA·h)
last about 500 cycles. NiCd batteries tend to be rated for 1,000 cycles before their internal
resistance permanently increases beyond usable values.

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Vehicle-to-grid Technology in a micro grid using DC fast charging architecture

CHAPTER 3

PROPOSED DC TO DC CONVERTER

buck–boost converter is a type of DC-to-DC converter that has an output voltage


magnitude that is either greater than or less than the input voltage magnitude. It is
equivalent to a fly back converter using a single inductor instead of a transformer. Two
different topologies are called buck–boost converter. Both of them can produce a range of
output voltages, ranging from much larger (in absolute magnitude) than the input voltage,
down to almost zero.

Fig.3.1.proposed converter
The output voltage is of the opposite polarity than the input. This is a switched-mode
power supply with a similar circuit topology to the boost converter and the buck
converter. The output voltage is adjustable based on the duty cycle of the switching
transistor. One possible drawback of this converter is that the switch does not have a
terminal at ground; this complicates the driving circuitry. However, this drawback is of
no consequence if the power supply is isolated from the load circuit (if, for example, the
supply is a battery) because the supply and diode polarity can simply be reversed. When
they can be reversed, the switch can be on either the ground side or the supply side.
A buck (step-down) converter combined with a boost (step-up) converter
The output voltage is typically of the same polarity of the input, and can be lower
or higher than the input. Such a non-inverting buck-boost converter may use a single
inductor which is used for both the buck inductor mode and the boost inductor mode,
using switches instead of diodes, sometimes called a "four-switch buck-
boostconverter", it may use multiple inductors but only topologies.

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3.1 INTRODUCTION TO BUCK BOOST CONVERTERS :


A Buck converter is a switch mode DC to DC converter in which the output
voltage can be transformed to a level less than or greater than the input voltage. The
magnitude of output voltage depends on the duty cycle of the switch.It is also called as
step up/step down converter. The name step up/step down converter comes from the fact
that analogous to step up/step down transformer the input voltage can be stepped up/down
to a level greater than/less than the input voltage. By law of conservation of energy the
input power has to be equal to output power (assuming no losses in the circuit).
Input power (Pin) = output power (Pout)
In step up mode Vin <Vout in a Buck Boost converter, it follows then that the output
current will be less than the input current. Therefore for a Buck Boost converter in step up
mode

Vin <Vout and Iin >Iout


In step down mode Vin >Vout in a Buck Boost converter, it follows then that the output
current will be greater than the input current. Therefore for a Buck Boost converter in step
down mode
Vin >Vout and Iin <Iout
Principle of operation of Buck converter
The main working principle of Buck Boost converter is that the inductor in the input
circuit resists sudden variations in input current. When switch is ON the inductor stores
energy from the input in the form of magnetic energy and discharges it when switch is
closed. The capacitor in the output circuit is assumed large enough that the time constant
of RC circuit in the output stage is high. The large time constant compared to switching
period ensures that in steady state a constant output voltage Vo(t) = Vo(constant) exists
across load terminal.

3.2 BUCK BOOST CAN BE OPERATED INTO TWO MODES:


a) Continuous conduction mode in which the current through inductor never goes to zero
i.e. inductor partially discharges before the start of the switching cycle.

b) Discontinuous conduction mode in which the current through inductor goes to zero i.e.
inductor is completely discharged at the end of switching cycle.

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Vehicle-to-grid Technology in a micro grid using DC fast charging architecture

3.2.1 Circuit analysis of Buck converter :


Assume in the entire analysis that the current swing (maximum to minimum
value) through inductor and voltage swing through capacitor is very less so that they vary
in a linear fashion. This is to ease the analysis and the results we will get through this
analysis are quite accurate compared to real values.
Continuous conduction mode

case-1: When switch S is ON


When switch in ON for a time ton, the diode will be open circuited since it does not allow
currents in reverse direction from input to output. Hence the Buck Boost converter can be
redrawn as follows
During this state the inductor charges and the inductor current increases. The current
through the inductor is given as

Assume that prior to the opening of switch the inductor current is I’L, off. Since the input
voltage is constant

Assume the switch is open for ton seconds which is given by D*Ts where D is duty cycle
and Ts is switching time period. The current through the inductor at the end of switch on
state is given as
IL, on = (1/L) *Vin*D*Ts + I’L, on (equation 1)
Hence ΔIL,on = (1/L)*Vin*D*Ts.
case 2: When switch is off
When switch in OFF the diode will be forward biased as it allows current from output to
input (p to n terminal) and the Buck Boost converter circuit can be redrawn as follows
The inductor now discharges through the diode and RC combination. Assume that prior to
the closing of switch the inductor current is I’’L, off. The current through the inductor is
given as

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Vehicle-to-grid Technology in a micro grid using DC fast charging architecture

Note the negative sign at the front end of equation signifies that the inductor is
discharging. Assume the switch is open for toff seconds which is given by (1-D)*Ts where
D is duty cycle and Ts is switching time period. The current through the inductor at the
end of switch off state is given as
I’’’L, off = -(1/L) *Vout*(1-D)*Ts + I’’L, off (equation 2)
In steady state condition as the current through the inductor does not change abruptly, the
current at the end of switch on state and the current at the end of switch off state should
be equal. Also the currents at the start of switch off state should be equal to current at the
end of switch on state. Hence
I’’’L, off =IL, on also I’L, off =I’’L, off
Using the equations 1 and 2 we get
(1/L) *Vin*D*Ts = (1/L) *Vout*(1-D)*Ts
Vin*D =Vout*(1-D)
Vout/Vin = D/(1-D)
Since D < 1, Vout can be greater than or less than Vin.For D>0.5 the Buck boost converter
acts as boost converter with Vout >Vin.For D<0.5 the Buck boost converter acts as buck
converter with
Vout >Vin.

Assuming no losses in the circuit and applying the law of conservation of energy
Vout*Iout = Vin*Iin
This implies Iout/Iin = (1-D)/D, Thus Iout >Iin for D<0.5 and Iout <Iin for D<0.5 . As the
duty cycle increases the output voltage increases and output current decreases.
Discontinuous conduction mode
As mentioned before the converter when operated in discontinuous mode the inductor
drains its stored energy completely before completion of switching cycle. The current and
voltage wave forms of Buck Boost converter in discontinuous mode is shown in the
figure below
The inductor in discontinuous mode drains all the current which it piled up in charging
interval of same switching cycle. The current through the inductor is given as

= (1/L)*area under the curve of voltage v/s time.


Hence from the wave forms shown in the figure

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Vehicle-to-grid Technology in a micro grid using DC fast charging architecture

Vout*δ*Ts = Vin*D*Ts
Vout/Vin =D/δ
and the ratio of output to input current from law of conservation of energy is Iout/Iin = δ/D.
Applications of Buck boost converter

• It is used in the self regulating power supplies.


• It has consumer electronics.
• It is used in the Battery power systems.
• Adaptive control applications.
• Power amplifier applications.

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Vehicle-to-grid Technology in a micro grid using DC fast charging architecture

CHAPTER 4
SIMULATION RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
4.1 INTRODUCTION:
Simulink is a software package for modeling, simulating, and analyzing dynamical
systems. It supports linear and nonlinear systems, modeled in continuous time, sampled
time, or a hybrid of the two. For modeling, Simulink provides a graphical user interface
(GUI) for building models as block diagrams, using click-and-drag mouse operations.
Models are hierarchical, so we can build models using both top-down and bottom-up
approaches. We can view the system at a high level, then double-click on blocks to go
down through the levels to see increasing levels of model detail. This approach provides
insight into how a model is organized and how its parts interact. After we define a model,
we can simulate it, using a choice of integration methods, either from the Simulink menus
or by entering commands in MATLAB's command window. Using scopes and other
display blocks, we can see the simulation results while the simulation is running. In
addition, we can change parameters and immediately see what happens, for "what if"
exploration.
The simulation results can be put in the MATLAB workspace for post processing
and visualization. Simulink can be used to explore the behavior of a wide range of real-
world dynamic systems, including electrical circuits, shock absorbers, braking systems,
and many other electrical, mechanical, and thermodynamic systems.
Simulating a dynamic system is a two-step process with Simulink. First, we
create a graphical model of the system to be simulated, using Simulink's model editor.
The model depicts the time-dependent mathematical relationships among the system’s
inputs, states, and outputs. Then, we use Simulink to simulate the behavior of the system
over a specified time span. Simulink uses information that you entered into the model to
perform the simulation.

4.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM:

A Simulink block diagram is a pictorial model of a dynamic system. It consists of a


set of symbols, called blocks, interconnected by lines. Each block represents an
elementary dynamic system that produces an output either continuously (a continuous
block) or at specific points in time (a discrete block). The lines represent connections of

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Vehicle-to-grid Technology in a micro grid using DC fast charging architecture

block inputs to block outputs. Every block in a block diagram is an instance of a specific
type of block. The type of the block determines the relationship between a block's outputs
and its inputs, states, and time. A block diagram can contain any number of instances of
any type of block needed to model a system. Blocks represent elementary dynamic
systems that Simulink knows how to simulate. A block comprises one or more of the
following:

1) A set of inputs,
2) A set of states, and
3) A set of outputs.
A block's output is a function of time and the block's inputs and states (if any).
The specific function that relates a block's output to its inputs, states, and time depends on
the type of block of which the block is an instance. Continuous Versus discrete Blocks
Simulink's standard block set includes continuous blocks and discrete blocks. Continuous
blocks respond continuously to continuously changing input. Discrete blocks, by contrast,
respond to changes in input only at integral multiples of a fixed interval called the block's
sample time. Discrete blocks hold their output constant between successive sample time
hits. Each discrete block includes a sample time parameter that allows you to specify its
sample rate. The Simulink blocks can be either continuous or discrete, depending on
whether they are driven by continuous or discrete blocks. A block that can be either
discrete or continuous is said to have an implicit sample rate. The implicit sample time is
continuous if any of the block's inputs are continuous. The implicit sample time is equal
to the shortest input sample time if all the input sample times are integral multiples of the
shortest time. Otherwise, the input sample time is equal to the fundamental sample time
of the inputs, where the fundamental sample time of a set of sample times is defined as
the greatest integer divisor of the set of sample times.

Simulink can optionally color code a block diagram to indicate the sample times
of the blocks it contains, e.g., black (continuous), magenta (constant), yellow (hybrid),
red (fastest discrete), and so on. The block contains block name, icon, and block library
that contain the block, the purpose of the block

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Vehicle-to-grid Technology in a micro grid using DC fast charging architecture

4.3 SIMULINK BLOCK LIBRARIES :


Simulink organizes its blocks into block libraries according to their behavior.

1) The Sources library contains blocks that generate signals.


2) The Sinks library contains blocks that display or write block output.
3) The Discrete library contains blocks that describe discrete-time components.
4) The Continuous library contains blocks that describe linear functions.
5) The Math library contains blocks that describe general mathematics functions.
6) The Functions & Tables library contains blocks that describe general functions
and table look-up operations.
7) The Nonlinear library contains blocks that describe nonlinear functions.
8) The Signal & Systems library contains blocks that allow multiplexing and
demultiplexing, implement external input/output, pass data to other parts of the
model, and perform other functions.
9) The Subsystems library contains blocks for creating various types of subsystems.
10) The Block sets and Toolboxes library contains the Extras block library of
specialized blocks.

4.4 SUB SYSTEMS :

Simulink allows to model a complex system as a set of interconnected subsystems


each of which is represented by a block diagram. We create a subsystem using Simulink's
Subsystem block and the Simulink model editor. We can embed subsystems with
subsystems to any depth to create hierarchical models. We can create conditionally
executed subsystems that are executed only when a transition occurs on a triggering or
enabling input.

4.4.1 Solvers :
Simulink simulates a dynamic system by computing its states at successive time
step solver a specified time span, using information provided by the model. The process
of computing the successive states of a system from its model is known as solving the
model. No single method of solving a model suffices for all systems. Accordingly,
Simulink provides a set of programs, known as solvers, that each embody a particular

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Vehicle-to-grid Technology in a micro grid using DC fast charging architecture

approach to solving a model. The Simulation Parameters dialog box allows us to choose
the solver most suitable for our model.

4.4.2 Fixed-Step and Variable-Step Solvers :


Fixed-step solvers solve the model at regular time intervals from the beginning to
the end of the simulation. The size of the interval is known as the step-size. We can
specify the step size or let the solver choose the step size. Generally decreasing the step
size increases the accuracy of the results while increasing the time required to simulate
the system.
Variable-step solvers vary the step size during the simulation, reducing the step
size to increase accuracy when a model's states are changing rapidly and increasing the
step size to avoid taking unnecessary steps when the model's states are changing slowly.
Computing the step size adds to the computational overhead at each step but can reduce
the total number of steps, and hence simulation time, required to maintain a specified
level of accuracy for models with rapidly changing or piecewise continuous states.

4.5 CONTINUOUS AND DISCRETE SOLVERS:

Continuous solvers use numerical integration to compute a model's


continuous states at the current time step from the states at previous time steps and the
state derivatives. Continuous solvers rely on the model's blocks to compute the values of
the model's discrete states at each time step. Mathematicians have developed a wide
variety of numerical integration techniques for solving the ordinary differential equations
(ODEs) that represent the continuous states of dynamic systems. Simulink provides an
extensive set of fixed-step and variable-step continuous solvers, each implementing a
specific ODE solution method. Some continuous solvers subdivide the simulation time
span into major and minor steps, where a minor time step represents a subdivision of the
major time step. The solver produces a result at each major time step. It use results at the
minor time steps to improve the accuracy of the result at the major time step.

Discrete solvers exist primarily to solve purely discrete models. They compute the
next simulation time-step for a model and nothing else. They do not compute continuous
states and they rely on the model's blocks to update the model's discrete states. We can
use a continuous solver, but not a discrete solver, to solve a model that contains both

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Vehicle-to-grid Technology in a micro grid using DC fast charging architecture

continuous and discrete states. This is because a discrete solver does not handle
continuous states. If you select a discrete solver for a continuous model, Simulink
disregards your selection and uses a continuous solver instead when solving the model.
Simulink provides two discrete solvers, a fixed-step discrete solver and a variable-
step discrete solver. The fixed-step solver by default chooses a step size and hence
simulation rate fast enough to track state changes in the fastest block in our model
.
4.6 MODEL EXECUTION PHASE:

In the simulation model execution phase, Simulink successively computes


the states and outputs of the system at intervals from the simulation start time to the finish
time, using information provided by the model. The successive time points at which the
states and outputs are computed are called time steps. The length of time between steps is
called the step size. The step size depends on the type of solver used to compute the
system's continuous states, the system's fundamental sample time, and whether the
system's continuous states have discontinuities (Zero Crossing Detection). At the start of
the simulation, the model specifies the initial states and outputs of the system to be
simulated. At each step, Simulink computes new values for the system's inputs, states,
and outputs and updates the model to reflect the computed values. At the end of the
simulation, the model reflects the final values of the system's inputs, states, and outputs.
At each time step:

1) Simulink Updates the outputs of the models' blocks in sorted order. Simulink
computes a block's outputs by invoking the block's output function. Simulink
passes the current time and the block's inputs and states to the output function as it
may require these arguments to compute the block's output. Simulink updates the
output of a discrete block only if the current step is an integral multiple of the
block's sample time.
2) Updates the states of the model's blocks in sorted order. Simulink computes a
block's discrete states by invoking its discrete state update function. Simulink
computes a block's continuous states by numerically integrating the time
derivatives of the continuous states. It computes the time derivatives of the states
by invoking the block's continuous derivatives function.

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Vehicle-to-grid Technology in a micro grid using DC fast charging architecture

3) Optionally checks for discontinuities in the continuous states of blocks. Simulink


uses a technique called zero crossing detection to detect discontinuities in
continuous states.
4) Computes the time for the next time step.
Simulink repeats steps 1 through 4 until the simulation stop time is reached.

4.6.1 Block Sorting Rules :

Simulink uses the following basic update rules to sort the blocks:

1) Each block must be updated before any of the direct-feed through blocks that it
drives. This rule ensures that the inputs to direct-feed through blocks will be valid
when they are updated.
2) Non direct-feed through blocks can be updated in any order as long as they are
updated before any direct-feed through blocks that they drive. This rule can be
met by putting all non direct-feed through blocks at the head of the update list in
any order. It thus allows Simulink to ignore non direct-feed through blocks during
the sorting process.
The result of applying these rules is an update list in which non direct-feed
through blocks appear at the head of the list in no particular order followed by direct-feed
through blocks in the order required to supply valid inputs to the blocks they drive.
During the sorting process, Simulink checks for and flags the occurrence of algebraic
loops, that is, signal loops in which an output of a direct-feed through block is connected
directly or indirectly to one of the block's inputs. Such loops seemingly create a deadlock
condition since Simulink needs the input of a direct-feed through block in order to
compute its output. However, an algebraic loop can represent a set of simultaneous
algebraic equations (hence the name) where the block's input and output are the
unknowns. Further, these equations can have valid solutions at each time step.
Accordingly, Simulink assumes that loops involving direct-feed through blocks do, in
fact, represent a solvable set of algebraic equations and attempts to solve them each time
the block is updated during a simulation.

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Vehicle-to-grid Technology in a micro grid using DC fast charging architecture

4.6.2 Determining Block Update Order :


During a simulation, Simulink updates the states and outputs of a model's blocks
once per time step. The order in which the blocks are updated is therefore critical to the
validity of the results. In particular, if a block's outputs are a function of its inputs at the
current time step, the block must be updated after the blocks that drive its inputs.
Otherwise, the block's outputs will be invalid. The order in which blocks are stored in a
model file is not necessarily the order in which they need to be updated during a
simulation. Consequently, Simulink sorts the blocks into the correct order during the
model initialization phase.
In order to create a valid update ordering, Simulink categorizes blocks according
to the relationship of outputs to inputs. Blocks whose current outputs depend on their
current inputs are called direct feed through blocks. All other blocks are called non direct-
feed through blocks. Examples of direct-feed through blocks include the Gain, Product,
and Sum blocks. Examples of non direct-feed through blocks include the Integrator block
(its output is a function purely of its state), the Constant block (it does not have an input),
and the Memory block (its output is dependent on its input in the previous time step).
Simulink allows you to assign update priorities to blocks. Simulink updates higher
priority blocks before lower priority blocks. Simulink honors the priorities only if they are
consistent with its block sorting rules.
Some of SIMULINK blocks, which are used in this thesis, are given below.

MATLAB is a high-performance language for technical computing. It integrates


computation, visualization, and programming in an easy-to-use environment where
problems and solutions are expressed in familiar mathematical notation. Typical uses
include-

➢ Math and computation


➢ Algorithm development
➢ Data acquisition
➢ Modeling, simulation, and prototyping
➢ Data analysis, exploration, and visualization
➢ Scientific and engineering graphics

MATLAB is an interactive system whose basic data element is an array that does
not require dimensioning. This allows solving many technical computing problems,

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Vehicle-to-grid Technology in a micro grid using DC fast charging architecture

especially those with matrix and vector formulations, in a fraction of the time it would
take to write a program in a scalar non-interactive language such as C or FORTRAN.

The MATLAB system consists of six main parts:

(a) Development Environment

This is the set of tools and facilities that help to use MATLAB functions and files.
Many of these tools are graphical user interfaces. It includes the MATLAB desktop and
Command Window, a command history, an editor and debugger, and browsers for
viewing help, the workspace, files and the search path.

(b) The MATLAB Mathematical Function Library

This is a vast collection of computational algorithms ranging from elementary


functions, like sum, sine, cosine, and complex arithmetic, to more sophisticated functions
like matrix inverse, matrix Eigen values, Bessel functions, and fast Fourier transforms.

(c) The MATLAB Language

This is a high-level matrix/array language with control flow statements, functions,


data structures, input/output, and object-oriented programming features. It allows both
"programming in the small" to rapidly create quick and dirty throw-away programs, and
"programming in the large" to create large and complex application programs.

(d) Graphics

MATLAB has extensive facilities for displaying vectors and matrices as graphs,
as well as annotating and printing these graphs. It includes high-level functions for two-
dimensional and three-dimensional data visualization, image processing, animation, and
presentation graphics. It also includes low-level functions that allow to fully customize
the appearance of graphics as well as to build complete graphical user interfaces on
MATLAB applications.

(e) The MATLAB Application Program Interface (API)


This is a library that allows writing in C and FORTRAN programs that interact
with MATLAB. It includes facilities for calling routines from MATLAB (dynamic

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Vehicle-to-grid Technology in a micro grid using DC fast charging architecture

linking), calling MATLAB as a computational engine, and for reading and writing MAT-
files.

(f) MATLAB Documentation


MATLAB provides extensive documentation, in both printed and online format,
to help to learn about and use all of its features. It covers all the primary MATLAB
features at a high level, including many examples. The MATLAB online help provides
task-oriented and reference information about MATLAB features. MATLAB
documentation is also available in printed form and in PDF format.

(1) Three phase source block

Fig.4.1.three phase source block

The Three-Phase Source block implements a balanced three-phase voltage source


with internal R-L impedance. The three voltage sources are connected in Y with a neutral
connection that can be internally ground.

(2) VI measurement block

The Three-Phase V-I Measurement block is used to measure three-phase voltages


and currents in a circuit. When connected in series with three-phase elements, it returns
the three phase-to-ground or phase-to-phase voltages and the three line currents

Fig.4.2.three phase v-i measurement

(3) Scope

Display signals generated during a simulation. The Scope block displays its input
with respect to simulation time. The Scope block can have multiple axes (one per port);

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Vehicle-to-grid Technology in a micro grid using DC fast charging architecture

all axes have a common time range with independent y-axes. The Scope allows you to
adjust the amount of time and the range of input values displayed. You can move and
resize the Scope window and you can modify the Scope's parameter values during the
simulation

Fig.4.3..scope

(4) Three-Phase Series RLC Load

The Three-Phase Series RLC Load block implements a three-phase balanced load as a
series combination of RLC elements. At the specified frequency, the load exhibits
constant impedance. The active and reactive powers absorbed by the load are proportional
to the square of the applied voltage.

Fig.4.4.three-phase series rlc load

(5) Three-Phase Breaker block

The Three-Phase Breaker block implements a three-phase circuit breaker where


the opening and closing times can be controlled either from an external Simulink signal or
from an internal control signal.

Fig.4.5.three-phase breaker block

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Vehicle-to-grid Technology in a micro grid using DC fast charging architecture

(6) Integrator

Fig.4.6. integrator

The integrator block outputs the integral of its input at the current time step. The
following equation represents the output of the block y as a function of its input u and an
initial condition y0, where y and u are vector functions of the current simulation time t.

(7) Breaker

Implement circuit breaker opening at current zero crossing.

Library: Elements

Fig.4.7.circuit breaker

Purpose: The Breaker block implements a circuit breaker where the opening and closing
times can be controlled either from an external SIMULINK signal (external control
mode), or from an internal control timer (internal control mode).

A series Rs-C snubber circuit is included in the model. It can be connected to the
circuit breaker. If the Breaker block happens to be in series with an inductive circuit, an
open ci

rcuit or a current source, you must use a snubber.

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When the breaker block is set in external control mode, a SIMULINK input
appears on the block icon. The control signal connected to the SIMULINK input must be
either 0 or 1 (0 to open the breaker, 1 to close it).

When the Breaker block is set in internal control mode, the switching times are
specified in the dialog box of the block.

When the breaker is closed, it is represented by a resistance Ron. The Ron value
can be set as small as necessary in order to be negligible compared with external
components (a typical value is 10 m ohms). When the breaker is open, it has an infinite
resistance.

(8) Three-Phase Programmable Voltage Source

Implement three-phase voltage source with programmable time variation of


amplitude, phase, frequency, and harmonics

Library: Electrical Sources

Fig.4.8.three phase voltage sources

Purpose: This block is used to generate a three-phase sinusoidal voltage with time-
varying parameters. It can be programmed with the time variation for the amplitude,
phase or frequency of the fundamental component of the source. In addition, two
harmonics can be programmed and superimposed on the fundamental signal.

(9) Trigonometric Function

Specified trigonometric function on input

Library: Math Operations

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Vehicle-to-grid Technology in a micro grid using DC fast charging architecture

Fig.4.9.trigonometric function

Purpose: The Trigonometric Function block performs common trigonometric functions

(10) Three-Phase Transformer (Two Windings)

Implement three-phase transformer with configurable winding connections

4.6.3 Library Elements :

Fig.4.10.three phase transformer

Purpose:

The Three-Phase Transformer (Two Windings) block implements a three-phase


transformer using three single-phase transformers. The saturation characteristic, when
activated, is the same as the one described for the saturable Transformer block, and the
icon of the block is automatically updated. If the fluxes are not specified, the initial values
are automatically adjusted so that the simulation starts in steady state.

(11) Three-Phase Transformer 12 Terminals

Implement three single-phase, two-winding transformers where all terminals are


accessible

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Vehicle-to-grid Technology in a micro grid using DC fast charging architecture

Library: Elements

Fig.4.11.two winding transformer

Purpose: The Three-Phase Transformer 12 Terminals block implements three single-


phase, two-winding linear transformers where all the twelve winding connectors are
accessible. The block can be used in place of the Three-Phase Transformer (Two
Windings) block to implement a three-phase transformer when primary and secondary are
not necessarily connected in Star or Delta.

(12) IGBT/Diode

Implements ideal IGBT, GTO, or MOSFET and antiparallel diode

Library: Power Electronics

Fig.4.12.igbt

Purpose: The IGBT/Diode block is a simplified mode of an IGBT (or GTO or


MOSFET)/Diode pair where the forward voltages of the forced-commutated device and
diode are ignored.

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Vehicle-to-grid Technology in a micro grid using DC fast charging architecture

CHAPTER 5
PROPOSED SYSTEM SIMULATION
Thyristors can only be turned on (not off) by control action, and rely on the
external AC system to effect the turn-off process, the control system only has one degree
of freedom – when to turn on the thyristor. This limits the usefulness of HVDC in some
circumstances because it means that the AC system to which the HVDC converter is
connected must always contain synchronous machines in order to provide the
commutating voltage – the HVDC converter cannot feed power into a passive system
with some other types of semiconductor device such as the insulated-gate bipolar
transistor (IGBT), both turn-on and turn-off can be controlled, giving a second degree of
freedom. As a result, IGBTs can be used to make self-commutated converters. In such
converters, the polarity of DC voltage is usually fixed and the DC voltage, being
smoothed by a large capacitance, can be considered constant. For this reason, an HVDC
converter using IGBTs is usually referred to as a voltage-source converter (or voltage-
sourced converter). The additional controllability gives many advantages, notably the
ability to switch the IGBTs on and off many times per cycle in order to improve the
harmonic performance, and the fact that (being self-commutated) the converter no longer
relies on synchronous machines in the AC system for its operation. A voltage-sourced
converter can therefore feed power to an AC network consisting only of passive loads,
something which is impossible with LCC HVDC. Voltage-source converters are also
considerably more compact than line-commutated converters (mainly because much less
harmonic filtering is needed) and are preferable to line-commutated converters in
locations where space is at a premium, for example on offshore platforms.

In contrast to line-commutated HVDC converters, voltage-source converters maintain


a constant polarity of DC voltage and power reversal is achieved instead by reversing the
direction of current. This makes voltage-source converters much easier to connect into a
Multi-terminal HVDC system or “DC Grid”. HVDC systems based on voltage-source
converters normally use the six-pulse connection because the converter produces much
less harmonic distortion than a comparable LCC and the twelve-pulse connection is
unnecessary. This simplifies the construction of the converter transformer. However,
there are several different configurations of voltage-source converter and research is
continuing to take place into new alternatives.

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Vehicle-to-grid Technology in a micro grid using DC fast charging architecture

5.1 TWO LEVEL CONVERTER:

From the very first VSC-HVDC scheme installed (the Hellsjön experimental link
commissioned in Sweden in 1997[7]) until 2012, most of the VSC HVDC systems built
were based on the two level converter. The two-level converter is the simplest type of
three-phase voltage-source converter and can be thought of as a six pulse bridge in which
the thyristors have been replaced by IGBTs with inverse-parallel diodes, and the DC
smoothing reactors have been replaced by DC smoothing capacitors. Such converters
derive their name from the fact that the voltage at the AC output of each phase is
switched between two discrete voltage levels, corresponding to the electrical potentials of
the positive and negative DC terminals. When the upper of the two valves in a phase is
turned on, the AC output terminal is connected to the positive DC terminal, resulting in
an output voltage of +½ Ud with respect to the midpoint potential of the converter.
Conversely when the lower valve in a phase is turned on, the AC output terminal is
connected to the negative DC terminal, resulting in an output voltage of -½ Ud. The two
valves corresponding to one phase must never be turned on simultaneously, as this would
result in an uncontrolled discharge of the DC capacitor, risking severe damage to the
converter equipment.

Fig .5.1. :three-phase, two-level voltage-source converter

The simplest (and also, the highest-amplitude) waveform that can be produced by a
two-level converter is a square wave; however this would produce unacceptable levels of
harmonic distortion, so some form of Pulse-width modulation (PWM) is always used to
improve the harmonic distortion of the converter. As a result of the PWM, the IGBTs are
switched on and off many times (typically 20) in each mains cycle. This results in
high switching losses in the IGBTs and reduces the overall transmission efficiency.

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Vehicle-to-grid Technology in a micro grid using DC fast charging architecture

Several different PWM strategies are possible for HVDC[31] but in all cases the efficiency
of the two-level converter is significantly poorer than that of a LCC because of the higher
switching losses. A typical LCC HVDC converter station has power losses of around
0.7% at full load (per end, excluding the HVDC line or cable) while with 2-level voltage-
source converters the equivalent figure is 2-3% per end.

Another disadvantage of the two-level converter is that, in order to achieve the very
high operating voltages required for an HVDC scheme, several hundred IGBTs have to be
connected in series and switched simultaneously in each valve. This requires specialised
types of IGBT with sophisticated gate drive circuits, and can lead to very high levels
of electromagnetic interference. In an attempt to improve on the poor harmonic
performance of the two-level converter, some HVDC systems have been built with three
level converters. Three-level converters can synthesize three (instead of only two)
discrete voltage levels at the AC terminal of each phase: +½ Ud, 0 and -½ Ud. A common
type of three-level converter is thediode-clamped (or neutral-point-clamped) converter,
where each phase contains four IGBT valves, each rated at half of the DC line to line
voltage, along with two clamping diode valves.[32] The DC capacitor is split into two
series-connected branches, with the clamping diode valves connected between the
capacitor midpoint and the one-quarter and three-quarter points on each phase. To obtain
a positive output voltage (+½ Ud) the top two IGBT valves are turned on, to obtain a
negative output voltage (-½ Ud) the bottom two IGBT valves are turned on and to obtain
zero output voltage the middle two IGBT valves are turned on. In this latter state, the two
clamping diode valves complete the current path through the phase.

In a refinement of the diode-clamped converter, the so-called active neutral-point


clamped converter, the clamping diode valves are replaced by IGBT valves, giving
additional controllability. Such converters were used on the Murray
link project in Australia and the Cross Sound Cable link in the United States. However,
the modest improvement in harmonic performance came at a considerable price in terms
of increased complexity, and the design proved to be difficult to scale up to DC voltages
higher than the ±150 kV used on those two projects.

Another type of three-level converter, used in some adjustable-speed drives but never
in HVDC, replaces the clamping diode valves by a separate, isolated, flying capacitor
connected between the one-quarter and three-quarter points. The operating principle is

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Vehicle-to-grid Technology in a micro grid using DC fast charging architecture

similar to that of the diode-clamped converter. Both the diode-clamped and flying
capacitor variants of three-level converter can be extended to higher numbers of output
levels (for example, five), but the complexity of the circuit increases disproportionately
and such circuits have not been considered practical for HVDC applications.

First proposed for HVDC applications in 2003 by Marquardt and first used
commercially in the Trans Bay Cable project in San Francisco, the Modular Multi-Level
Converter (MMC) is now becoming the most common type of voltage-source converter
for HVDC.

Like the two-level converter and the six-pulse line-commutated converter, a MMC
consists of six valves, each connecting one AC terminal to one DC terminal. However,
where each valve of the two-level converter is effectively a high-voltage controlled
switch consisting of a large number of IGBTs connected in series, each valve of a MMC
is a separate controllable voltage source in its own right. Each MMC valve consists of a
number of independent converter submodules, each containing its own storage capacitor.
In the most common form of the circuit, the half-bridge variant, each submodule contains
two IGBTs connected in series across the capacitor, with the midpoint connection and one
of the two capacitor terminals brought out as external connections.[35] Depending on
which of the two IGBTs in each submodule is turned on, the capacitor is either bypassed
or connected into the circuit. Each submodule therefore acts as an independent two-level
converter generating a voltage of either 0 or Usm (where Usm is the sub module capacitor
voltage). With a suitable number of submodules connected in series, the valve can
synthesize a stepped voltage waveform that approximates very closely to a sine-wave and
contains very low levels of harmonic distortion.

The MMC differs from other types of converter in that current flows continuously in
all six valves of the converter throughout the mains-frequency cycle. As a result, concepts
such as “on-state” and “off-state” have no meaning in the MMC. The direct current splits
equally into the three phases and the alternating current splits equally into the upper and
lower valve of each phase. The current in each valve is therefore related to the direct
current Id and alternating current Iac as follows:

Upper valve:

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Vehicle-to-grid Technology in a micro grid using DC fast charging architecture

Lower valve:

A typical MMC for an HVDC application contains around 300 submodules


connected in series in each valve and is therefore equivalent to a 301-level converter.
Consequently, the harmonic performance is excellent and usually no filters are needed. A
further advantage of the MMC is that PWM is not necessary, with the result that the
power losses are much lower than those of the 2-level converter, at around 1% per
end. Finally, because direct series-connection of IGBTs is not necessary, the IGBT gate
drives do not need to be as sophisticated as those for a 2-level converter.

The MMC has two principal disadvantages. Firstly, the control is much more complex
than that of a 2-level converter. Balancing the voltages of each of the submodule
capacitors is a significant challenge and requires considerable computing power and high-
speed communications between the central control unit and the valve. Secondly, the
submodule capacitors themselves are large and bulky. A MMC is considerably larger than
a comparable-rated 2-level converter, although this may be offset by the saving in space
from not requiring filters.

As of 2012 the largest-capacity MMC HVDC system in operation is still the


400 MW Trans Bay Cable scheme but many larger schemes are under construction,
including an underground cable interconnection from France to Spain consisting of two
1000 MW links in parallel at a voltage of ±320 kV.

A variant of the MMC, proposed by one manufacturer, involves connecting multiple


IGBTs in series in each of the two switches that make up the submodule. This gives an
output voltage waveform with fewer, larger, steps than the conventional MMC
arrangement. This arrangement is referred to as the Cascaded Two Level (CTL)
converter. Functionally it is exactly equivalent to the conventional half-bridge MMC in
every respect except for the harmonic performance, which is slightly inferior – although
still claimed to be good enough to avoid the need for filtering in most instances.

Another alternative replaces the half bridge MMC submodule described above, with
a full bridge submodule containing four IGBTs in an H bridge arrangement, instead of
two. The full-bridge variant of MMC allows the submodule capacitor to be inserted into
the circuit in either polarity. This confers additional flexibility in controlling the converter

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Vehicle-to-grid Technology in a micro grid using DC fast charging architecture

and allows the converter to block the fault current which arises from a short-circuit
between the positive and negative DC terminals (something which is impossible with any
of the preceding types of VSC). Furthermore, it allows the DC voltage to be of either
polarity (like a LCC HVDC scheme), giving rise to the possibility of hybrid LCC and
VSC HVDC systems. However, the full-bridge arrangement requires twice as many
IGBTs and has higher power losses than the equivalent half-bridge arrangement.

The result of applying these rules is an update list in which non-direct-feed


through blocks appear at the head of the list in no particular order followed by direct-feed
through blocks in the order required to supply valid inputs to the blocks they drive.
During the sorting process, Simulink checks for and flags the occurrence of algebraic
loops, that is, signal loops in which an output of a direct-feed through block is connected
directly or indirectly to one of the block's inputs. Such loops seemingly create a deadlock
condition since Simulink needs the input of a direct-feed through block in order to
compute its output. However, an algebraic loop can represent a set of simultaneous
algebraic equations (hence the name) where the block's input and output are the
unknowns. Further, these equations can have valid solutions at each time step.
Accordingly, Simulink assumes that loops involving direct-feed through blocks do, in
fact, represent a solvable set of algebraic equations and attempts to solve them each time
the block is updated during a simulation.

Table 1: current set points of EV Batteries

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Vehicle-to-grid Technology in a micro grid using DC fast charging architecture

Fig.5.2.voltage, current and soc or ev1battery during v2g operation

Fig.5.3.voltage,current and soc or ev2 battery during g2v operation

The active power contribution from various components of the system is shown in
Fig. 8. The grid power changes to accommodate the power transferred by the EVs. The
negative polarity of the grid power from 1s to 4s shows that the power is being fed to the
grid from the vehicle. The change in polarity of grid power at 4s shows that the power is
supplied by the grid for charging the vehicle battery. This demonstrates the V2G-G2V
operation. Also, the net power at PCC is zero showing an optimal power balance in the
system.

The dc bus voltage is regulated at 1500 V by the outer voltage control loop of the
inverter controller and is shown in Fig. 9. This in turn is achieved by the inner current
control loop tracking the changed d-axis reference current as shown in Fig. 10.

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Vehicle-to-grid Technology in a micro grid using DC fast charging architecture

Fig.5.4.variation in dc bus voltage

Fig.5.5.reference current tracking by inverter controller

The grid voltage and current at PCC are shown in Fig. 11. Voltage and current are
in phase during G2V operation and out of phase during V2G operation showing the
reverse power flow.

Fig.5.6.grid voltage and grid injected current during v2g-g2v operation

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Vehicle-to-grid Technology in a micro grid using DC fast charging architecture

Total harmonic distortion (THD) analysis is done on the grid injected current and
the result is shown in Fig. 12. According to IEEE Std. 1547, harmonic current distortion
on power systems 69 kV and below are limited to 5% THD. The THD of grid- injected
current is obtained as 2.31 % and is achieved by the judicious design of LCL filter.

Fig.5.7.harmonic spectrum and thd of grid-injected current

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Vehicle-to-grid Technology in a micro grid using DC fast charging architecture

5.2 SIMULATION EVALUATION :

Fig.5.8. v2g technology simulation circuit

Fig.5.9. subsystem (inverter control system)

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Vehicle-to-grid Technology in a micro grid using DC fast charging architecture

Fig.5.10. subsystem (off-board charger)

Fig.5.11. total harmonic distortion

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Vehicle-to-grid Technology in a micro grid using DC fast charging architecture

Fig.5.12. v2g voltage, current, soc

Fig.5.13. voltage and current during v2g operation

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Vehicle-to-grid Technology in a micro grid using DC fast charging architecture

Fig.5.14. grid voltage and injected current during v2g and g2v operation

Fig.5.15. three phase power signal

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Vehicle-to-grid Technology in a micro grid using DC fast charging architecture

Fig.5.16. dc input voltage

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Vehicle-to-grid Technology in a micro grid using DC fast charging architecture

CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSION

Modeling and design of a V2G system in a micro-grid using dc fast charging


architecture is presented in this paper. A dc fast charging station with off-board chargers
and a grid connected inverter is designed to interface EVs to the micro- grid. The control
system designed for this power electronic interface allows bi-directional power transfer
between EVs and the grid. The simulation results show a smooth power transfer between
the EVs and the grid, and the quality of grid injected current from the EVs adheres to the
relevant standards. The designed controller gives good dynamic performance in terms of
dc bus voltage stability and in tracking the changed active power reference. Active power
regulation aspects of the micro- grid are considered in this work, and the proposed V2G
system can be utilized for several other services like reactive power control and
frequency.

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Vehicle-to-grid Technology in a micro grid using DC fast charging architecture

REFERENCE
1. D. -C. Urcan and D. Bică, "Integrating and modeling the Vehicle to Grid concept
in Micro-Grids," 2019 International Conference on ENERGY and
ENVIRONMENT (CIEM), 2019, pp. 299-303, doi:
10.1109/CIEM46456.2019.8937610.
2. S. Iqbal et al., "Role of Power Electronics in Primary Frequency Control and
Power Quality in an Industrial Micro-grid Considering V2G Technology," 2019
IEEE 3rd Conference on Energy Internet and Energy System Integration (EI2),
2019, pp. 1188-1193, doi: 10.1109/EI247390.2019.9062071.
3. B. Shrimali, J. K. Maherchandani and A. A. Chhipa, "Vehicle to Grid System
Integration for Frequency Regulation of Renewable Based Microgrid," 2021
International Conference on Sustainable Energy and Future Electric
Transportation (SEFET), 2021, pp. 1-6, doi: 10.1109/SeFet48154.2021.9375722.
4. W. Hui, S. Chao, M. Xiangping, J. Xiu and W. Jianing, "Research on charge and
discharge control strategy of electric vehicles in building micro-grid based on
V2G mode," 2020 Chinese Automation Congress (CAC), 2020, pp. 2914-2919,
doi: 10.1109/CAC51589.2020.9327601.
5. M. J. Chaudhry, "Enhancements in Micro-Grid Operation through Electric
Vehicle Charging and Discharging," 2020 9th International Conference on
Industrial Technology and Management (ICITM), 2020, pp. 245-250, doi:
10.1109/ICITM48982.2020.9080380.
6. Z. Xiong, S. Liu, Y. Fang, Y. Li and J. Yang, "Research on Modeling of
Microgrid Load Frequency Control Based on V2G Technology," 2020 5th
International Conference on Mechanical, Control and Computer Engineering
(ICMCCE), 2020, pp. 621-626, doi: 10.1109/ICMCCE51767.2020.00138.
7. Z. Zheng and S. Yang, "Particle Swarm Optimisation for Scheduling Electric
Vehicles with Microgrids," 2020 IEEE Congress on Evolutionary Computation
(CEC), 2020, pp. 1-7, doi: 10.1109/CEC48606.2020.9185853.
8. L. Wang, U. K. Madawala and M. -C. Wong, "A Wireless Vehicle-to-Grid-to-
Home Power Interface With an Adaptive DC Link," in IEEE Journal of Emerging
and Selected Topics in Power Electronics, vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 2373-2383, April
2021, doi: 10.1109/JESTPE.2020.2992776.
9. S. Amamra and J. Marco, "Vehicle-to-Grid Aggregator to Support Power Grid
and Reduce Electric Vehicle Charging Cost," in IEEE Access, vol. 7, pp. 178528-
178538, 2019, doi: 10.1109/ACCESS.2019.2958664.
10. J. Donadee, R. Shaw, O. Garnett, E. Cutter and L. Min, "Potential Benefits of
Vehicle-to-Grid Technology in California: High Value for Capabilities Beyond
One-Way Managed Charging," in IEEE Electrification Magazine, vol. 7, no. 2, pp.
40-45, June 2019, doi: 10.1109/MELE.2019.2908793.
11. A. Sangswang and M. Konghirun, "Optimal Strategies in Home Energy
Management System Integrating Solar Power, Energy Storage, and Vehicle-to-
Grid for Grid Support and Energy Efficiency," in IEEE Transactions on Industry
Applications, vol. 56, no. 5, pp. 5716-5728, Sept.-Oct. 2020, doi:
10.1109/TIA.2020.2991652.

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Vehicle-to-grid Technology in a micro grid using DC fast charging architecture

12. A. Garg and M. Das, "High Efficiency Three Phase Interleaved Buck Converter
for Fast Charging of EV," 2021 1st International Conference on Power Electronics
and Energy (ICPEE), 2021, pp. 1-5, doi: 10.1109/ICPEE50452.2021.9358486.
13. S. Wang, H. Li, Y. Ma, F. Wang and L. M. Tolbert, "Electromechanical Transient
Modeling of Fast Electric Vehicle Charging Unit," 2020 IEEE Power & Energy
Society General Meeting (PESGM), 2020, pp. 1-5, doi:
10.1109/PESGM41954.2020.9282072.
14. S. H. Hosseini, R. Ghazi and H. Heydari-Doostabad, "An Extendable Quadratic
Bidirectional DC–DC Converter for V2G and G2V Applications," in IEEE
Transactions on Industrial Electronics, vol. 68, no. 6, pp. 4859-4869, June 2021,
doi: 10.1109/TIE.2020.2992967.
15. Y. Wang, X. Xu, H. Fu and W. Hao,Charge Balance Control for DC/DCConverter
Systems: From Single-Input Systems to Multiple-Input Systems," in IEEE Journal
of Emerging and Selected Topics in Power Electronics, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 206-222,
Feb. 2021, doi: 10.1109/JESTPE.2019.2959590

DEPT OF EEE SMEC 50


A

PROJECT REPORT

On
MODELLING AND CONTROL OF
BIDIRECTIONAL BUCK BOOST CONVERTER
FOR ELECTRICAL VEHICLE APPLICATIONS.
Submitted by
1)Ms.K.S.Navya(17K81A0220) 2)Ms.K.Mounika (17K81A0221)
3)Mr.V.Kapil (17K81A0241) 4)Mr.A.Sriramreddy(17K81A0247)

in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree


of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
Under The Guidance of
Mr C.H.Srinivas M.E.(Ph.d)
Associate Professor
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

ST.MARTIN’S ENGINEERING COLLEGE


(An Autonomous Institute)
Dhulapally, Secunderabad – 500 100

JUNE 2021
BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project entitled “Modelling and Control of Bidirectional buck boost
Converter for Electrical Vehicle Applications”, is being submitted by 1.Ms. K.S.Navya
(17K81A0220) 2.Ms K.Mounika (17K81A0221) 3.Mr. V.Kapil (17K81A0241) 4.Mr.
A.Sriram reddy (17K81A0247) in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the
degree of BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY IN Electrical and Electronics Engineering is
recorded of bonafide work carried out by them. The result embodied in this report have been
verified and found satisfactory.

Head of the Department


Mr C.H.Srinivas Dr.N.Ramchandra
Department of EEE Department of EEE

Internal Examiner External Examiner

Place:

Date:

i
DECLARATION

We, the students of Bachelor of Technology in Department of Electrical and

Electronics Engineering session: 2017 – 2021, St. Martin’s Engineering College,

Dhulapally, Kompally, Secunderabad, hereby declare that work presented in this Project

Work entitled “ Modelling and control of Bidirectional buck boost Converter for

Electrical Vehicle Applications” is the outcome of our own bonafide work and is

correct to the best of our knowledge and this work has been undertaken taking care of

Engineering Ethics. This result embodied in this project report has not been submitted in

any university for award of any degree.

K. S. Navya ( 17K81A0220 )
K. Mounika (17K81A0221)
V. Kapil ( 17K81A0241 )
A. Sriram reddy ( 17K81A0247 )

ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The satisfaction and euphoria that accompanies the successful completion of any task
would be incomplete without the mention of the people who made it possible and whose
encouragements and guidance have crowded effects with success.
First and foremost, we would like to express my deep sense of gratitude and
indebtedness to our College Management for their kind support and permission to use
the facilities available in the Institute.
We especially would like to express my deep sense of gratitude and indebtedness to
Dr.P.Santosh Kumar Patra, our beloved Principal, St.Martin’s Engineering College
for his invaluable encouragement, suggestions and support from an early stage of this
research and providing me extraordinary experiences throughout the work. Above all, his
priceless and meticulous supervision at each and every phase of work inspired me in
innumerable ways.
We would like to express our gratitude to Dr.N.Ramchandra, Head &Professor, the
Dept. of Electrical and Electronics Engineering for his advice, supervision, and the vital
contribution as and when required during this research. We are proud to record that we
had the opportunity to work with an exceptionally experienced Professor like him. The
time spent with him will remain in my memory for years to come.
We would like to thank our supervisor, Mr.C.H.Srinivas, Associate professor, Dept.
of EEE for his continuous support and valuable guidance for our research work.
We would like to express our gratitude to our dept. project coordinators Mr. K. V.
Govardhan Rao, Assistant Professor, Dept. of EEE and Mr. T. Penchalaiah, Assistant
Professor, Dept of EEE for their involvement with originality has triggered and nourished
my intellectual maturity that will help me for a long time to come.
Finally, we are highly grateful and obliged to our college level Project Coordinators
Dr.Maalyadri, Professor in IT and Dr.R.Santhosh Kumar, Associate Professor in
CSE for their advice, supervision, and the vital contribution as and when required during
this research work and for their support and co- operation that is difficult to express in
words.
1. K.S.Navya
2 K. Mounika
3. V. Kapil
4 A. Sriram reddy

iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER NO TITLE PAGE NO

Certificate i
Declaration ii
Acknowledgement iii
Table of contents iv
List of Figures vii
Nomenclature viii
Abstract ix

1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction to the project 1
1.1.1 Proposed circuit configuration 2

2 LITERATURE SURVEY
2.1 Literature survey of the project 6

3 BATTERY STORAGE SYSTEM


3.1 Introduction to the Battery 10
3.2 Classification of Batteries 12
3.2.1 Primary 13
3.2.2 Secondary 13
3.3 Cell types 14
3.3.1 Cell Performance 16
3.4 Lithium ion Batteries 19

iv
3.4.1 Advantages 20
3.4.2 Disadvantages 21
3.4.3 Applications 22
4 PROPOSED DC DC CONVERTER
4.1 DC DC Converter 24
4.1.1 Introduction to Buck Boost Converter 24
4.2 Principle of operation of Buck Boost converter 25
4.2.1 Circuit diagram of Buck Boost converter 26
4.3 Modes of Operation of Buck Boost Converter 26
4.3.1 Application of Buck Boost Converter 30
4.4 Pulse Width Modulation 30
4.4.1 Description 32
4.4.2 SPWN block diagram 33
4.4.3 SPWM SIMULATION Diagram 34
4.4.4 SCOPE View 34
4.4.5 SCOPE View 1 35
4.4.6 SCOPE View 2 35

5 PROPOSED BRUSHLESS DC MOTORS


5.1 Brushless DC Motors 36
5.2 Working Principle and Operation of BLDC 40
5.3 Brushless DC Motor Drive 41
5.3.1 MOSFET BRIDGE 42
5.3.2 Advantages of BLDC Motor 42
5.3.3 Disadvantages of BLDC Motor 43
5.3.4 Application of BLDC Motor 43

6 PROPOSED CONTROLLER
6.1 Introduction of fuzzy logic Technique 44
6.1.1 Fuzzy Description 45
6.2 Uses of fuzzy logic 46

v
6.3 Fuzzy logic Controller 46
6.3.1 Simple fuzzy logic controllers 46
6.3.2 Simple fuzzy logic control system 47
6.3.3 General fuzzy logic Controller 48
6.4 Membership Functions 49
6.4.1 Types of membership functions 49
6.4.2 Straight line membership Function 50
6.4.3 Trapezoidal Membership Function 50
6.4.4 Gaussian Membership Function 51
6.5.5 Triangular Membership Function 51
6.5 Fuzzy Logic Tool Box 52

7 SIMULATION RESULTS
7.1 Result of the Project 54
7.1.1 Proposed Converter 63
7.1.2 Soc and current and voltage of battery 64
7.1.3 Speed of proposed BLDC 65

8 CONCLUSION 66

REFERENCES 67

vi
LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO DESCRIPTION PAGE NO

1.1.1 Proposed circuit configuration 2


4.2.1 Circuit diagram of Buck Boost converter 26
4.4.2 SPWN block diagram 33
4.4.3 SPWN SIMULATION Diagram 34
4.4.4 SCOPE View 34
4.4.5 SCOPE View 1 35
4.4.6 SCOPE View 2 35
5.3.1 MOSFET BRIDGE 42
6.1.1 Fuzzy Description 45
6.3.2 Simple fuzzy logic control system 47
6.4.2 Straight line membership Function 50
6.4.3 Trapezoidal Membership Function 50
6.4.4 Gaussian Membership Function 51
6.5.5 Triangular Membership Function 51
7.1.1 Proposed Converter 63
7.1.2 Soc and current and voltage of battery 64
7.1.3 Speed of proposed BLDC 65

vii
NOMENCLATURE

EV : Electrical Vehicle
HEVs : Hybrid Electrical Vehicle
ICE : Internal combustion engine
FLC : Fuzzy Logic Controller
BEVs : Battery Electrical Vehicles
VRLA : Valve regulated lead–acid battery
AGM : Absorbed Glass Mat
PWM : Pulse Width Modulation
BLDC : Brushless dc synchronous motor
PHEV : Plug in hybrid Electrical vehicle

viii
ABSTRACT

The level of exhaust gases is rising with increasing usage of internal combustion engine vehicles. In order to
reduce carbon emission, researchers and industry head up for improving electric vehicle technologies in all over
the word. This paper deals with design and simulation of a bi-directional power converter of electric vehicle.
The power electronics block is comprised by batteries, bi-directional dc-dc converter and BLDC machine.

The initial state of battery charge is set around 90% where the discharge current is 44.5 A during motor
mode. The nominal voltage of battery stack is 350 V and maximum capacity is 100 Ah.The operating mode of
power converter is determined according to the torque values of BLDC machine which is operated in motor and
generator modes. The charge and discharge conditions of batteries have been controlled regarding to operating
modes of dc machine. The proposed converter and controller are designed to meet charge control and motor
drive requirements of an all-electric vehicle.

ix
CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO THE PROJECT

Transportation sector occupies a fundamental place in the world. Fossil fuels used in conventional
vehicles technology emit greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and methane. The
excessive consumption of these gases causes air pollution, climate change and global warming. In order to
reduce these effects, there is a tendency to electric vehicle (EV) technology. The EV has much lower fuel cost
according to fossil fueled car since they are mainly composed of battery system, power electronic circuits and
electric machine.

The battery system in an EV is the most crucial component in charge control time and determining
distance . The electric machines of an EV are operated in both motor and generator modes due to regenerative
breaking feature that enables electric machine to be operated in generator mode which is impossible in
conventional internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles.

Therefore, electric machine charges the battery by operating in generator mode during the regenerative
braking and it ensures recharging the batteries . EV are classified into two types as hybrid EVs (HEVs) and all-
electric vehicles. The HEV technology is used in conjunction conventional vehicle technology.

The main system in HEV technology includes fuel tank and ICE such as diesel or gasoline engine, and
auxiliary system which is comprised by electric machine, power electronic circuits and battery. HEVs are
classified as parallel and series hybrid vehicles that the parallel HEV consists ICE and electrical machine
together . As the parallel electric vehicles operates at electric mode during the acceleration of electric machine,
the motor operation is supplied from battery.

The designed EV motor driver is comprised by four sections such as battery, bi-directional dc-dc
converter, FLC and dc machine as shown In this study, the starting voltage of battery is set to 378 V while the
operating voltage of dc machine used in traction system is 500 V dc. The battery voltage is increased up to 500
V with bi-directional dc-dc converter in generator mode.

The battery is discharged when dc machine is started acceleration. The motor mode simulation with
various torque values are performed to observe battery parameters such as state of charge (SoC), current,
voltage and voltage of the dc machine. The voltage of the dc machine is decreased to 500 V with

1
bidirectional dc-dc converter which is controlled with FLC. The battery is charged during the generator mode
operation of dc machine. The FLC determines duty cycle of S1 and S2 to ensure
charge and discharge of battery.

The dc machine is comprised by brushes, armature core and windings, commutator, field core and
windings. Armature circuit is comprised by series structure with inductor, resistance and counter-electromotive
source. Similarly, battery parameters such as SoC, current, voltage and voltage of the dc machine are observed
in the generator mode simulation regarding to various torque values applied to dc machine.

Fig: 1.1.1 Proposed circuit configuration

The electrical energy is converted to mechanical energy or vice versa by dc machine that operates
regarding to electromechanical energy conversion theory . If a conductor is moved within the magnetic field,
the voltage is induced on it which is known as generator operating mode.

If alternating current passes through the conductor, magnetic field is created around it which explains
the motor mode operation. When the dc machine is started acceleration, the resultant positive torque is achieved.
On the other hand, negative torque is generated at the dc machine when it is operated in generator mode.

FLC is comprised by fuzzification, rule base, interface mechanism, defuzzification. Fuzzification is used
to convert digital signals received through the system into linguistic variable. Rule base is comprised by the
conditions to set for controlling the system at desired location. Interface mechanism makes inferences according
to the rules of system by establishing a relationship between inputs. Defuzzification is used to convert linguistic
variable received through the system into digital signals.

The European new vehicle CO2 regulation (with a mandatory target value of 95 grams of CO2 per
kilometer by 2021 for passenger cars) is currently in the process of being extended to 2025. In this context, one
of the key questions is at what point a significant uptake of the electric vehicle market is to be expected. In order
2
to help inform this debate about how electric vehicle technology could fit in a lower-carbon 2020–2030 new
vehicle fleet in Europe, this paper focuses on collecting, analyzing, and aggregating the available research
literature on the underlying technology costs and carbon emissions. In terms of technologies, this paper
concentrates on the three electric propulsion systems: battery electric vehicles (BEVs), plug-in hybrid electric
vehicles (PHEVs), and hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles (HFCEVs). The collected cost data is used to estimate
the technology cost for automotive lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries and fuel cells. The cost of battery packs for
BEVs declined to an estimated €250 per kWh for industry leaders in 2015.

Further cost reductions down to as low as €130–€180 per kWh are anticipated in the 2020–25 time frame.
The costs of fuel cell systems are also expected to decrease considerably, but cost estimates are highly uncertain.
Furthermore, the application of fuel cells and batteries in HFCEVs, BEVs, and PHEVs is approximated using a
bottom-up cost approach. Overall, the different power train costs largely depend on battery and fuel cell costs.
This paper concludes that the costs of all power trains will decrease significantly between 2015 and 2030 .

As shown, power trains for PHEVs will achieve about a 50% cost reduction, compared with approximate
cost reductions of 60% for BEVs and 70% for HFCEVs. Costs for hydrogen and electricity chargers are
estimated separately. Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and energy demand for electric and conventional
vehicles are presented on a well-to-wheel (WTW) basis, capturing all direct and indirect emissions of fuel and
electricity production and vehicle operation.

The results are based on former analyses, and are updated and refined with real-world fuel consumption
levels. Real-world fuel consumption is commonly about 20%–40% higher than official typeapproval
measurements. Finally, WTW estimates for electric and conventional vehicles are put in the context of the 2021
CO2 standard for European passenger vehicles.

It is found that carbon emissions of BEVs using European grid-mix electricity are about half of average
European vehicle emissions, whereas HFCEVs and PHEVs have a lower emissions reduction potential. In the
2020 context, electric vehicle WTW emissions are expected to continue offering greater carbon benefits due to
more efficient power trains and increasing low-carbon electric power.

A lower-carbon grid and higher power train efficiency by 2020 could cut average electric vehicle
emissions by one-third again. However, the expected cost reductions and potential CO2 emission cuts will not
be achieved without targeted policy intervention.

More stringent CO2 standards, and fiscal and non-fiscal incentives for electric vehicles, can help the
electric vehicle market to grow and costs to fall. Also, efforts need to be combined with activities to decarbonize
the grid, or emission reductions will not be as great as they could be.

3
Although the analysis is focused on the European context, similar dynamics with electric vehicle
technology, policy, and market development are prevalent across major markets in North America and Asia.

The first EVs were introduced as early as 1838—or 52 years before internal combustion engine vehicles
(ICEVs) entered the market. Despite recent growing interest, EVs have remained a relatively small market until
today (IEA, 2015).

However, the global share of EVs is expected to increase significantly, driven by substantial battery
technology improvements and a variety of policies that are accelerating the development of the electric vehicle
market. Overall, the market has grown from just hundreds of EV sales in 2010 to more than 500,000 sales
worldwide in 2015 (EV Sales, 2016).

The early development of markets for electric vehicles is seen predominantly in parts of China, Europe,
and the United States, where electric vehicle support policies are helping promote the technology, while costs
are still relatively high compared with conventional vehicles. The global and regional estimated stock of BEV
and PHEV passenger cars as of 2015, and electric vehicle supply equipment (EVSE) as of 2014. EVSE includes
semipublic or public charging points or outlets, but not private charging points. Most of the electric vehicles on
the road today are registered in the United States, with about half of those in the state of California.

The United States also has the largest number of electric vehicle charging points. The Netherlands is the
European country with the highest electric vehicle passenger car and charging-plug stock in terms of absolute
sales. The following countries have achieved relatively high market sales shares of passenger electric vehicles,
as a percentage of all 2014 passenger vehicle sales: Norway (13.7%), the Netherlands (3.9%), Sweden (1.5%)
(Mock, 2015), and the United States (1.5%) (Lutsey, 2015). Most other major automobile markets have EV
sales shares at or below 1%.

Pure battery electric vehicles (BEVs) are also referred to as battery-only electric vehicles (BOEVs).
BEVs have no engine and are propelled by electricity that comes from one or several onboard high-energy
batteries. Modern models use a regenerative braking system to save energy. Examples include the Renault Zoe
and the Nissan Leaf. The Zoe has a 22 kWh Li-ion battery, and an energy consumption of 14.6 kWh per 100
km, which yields a range of about 140 km to 210 km per battery charge on the New European Driving Cycle
(NEDC).

The 2015 Leaf comes with a 24 kWh battery (plus a 30 KWh option for the 2016 model), and an official
consumption of 15 kWh per 100 km. 3.2. PHEVs Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) allow electric driving
on batteries (in charge-depleting mode), but also conventional combustionfueled driving (in charge-sustaining
mode). Usually, they are equipped with an electric motor and a highenergy battery, which can be charged from
the power grid. Modern PHEVs can be driven in electric mode over varying distances before the combustion
4
engine is required. In electric-driving mode, the energy efficiency of the propulsion system is much higher, and
is comparable to that of a BEV.

Available models include the Chevrolet Volt in U.S. markets (which is the Opel Ampera in EU markets),
and the Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid. The 2015 Opel Ampera uses a 16 kWh Li-ion battery and consumes 16.9
kWh per 100 km in electric mode on the NEDC. The 2015 Chevrolet Volt has a 16.5 kWh battery, and the 2016
model has an 18.4 kWh battery

PHEVs and BEVs use similar batteries, with Li-ion being the most common chemistry. There are two
primary ways to extract the lithium used in batteries: mining spodumene and petalite ore using evaporation
ponds on salt lakes. The majority of lithium is obtained from brine operation (USGS, 2015). The battery system
is the key technology of electric vehicles and defines their range and performance characteristics.

The battery works like a transducer by turning chemical energy into electrical energy. Li-ion is expected
to be the dominant chemistry for BEVs and PHEVs for the foreseeable future, as most research is done in the
field of Li-ion batteries. They provide relatively high power and energy for a given weight or size, and can
significantly reduce costs compared with other battery concepts. Energy density of the battery pack is estimated
to roughly double, up to about 300 Wh per kg, between 2007 and 2030 (Kromer & Heywood, 2007; Ricardo-
AEA, 2015; NAS, 2013).

Also, they have a relatively long life cycle and low selfdischarging losses. One of their few drawbacks
is their sensitivity to overcharging, which is why they require a battery management system. Other automotive
battery concepts include nickel-metal hydride (Ni-MH), sodium-nickel chloride (Na/NiCl2), and non-
electrochemical alternatives such as supercapacitors, which allow fast charging but provide low energy density.

As a result, batteries with higher energy and power densities are being developed, such as lithiumair
(Li-air), lithium-metal or lithiumsulphur (Li-S), but these are far from commercialization (Cookson, 2015;
Hacker, Harthan, Matthes & Zimmer, 2009). Li-air batteries may reach energy densities of up to 11,680 Wh per
kg (Imanishi & Yamamoto, 2014), which approximates the energetic content of gasoline.

5
CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE SURVEY

2.1 Literature survey

F. Wang, Yutao Luo, H. Li and X. Xu

“Switching Characteristics Optimization of Two-Phase Interleaved Bidirectional DC/DC for Electric Vehicles”

In electric vehicles (EVs), bidirectional DC/DC (Bi-DC/DC) is installed between the battery pack and
the DC bus to step up the voltage. In the process of mode switching under step signal, the Bi-DC/DC will be
affected by a large current inrush which threatens the safety of the circuit. In this paper, a Bi-DC/DC mode
switching method based on the optimized Bezier curve is proposed. The Boost and Buck modes can be switched
based on the proposed method with fast and non-overshoot switching performance. The experimental results
show that the mode switching can be finished in 4 ms without overshoot based on the optimal switching curve.

Srdjan Srdic, S.Lukic

“Electric vehicle charging infrastructure and dc microgrids”

With substantial growth in sales of electric vehicles (EVs) globally, there is a push for expansion of the
recharging infrastructure to service these vehicles. Over 2 million of electric cars (battery-electric and plug-in
hybrid electric), 200 million electric motorcycles and 345 thousand buses (primarily in China) were deployed
worldwide by the end of 2016, and over 1.2 million of electric cars were sold globally in 2017 alone. However,
the global electric car stock made only a 0.2% of the total number of passenger cars globally in 2017.
Assessments of country targets, original equipment manufacturer announcements and deployment scenarios for
electric cars indicate that the number of EVs will range between 9 and 20 million by 2020 and between 40 and
70 million by 2025. Furthermore, a number of countries have decided to end the sales of fossil-fuel-powered
cars in the near future (Norway by 2025, India and Netherlands by 2030, Scotland by 2032, France and rest of
the United Kingdom by 2040), further accelerating the shift to electric transportation. The electric vehicle supply
equipment (EVSE) is closely following the EV stock growth, with 2.3 million EVSE outlets (including 110,000
publicly available fast-charging outlets) available globally in 2016, and predicted six-fold increase in the
available outlets by 2025. The fastest growing EVSE market is the Chinese market, with over 88,000 publicly
available fast-charging outlets in 2016.

6
A.G. Ter Gazarian

“Electrical vehicles as distributed energy sources and storage”

Electric motors typically have on-board efficiencies of around 80% at converting electrical energy into
driving a vehicle. Electric motors do not consume energy while freewheeling or idling. Moreover, modern plug-
in electric cars can recharge their on-board batteries using regenerative braking and reuse most of the energy
normally lost during braking. Electric vehicle requires electricity to power its motor either directly or via a
battery. Hybrid electric car generates the required energy by an on -board ICE mechanically connected to electric
generator which feeds electricity to a motor and may charge an on -board battery. Plug in hybrid electric car is
an example of distributed energy source with storage. So, electric vehicle might be an alternative to an ICE -
driven one and it is not surprising that as of September 2018, there were over 4 million all -electric and plug-in
hybrid cars in use all over the world.

A.Bindra

“Electric Vehicle Batteries Eye solid state Technology: Prototypes promise lower cost,faster charging and
greater safety”

The global pressure to cut carbon dioxide emissions from automobiles is driving more and more buyers
toward electric vehicles (EVs) and hybrid EVs (HEVs). As the market for EVs and HEVs slowly grows with
lithium-ion (Liion) as the battery technology of choice, for reasons well known, there is another technology
emerging. Researchers are developing a solid-state (SS) version of Li-ion batteries for EVs that promises to
charge and discharge rapidly, offer longer lifecycles, provide a much higher energy density, cost less, and
provide greater safety. Besides the performance improvement, safety is a major factor driving automakers
toward SS technology. In SS batteries (SSBs), the flammable liquid electrolyte, which passes the charge that
carries Li ions during charge and discharge cycles, is replaced by a solid electrolyte.

Brennan A. Borlaug, S. Salisbury, M. Gerdes

“Levelized cost of charging Electric vehicles in the United states”

The cost to charge an electric vehicle (EV) varies depending on the price of electricity at
different charging sites (home, workplace, public), vehicle use, region, and time of day, and for
different charging power levels and equipment and installation costs. This paper provides a detailed assessment
of the current (2019) levelized cost of light-duty EV charging in the United States, considering the purchase and
installation costs of charging equipment and electricity prices from real-world utility tariffs. We find national
7
averages of $0.15/kWh for battery EVs and $0.14/kWh for plug-in hybrid EVs in the United States. Costs,
however, vary considerably (e.g., $0.08/kWh to $0.27/kWh for battery EVs) for different charging behaviors
and equipment costs, corresponding to a total projected fuel cost savings between $3,000 and $10,500 compared
with gasoline vehicles (over a 15-year time horizon). Regional heterogeneities and uncertainty on
lifetime vehicle use and future fuel prices produce even greater variations.

Callie W. Babbitt

“ Sustainability perspectives on lithium ion batteries’’

Research on novel battery materials, designs, manufacturing, and performance has expanded rapidly in
the last decade, yet has only begun to comprehend the potential sustainability challenges inherent to this system.
Sustainability challenges span the entire technology life cycle for energy storage systems like lithium-ion
batteries (LIBs): from raw material extraction, battery manufacturing, electric vehicle use, and management of
LIBs at end-oflife. Raw material impacts typically stem from the resources that provide LIBs with their
necessary electrochemical functionality, including the typically graphitic anode and the cathode, which is
usually comprised of lithium, cobalt, nickel, and manganese in varied concentrations. While early attention was
focused on lithium availability, recent research has demonstrated that cobalt may actually present the greatest
concerns with respect to sustainability and long-term availability. Cobalt is primarily sourced in the Democratic
Republic of the Congo, a region historically characterized by political instability, social impacts in the mining
sector, and lack of supply chain transparency. The global reliance on such a concentrated supply chain introduces
risks of resource shortages or price spikes due to disruptions, which may translate to downstream impacts on
battery and even vehicle price competitiveness (Leader et al. 2019). Ensuring a long-term, stable supply of cobalt
will require expanding the geographic diversity of the supply chain while at the same time developing secondary
sources to be obtained through increased recycling (Fu et al. 2020).

D.Xu, Q.Liu W.Yang

“Adaptive terminal sliding mode control for hybrid energy storage systems of fuel cell,battery and
supercapacitor”

In this paper, a terminal sliding mode control strategy with projection operator adaptive law is
proposed in a hybrid energy storage system (HESS). The objective of the proposed control strategy is to
provide power for load in time, get good tracking performance of the current of the fuel cell, battery, and
supercapacitor, and obtain a stable voltage of the dc bus. At first, the topological structure of the system is
proposed, and the mathematical models are derived.

8
Then, on the basis of the working characteristics of the energy storage unit, the load power is
reasonably and effectively distributed to increase the service life of HESS and improve energy efficiency.
Meanwhile, according to the tracking errors of reference and actual values, the terminal sliding surfaces can be
set out. The controller can be designed by the constraint condition, combining the projection operator adaptive
law. In addition, the HESS with the proposed control is proved to be asymptotically stable by using the
Lyapunov method. Finally, the simulation results show that the proposed control strategy can make the whole
system stable, and the control objective can also be better realized

9
CHAPTER 3

BATTERY STORAGE SYSTEM

3.1 INTRODUCTION TO BATTERY:

A battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells with external connections for
powering electrical devices such as flashlights, mobile phones, and electric cars. When a battery is
supplying electric power, its positive terminal is the cathode and its negative terminal is the anode. The terminal
marked negative is the source of electrons that will flow through an external electric circuit to the positive
terminal.

When a battery is connected to an external electric load, a redox reaction converts high-energy reactants
to lower-energy products, and the free-energy difference is delivered to the external circuit as electrical
energy. Historically the term "battery" specifically referred to a device composed of multiple cells, however the
usage has evolved to include devices composed of a single cell.

Primary (single-use or "disposable") batteries are used once and discarded, as the electrode materials are
irreversibly changed during discharge; a common example is the alkaline battery used for flashlights and a
multitude of portable electronic devices. Secondary (rechargeable) batteries can be discharged and recharged
multiple times using an applied electric current; the original composition of the electrodes can be restored by
reverse current. Examples include the lead-acid batteries used in vehicles and lithium-ion batteries used for
portable electronics such as laptops and mobile phones.

Batteries come in many shapes and sizes, from miniature cells used to power hearing aids and
wristwatches to small, thin cells used in smartphones, to large lead acid batteries or lithium-ion batteries in
vehicles, and at the largest extreme, huge battery banks the size of rooms that provide standby or emergency
power for telephone exchanges and computer data centers.

Batteries have much lower specific energy (energy per unit mass) than common fuels such as gasoline.
In automobiles, this is somewhat offset by the higher efficiency of electric motors in converting chemical energy
to mechanical work, compared to combustion engines.

The usage of "battery" to describe a group of electrical devices dates to Benjamin Franklin, who in 1748
described multiple Leyden jars by analogy to a battery of cannon (Benjamin Franklin borrowed the term
"battery" from the military, which refers to weapons functioning together).

10
Italian physicist Alessandro Volta built and described the first electrochemical battery, the voltaic pile,
in 1800.This was a stack of copper and zinc plates, separated by brine-soaked paper disks, that could produce a
steady current for a considerable length of time.

Volta did not understand that the voltage was due to chemical reactions. He thought that his cells were
an inexhaustible source of energy, and that the associated corrosion effects at the electrodes were a mere
nuisance, rather than an unavoidable consequence of their operation, as Michael Faraday showed in 1834.

Although early batteries were of great value for experimental purposes, in practice their voltages
fluctuated and they could not provide a large current for a sustained period. The Daniell cell, invented in 1836
by British chemist John Frederic Daniell, was the first practical source of electricity, becoming an industry
standard and seeing widespread adoption as a power source for electrical telegraph networks.

It consisted of a copper pot filled with a copper sulfate solution, in which was immersed an
unglazed earthenware container filled with sulfuric acid and a zinc electrode.

These wet cells used liquid electrolytes, which were prone to leakage and spillage if not handled
correctly. Many used glass jars to hold their components, which made them fragile and potentially dangerous.
These characteristics made wet cells unsuitable for portable appliances.

Near the end of the nineteenth century, the invention of dry cell batteries, which replaced the liquid
electrolyte with a paste, made portable electrical devices practical

Batteries convert chemical energy directly to electrical energy. In many cases, the electrical energy
released is the difference in the cohesive or bond energies of the metals, oxides, or molecules undergoing the
electrochemical reaction. For instance, energy can be stored in Zn or Li, which are high-energy metals because
they are not stabilized by d-electron bonding, unlike transition metals. Batteries are designed such that the
energetically favorable redox reaction can occur only if electrons move through the external part of the circuit.

A battery consists of some number of voltaic cells. Each cell consists of two half-cells connected in
series by a conductive electrolyte containing metal cations. One half-cell includes electrolyte and the negative
electrode, the electrode to which anions (negatively charged ions) migrate; the other half-cell includes
electrolyte and the positive electrode, to which cations (positively charged ions) migrate.

Cations are reduced (electrons are added) at the cathode, while metal atoms are oxidized (electrons are
removed) at the anode. Some cells use different electrolytes for each half-cell; then a separator is used to prevent
mixing of the electrolytes while allowing ions to flow between half-cells to complete the electrical circuit.

11
Each half-cell has an electromotive force (emf, measured in volts) relative to a standard. The net emf of the cell
is the difference between the emfs of its half-cells. Thus, if the electrodes have emfs and ,then the net emf is;
in other words, the net emf is the difference between the reduction potentials of the half-reactions.

The electrical driving force or across the terminals of a cell is known as the terminal voltage
(difference) and is measured in volts. The terminal voltage of a cell that is neither charging nor discharging is
called the open-circuit voltage and equals the emf of the cell. Because of internal resistance, the terminal voltage
of a cell that is discharging is smaller in magnitude than the open-circuit voltage and the terminal voltage of a
cell that is charging exceeds the open-circuit voltage.

An ideal cell has negligible internal resistance, so it would maintain a constant terminal voltage of until
exhausted, then dropping to zero. If such a cell maintained 1.5 volts and produce a charge of one coulomb then
on complete discharge it would have performed 1.5 joules of work. In actual cells, the internal resistance
increases under discharge and the open-circuit voltage also decreases under discharge. If the voltage and
resistance are plotted against time, the resulting graphs typically are a curve; the shape of the curve varies
according to the chemistry and internal arrangement employed.

The voltage developed across a cell's terminals depends on the energy release of the chemical reactions
of its electrodes and electrolyte. Alkaline and zinc–carbon cells have different chemistries, but approximately
the same emf of 1.5 volts; likewise NiCd and NiMH cells have different chemistries, but approximately the
same emf of 1.2 volts. The high electrochemical potential changes in the reactions of lithium compounds give
lithium cells emfs of 3 volts or more.

3.2 CLASSIFICATION OF BATTERIES:

Primary batteries are designed to be used until exhausted of energy then discarded. Their chemical
reactions are generally not reversible, so they cannot be recharged. When the supply of reactants in the battery
is exhausted, the battery stops producing current and is useless.

Secondary batteries can be recharged; that is, they can have their chemical reactions reversed by
applying electric current to the cell. This regenerates the original chemical reactants, so they can be used,
recharged, and used again multiple times.

Some types of primary batteries used, for example, for telegraph circuits, were restored to operation by
replacing the electrodes. Secondary batteries are not indefinitely rechargeable due to dissipation of the active
materials, loss of electrolyte and internal corrosion.

12
3.2.1 PRIMARY

Main article: Primary cell

Primary batteries, or primary cells, can produce current immediately on assembly. These are most
commonly used in portable devices that have low current drain, are used only intermittently, or are used well
away from an alternative power source, such as in alarm and communication circuits where other electric power
is only intermittently available. Disposable primary cells cannot be reliably recharged, since the chemical
reactions are not easily reversible and active materials may not return to their original forms. Battery
manufacturers recommend against attempting to recharge primary cells. In general, these have higher energy
densities than rechargeable batteries, but disposable batteries do not fare well under high-drain applications
with loads under 75 ohms (75 Ω). Common types of disposable batteries include zinc–carbon
batteries and alkaline batteries.

3.2.2 SECONDARY:

Main article: Rechargeable battery

Secondary batteries, also known as secondary cells, or rechargeable batteries, must be charged before
first use; they are usually assembled with active materials in the discharged state. Rechargeable batteries are
(re)charged by applying electric current, which reverses the chemical reactions that occur during discharge/use.
Devices to supply the appropriate current are called chargers.

The oldest form of rechargeable battery is the lead–acid battery, which are widely used
in automotive and boating applications. This technology contains liquid electrolyte in an unsealed container,
requiring that the battery be kept upright and the area be well ventilated to ensure safe dispersal of
the hydrogen gas it produces during overcharging. The lead–acid battery is relatively heavy for the amount of
electrical energy it can supply.

Its low manufacturing cost and its high surge current levels make it common where its capacity (over
approximately 10 Ah) is more important than weight and handling issues. A common application is the
modern car battery, which can, in general, deliver a peak current of 450 amperes.

The sealed valve regulated lead–acid battery (VRLA battery) is popular in the automotive industry as a
replacement for the lead–acid wet cell. The VRLA battery uses an immobilized sulfuric acid electrolyte,
reducing the chance of leakage and extending shelf life. VRLA batteries immobilize the electrolyte. The two
types are:

13
Gel batteries (or "gel cell") use a semi-solid electrolyte.

Absorbed Glass Mat (AGM) batteries absorb the electrolyte in a special fiberglass matting.

Other portable rechargeable batteries include several sealed "dry cell" types, that are useful in
applications such as mobile phones and laptop computers. Cells of this type (in order of increasing power
density and cost) include nickel–cadmium (NiCd), nickel–zinc (NiZn), nickel metal hydride (NiMH),
and lithium-ion (Li-ion) cells. Li-ion has by far the highest share of the dry cell rechargeable market. NiMH has
replaced NiCd in most applications due to its higher capacity, but NiCd remains in use in power tools, two-way
radios, and medical equipment.

In the 2000s, developments include batteries with embedded electronics such as USBCELL, which
allows charging an AA battery through a USB connector, nanoball batteries that allow for a discharge rate about
100x greater than current batteries, and smart battery packs with state-of-charge monitors and battery protection
circuits that prevent damage on over-discharge. Low self-discharge (LSD) allows secondary cells to be charged
prior to shipping.

3.3 CELL TYPES:

Many types of electrochemical cells have been produced, with varying chemical processes and designs,
including galvanic cells, electrolytic cells, fuel cells, flow cells and voltaic piles.

WET CELL

A wet cell battery has a liquid electrolyte. Other names are flooded cell, since the liquid covers all
internal parts, or vented cell, since gases produced during operation can escape to the air. Wet cells were a
precursor to dry cells and are commonly used as a learning tool for electrochemistry. They can be built with
common laboratory supplies, such as beakers, for demonstrations of how electrochemical cells work. A
particular type of wet cell known as a concentration cell is important in understanding corrosion. Wet cells may
be primary cells (non-rechargeable) or secondary cells (rechargeable).

Originally, all practical primary batteries such as the Daniell cell were built as open-top glass jar wet
cells. Other primary wet cells are the Leclanche cell, Grove cell, Bunsen cell, Chromic acid cell, Clark cell,
and Weston cell. The Leclanche cell chemistry was adapted to the first dry cells. Wet cells are still used
in automobile batteries and in industry for standby power for switchgear, telecommunication or
large uninterruptible power supplies, but in many places batteries with gel cells have been used instead. These
applications commonly use lead–acid or nickel–cadmium cells.

14
Dry cell

A dry cell uses a paste electrolyte, with only enough moisture to allow current to flow. Unlike a wet cell,
a dry cell can operate in any orientation without spilling, as it contains no free liquid, making it suitable for
portable equipment. By comparison, the first wet cells were typically fragile glass containers with lead rods
hanging from the open top and needed careful handling to avoid spillage. Lead–acid batteries did not achieve
the safety and portability of the dry cell until the development of the gel battery.

A common dry cell is the zinc–carbon battery, sometimes called the dry Leclanché cell, with a nominal
voltage of 1.5 volts, the same as the alkaline battery (since both use the same zinc–manganese
dioxide combination). A standard dry cell comprises a zinc anode, usually in the form of a cylindrical pot, with
a carbon cathode in the form of a central rod.

The electrolyte is ammonium chloride in the form of a paste next to the zinc anode. The remaining space
between the electrolyte and carbon cathode is taken up by a second paste consisting of ammonium chloride and
manganese dioxide, the latter acting as a depolariser. In some designs, the ammonium chloride is replaced
by zinc chloride.

MOLTEN SALT

Molten salt batteries are primary or secondary batteries that use a molten salt as electrolyte. They operate
at high temperatures and must be well insulated to retain heat.

RESERVE

A reserve battery can be stored unassembled (unactivated and supplying no power) for a long period
(perhaps years). When the battery is needed, then it is assembled (e.g., by adding electrolyte); once assembled,
the battery is charged and ready to work. For example, a battery for an electronic artillery fuze might be activated
by the impact of firing a gun.

The acceleration breaks a capsule of electrolyte that activates the battery and powers the fuze's circuits.
Reserve batteries are usually designed for a short service life (seconds or minutes) after long storage (years).
A water-activated battery for oceanographic instruments or military applications becomes activated on
immersion in water.

15
3.3.1 CELL PERFORMANCE:

A battery's characteristics may vary over load cycle, over charge cycle, and over lifetime due to many
factors including internal chemistry, current drain, and temperature. At low temperatures, a battery cannot
deliver as much power. As such, in cold climates, some car owners install battery warmers, which are small
electric heating pads that keep the car battery warm.

A battery's capacity is the amount of electric charge it can deliver at the rated voltage. The more
electrode material contained in the cell the greater its capacity. A small cell has less capacity than a larger cell
with the same chemistry, although they develop the same open-circuit voltage. Capacity is measured in units
such as amp-hour (A·h). The rated capacity of a battery is usually expressed as the product of 20 hours
multiplied by the current that a new battery can consistently supply for 20 hours at 68 °F (20 °C), while
remaining above a specified terminal voltage per cell. For example, a battery rated at 100 A·h can deliver 5 A
over a 20-hour period at room temperature.

The fraction of the stored charge that a battery can deliver depends on multiple factors, including battery
chemistry, the rate at which the charge is delivered (current), the required terminal voltage, the storage period,
ambient temperature and other factors.

The higher the discharge rate, the lower the capacity. The relationship between current, discharge time
and capacity for a lead acid battery is approximated (over a typical range of current values) by Peukert's law:
where
is the capacity when discharged at a rate of 1 amp.
is the current drawn from battery (A).
is the amount of time (in hours) that a battery can sustain.
is a constant around 1.3.

Batteries that are stored for a long period or that are discharged at a small fraction of the capacity lose
capacity due to the presence of generally irreversible side reactions that consume charge carriers without
producing current.

This phenomenon is known as internal self-discharge. Further, when batteries are recharged, additional
side reactions can occur, reducing capacity for subsequent discharges. After enough recharges, in essence all
capacity is lost and the battery stops producing power.

Internal energy losses and limitations on the rate that ions pass through the electrolyte cause
battery efficiency to vary. Above a minimum threshold, discharging at a low rate delivers more of the battery's
capacity than at a higher rate. Installing batteries with varying A·h ratings does not affect device operation
16
(although it may affect the operation interval) rated for a specific voltage unless load limits are exceeded. High-
drain loads such as digital cameras can reduce total capacity, as happens with alkaline batteries. For example, a
battery rated at 2 A·h for a 10- or 20-hour discharge would not sustain a current of 1 A for a full two hours as
its stated capacity implies.

The C-rate is a measure of the rate at which a battery is being charged or discharged. It is defined as the
current through the battery divided by the theoretical current draw under which the battery would deliver its
nominal rated capacity in one hour. It has the units h−1.

C-rate is used as a rating on batteries to indicate the maximum current that a battery can safely deliver
on a circuit. Standards for rechargeable batteries generally rate the capacity over a 4-hour, 8 hour or longer
discharge time. Types intended for special purposes, such as in a computer uninterruptible power supply, may
be rated by manufacturers for discharge periods much less than one hour. Because of internal resistance loss and
the chemical processes inside the cells, a battery rarely delivers nameplate rated capacity in only one hour.

Fast-charging, large and light batteries

As of 2017, the world's largest battery was built in South Australia by Tesla. It can store 129 MWh. A
battery in Hebei Province, China which can store 36 MWh of electricity was built in 2013 at a cost of $500
million. Another large battery, composed of Ni–Cd cells, was in Fairbanks, Alaska. It covered 2,000 square
metres (22,000 sq ft)—bigger than a football pitch—and weighed 1,300 tonnes.

It was manufactured by ABB to provide backup power in the event of a blackout. The battery can provide
40 MW of power for up to seven minutes. Sodium–sulfur batteries have been used to store wind power. A 4.4
MWh battery system that can deliver 11 MW for 25 minutes stabilizes the output of the Auwahi wind farm in
Hawaii.
Lithium–sulfur batteries were used on the longest and highest solar-powered flight.

Lifetime

Battery life (and its synonym battery lifetime) has two meanings for rechargeable batteries but only one
for non-chargeables. For rechargeables, it can mean either the length of time a device can run on a fully charged
battery or the number of charge/discharge cycles possible before the cells fail to operate satisfactorily. For a
non-rechargeable these two lives are equal since the cells last for only one cycle by definition. (The term shelf
life is used to describe how long a battery will retain its performance between manufacture and use.)

Available capacity of all batteries drops with decreasing temperature. In contrast to most of today's
batteries, the Zamboni pile, invented in 1812, offers a very long service life without refurbishment or recharge,
17
although it supplies current only in the nanoamp range. The Oxford Electric Bell has been ringing almost
continuously since 1840 on its original pair of batteries, thought to be Zamboni piles

Self-discharge

Disposable batteries typically lose 8 to 20 percent of their original charge per year when stored at room
temperature (20–30 °C) . This is known as the "self-discharge" rate, and is due to non-current-producing "side"
chemical reactions that occur within the cell even when no load is applied. The rate of side reactions is reduced
for batteries stored at lower temperatures, although some can be damaged by freezing.

Old rechargeable batteries self-discharge more rapidly than disposable alkaline batteries, especially
nickel-based batteries; a freshly charged nickel cadmium (NiCd) battery loses 10% of its charge in the first 24
hours, and thereafter discharges at a rate of about 10% a month. However, newer low self-discharge nickel metal
hydride (NiMH) batteries and modern lithium designs display a lower self-discharge rate (but still higher than
for primary batteries).

Corrosion

Internal parts may corrode and fail, or the active materials may be slowly converted to inactive forms.

Physical component changes

The active material on the battery plates changes chemical composition on each charge and discharge
cycle; active material may be lost due to physical changes of volume, further limiting the number of times the
battery can be recharged. Most nickel-based batteries are partially discharged when purchased, and must be
charged before first use. Newer NiMH batteries are ready to be used when purchased, and have only 15%
discharge in a year.

Some deterioration occurs on each charge–discharge cycle. Degradation usually occurs because
electrolyte migrates away from the electrodes or because active material detaches from the electrodes. Low-
capacity NiMH batteries (1,700–2,000 mA·h) can be charged some 1,000 times, whereas high-capacity NiMH
batteries (above 2,500 mA·h) last about 500 cycles. NiCd batteries tend to be rated for 1,000 cycles before their
internal resistance permanently increases beyond usable values

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3.4 LITHIUM ION BATTERY:

A lithium-ion battery or Li-ion battery is a type of rechargeable battery. Lithium-ion batteries are
commonly used for portable electronics and electric vehicles and are growing in popularity for military
and aerospace applications.

A prototype Li-ion battery was developed by Akira Yoshino in 1985, based on earlier research by John
Goodenough, M. Stanley Whittingham, Rachid Yazami and Koichi Mizushima during the 1970s–1980s, and
then a commercial Li-ion battery was developed by a Sony and Asahi Kasei team led by Yoshio Nishi in 1991.

In the batteries, lithium ions move from the negative electrode through an electrolyte to the positive
electrode during discharge, and back when charging. Li-ion batteries use an intercalated lithium compound as
the material at the positive electrode and typically graphite at the negative electrode.

The batteries have a high energy density, no memory effect (other than LFP cells) and low self-
discharge. They can however be a safety hazard since they contain flammable electrolytes, and if damaged or
incorrectly charged can lead to explosions and fires. Samsung was forced to recall Galaxy Note 7 handsets
following lithium-ion fires, and there have been several incidents involving batteries on Boeing 787s.

Chemistry, performance, cost and safety characteristics vary across types of lithium-ion batteries.
Handheld electronics mostly use lithium polymer batteries (with a polymer gel as electrolyte), a lithium cobalt
oxide (LiCoO2) cathode material, and a graphite anode, which together offer a high energy density.

Lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4), lithium manganese oxide (LiMn2O4 spinel, or Li2MnO3-based
lithium rich layered materials (LMR-NMC)), and lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (LiNiMnCoO2 or
NMC) may offer longer lives and may have better rate capability. Such batteries are widely used for electric
tools, medical equipment, and other roles. NMC and its derivatives are widely used in electric vehicles.

Research areas for lithium-ion batteries include extending lifetime, increasing energy density, improving
safety, reducing cost, and increasing charging speed, among others. Research has been under way in the area of
non-flammable electrolytes as a pathway to increased safety based on the flammability and volatility of the
organic solvents used in the typical electrolyte. Strategies include aqueous lithium-ion batteries, ceramic solid
electrolytes, polymer electrolytes, ionic liquids, and heavily fluorinated systems.

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3.4.1 Lithium ion battery advantages

There are many advantages to using a li-ion cell of battery. As a result the technology is being used
increasingly for a huge number of widely varying applications. Everything from small electronic devices,
through smartphones and laptops to vehicles and many other applications.

The advantages of Li-ion technology mean that these batteries are finding an increasing number of applications,
and as a result a huge amount of development is being invested into them.

The li-ion battery advantages include:

 High energy density: The high energy density is one of the chief advantages of lithium ion battery
technology. With electronic equipment such as mobile phones needing to operate longer between charges
while still consuming more power, there is always a need to batteries with a much higher energy density.

In addition to this, there are many power applications from power tools to electric vehicles. The much higher
power density offered by lithium ion batteries is a distinct advantage. Electric vehicles also need a battery
technology that has a high energy density.

 Self-discharge: One issue with many rechargeable batteries is the self discharge rate. Lithium ion cells is
that their rate of self-discharge is much lower than that of other rechargeable cells such as Ni-Cad and NiMH
forms. It is typically around 5% in the first 4 hours after being charged but then falls to a figure of around 1
or 2% per month.

 Low maintenance: One major lithium ion battery advantage is that they do not require and maintenance to
ensure their performance.Ni-Cad cells required a periodic discharge to ensure that they did not exhibit the
memory effect.

As this does not affect lithium ion cells, this process or other similar maintenance procedures are not
required. Likewise lead acid cells require maintenance, some needing the battery acid to be topped up
periodically.Fortunately one of the advantages of lithium ion batteries is that there is no active maintenance
required.

 Cell voltage: The voltage produced by each lithium ion cell is about 3.6 volts. This has many advantages.
Being higher than that of the standard nickel cadmium, nickel metal hydride and even standard alkaline cells
at around 1.5 volts and lead acid at around 2 volts per cell, the voltage of each lithium ion cell is higher,
requiring less cells in many battery applications. For smartphones a single cell is all that is needed and this
simplifies the power management.

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 Load characteristics: The load characteristics of a lithium ion cell or battery are reasonably good. They
provide a reasonably constant 3.6 volts per cell before falling off as the last charge is used.

 No requirement for priming: Some rechargeable cells need to be primed when they receive their first
charge. One advantage of lithium ion batteries is that there is no requirement for this they are supplied
operational and ready to go.

 Variety of types available: There are several types of lithium ion cell available. This advantage of lithium
ion batteries can mean that the right technology can be used for the particular application needed. Some forms
of lithium ion battery provide a high current density and are ideal for consumer mobile electronic equipment.
Others are able to provide much higher current levels and are ideal for power tools and electric vehicles

 Options: One of the biggest advantages of lithium ion batteries is the fact that they come in all
shapes and sizes- presenting users with a large number of options to choose from according to their
needs.
It must, however, be noted that it is not all hunky dory in the land of lithium. A Lithium Ion Battery
comes with its own flaws too.

3.4.2 Lithium ion battery disadvantages

Like the use of any technology, there are some disadvantages that need to be balanced against the benefits.

Although Lithium ion battery technology does have its disadvantages, this does not mean these cannot be
overcome or at least mitigated and excellent performance obtained.

Knowing the disadvantages means that work arounds can often be included int he design to reduce the effects
of the shortcomings.

The li-ion battery disadvantages include:

 Protection required: Lithium ion cells and batteries are not as robust as some other rechargeable
technologies. They require protection from being over charged and discharged too far. In addition to this,
they need to have the current maintained within safe limits. Accordingly one lithium ion battery disadvantage
is that they require protection circuitry incorporated to ensure they are kept within their safe operating limits.

Fortunately with modern integrated circuit technology, this can be relatively easily incorporated into the
battery, or within the equipment if the battery is not interchangeable. Incorporation of the battery
management circuitry enables li-ion batteries to be used without any special knowledge. They can be left on
charge and after the battery is fully charged the charger will cut the supply to it.

21
The protection circuitry built into lithium ion batteries monitors a number of aspects of their operation. The
protection circuit limits the peak voltage of each cell during charge as excessive voltage can damage the
cells.
They are typically charged in series as there is normally only one connection for a battery and therefore as
different cells may require different levels of charge there is a possibility of one cell experiencing a higher
than required voltage.Also the protection circuitry prevents the cell voltage from dropping too low on
discharge. Again this can happen if one cell can store less charge than others on the battery and its charge
becomes exhausted before the others.

A further aspect of the protection circuitry is that the cell temperature is monitored to prevent temperature
extremes.
The maximum charge and discharge current on most packs is limited to between 1°C and 2°C. That said,
some do become a little warm on occasions when fast charging.

 Ageing: One of the major lithium ion battery disadvantages for consumer electronics is that lithium ion
batteries suffer from ageing. Not only is this time or calendar dependent, but it is also dependent upon the
number of charge discharge cycles that the battery has undergone.

Often batteries will only be able to withstand 500 - 1000 charge discharge cycles before their capacity falls.
With the development of li-ion technology, this figure is increasing, but after a while batteries may need
replacing and this can be an issue if they are embedded in the equipment.

Lithium ion batteries also age whether they are in use or not. Despite the usage there is also a time related
element to the reduction in capacity.

When a typical consumer lithium cobalt oxide, LCO battery or cell needs to be stored it should be partially
charged - around 40% to 50% and kept in a cool storage area. Storage under these conditions will help increase
the life.

3.4.3 Applications of Lithium-Ion Batteries

As established above, Li-ion batteries are available in all shapes and sizes. And that renders them to be
the perfect option for power needs irrespective of the size of the system. Along with that, lithium-ion batteries
offer power solutions across the spectrum- from energy storage solutions to portable energy solutions. Some of
the most common applications of lithium-ion batteries are:

 Power backups/UPS
22
 Mobile, Laptops, and other commonly used consumer electronic goods

 Electric mobility

 Energy Storage Systems


As there are varied uses of a Lithium Ion Battery, it comes in different types of packaging. However, there are
some general advantages of using a Li-ion battery over other traditional batteries

Future of Lithium-Ion batteries

When Tesla launched their Model S, it was then that Lithium-ion batteries became a household name. It
was then that the world stopped and took notice of a battery could virtually power a car for more than 300 miles.
As the market for electric automotive increases and as they become more and more accessible to the common
man, the costs surrounding the lithium ion battery technology will also come down. Apart from that, with the
world pushing for maximum portability of most gadgets, there is a huge market for the lithium-ion technology.

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CHAPTER 4
PROPOSED DC DC CONVERTER

4.1 DC-DC CONVERTER:

Buck–boost converter is a type of DC-to-DC converter that has an output voltage magnitude that is either
greater than or less than the input voltage magnitude. It is equivalent to a flyback converter using a single
inductor instead of a transformer. Two different topologies are called buck–boost converter. Both of them can
produce a range of output voltages, ranging from much larger (in absolute magnitude) than the input voltage,
down to almost zero.

The output voltage is of the opposite polarity than the input. This is a switched-mode power supply with
a similar circuit topology to the boost converter and the buck converter. The output voltage is adjustable based
on the duty cycle of the switching transistor. One possible drawback of this converter is that the switch does not
have a terminal at ground; this complicates the driving circuitry.

However, this drawback is of no consequence if the power supply is isolated from the load circuit (if,
for example, the supply is a battery) because the supply and diode polarity can simply be reversed. When they
can be reversed, the switch can be on either the ground side or the supply side.

A buck (step-down) converter combined with a boost (step-up) converter .The output voltage is typically
of the same polarity of the input, and can be lower or higher than the input. Such a non-inverting buck-boost
converter may use a single inductor which is used for both the buck inductor mode and the boost inductor mode,
using switches instead of diodes,[2][3] sometimes called a "four-switch buck-boost converter",[4] it may use
multiple inductors but only a single switch as in the SEPIC and Ćuk topologies.

4.1.1 Introduction to Buck Boost converter

A Buck converter is a switch mode DC to DC converter in which the output voltage can be transformed
to a level less than or greater than the input voltage. The magnitude of output voltage depends on the duty cycle
of the switch.It is also called as step up/step down converter.

The name step up/step down converter comes from the fact that analogous to step up/step down
transformer the input voltage can be stepped up/down to a level greater than/less than the input voltage. By law
of conservation of energy the input power has to be equal to output power (assuming no losses in the circuit).

24
Input power (Pin) = output power (Pout)

In step up mode Vin < Vout in a Buck Boost converter, it follows then that the output current will be less than the
input current. Therefore for a Buck Boost converter in step up mode

Vin < Vout and Iin >Iout

In step down mode Vin > Vout in a Buck Boost converter, it follows then that the output current will be greater
than the input current. Therefore for a Buck Boost converter in step down mode

Vin >Vout and Iin <Iout

4.2 Principle of operation of Buck Boost converter

The main working principle of Buck Boost converter is that the inductor in the input circuit resists sudden
variations in input current. When switch is ON the inductor stores energy from the input in the form of magnetic
energy and discharges it when switch is closed.

The capacitor in the output circuit is assumed large enough that the time constant of RC circuit in the
output stage is high. The large time constant compared to switching period ensures that in steady state a constant
output voltage Vo(t) = Vo(constant) exists .

25
4.2.1 Circuit diagram of Buck Boost converter

4.2.1 Proposed converter

4.3 Modes of operation of Buck Boost converter

The Buck Boost converter can be operated in two modes

a) Continuous conduction mode in which the current through inductor never goes to zero i.e. inductor partially
discharges before the start of the switching cycle.

b) Discontinuous conduction mode in which the current through inductor goes to zero i.e. inductor is completely
discharged at the end of switching cycle.

Circuit analysis of Buck converter


Assume in the entire analysis that the current swing (maximum to minimum value) through inductor and voltage
swing through capacitor is very less so that they vary in a linear fashion. This is to ease the analysis and the
results we will get through this analysis are quite accurate compared to real values.

Continuous conduction mode

case-1: When switch S is ON

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When switch in ON for a time ton, the diode will be open circuited since it does not allow currents in reverse
direction from input to output. Hence the Buck Boost converter can be redrawn as follows
During this state the inductor charges and the inductor current increases. The current through the inductor is
given as

Assume that prior to the opening of switch the inductor current is I’L, off. Since the input voltage is constant

Assume the switch is open for ton seconds which is given by D*Ts where D is duty cycle and Ts is switching
time period. The current through the inductor at the end of switch on state is given as

IL, on = (1/L) *Vin*D*Ts + I’L, on (equation 1)

Hence ΔIL,on = (1/L)*Vin*D*Ts.

case 2: When switch is off

When switch in OFF the diode will be forward biased as it allows current from output to input (p to n terminal)
and the Buck Boost converter circuit can be redrawn as follows
The inductor now discharges through the diode and RC combination. Assume that prior to the closing of switch
the inductor current is I’’L, off. The current through the inductor is given as

Note the negative sign at the front end of equation signifies that the inductor is discharging. Assume the switch
is open for toff seconds which is given by (1-D)*Ts where D is duty cycle and Ts is switching time period. The
current through the inductor at the end of switch off state is given as

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I’’’L, off = -(1/L) *Vout*(1-D)*Ts + I’’L, off (equation 2)

In steady state condition as the current through the inductor does not change abruptly, the current at the end of
switch on state and the current at the end of switch off state should be equal. Also the currents at the start of
switch off state should be equal to current at the end of switch on state. Hence

I’’’L, off =IL, on also I’L, off =I’’L, off

Using the equations 1 and 2 we get

(1/L) *Vin*D*Ts = (1/L) *Vout*(1-D)*Ts

Vin*D =Vout*(1-D)

Vout/Vin = D/(1-D)

Since D < 1, Vout can be greater than or less than Vin.For D>0.5 the Buck boost converter acts as boost
converter with Vout >Vin.For D<0.5 the Buck boost converter acts as buck converter with Vout >Vin.

Assuming no losses in the circuit and applying the law of conservation of energy

Vout*Iout = Vin*Iin

This implies Iout/Iin = (1-D)/D, Thus Iout > Iin for D<0.5 and Iout < Iin for D<0.5 . As the duty cycle increases the
output voltage increases and output current decreases.

Discontinuous conduction mode

As mentioned before the converter when operated in discontinuous mode the inductor drains its stored energy
completely before completion of switching cycle. The current and voltage wave forms of Buck Boost converter
in discontinuous mode is shown in the figure below

The inductor in discontinuous mode drains all the current which it piled up in charging interval of same
switching cycle. The current through the inductor is given as

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= (1/L)*
area under the curve of voltage v/s time. Hence from the wave
forms shown in the figure

Vout*δ*Ts = Vin*D*Ts

Vout/Vin =D/δ

and the ratio of output to input current from law of conservation of energy is Iout/Iin = δ/D.

Benefits or advantages of Buck Boost Converters

Following are the benefits or advantages of Buck Boost Converters:


➨Buck converter offers most efficient solution with smallest external components.

➨It performs step-up or step-down of voltage using minimum components.


➨It offers lower operating duty cycle.

➨It offers high efficiency across wide input and output voltage ranges.
➨It is less expensive compare to most of the converters.

Drawbacks or disadvantages of Buck Boost Converters

Following are the drawbacks or disadvantages of Buck Boost Converters:


➨Input current and charging current of output capacitor is discontinuous as it results in large filter size and
more EMI issues.
➨Output is inverted which results in complex sensing and feedback circuit. As sensed voltage is negative,
inverting op-amp is needed for feedback and closed loop control.
➨High gain can not be achieved with this converter type as efficiency is poor for high gain (i.e. very small duty
cycle or large duty cycle).
➨There is no isolation from input side to output side which is very critical for many applications.
➨Transfer function of the converter contains right half plane as zero which introduces control complexity.
Hence it is very difficult to control such converter type.

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4.3.1 Applications of Buck boost converter

 It is used in the self regulating power supplies.


 It has consumer electronics.
 It is used in the Battery power systems.
 Adaptive control applications.
 Power amplifier applications.

4.4 PULSE WIDTH MODULATION:

A modulation technique used to encode a message into a pulsing signal. Although this modulation
technique can be used to encode information for transmission, its main use is to allow the control of the power
supplied to electrical devices, especially to inertial loads such as motors. In addition, PWM is one of the two
principal algorithms used in photovoltaic solar battery chargers, the other being MPPT.

The average value of voltage (and current) fed to the load is controlled by turning the switch between
supply and load on and off at a fast rate. The longer the switch is on compared to the off periods, the higher the
total power supplied to the load.

The PWM switching frequency has to be much higher than what would affect the load (the device that
uses the power), which is to say that the resultant waveform perceived by the load must be as smooth as possible.
Typically switching has to be done several times a minute in an electric stove, 120 Hz in a lamp dimmer, from
few kilohertz (kHz) to tens of kHz for a motor drive and well into the tens or hundreds of kHz in audio amplifiers
and computer power supplies.

The term duty cycle describes the proportion of 'on' time to the regular interval or 'period' of time; a low
duty cycle corresponds to low power, because the power is off for most of the time. Duty cycle is expressed in
percent, 100% being fully on.

The main advantage of PWM is that power loss in the switching devices is very low. When a switch is
off there is practically no current, and when it is on and power is being transferred to the load, there is almost
no voltage drop across the switch. Power loss, being the product of voltage and current, is thus in both cases
close to zero. PWM also works well with digital controls, which, because of their on/off nature, can easily set
the needed duty cycle.
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PWM has also been used in certain communication systems where its duty cycle has been used to convey
information over a communications channel.

An example of PWM in an idealized inductor driven by a voltage source: the voltage source (blue) is
modulated as a series of pulses that results in a sine-like current/flux (red) in the inductor. The blue rectangular
pulses nonetheless result in a smoother and smoother red sine wave as the switching frequency increases. Note
that the red waveform is the (definite) integral of the blue waveform.

Principle

Pulse-width modulation uses a rectangular pulse wave whose pulse width is modulated resulting in the

variation of the average value of the waveform. If we consider a pulse waveform , with period , low
value , a high value and a duty cycle D (see figure 1), the average value of the waveform is given
by:

As is a pulse wave, its value is for and for . The


above expression then becomes:

This latter expression can be fairly simplified in many cases where as .


From this, it is obvious that the average value of the signal ( ) is directly dependent on the duty cycle D.

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The simplest way to generate a PWM signal is the intersective method, which requires only a sawtooth or
a triangle waveform (easily generated using a simple oscillator) and a comparator. When the value of the
reference signal (the red sine wave in figure 2) is more than the modulation waveform (blue), the PWM signal
(magenta) is in the high state, otherwise it is in the low state.

The PWM is a technique which is used to drive the inertial loads since a very long time.The simple
example of an inertial load is a motor. Apply the power to a motor for a very short period of time and then turn
off the power: it can be observed that the motor is still running even after the power has been cut off from it.

This is due to the inertia of the motor and the significance of this factor is that the continuous power is
not required for that kind of devices to operate. A burst power can save the total power supplied to the load
while achieving the same performance from the device as it runs on continuous power.

The PWM technique is use in devices like DC motors, Loudspeakers, Class -D Amplifiers, SMPS etc.
They are also used in communication field as-well.

The modulation techniques like AM, FM are widely used RF communication whereas the PWM is
modulation technique is mostly used in Optical Fiber Communication (OFC).

As in the case of the inertial loads mentioned previously, the PWM in a communication link greatly
saves the transmitter power.

The immunity of the PWM transmission against the inter-symbol interference is another advantage. This article
discusses the technique of generating a PWM wave corresponding to a modulating sine wave.

4.4.1 DESCRIPTION:

The Pulse Width Modulation is a technique in which the ON time or OFF time of a pulse is varied
according to the amplitude of the modulating signal, keeping t the (ON time + OFF time) time of the pulse as
constant. The (ON time + OFF time) of a pulse is called ‘Period’ of the pulse, and the ratio of the ON time or
OFF time with the Period is called the ‘Duty Cycle’.

Hence the PWM is a kind of modulation which keeps the Period of pulses constant but varying their duty
cycle according to the amplitude of the modulating signal.

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The conventional method of generating a PWM modulated wave is to compare the message signal with a ramp
waveform using a comparator. The block diagram required for the generation of a simple PWM is shown

Fig: 4.4.2 SPWM block diagram

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Fig: 4.4.3 SPWM SIMULATION DIAGRAM

Fig: 4.4.4 SCOPE view

34
Fig: 4.4.5 SCOPE 1 view

Fig: 4.4.6 SCOPE 2 view

35
CHAPTER 5

PROPOSED BRUSHLESS DC MOTORS

5.1 BRUSHLESS DC MOTOR:

Brushless DC motors (BLDC) have been a much focused area for numerous motor manufacturers as
these motors are increasingly the preferred choice in many applications, especially in the field of motor control
technology. BLDC motors are superior to brushed DC motors in many ways, such as ability to operate at high
speeds, high efficiency, and better heat dissipation.

They are an indispensable part of modern drive technology, most commonly employed for actuating
drives, machine tools, electric propulsion, robotics, computer peripherals and also for electrical power
generation. With the development of sensorless technology besides digital control, these motors become so
effective in terms of total system cost, size and reliability.

A brushless DC motor (known as BLDC) is a permanent magnet synchronous electric motor which is
driven by direct current (DC) electricity and it accomplishes electronically controlled commutation system
(commutation is the process of producing rotational torque in the motor by changing phase currents through it
at appropriate times) instead of a mechanically commutation system. BLDC motors are also referred as
trapezoidal permanent magnet motors.

Unlike conventional brushed type DC motor, wherein the brushes make the mechanical contact with
commutator on the rotor so as to form an electric path between a DC electric source and rotor armature windings,
BLDC motor employs electrical commutation with permanent magnet rotor and a stator with a sequence of coils.
In this motor, permanent magnet (or field poles) rotates and current carrying conductors are fixed.

36
The armature coils are switched electronically by transistors or silicon controlled rectifiers at the correct
rotor position in such a way that armature field is in space quadrature with the rotor field poles. Hence the force
acting on the rotor causes it to rotate.

Hall sensors or rotary encoders are most commonly used to sense the position of the rotor and are
positioned around the stator. The rotor position feedback from the sensor helps to determine when to switch the
armature current.

This electronic commutation arrangement eliminates the commutator arrangement and brushes in a DC
motor and hence more reliable and less noisy operation is achieved. Due to the absence of brushes BLDC motors
are capable to run at high speeds.

The efficiency of BLDC motors is typically 85 to 90 percent, whereas as brushed type DC motors are
75 to 80 percent efficient. There are wide varieties of BLDC motors available ranging from small power range
to fractional horsepower, integral horsepower and large power ranges.

Construction of BLDC Motor

BLDC motors can be constructed in different physical configurations. Depending on the stator windings,
these can be configured as single-phase, two-phase, or three-phase motors. However, three-phase BLDC motors
with permanent magnet rotor are most commonly used.

The construction of this motor has many similarities of three phase induction motor as well as conventional DC
motor. This motor has stator and rotor parts as like all other motors.

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Stator of a BLDC motor made up of stacked steel laminations to carry the windings. These windings are
placed in slots which are axially cut along the inner periphery of the stator. These windings can be arranged in
either star or delta.

However, most BLDC motors have three phase star connected stator. Each winding is constructed with
numerous interconnected coils, where one or more coils are placed in each slot. In order to form an even number
of poles, each of these windings is distributed over the stator periphery.

The stator must be chosen with the correct rating of the voltage depending on the power supply
capability. For robotics, automotive and small actuating applications, 48 V or less voltage BLDC motors are
preferred. For industrial applications and automation systems, 100 V or higher rating motors are used.

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ROTOR

BLDC motor incorporates a permanent magnet in the rotor. The number of poles in the rotor can vary
from 2 to 8 pole pairs with alternate south and north poles depending on the application requirement. In order
to achieve maximum torque in the motor, the flux density of the material should be high. A proper magnetic
material for the rotor is needed to produce required magnetic field density
.

Ferrite magnets are inexpensive, however they have a low flux density for a given volume. Rare earth alloy
magnets are commonly used for new designs. Some of these alloys are Samarium Cobalt (SmCo), Neodymium
(Nd), and Ferrite and Boron (NdFeB).
The rotor can be constructed with different core configurations such as the circular core with permanent magnet
on the periphery, circular core with rectangular magnets, etc.

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Hall Sensors

Hall sensor provides the information to synchronize stator armature excitation with rotor position. Since
the commutation of BLDC motor is controlled electronically, the stator windings should be energized in
sequence in order to rotate the motor. Before energizing a particular stator winding, acknowledgment of rotor
position is necessary.

So the Hall Effect sensor embedded in stator senses the rotor position. Most BLDC motors incorporate
three Hall sensors which are embedded into the stator. Each sensor generates Low and High signals whenever
the rotor poles pass near to it. The exact commutation sequence to the stator winding can be determined based
on the combination of these three sensor’s response.

5.2 Working Principle and Operation of BLDC Motor

BLDC motor works on the principle similar to that of a conventional DC motor, i.e., the Lorentz force
law which states that whenever a current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field it experiences a force.
As a consequence of reaction force, the magnet will experience an equal and opposite force. In case BLDC
motor, the current carrying conductor is stationary while the permanent magnet moves.

When the stator coils are electrically switched by a supply source, it becomes electromagnet and starts
producing the uniform field in the air gap. Though the source of supply is DC, switching makes to generate an
AC voltage waveform with trapezoidal shape. Due to the force of interaction between electromagnet stator and
permanent magnet rotor, the rotor continues to rotate. Consider the figure below in which motor stator is excited
based on different switching states.

With the switching of windings as High and Low signals, corresponding winding energized as North
and South poles. The permanent magnet rotor with North and South poles align with stator poles causing motor
to rotate. Observe that motor produces torque because of the development of attraction forces (when North-
South or South-North alignment) and repulsion forces (when North-North or South-South alignment). By this
way motor moves in a clockwise direction.

Here, one might get a question that how we know which stator coil should be energized and when to do.
This is because; the motor continuous rotation depends on the switching sequence around the coils. As discussed
above that Hall sensors give shaft position feedback to the electronic controller unit. Based on this signal from
sensor, the controller decides particular coils to energize. Hall-effect sensors generate Low and High level
signals whenever rotor poles pass near to it. These signals determine the position of the shaft.

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5.3 Brushless DC Motor Drive

As described above that the electronic controller circuit energizes appropriate motor winding by turning
transistor or other solid state switches to rotate the motor continuously.

The figure below shows the simple BLDC motor drive circuit which consists of MOSFET bridge (also called
as inverter bridge), electronic controller, hall effect sensor and BLDC motor.

Here, Hall-effect sensors are used for position and speed feedback. The electronic controller can be a
microcontroller unit or microprocessor or DSP processor or FPGA unit or any other controller.

This controller receives these signals, processes them and sends the control signals to the MOSFET driver
circuit.

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5.3.1 MOSFET BRIDGE:

Fig: 5.3.1 Mosfet bridge

In addition to the switching for a rated speed of the motor, additional electronic circuitry changes the
motor speed based on required application. These speed control units are generally implemented with PID
controllers to have precise control. It is also possible to produce four-quadrant operation from the motor whilst
maintaining good efficiency throughout the speed variations using modern drives.

5.3.2 Advantages of BLDC Motor

BLDC motor has several advantages over conventional DC motors and some of these are

 It has no mechanical commutator and associated problems


 High efficiency due to the use of permanent magnet rotor.
 High speed of operation even in loaded and unloaded conditions due to the absence of brushes that limits the
speed
 Smaller motor geometry and lighter in weight than both brushed type DC and induction AC motors

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 Long life as no inspection and maintenance is required for commutator system
 Higher dynamic response due to low inertia and carrying windings in the stator
 Less electromagnetic interference
 Quite operation (or low noise) due to absence of brushes

5.3.3 Disadvantages of Brushless Motor

 These motors are costly


 Electronic controller required control this motor is expensive
 Not much availability of many integrated electronic control solutions, especially for tiny BLDC motors
 Requires complex drive circuitry
 Need of additional sensors

5.3.4 Applications of Brushless DC Motors (BLDC)

Brushless DC Motors (BLDC) are used for a wide variety of application requirements such as varying loads,
constant loads and positioning applications in the fields of industrial control, automotive, aviation, automation
systems, health care equipments, etc. Some specific applications of BLDC motors are

 Computer hard drives and DVD/CD players


 Electric vehicles, hybrid vehicles, and electric bicycles
 Industrial robots, CNC machine tools, and simple belt driven systems
 Washing machines, compressors and dryers
 Fans, pumps and blowers

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CHAPTER 6

PROPOSED CONTROLLER

6.1 Introduction about Fuzzy Logic Technique

In recent years, the number and variety of applications of fuzzy logic have increased significantly. The
applications range from consumer products such as cameras, camcorders, washing machines, and microwave
ovens to industrial process control, medical instrumentation, decision-support systems, and portfolio selection.

Fuzzy logic has two different meanings. In a narrow sense, fuzzy logic is a logical system, which is an
extension of multivalve logic. However, in a wider sense fuzzy logic (FL) is almost synonymous with the theory
of fuzzy sets, a theory which relates to classes of objects with un-sharp boundaries in which membership is a
matter of degree.

In this perspective, fuzzy logic in its narrow sense is a branch of fl. Even in its more narrow definition,
fuzzy logic differs both in concept and substance from traditional multivalve logical systems.

The basic concept in FL, which plays a central role in most of its applications, is that of a fuzzy if-then
rule or, simply, fuzzy rule. Although rule-based systems have a long history of use in Artificial Intelligence (AI),
what is missing in such systems is a mechanism for dealing with fuzzy consequents and fuzzy antecedents. In
fuzzy logic, this mechanism is provided by the calculus of fuzzy rules.

The calculus of fuzzy rules serves as a basis for what might be called the Fuzzy Dependency and
Command Language (FDCL). Although FDCL is not used explicitly in the toolbox, it is effectively one of its
principal constituents. In most of the applications of fuzzy logic, a fuzzy logic solution is, in reality, a translation
of a human solution into FDCL.

A trend that is growing in visibility relates to the use of fuzzy logic in combination with neuro computing
and genetic algorithms. More generally, fuzzy logic, neuro-computing, and genetic algorithms may be viewed
as the principal constituents of what might be called soft computing. Unlike the traditional, hard computing, soft
computing accommodates the imprecision of the real world.

44
The guiding principle of soft computing is: Exploit the tolerance for imprecision, uncertainty, and partial
truth to achieve tractability, robustness, and low solution cost. In the future, soft computing could play an
increasingly important role in the conception and design of systems who’s MIQ (Machine IQ) is much higher
than that of systems designed by conventional methods.

Among various combinations of methodologies in soft computing, the one that has highest visibility at
this juncture is that of fuzzy logic and neuro computing, leading to neuro-fuzzy systems. Within fuzzy logic,
such systems play a particularly important role in the induction of rules from observations.

Fuzzy logic is a fascinating area of research because it does a good job of trading off between significance
and precision. something that humans have been managing for a very long time. In this sense, fuzzy logic is
both old and new because, although the modern and methodical science of fuzzy logic is still young, the concept
of fuzzy logic relies on age-old skills of human reasoning.

Fig. 6.1.1 Fuzzy Description

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6.2. Uses of fuzzy logic

Fuzzy logic is a convenient way to map an input space to an output space. Mapping input to output is the starting
point for everything. Consider the following examples:

 With information about how good your service was at a restaurant, a fuzzy logic system can tell you
what the tip should be.

 With your specification of how hot you want the water, a fuzzy logic system can adjust the faucet valve
to the right setting.

 With information about how far away the subject of your photograph is, a fuzzy logic system can focus
the lens for you.

 With information about how fast the car is going and how hard the motor is working, a fuzzy logic
system can shift gears for you.

To determine the appropriate amount of tip requires mapping inputs to the appropriate outputs. Between the
input and the output, the preceding figure shows a black box that can contain any number of things: fuzzy
systems, linear systems, expert systems, neural networks, differential equations, interpolated multidimensional
lookup tables, or even a spiritual advisor, just to name a few of the possible options. Clearly the list could go on
and on. Fuzzy is faster and cheaper.

6.3. Fuzzy Logic Controller

6.3.1. Simple Fuzzy Logic Controllers

First-generation simple fuzzy logic controllers can generally be depicted by a block diagram.
The knowledge-base module contains knowledge about all the input and output fuzzy partitions.

It will include the term set and the corresponding membership functions defining the input variables to the fuzzy
rule-base system and the output variables, or control actions, to the plant under control.

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Fig. 6.3.2 A Simple Fuzzy Logic Control System

 The steps in designing a simple fuzzy logic control system are as follows:
 Identify the variables (inputs, states and outputs) of the plant. Partition the universe of discourse or the
interval spanned by each variable into a number of fuzzy subsets, assigning each a linguistic label
(subsets include all the elements in the universe).
 Assign or determine a membership function for each fuzzy subset.
 Assign the fuzzy relationships between the inputs or states fuzzy subsets on the one hand and the outputs
fuzzy subsets on the other hand, thus forming the rule-base.
 Choose appropriate scaling factors for the input and output variables in order to normalize the variables
to the [0, 1] or the [-1, 1] interval.
 Fuzzily the inputs to the controller.
 Use fuzzy approximate reasoning to infer the output contributed from each rule.
 Aggregate the fuzzy outputs recommended by each rule.

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 Apply defuzzification to form a crisp output.

In a nonadaptive simple fuzzy logic controller, the methodology used and the results of the nine steps
mentioned above are fixed, whereas in an adaptive fuzzy logic controller, they are adaptively modified based
on some adaptation law in order to optimize the control.

A simple fuzzy logic control system has the following features:

 Fixed and uniform input- and output- scaling factors.


 Flat, single-partition rule-base with fixed and noninetractive rules. All the rules have the same degree of
certainty and confidence, equal to unity.
 Fixed membership functions.
 Limited number of rules, which increase exponentially with the number of input variables.
 Fixed metaknowledge including the methodology for approximate reasoning, rules-aggregation, and
output defuzzification.
 Low-level control and no hierarchical rule structure.

6.3.3. General Fuzzy Logic Controllers

The principal design elements in a general fuzzy logic control system are as follows:

1. Fuzzification strategies and the interpretation of a fuzzification operator, or fuzzifier.

2. Knowledge base:

a. Discrimination/normalization of the universe of discourse.

b. Fuzzy partitions of the input and output spaces.

c. Completeness of the partitions.

d. Choice of the membership functions of a primary fuzzy set.

3. Rule-base:

a. Choice of process state (input) variables and control (output) variables.

b. Source of derivation of fuzzy control rules.

c. Types of fuzzy control rules.

d. Consistency, interactivity, and completeness of fuzzy control rules.

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4. Decision-making logic:

a. Definition of a fuzzy implication.

b. Interpretation of sentence connective and

c. Interpretation of sentence connective or.

d. Inference mechanism.

5. Defuzzification strategies and the interpretation of a defuzzification operator (defuzzifier).

Adaptation or change in any of the five design parameters above creates an adaptive fuzzy logic control system.
If all are fixed, the fuzzy logic control system is simple and nonadaptive.

6.4. Membership Functions

Definition: A graph that defines how each point in the input space is mapped to membership value between 0
and 1. Input space is often referred as the universe of discourse or universal set (u), which contain all the possible
elements of concern in each particular application.

6.4.1. Types of membership functions

Before we start defining different types of membership functions, let us consider a Fuzzy IF-THEN rule for a
car:

IF the speed of a car is high, THEN apply less force to the accelerator

IF the speed is low, THEN apply more force to the accelerator

Straight line: The simplest membership function is formed by straight line. We consider the speed of car in
Fig. 5.3 and plot the membership function for high. Where the horizontal represent the speed of the car and
vertical axis represent the membership value for high.

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Fig. 6.4.2 Straight Line Membership Function

Trapezoidal: If we consider the case 5.3 and plot the membership function for “less”, we get a trapezoidal
membership function. Fig. 5.3 shows a graphical representation, where the horizontal axis represent the force
applied to the accelerator and the vertical shows membership value for “less”. The function is often represented
by “trapmf”.

Fig. 6.4.3 Trapezoidal Membership Function

Gaussian: Let say a fuzzy set Z which represent “number close to zero”. The possible membership function
for Z is

If we plot this function we get a graph shown in Fig 5.5 and are refer as Gaussian membership function.

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Fig. 6.4.4 Gaussian Membership Function

Triangular: This is formed by the combination of straight lines. The function is name as “trimf” .We considers
the above case i.e. fuzzy set Z to represent the “number close to zero”. So mathematically we can also represent
it as

Fig. 6.5.5 Traingular Membership Function

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6.5 Fuzzy Logic Tool Box:

In fuzzy Logic Toolbox software, fuzzy logic should be interpreted as FL, that is, fuzzy logic in its wide
sense. The basic ideas underlying FL are explained very clearly and insightfully in Foundations of Fuzzy Logic

. What might be added is that the basic concept underlying FL is that of a linguistic variable, that is, a variable
whose values are words rather than numbers.

In effect, much of FL may be viewed as a methodology for computing with words rather than numbers. Although
words are inherently less precise than numbers, their use is closer to human intuition. Furthermore, computing
with words exploits the tolerance for imprecision and thereby lowers the cost of solution

The fuzzy logic toolbox is highly impressive in all respects. It makes fuzzy logic an effective tool for the
conception and design of intelligent systems.

The fuzzy logic toolbox is easy to master and convenient to use. And last, but not least important, it provides a
reader friendly and up-to-date introduction to methodology of fuzzy logic and its wide ranging applications.

You can create and edit fuzzy inference systems with Fuzzy Logic Toolbox software. You can create these
systems using graphical tools or command-line functions, or you can generate them automatically using either
clustering or adaptive neuro-fuzzy techniques.

If you have access to SIMULINK software, you can easily test your fuzzy system in a block diagram simulation
environment.

The toolbox also lets you run your own stand-alone C programs directly. This is made possible by a stand-alone
Fuzzy Inference Engine that reads the fuzzy systems saved from a MATLAB session. You can customize the
stand-alone engine to build fuzzy inference into your own code. All provided code is ansi compliant.

Because of the integrated nature of the MATLAB environment, you can create your own tools to customize the
toolbox or harness it with another toolbox, such as the Control System Toolbox, Neural Network Toolbox, or

52
Optimization Toolbox software.

The Fuzzy Logic Toolbox extends the MATLAB technical computing environment with tools for designing
systems based on fuzzy logic.

Graphical user interfaces (GUIs) guide you through the steps of fuzzy inference system design. Functions are
provided for many common fuzzy logic methods, including fuzzy clustering and adaptive neuro fuzzy learning.

The toolbox lets you model complex system behaviors using simple logic rules and then implements these rules
in a fuzzy inference system.

You can use the toolbox as a standalone fuzzy inference engine. Alternatively, you can use fuzzy inference
blocks in SIMULINK and simulate the fuzzy systems within a comprehensive model of the entire dynamic
system.

53
CHAPTER 7

SIMULATION RESULTS

7.1 RESULT OF THE PROJECT:

MATLAB is a high-performance language for technical computing. It integrates computation, visualization, and
programming in an easy-to-use environment where problems and solutions are expressed in familiar
mathematical notation. Typical uses include-

 Math and computation


 Algorithm development
 Data acquisition
 Modeling, simulation, and prototyping
 Data analysis, exploration, and visualization
 Scientific and engineering graphics

MATLAB is an interactive system whose basic data element is an array that does not require dimensioning. This
allows solving many technical computing problems, especially those with matrix and vector formulations, in a
fraction of the time it would take to write a program in a scalar non-interactive language such as C or FORTRAN.

The MATLAB system consists of six main parts:

(a) Development Environment

This is the set of tools and facilities that help to use MATLAB functions and files. Many of these tools are
graphical user interfaces.
It includes the MATLAB desktop and Command Window, a command history, an editor and debugger, and
browsers for viewing help, the workspace, files and the search path.

54
(b) The MATLAB Mathematical Function Library

This is a vast collection of computational algorithms ranging from elementary functions, like sum, sine, cosine,
and complex arithmetic, to more sophisticated functions like matrix inverse, matrix Eigen values, Bessel
functions, and fast Fourier transforms.

(c) The MATLAB Language

This is a high-level matrix/array language with control flow statements, functions, data structures, input/output,
and object-oriented programming features.
It allows both "programming in the small" to rapidly create quick and dirty throw-away programs, and
"programming in the large" to create large and complex application programs.

(d) Graphics

MATLAB has extensive facilities for displaying vectors and matrices as graphs, as well as annotating and
printing these graphs. It includes high-level functions for two-dimensional and three-dimensional data
visualization, image processing, animation, and presentation graphics.

It also includes low-level functions that allow to fully customize the appearance of graphics as well as to build
complete graphical user interfaces on MATLAB applications.

(e) The MATLAB Application Program Interface (API)

This is a library that allows writing in C and FORTRAN programs that interact with MATLAB. It includes
facilities for calling routines from MATLAB (dynamic linking), calling MATLAB as a computational engine,
and for reading and writing MAT-files.

(f) MATLAB Documentation

MATLAB provides extensive documentation, in both printed and online format, to help to learn about and use
all of its features. It covers all the primary MATLAB features at a high level, including many examples.

The MATLAB online help provides task-oriented and reference information about MATLAB features.
MATLAB documentation is also available in printed form and in PDF format.

55
(1) Three phase source block

Three Phase Source Block

The Three-Phase Source block implements a balanced three-phase voltage source with internal R-L impedance.
The three voltage sources are connected in Y with a neutral connection that can be internally ground.

(2) VI measurement block

The Three-Phase V-I Measurement block is used to measure three-phase voltages and currents in a circuit. When
connected in series with three-phase elements, it returns the three phase-to-ground or phase-to-phase voltages
and the three line currents

Three Phase V-I Measurement

(3) Scope

Display signals generated during a simulation. The Scope block displays its input with respect to simulation
time. The Scope block can have multiple axes (one per port); all axes have a common time range with
independent y-axes.

56
The Scope allows you to adjust the amount of time and the range of input values displayed. You can move and
resize the Scope window and you can modify the Scope's parameter values during the simulation

Scope

(4) Three-Phase Series RLC Load

The Three-Phase Series RLC Load block implements a three-phase balanced load as a series combination of
RLC elements.

At the specified frequency, the load exhibits constant impedance. The active and reactive powers absorbed by
the load are proportional to the square of the applied voltage.

Three-Phase Series RLC Load

(5) Three-Phase Breaker block

The Three-Phase Breaker block implements a three-phase circuit breaker where the opening and closing times
can be controlled either from an external Simulink signal or from an internal control signal.

57
Three-Phase Breaker Block

(6) Integrator

The integrator block outputs the integral of its input at the current time step. The following equation represents
the output of the block y as a function of its input u and an initial condition y0, where y and u are vector functions
of the current simulation time t.

Library: Continuous

(7) Breaker

Implement circuit breaker opening at current zero crossing.

Library: Elements

58
Circuit Breaker
Purpose: The Breaker block implements a circuit breaker where the opening and closing times can be controlled
either from an external SIMULINK signal (external control mode), or from an internal control timer (internal
control mode).

A series Rs-Cs snubber circuit is included in the model. It can be connected to the circuit breaker. If the Breaker
block happens to be in series with an inductive circuit, an open circuit or a current source, you must use a
snubber.

When the breaker block is set in external control mode, a SIMULINK input appears on the block icon. The
control signal connected to the SIMULINK input must be either 0 or 1 (0 to open the breaker, 1 to close it).

When the Breaker block is set in internal control mode, the switching times are specified in the dialog box of
the block.

When the breaker is closed, it is represented by a resistance Ron. The Ron value can be set as small as necessary
in order to be negligible compared with external components (a typical value is 10 m ohms).
When the breaker is open, it has an infinite resistance.

59
(8) Three-Phase Programmable Voltage Source

Implement three-phase voltage source with programmable time variation of amplitude, phase, frequency, and
harmonics

Library: Electrical Sources

Three Phase Voltage Sources

Purpose: This block is used to generate a three-phase sinusoidal voltage with time-varying parameters. It can
be programmed with the time variation for the amplitude, phase or frequency of the fundamental component of
the source.

In addition, two harmonics can be programmed and superimposed on the fundamental signal.

(9) Trigonometric Function

Specified trigonometric function on input

Library: Math Operations

Trigonometric Function

60
Purpose: The Trigonometric Function block performs common trigonometric functions

(10) Three-Phase Transformer (Two Windings)

Implement three-phase transformer with configurable winding connections

Library: Elements

Three Phase Transformer

Purpose:

The Three-Phase Transformer (Two Windings) block implements a three-phase transformer using three single-
phase transformers.

The saturation characteristic, when activated, is the same as the one described for the saturable Transformer
block, and the icon of the block is automatically updated.

If the fluxes are not specified, the initial values are automatically adjusted so that the simulation starts in steady
state.

(11) Three-Phase Transformer 12 Terminals

Implement three single-phase, two-winding transformers where all terminals are accessible

Library: Elements

61
Two winding Transformer

Purpose: The Three-Phase Transformer 12 Terminals block implements three single-phase, two-
winding linear transformers where all the twelve winding connectors are accessible.

The block can be used in place of the Three-Phase Transformer (Two Windings) block to
implement a three-phase transformer when primary and secondary are not necessarily connected in
Star or Delta.

(12) IGBT/Diode

Implements ideal IGBT, GTO, or MOSFET and antiparallel diode

Library: Power Electronics

IGBT

62
Purpose: The IGBT/Diode block is a simplified mode of an IGBT (or GTO or MOSFET)/Diode pair where the
forward voltages of the forced-commutated device and diode are ignored.

7.1.1 Proposed converter

63
7.1.2 Soc and current and voltage of the battery

64
7.1.3 Speed of proposed BLDC

65
CHAPTER 8

CONCLUSION

This project presents design and control bi-directional dc dc converter for all-electric vehicle. When the
battery is discharged, the dc machine is operated in motor mode and bi-directional dc-dc converter is operated
in boost mode. Variable positive torque values are applied to the BLDC machine and condition of the battery is
observed. According to simulation result, the battery SoC is reduced from %88 to %87.337 and voltage of the
dc machine is constant at 500 V.
When the battery is charged, the machine is operated generator mode and bi-directional dc-dc converter
is operated in buck mode. Variable negative torque values are applied to the BLDC machine and effect on the
battery is observed. According to simulation result, the battery SoC is increased from %87.337 to %87.445. In
all-electric vehicle, regenerative breaking is occurred in this state. Charge and discharge states of the battery are
the most essential for distance to determining.

66
REFERENCES

[1] H.Jung, “Fuel economy of plug in hybrid electric and hybrid electric vehicles: effects of vehicle weight,
hybridization ratio and ambient temperature”,Environmental science world electric vehicle journal ,2020.

[2] Z.E.Idrissi, H.E.Fadil, F.Z.Belhaj , “Theoretical design and experimental validation of a non linear
controller for energy storage system used in HEV ”, Environmental science world electric vehicle
journal,2020
[3] F. Wang, Yutao Luo, H. Li and X. Xu, “Switching Characteristics Optimization of Two-Phase Interleaved
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69
A
PROJECT REPORT
On
FOUR QUADRANT OPERATION & CONTROL OF
THREE-PHASE BRUSHLESS DC MOTOR FOR
ELECTRIC VEHICLES
Submitted by

1) LAV KUMAR (17K81A0229)


2) GUBBALA MEGA SHIVA RAMA KRISHNA (17K81A0216)
3) SHENNA TEJASVI (17K81A0238)
4) VISLAVATH GNANESHWARI (17K81A0242)

In partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
Under The Guidance of
Ms.CH.NIROSHA, M.Tech
Assistant Professor
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

ST.MARTIN’S ENGINEERING COLLEGE


(An Autonomous Institute)
Dhulapally, Secunderabad – 500100
JUNE 2021
BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project entitled ‘Four Quadrant Operation & Control of
Three-Phase Brushless DC Motor for Electric Vehicles’ is being submitted by 1. Lav
Kumar (17K81A0229) 2. Gubbala Mega Shiva Rama Krishna (17K81A0216) 3.
Shenna Tejasvi (17K81A0238) 4. Vislavath Gnaneshwari (17K81A0242) in partial
fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the degree of BACHELOR OF
TECHNOLOGY IN DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS
ENGINEERING is recorded of bonafide work carried out by them. The result embodied
in this report have been verified and found satisfactory.

Ms.CH. Nirosha Head of the Department


Assistant Professor Dr. N. Ramchandra
Department of EEE Department of EEE

Internal Examiner External Examiner

Place:

Date:

i
DECLARATION

We, the students of Bachelor of Technology in Department of Electrical and


Electronics Engineering, session: 2017 – 2021, St. Martin’s Engineering College,
Dhulapally, Kompally, Secunderabad, hereby declare that work presented in this
Project Work entitled “Four Quadrant Operation & Control of Three-Phase
Brushless DC Motor for Electric Vehicles” is the outcome of our own bonafide
work and is correct to the best of our knowledge and this work has been undertaken
taking care of Engineering Ethics. This result embodied in this project report has not
been submitted in any university for award of any degree.

1. Lav Kumar (17K81A0229)


2. Gubbala Mega Shiva Rama Krishna (17K81A0216)
3. Shenna Tejasvi (17K81A0238)
4. Vislavath Gnaneshwari (17K81A0242)

ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The satisfaction and euphoria that accompanies the successful completion of any task
would be incomplete without the mention of the people who made it possible and whose
encouragements and guidance have crowded effects with success.
First and foremost, we would like to express my deep sense of gratitude and
indebtedness to our College Management for their kind support and permission to use the
facilities available in the Institute.
We especially would like to express my deep sense of gratitude and indebtedness to
Dr. P. Santosh Kumar Patra, our beloved Principal, St. Martin’s Engineering College for his
invaluable encouragement, suggestions and support from an early stage of this research and
providing me extraordinary experiences throughout the work. Above all, his priceless and
meticulous supervision at each and every phase of work inspired me in innumerable ways.
We would like to express our gratitude to, Dr. N. Ramchandra, Head &Professor, the
Dept. of Electrical and Electronics Engineering for his advice, supervision, and the vital
contribution as and when required during this research. We are proud to record that we had the
opportunity to work with an exceptionally experienced Professor like him. The time spent with
him will remain in my memory for years to come.
We would like to thank our supervisor, Ms.CH. Nirosha, Assistant professor, Dept. of
EEE for her continuous support and valuable guidance for our research work.
We would like to express our gratitude to our dept. project coordinators
Mr. K. V. Govardhan Rao, Assistant Professor, Dept. of EEE and Mr. T. Penchalaiah, Assistant
Professor, Dept of EEE for their involvement with originality has triggered and nourished my
intellectual maturity that will help me for a long time to come.
Finally, we are highly grateful and obliged to our college level Project Coordinators
Dr. Maalyadri, Professor in IT and Dr. R. Santhosh Kumar, Associate Professor in CSE for
their advice, supervision, and the vital contribution as and when required during this research
work and for their support and co- operation that is difficult to express in words.

1. Lav Kumar (17K81A0229)


2. Gubbala Mega Shiva Rama Krishna (17K81A0216)
3. Shenna Tejasvi (17K81A0238)
4. Vislavath Gnaneshwari (17K81A0242)

iii
ABSTRACT

This project presents the control of Brushless direct current (BLDC) motor in all four
quadrants (forward/reverse motoring/braking) with the help of the bidirectional DC-DC
converter. The output of the DC-DC converter is fed to the three-phase voltage source inverter
(VSI) to drive the motor. During the motoring mode buck operation through the bi-directional
converter of the battery takes place and during regenerative mode, the mechanical energy is
converted into electrical energy and is stored in the same chargeable battery through the boost
operation. As the electric vehicle operates with frequent start/stop, the scheme proposes
recovery of energy for every stopping operation through regenerative braking. Also when the
electric vehicle (EV) is going on a downhill, the controlled speed on downhill provides energy
return to the battery. MATLAB/Simulink software is used to verify the above operations.

iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER NO TITLE PAGE NO

CERTIFICATE i
DECLARATION ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iii
ABSTRACT iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS v-vi
LIST OF TABLE vii
LIST OF FIGURES viii-ix
LIST OF GRAPHS x
NOMENCLATURE xi

1 INTRODUCTION 1-6

2 PROPOSED DC -DC CONVERTER 7


2.1 Introduction to buck-boost converter 8
2.2 Principal of operation of buck converter 8
2.3 Circuit diagram of buck boost converter 9
2.4 Modes of operation of buck boost converter 9
2.4.1 Circuit analysis of buck converter 9-13
2.5 Applications of buck boost converter 13-15
2.6 Principle 15-16
2.7 Description 16-19
3 VOLTAGE SOURCE INVERTER 20-21
3.1 Single phase half bridge inverter 21-23
3.2 Single phase full bridge inverter 23-26
4 PROPOSED BRUSHLESS DC MOTORS 27-28
4.1 Construction of BLDC motor 29-30
4.2 Rotor 30- 31
4.3 Hall sensors 31
4.4 Working principle and operation of BLDC motor 32-33
4.5 Brushless dc motor 33-34
4.6 Advantages of BLDC motor 35

v
4.7 Disadvantages of BLDC motor 35
4.8 Applications of brushless DC motor 35
4.9 Speed controller modelling 36-37
4.10 PID controller 37-39
4.10.1 Applicability 40
5 PROPOSED SIMULATION RESULTS
5.1 Introduction 41
5.2 Block diagram 42-43
5.3 Simulink block libraries 43
5.4 Sub systems 43
5.5 Solvers 44
5.5.1 Fixed-step and variable-step solvers 44
5.5.2 Continuous and discrete solvers 44-45
5.6 Model execution phase 45-46
5.7 Block sorting rules 46-53
6 CONCLUSION 54
REFERENCES 55-56
APPENDICES 57-65
(A) Development Environment 57
(B) The Matlab mathematical function library 57
(C) The Matlab language 58
(D) Graphics 58
(E) The Matlab application program Interface 58
(F) Matlab Documentation 58
(1) Three phase source block 59
(2) VI measurement block 59
(3) Scope 59-60
(4) Three-phase series RLC load 60
(5) Three-phase breaker block 60
(6) Integrator 61
(7) Breaker 61-62
(8) Three-phase programmable voltage source 62
(9) Trigonometric function 63
(10) Three-phase transformer 63-64
(11) IGBT/diode 65

vi
LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO TITLE PAGE NO.


I PID CONTROLLER PARAMETERS 37
II PARAMETERS OF THE BLDC MOTOR 47
III BATTERY PARAMETERS 47
IV PARAMETERS 48

vii
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO TITLE PAGE NO.
1.1 INVERTER BASED DRIVING
CIRCUIT OF BLDC MOTOR 3

1.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION

OF FOUR QUADRANT OPERATION 4

1.3 FOUR QUADRANT OPERATION 5

2.1 PROPOSED CONVERTER 7

2.2 TYPICAL BUCK BOOST CONVERTER 9

2.3 WHEN SWITCH S IS ON 10

2.4 WHEN SWITCH IS OFF 11

2.5 SPWM BLOCK DIAGRAM 17

2.6 SPWM SIMULATION DIAGRAM 17

3.1 THE AC INPUT FOR AN ASD 21

3.2 SINGLE-PHASE HALF-BRIDGE

VOLTAGE SOURCE INVERTER 22

3.3 SINGLE-PHASE VOLTAGE SOURCE

FULL-BRIDGE INVERTER 23

3.4 CARRIER AND MODULATING SIGNALS FOR THE

BIPOLAR PULSE WIDTH MODULATION

TECHNIQUE 24

3.5 SWITCHING SEQUENCES OF SWITCHES IN VSI

WITH RESPECT TO BACK EMF, PHASE CURRENT. 26

4.1 ARMATURE COILS OF BLDC MOTOR 28

viii
4.2 BLDC MOTOR 29

4.3 STATOR OF BLDC MOTOR 30

4.4 ROTOR OF BLDC MOTOR 31

4.5 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF BLDC MOTOR 33

4.6 SIMPLE BLDC MOTOR DRIVE CIRCUIT 34

4.7 CONTROL LOGICS FOR THE BI-DIRECTIONAL

CONVERTER. 36

4.8 A BLOCK DIAGRAM OF A PID CONTROLLER IN

A FEEDBACK LOOP.R(T) IS THE DESIRED

PROCESS VALUE OR SET POINT (SP), AND Y(T)

IS THE MEASURED PROCESS VALUE (PV). 38

4.9 SYSTEM RESPONSE OF PID CONTROLLER 39

5.1 PROPOSED CIRCUIT CONFIGURATION 49

APPENDIX

6.1 THREE PHASE SOURCE BLOCK 59


6.2 THREE PHASE V-I MEASUREMENT 59
6.3 SCOPE 60
6.4 THREE-PHASE SERIES RLC LOAD 60
6.5 THREE-PHASE BREAKER BLOCK 60
6.6 INTEGRATOR 61
6.7 CIRCUIT BREAKER 61
6.8 THREE PHASE VOLTAGE SOURCES 62
6.9 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTION 63
6.10 THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER 63
6.11 TWO WINDING TRANSFORMER 64
6.12 IGBT 65

ix
LIST OF GRAPHS

FIGURE NO TITLE PAGE NO.


2(A) WAVEFORMS OF CURRENT AND VOLTAGE

IN A BUCK–BOOST CONVERTER OPERATING

IN DISCONTINUOUS MODE. 12

2(B) SCOPE VIEW 18

2(C) SCOPE 1 VIEW 18

2(D) SCOPE 2 VIEW 19

5(A) REFERENCE SPEED 50

5(B) ACTUAL SPEED 50

5(C) REFERENCE TORQUE 51

5(D) VOLTAGE ACROSS THE INVERTER. 51

5(E) BATTERY STATE OF CHARGE 52

5(F) BATTERY VOLTAGE, CURRENT, SOC 52


5(G) THREE-PHASE CURRENT WAVEFORM
AND THREE-PHASE BACK EMF OF THE MOTOR 53
5(H) THREE-PHASE CURRENT WAVEFORM
AND THREE-PHASE BACK EMF OF THE MOTOR 53

x
NOMENCLATURE

BLDC : Brushless DC motor


EV : Electric Vehicles
ICE : Internal Combustion Engine
VSI : Voltage Source Inverter
IGBT : Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistor
MOSFET : Metal–Oxide–Semiconductor Field-Effect
Transistor
EMF : Electromotive Force
KVL : Kirchhoff's Voltage Law
SEPIC : Single-Ended Primary-Inductor Converter
PWM : Pulse Width Modulation
MPPT : Maximum Power Point Tracker
OFC : Optical Fiber Communication
SPWM : Sinusoidal pulse width modulation
ASD : Adjustable Speed Drives
UPS : Uninterruptable Power Supplies
FACTS : Flexible AC transmission systems
CSI : Current Source Inverters
STATCOM : The Static Synchronous Compensator
PID : Proportional-Integral-Derivative
GUI : Graphical User Interface
MATLAB : Matrix Laboratory
ODE : Ordinary Differential Equations
FORTRAN : Formula Translation
GTO : Gate Turn-Off thyristor

xi
CHAPTER 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION

Brushless DC motors are gaining a lot of popularity whether it is aerospace, military,


household or traction applications. Due to the constraint of fuel resources, the world requires
highly efficient electric vehicle drives for transportation needs. The BLDC motor has a longer
lifespan, higher efficiency, and compact size making it the most sought after motor in electric
vehicle drive applications. The continuous attempt to reduce environmental pollution has given
an impetus to the market of electric vehicles (EVs). As the fuel resources are depleting, the
energy efficient electric drives are likely to replace vehicles running with fossil fuels. Being
different from the ICE (Internal Combustion Engine), EVs are the least burden to the
environment. Any motor drive system which can be recharged from any external electricity
source is known as a plug-in electric vehicle (EV).

There are still some disadvantages of EV drives like overall lower efficiency, huge
dimension, and the cost of storage devices etc. The technique of performing the four quadrant
operation is proposed, where its battery is charged during the regenerative braking but the system
here has two energy sources, one is driving the motor and other is storing the energy using the
rectifier during braking. It is proposed in this project that only one battery is enough to drive the
motor and at the same time to recover the kinetic energy of the motor using regenerative mode.
This proposal reduces the cost of an extra rectifier and an additional battery.

In the four quadrant operation is performed without utilizing the kinetic energy of the
motor. During braking, the motor kinetic energy is wasted in resistive losses this makes the
system highly inefficient. In the world where there is fuel constraint, this system is not helping in
that cause. In four quadrant sensor less control of the electronically commutated motor is done
without utilizing the motor kinetic energy in regenerative braking.

The battery capacity puts a limitation to the EVs in the form of mileage or distance
covered. Regenerative braking is just one of the ways to increase the efficiency of the drive.
During regenerative mode, the energy of the drive system which is in the form of kinetic energy
can be used to charge the battery during deceleration and downhill run to slow down the vehicle.

1
This project proposes a simple method of four quadrant operation in which the energy of
the motor is utilized to charge the battery during braking. This method of efficient utilization of
power can be done through bidirectional DC-DC converter and VSI. There is just one energy
source and it is efficiently utilizing the motor kinetic energy by charging the battery using the
VSI. The VSI operates as a rectifier during the braking mode and the rectified voltage is boosted
to charge the battery.
The most commonly used topology for a three phase BLDC motor. The three phase
inverter is fed by DC source through VSI. Depicted in the figure, the stage following the
capacitor consists of six insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBT) switches which have anti-
parallel diodes connected across it. Instead of IGBTs, switch-like MOSFET can also be used as it
inherently has anti-parallel diode but the problem with the MOSFET is the ON-state voltage
drop. For the low voltage, application MOSFET can also be used. Typically, the BLDC motor
has trapezoidal back EMF waveform. To get constant power output the current is injected during
the 120° period of constant back EMF.
The injection of current is controlled through the two switches of different legs at a time
in the inverter. Therefore, at a time, only two switches operate. Unlike the DC motor, the
commutation is controlled here through the switches. The current injection in each phase should
be properly aligned with the back EMF to get the rotor flux and stator flux angle close to 90° for
maximum torque production. The switching sequences of the MOSFET switches are shown in
Fig. 2 for both forward motoring and reverse motoring. These three phases produce constant dc
voltage for 360° during regenerative braking. It becomes important to know the rotor position so
that the energization of the stator winding is in sequence.
The position of the rotor can be detected using internal and external position sensor or it
can be detected without the help of sensors. In this project, hall sensors are used to detect the
rotor position. These sensors are embedded in the stator and according to the sensor output, the
switches are triggered. Applying the KVL during any interval for BLDC motor as only two
phases are conducting the equation becomes (1) where Ic is the phase current and Rc is the per
phase resistance.

2
Fig 1.1: Inverter based driving circuit of BLDC motor.

The structure of the bidirectional converter is illustrated. The bi-directional performance


analysis is mentioned. It consists of two switches and two diodes it behaves as a buck converter
when the switch T1 and D2 are operational, these operations are utilized in the drive during
motoring mode and for regenerative braking T2 and D1 are operational, thus making the
converter work in boost operation by boosting the dc-link voltage to charge the battery. Diodes
allow the flow of current in one particular direction depending on the operation. During the buck
operation the inverter side voltage is stepped down α time of the battery voltage is the time
period for which switch conducts.

3
Fig.1.2 Block diagram representation of four quadrant operation.

The four-quadrant operation of BLDC motor is depicted clearly in Fig 1.2. In the first and
third quadrant, both the torque and speed are having the same sign either positive or negative.
The four-quadrant operation of BLDC motor is slightly different as the direction of rotation
cannot be made opposite just by reversing the voltage polarity of dc link as in case of DC motor.
For reversing the direction of rotation of the motor the phase sequence of the BLDC motor has to
change as the voltage across the dc link is always positive and therefore current is positive. For
operating the motor in the third quadrant phase sequence of BLDC should be changed. This
could be achieved by changing the switching sequence of the inverter.

Braking is obtained through the bi-directional DC-DC converter. The bi-directional


converter operates in two modes buck or boost mode. Motoring mode utilizes the buck operation
and braking mode utilizes the boost operation.

4
The logic diagram of the four quadrant operation is mentioned in Fig 1.2. When the
regenerative braking is required the torque and speed command are detected and the gate pulses
to the switches of VSI are switched off.

As the diodes are connected across the antiparallel switches, the VSI behave as a rectifier
and the alternating three-phase back EMF (‫ ( ܧ‬is converted which appears across the inverter
DC supply.

Fig 1.3: Four Quadrant Operation

5
But this can happen only when the diodes (D) of VSI are forward biased this is achieved
by reducing the dc-link voltage making it less than the rectified back EMF voltage which is an
ideal case in absence phase resistance Fig. 2, with the presence of phase resistance the equation
becomes, Once the diodes are forward biased, immediately the control is transferred to switch T2
which step up the voltage and charges the battery.

The control logic is elaborated. The controlling of switch T2 is done through the current
control. During vehicle downhill run the speed is more than the reference speed (higher potential
energy) is converted to kinetic energy. To maintain the speed equal to the reference speed, the
kinetic energy of the motor could be returned to the battery.

6
CHAPTER 2
PROPOSED DC -DC CONVERTER

Buck–boost converter is a type of DC--DC converter that has an output voltage


magnitude that is either greater than or less than the input voltage magnitude. It is equivalent to
a fly back converter using a single inductor instead of a transformer. Two different topologies are
called buck–boost converter. Both of them can produce a range of output voltages, ranging from
much larger (in absolute magnitude) than the input voltage, down to almost zero.

Fig 2.1: Proposed converter


The output voltage is of the opposite polarity than the input. This is a switched-mode power
supply with a similar circuit topology to the boost converter and the buck converter. The output
voltage is adjustable based on the duty cycle of the switching transistor. One possible drawback
of this converter is that the switch does not have a terminal at ground; this complicates the
driving circuitry. However, this drawback is of no consequence if the power supply is isolated
from the load circuit (if, for example, the supply is a battery) because the supply and diode
polarity can simply be reversed. When they can be reversed, the switch can be on either the
ground side or the supply side.

A buck (step-down) converter combined with a boost (step-up) converter. The output voltage
is typically of the same polarity of the input, and can be lower or higher than the input. Such a
non-inverting buck-boost converter may use a single inductor which is used for both the buck
inductor mode and the boost inductor mode, using switches instead of diodes, sometimes called
a "four-switch buck-boost converter", it may use multiple inductors but only a single switch as in
the SEPIC and Ćuk topologies. Buck boost converter principle of operation applications.

7
2.1 INTRODUCTION TO BUCK BOOST CONVERTER

A Buck converter is a switch mode DC to DC converter in which the output voltage can
be transformed to a level less than or greater than the input voltage. The magnitude of output
voltage depends on the duty cycle of the switch. It is also called as step up/step down converter.
The name step up/step down converter comes from the fact that analogous to step up/step down
transformer the input voltage can be stepped up/down to a level greater than/less than the input
voltage. By law of conservation of energy the input power has to be equal to output power
(assuming no losses in the circuit).
Input power (Pin) = output power (Pout)
In step up mode Vin < V out in a Buck Boost converter, it follows then that the output current will
be less than the input current. Therefore for a Buck Boost converter in step up mode.

Vin < V out and I in >I out


In step down mode Vin > V out in a Buck Boost converter, it follows then that the output current
will be greater than the input current. Therefore for a Buck Boost converter in step down mode.
Vin >V out and I in <I out

2.2 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF BUCK CONVERTER

The main working principle of Buck Boost converter is that the inductor in the input
circuit resists sudden variations in input current. When switch is ON the inductor stores energy
from the input in the form of magnetic energy and discharges it when switch is closed. The
capacitor in the output circuit is assumed large enough that the time constant of RC circuit in the
output stage is high. The large time constant compared to switching period ensures that in steady
state a constant output voltage Vo(t) = Vo(constant) exists across load terminals.

8
2.3 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF BUCK BOOST CONVERTER

The circuit diagram of Typical Buck Boost converter is shown in the figure below

Fig 2.2: Typical buck boost converter

2.4 MODES OF OPERATION OF BUCK BOOST CONVERTER


The Buck Boost converter can be operated in two modes
a) Continuous conduction mode in which the current through inductor never goes to zero i.e.
inductor partially discharges before the start of the switching cycle.
b) Discontinuous conduction mode in which the current through inductor goes to zero i.e.
inductor is completely discharged at the end of switching cycle.

2.4.1 Circuit analysis of buck converter

Assume in the entire analysis that the current swing (maximum to minimum value)
through inductor and voltage swing through capacitor is very less so that they vary in a linear
fashion. This is to ease the analysis and the results we will get through this analysis are quite
accurate compared to real values.
Continuous conduction mode
Case-1: When switch S is ON
When switch in ON for a time ton, the diode will be open circuited since it does not allow
currents in reverse direction from input to output. Hence the Buck Boost converter can be
redrawn as follows.

9
Fig 2.3: When switch S is ON

During this state the inductor charges and the inductor current increases. The current
through the inductor is given as

Assume that prior to the opening of switch the inductor current is I’L, off. Since the input
voltage is constant.

Assume the switch is open for ton seconds which is given by D*Ts where D is duty cycle
and Ts is switching time period. The current through the inductor at the end of switch on state is
given as
IL, on = (1/L) *Vin*D*Ts + I’L, on (equation 1)
Hence ΔI L on = (1/L)*Vin*D*Ts.
Case -2: When switch is off
When switch in OFF the diode will be forward biased as it allows current from output to input (p
to n terminal) and the Buck Boost converter circuit can be redrawn as follows.

10
Fig 2.4: When switch is off
The inductor now discharges through the diode and RC combination. Assume that prior
to the closing of switch the inductor current is I’’L, off. The current through the inductor is given
as

Note the negative sign at the front end of equation signifies that the inductor is
discharging. Assume the switch is open for toff seconds which is given by (1-D)*Ts where D is
duty cycle and Ts is switching time period. The current through the inductor at the end of switch
off state is given as
I’’’L, off = -(1/L) *V out*(1-D)*Ts + I’’L, off (equation 2)
In steady state condition as the current through the inductor does not change abruptly, the
current at the end of switch on state and the current at the end of switch off state should be equal.
Also the currents at the start of switch off state should be equal to current at the end of switch on
state. Hence
I’’’L, off =IL, on also I’L, off =I’’L, off
Using the equations 1 and 2 we get
(1/L) *Vin*D*Ts = (1/L) *V out*(1-D)*Ts
Vin*D =V out*(1-D)
V out/Vin = D/(1-D)
Since D < 1, V out can be greater than or less than V in. For D>0.5 the Buck boost converter acts
as boost converter with V out >V in.

11
For D<0.5 the Buck boost converter acts as buck converter with Vout >Vin.
Assuming no losses in the circuit and applying the law of conservation of energy.
V out*I out = Vin*I in
This implies I out/I in = (1-D)/D, Thus I out > I in for D<0.5 and I out < I in for D<0.5. As the
duty cycle increases the output voltage increases and output current decreases.
Discontinuous conduction mode
As mentioned before the converter when operated in discontinuous mode the inductor
drains its stored energy completely before completion of switching cycle. The current and
voltage wave forms of Buck Boost converter in discontinuous mode is shown in the figure
below.

Fig 2(a): Waveforms of current and voltage in a buck–boost converter operating in


discontinuous mode.
12
The inductor in discontinuous mode drains all the current which it piled up in charging
interval of same switching cycle. The current through the inductor is given as

= (1/L)*area under the curve of voltage v/s time. Hence from


the wave forms shown in the figure
V out*δ*Ts = Vin*D*Ts
V out/Vin =D/δ
and the ratio of output to input current from law of conservation of energy is I out/I in = δ/D.

2.5 APPLICATIONS OF BUCK BOOST CONVERTER

 It is used in the self- regulating power supplies.


 It has consumer electronics.
 It is used in the Battery power systems.
 Adaptive control applications.
 Power amplifier applications.
1. Cheap to make.

2. Little heat whilst working.

3. Low power consumption.

4. Can utilize very high frequencies (40-100 Khz is not uncommon.)

5. Very energy-efficient when used to convert voltages or to dim light bulbs.

6. High power handling capability.

7. Efficiency up to 90%.

A modulation technique used to encode a message into a pulsing signal. Although this

modulation technique can be used to encode information for transmission, its main use is to

allow the control of the power supplied to electrical devices, especially to inertial loads such as

motors. In addition, PWM is one of the two principal algorithms used in photovoltaic solar

battery chargers, the other being MPPT.

13
The average value of voltage (and current) fed to the load is controlled by turning the

switch between supply and load on and off at a fast rate. The longer the switch is on compared to

the off periods, the higher the total power supplied to the load.

The PWM switching frequency has to be much higher than what would affect the load

(the device that uses the power), which is to say that the resultant waveform perceived by the

load must be as smooth as possible. Typically switching has to be done several times a minute in

an electric stove, 120 Hz in a lamp dimmer, from few kilohertz (kHz) to tens of kHz for a motor

drive and well into the tens or hundreds of kHz in audio amplifiers and computer power supplies.

The term duty cycle describes the proportion of 'on' time to the regular interval or 'period'

of time; a low duty cycle corresponds to low power, because the power is off for most of the

time. Duty cycle is expressed in percent, 100% being fully on.

The main advantage of PWM is that power loss in the switching devices is very low.

When a switch is off there is practically no current, and when it is on and power is being

transferred to the load, there is almost no voltage drop across the switch. Power loss, being the

product of voltage and current, is thus in both cases close to zero. PWM also works well with

digital controls, which, because of their on/off nature, can easily set the needed duty cycle.

PWM has also been used in certain communication systems where its duty cycle has

been used to convey information over a communications channel.An example of PWM in an

idealized inductor driven by a voltage source: the voltage source (blue) is modulated as a series

of pulses that results in a sine-like current/flux (red) in the inductor.

14
The blue rectangular pulses nonetheless result in a smoother and smoother red sine wave

as the switching frequency increases. Note that the red waveform is the (definite) integral of the

blue waveform.

2.6 PRINCIPLE

Pulse-width modulation uses a rectangular pulse wave whose pulse width is modulated

resulting in the variation of the average value of the waveform. If we consider a pulse

waveform , with period , low value , a high value and a duty cycle D (see

figure 1), the average value of the waveform is given by:

As is a pulse wave, its value is for and

for . The above expression then becomes:

This latter expression can be fairly simplified in many cases where

as . From this, it is obvious that the average value of the signal ( ) is directly

dependent on the duty cycle D.

The simplest way to generate a PWM signal is the intersective method, which requires

only a sawtooth or a triangle waveform (easily generated using a simple oscillator) and

a comparator.

15
When the value of the reference signal (the red sine wave in figure 2) is more than the

modulation waveform (blue), the PWM signal (magenta) is in the high state, otherwise it is in the

low state.

The PWM is a technique which is used to drive the inertial loads since a very long time.

The simple example of an inertial load is a motor. Apply the power to a motor for a very short

period of time and then turn off the power: it can be observed that the motor is still running even

after the power has been cut off from it. This is due to the inertia of the motor and the

significance of this factor is that the continuous power is not required for that kind of devices to

operate. A burst power can save the total power supplied to the load while achieving the same

performance from the device as it runs on continuous power.

The PWM technique is use in devices like DC motors, Loudspeakers, Class -D

Amplifiers, SMPS etc. They are also used in communication field as-well. The modulation

techniques like AM, FM are widely used RF communication whereas the PWM is modulation

technique is mostly used in Optical Fiber Communication (OFC).

As in the case of the inertial loads mentioned previously, the PWM in a communication

link greatly saves the transmitter power. The immunity of the PWM transmission against the

inter-symbol interference is another advantage. This article discusses the technique of generating

a PWM wave corresponding to a modulating sine wave.

2.7 DESCRIPTION:

The Pulse Width Modulation is a technique in which the ON time or OFF time of a

pulse is varied according to the amplitude of the modulating signal.

16
Fig 2.5: SPWM block diagram

Fig 2.6: SPWM SIMULATION DIAGRAM

17
Graph 2(b): SCOPE view

Graph 2(c): SCOPE 1 view

18
Graph 2(d): SCOPE 2 view

The (ON time + OFF time) time of the pulse as constant. The (ON time + OFF time) of a

pulse is called ‘Period’ of the pulse, and the ratio of the ON time or OFF time with the Period is

called the ‘Duty Cycle’. Hence the PWM is a kind of modulation which keeps the Period of

pulses constant but varying their duty cycle according to the amplitude of the modulating signal.

The conventional method of generating a PWM modulated wave is to compare the

message signal with a ramp waveform using a comparator. The block diagram required for the

generation of a simple PWM is shown.

19
CHAPTER 3
VOLTAGE SOURCE INVERTER

DC to AC converters produce an AC output waveform from a DC source. Applications


include adjustable speed drives (ASD), uninterruptable power supplies (UPS), active
filters, Flexible AC transmission systems (FACTS), voltage compensators, and photovoltaic
generators. Topologies for these converters can be separated into two distinct categories: voltage
source inverters and current source inverters. Voltage source inverters (VSIs) are named so
because the independently controlled output is a voltage waveform. Similarly, current source
inverters (CSIs) are distinct in that the controlled AC output is a current waveform.

Being static power converters, the DC to AC power conversion is the result of power
switching devices, which are commonly fully controllable semiconductor power switches. The
output waveforms are therefore made up of discrete values, producing fast transitions rather than
smooth ones. The ability to produce near sinusoidal waveforms around the fundamental
frequency is dictated by the modulation technique controlling when, and for how long, the power
valves are on and off. Common modulation techniques include the carrier-based technique, or
pulse width modulation, space-vector technique, and the selective-harmonic technique.

Voltage source inverters have practical uses in both single-phase and three-phase
applications. Single-phase VSIs utilize half-bridge and full-bridge configurations, and are widely
used for power supplies, single-phase UPSs, and elaborate high-power topologies when used in
multicell configurations. Three-phase VSIs are used in applications that require sinusoidal
voltage waveforms, such as ASDs, UPSs, and some types of FACTS devices such as
the STATCOM. They are also used in applications where arbitrary voltages are required as in the
case of active filters and voltage compensators.

Current source inverters are used to produce an AC output current from a DC current
supply. This type of inverter is practical for three-phase applications in which high-quality
voltage waveforms are required.

20
A relatively new class of inverters, called multilevel inverters, has gained widespread
interest. Normal operation of CSIs and VSIs can be classified as two-level inverters, due to the
fact that power switches connect to either the positive or to the negative DC bus. If more than
two voltage levels were available to the inverter output terminals, the AC output could better
approximate a sine wave. It is for this reason that multilevel inverters, although more complex
and costly, offer higher performance.

Each inverter type differs in the DC links used, and in whether or not they require
freewheeling diodes. Either can be made to operate in square-wave or pulse-width modulation
(PWM) mode, depending on its intended usage. Square-wave mode offers simplicity, while
PWM can be implemented several different ways and produces higher quality waveforms.

Voltage Source Inverters (VSI) feed the output inverter section from an approximately
constant-voltage source. The desired quality of the current output waveform determines which
modulation technique needs to be selected for a given application. The output of a VSI is
composed of discrete values. In order to obtain a smooth current waveform, the loads need to be
inductive at the select harmonic frequencies. Without some sort of inductive filtering between
the source and load, a capacitive load will cause the load to receive a choppy current waveform,
with large and frequent current spikes.

There are three main types of VSIs:

 Single-phase half-bridge inverter


 Single-phase full-bridge inverter

3.1. SINGLE-PHASE HALF-BRIDGE INVERTER

Fig 3.1: The AC input for an ASD.

21
Fig 3.2: Single-Phase Half-Bridge Voltage Source Inverter
The single-phase voltage source half-bridge inverters, are meant for lower voltage
applications and are commonly used in power supplies. Figure 2 shows the circuit schematic of
this inverter.

Low-order current harmonics get injected back to the source voltage by the operation of
the inverter. This means that two large capacitors are needed for filtering purposes in this design.
As Figure 2 illustrates, only one switch can be on at time in each leg of the inverter. If both
switches in a leg were on at the same time, the DC source will be shorted out.

Inverters can use several modulation techniques to control their switching schemes. The
carrier-based PWM technique compares the AC output waveform, vc, to a carrier voltage signal,
vΔ. When vc is greater than vΔ, S+ is on, and when vc is less than vΔ, S- is on. When the AC
output is at frequency fc with its amplitude at vc, and the triangular carrier signal is at frequency
fΔ with its amplitude at vΔ, the PWM becomes a special sinusoidal case of the carrier based
PWM. This case is dubbed sinusoidal pulse-width modulation (SPWM).For this, the modulation
index, or amplitude-modulation ratio, is defined as ma = vc / v∆ .

The normalized carrier frequency, or frequency-modulation ratio, is calculated using the


equation mf = f∆ / fc. If the over-modulation region, ma, exceeds one, a higher fundamental AC
output voltage will be observed, but at the cost of saturation. For SPWM, the harmonics of the
output waveform are at well-defined frequencies and amplitudes. This simplifies the design of
the filtering components needed for the low-order current harmonic injection from the operation
of the inverter.

22
The maximum output amplitude in this mode of operation is half of the source voltage. If
the maximum output amplitude, ma, exceeds 3.24, the output waveform of the inverter becomes
a square wave.

As was true for PWM, both switches in a leg for square wave modulation cannot be
turned on at the same time, as this would cause a short across the voltage source. The switching
scheme requires that both S+ and S- be on for a half cycle of the AC output period. The
fundamental AC output amplitude is equal to vo1 = vaN.

Therefore, the AC output voltage is not controlled by the inverter, but rather by the
magnitude of the DC input voltage of the inverter.

Using Selective Harmonic E w limination (SHE) as a modulation technique allows the


switching of the inverter to selectively eliminate intrinsic harmonics. The fundamental
component of the AC output voltage can also be adjusted within a desirable range. Since the AC
output voltage obtained from this modulation technique has odd half and odd quarter wave
symmetry, even harmonics do not exist. Any undesirable odd (N-1) intrinsic harmonics from the
output waveform can be eliminated.

3.2. SINGLE-PHASE FULL-BRIDGE INVERTER

Fig 3.3: Single-Phase Voltage Source Full-Bridge Inverter

23
Fig 3.4: Carrier and Modulating Signals for the Bipolar Pulse width Modulation
Technique
The full-bridge inverter is similar to the half bridge-inverter, but it has an additional leg
to connect the neutral point to the load. Figure 3 shows the circuit schematic of the single-phase
voltage source full-bridge inverter.

To avoid shorting out the voltage source, S1+ and S1- cannot be on at the same time, and
S2+ and S2- also cannot be on at the same time. Any modulating technique used for the full-
bridge configuration should have either the top or the bottom switch of each leg on at any given
time. Due to the extra leg, the maximum amplitude of the output waveform is Vi, and is twice as
large as the maximum achievable output amplitude for the half-bridge configuration.

States 1 and 2 from Table 2 are used to generate the AC output voltage with bipolar
SPWM. The AC output voltage can take on only two values, either Vi or –Vi. To generate these
same states using a half-bridge configuration, a carry based technique can be used. S+ being on
for the half-bridge corresponds to S1+ and S2- being on for the full-bridge. Similarly, S- being
on for the half-bridge corresponds to S1- and S2+ being on for the full bridge. The output voltage
for this modulation technique is more or less sinusoidal, with a fundamental component that has
an amplitude in the linear region of ma less than or equal to one vo1 =vab1= vi • ma.

Unlike the bipolar PWM technique, the unipolar approach uses states 1, 2, 3 and 4 from
Table 2 to generate its AC output voltage. Therefore, the AC output voltage can take on the
values Vi, 0 or –V [1] i. To generate these states, two sinusoidal modulating signals, Vc and –Vc,
are needed, as seen in Figure.

24
Vc is used to generate VaN, while –Vc is used to generate VbN. The following
relationship is called unipolar carrier-based SPWM vo1 =2 • vaN1= vi • ma.

The phase voltages VaN and VbN are identical, but 180 degrees out of phase with each
other. The output voltage is equal to the difference of the two phase voltages, and do not contain
any even harmonics. Therefore, if mf is taken, even the AC output voltage harmonics will appear
at normalized odd frequencies, fh. These frequencies are centered on double the value of the
normalized carrier frequency. This particular feature allows for smaller filtering components
when trying to obtain a higher quality output waveform. As was the case for the half-bridge
SHE, the AC output voltage contains no even harmonics due to its odd half and odd quarter wave
symmetry.

Through VSI, a DC supply feeds the three phase inverter. The stage after the capacitor is
depicted in the diagram has six IGBT switches with anti-parallel diodes linked across them.
Switch-like MOSFETs can be used instead of IGBTs because they have an anti-parallel diode
built in, although the ON-state voltage drop is a concern with MOSFETs.

MOSFETs can also be utilized for low voltage. The back Electromotive force waveform of
a BLDC motor is typically trapezoidal. The current injection across the 120° duration of a
constant back EMF is to achieve constant output power. The current injection is managed in the
inverter by the two switches with separate legs at the same.

As a result, only two switches are active. For optimal torque output, the current injected in
each phase can be correctly lined up with the back EMF to acquire the flux in the motor with
angle nearer to 90°. For both forward and reverse motoring, the MOSFET switching sequences
are depicted in Figure. 3.4.

25
Fig 3.5: Switching sequences of switches in VSI with respect to Back EMF, phase
current.

26
CHAPTER 4
PROPOSED BRUSHLESS DC MOTORS

Brushless DC motors (BLDC) have been a much focused area for numerous motor
manufacturers as these motors are increasingly the preferred choice in many applications,
especially in the field of motor control technology. BLDC motors are superior to brushed DC
motors in many ways, such as ability to operate at high speeds, high efficiency, and better heat
dissipation. They are an indispensable part of modern drive technology, most commonly
employed for actuating drives, machine tools, electric propulsion, robotics, computer peripherals
and also for electrical power generation. With the development of sensor less technology besides
digital control, these motors become so effective in terms of total system cost, size and
reliability.
A brushless DC motor (known as BLDC) is a permanent magnet synchronous electric
motor which is driven by direct current (DC) electricity and it accomplishes electronically
controlled commutation system (commutation is the process of producing rotational torque in the
motor by changing phase currents through it at appropriate times) instead of a mechanically
commutation system. BLDC motors are also referred as trapezoidal permanent magnet motors.

Unlike conventional brushed type DC motor, wherein the brushes make the mechanical
contact with commutator on the rotor so as to form an electric path between a DC electric source
and rotor armature windings, BLDC motor employs electrical commutation with permanent
magnet rotor and a stator with a sequence of coils. In this motor, permanent magnet (or field
poles) rotates and current carrying conductors are fixed.

27
Fig:4.1 Armature coils of BLDC Motor.

The armature coils are switched electronically by transistors or silicon controlled


rectifiers at the correct rotor position in such a way that armature field is in space quadrature
with the rotor field poles. Hence the force acting on the rotor causes it to rotate. Hall sensors or
rotary encoders are most commonly used to sense the position of the rotor and are positioned
around the stator. The rotor position feedback from the sensor helps to determine when to switch
the armature current.
This electronic commutation arrangement eliminates the commutator arrangement and
brushes in a DC motor and hence more reliable and less noisy operation is achieved. Due to the
absence of brushes BLDC motors are capable to run at high speeds. The efficiency of BLDC
motors is typically 85 to 90 percent, whereas as brushed type DC motors are 75 to 80 percent
efficient. There are wide varieties of BLDC motors available ranging from small power range to
fractional horsepower, integral horsepower and large power ranges.

28
4.1 CONSTRUCTION OF BLDC MOTOR

BLDC motors can be constructed in different physical configurations. Depending on the


stator windings, these can be configured as single-phase, two-phase, or three-phase motors.
However, three-phase BLDC motors with permanent magnet rotor are most commonly used.
The construction of this motor has many similarities of three phase induction motor as well as
conventional DC motor. This motor has stator and rotor parts as like all other motors.

Fig 4.2: BLDC motor

Stator of a BLDC motor made up of stacked steel laminations to carry the windings.
These windings are placed in slots which are axially cut along the inner periphery of the stator.
These windings can be arranged in either star or delta.

29
However, most BLDC motors have three phase star connected stator. Each winding is
constructed with numerous interconnected coils, where one or more coils are placed in each slot.
In order to form an even number of poles, each of these windings is distributed over the stator
periphery. The stator must be chosen with the correct rating of the voltage depending on the
power supply capability. For robotics, automotive and small actuating applications, 48 V or less
voltage BLDC motors are preferred. For industrial applications and automation systems, 100 V
or higher rating motors are used.

Fig 4.3: Stator of BLDC motor

4.2 ROTOR

BLDC motor incorporates a permanent magnet in the rotor. The number of poles in the
rotor can vary from 2 to 8 pole pairs with alternate south and north poles depending on the
application requirement. In order to achieve maximum torque in the motor, the flux density of
the material should be high. A proper magnetic material for the rotor is needed to produce
required magnetic field density.

30
Fig 4.4: Rotor of BLDC motor

Ferrite magnets are inexpensive, however they have a low flux density for a given
volume. Rare earth alloy magnets are commonly used for new designs. Some of these alloys are
Samarium Cobalt (SmCo), Neodymium (Nd), and Ferrite and Boron (NdFeB). The rotor can be
constructed with different core configurations such as the circular core with permanent magnet
on the periphery, circular core with rectangular magnets, etc.

4.3 HALL SENSORS

Hall sensor provides the information to synchronize stator armature excitation with rotor
position. Since the commutation of BLDC motor is controlled electronically, the stator windings
should be energized in sequence in order to rotate the motor. Before energizing a particular stator
winding, acknowledgment of rotor position is necessary.

So, the Hall Effect sensor embedded in stator senses the rotor position. Most BLDC
motors incorporate three Hall sensors which are embedded into the stator. Each sensor generates
Low and High signals whenever the rotor poles pass near to it. The exact commutation sequence
to the stator winding can be determined based on the combination of these three sensor’s
response.

31
4.4 WORKING PRINCIPLE AND OPERATION OF BLDC MOTOR

BLDC motor works on the principle similar to that of a conventional DC motor, i.e., the
Lorentz force law which states that whenever a current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic
field it experiences a force. As a consequence of reaction force, the magnet will experience an
equal and opposite force.

In case BLDC motor, the current carrying conductor is stationary while the permanent
magnet moves. When the stator coils are electrically switched by a supply source, it becomes
electromagnet and starts producing the uniform field in the air gap. Though the source of supply
is DC, switching makes to generate an AC voltage waveform with trapezoidal shape. Due to the
force of interaction between electromagnet stator and permanent magnet rotor, the rotor
continues to rotate.

Consider the figure below in which motor stator is excited based on different switching
states. With the switching of windings as High and Low signals, corresponding winding
energized as North and South poles. The permanent magnet rotor with North and South poles
align with stator poles causing motor to rotate.

Observe that motor produces torque because of the development of attraction forces
(when North-South or South-North alignment) and repulsion forces (when North-North or
South-South alignment). By this way motor moves in a clockwise direction.

Here, one might get a question that how we know which stator coil should be energized
and when to do. This is because; the motor continuous rotation depends on the switching
sequence around the coils. As discussed above that Hall sensors give shaft position feedback to
the electronic controller unit. Based on this signal from sensor, the controller decides particular
coils to energize. Hall-effect sensors generate Low and High level signals whenever rotor poles
pass near to it. These signals determine the position of the shaft.

32
Fig 4.5: working principle of BLDC motor

4.5 BRUSHLESS DC MOTOR DRIVE

As described above that the electronic controller circuit energizes appropriate motor
winding by turning transistor or other solid state switches to rotate the motor continuously. The
figure below shows the simple BLDC motor drive circuit which consists of MOSFET bridge
(also called as inverter bridge), electronic controller, hall effect sensor and BLDC motor.

Here, Hall-effect sensors are used for position and speed feedback. The electronic
controller can be a microcontroller unit or microprocessor or DSP processor or FPGA unit or any
other controller. This controller receives these signals, processes them and sends the control
signals to the MOSFET driver circuit.

33
Fig 4.6: Simple BLDC motor drive circuit

In addition to the switching for a rated speed of the motor, additional electronic circuitry
changes the motor speed based on required application. These speed control units are generally
implemented with PID controllers to have precise control. It is also possible to produce four-
quadrant operation from the motor whilst maintaining good efficiency throughout the speed
variations using modern drives.

34
4.6 ADVANTAGES OF BLDC MOTOR
BLDC motor has several advantages over conventional DC motors and some of these are
 It has no mechanical commutator and associated problems.
 High efficiency due to the use of permanent magnet rotor.
 High speed of operation even in loaded and unloaded conditions due to the absence of brushes
that limits the speed.
 Smaller motor geometry and lighter in weight than both brushed type DC and induction AC
motors.
 Long life as no inspection and maintenance is required for commutator system.
 Higher dynamic response due to low inertia and carrying windings in the stator.
 Less electromagnetic interference.
 Quite operation (or low noise) due to absence of brushes.

4.7 DISADVANTAGES OF BRUSHLESS DC MOTOR


 These motors are costly.
 Electronic controller required control this motor is expensive.
 Not much availability of many integrated electronic control solutions, especially for tiny
BLDC motors.
 Requires complex drive circuitry.
 Need of additional sensors.

4.8 APPLICATIONS OF BRUSHLESS DC MOTORS (BLDC)


Brushless DC Motors (BLDC) are used for a wide variety of application requirements
such as varying loads, constant loads and positioning applications in the fields of industrial
control, automotive, aviation, automation systems, health care equipments, etc. Some specific
applications of BLDC motors are
 Computer hard drives and DVD/CD players.
 Electric vehicles, hybrid vehicles, and electric bicycles.
 Industrial robots, CNC machine tools, and simple belt driven systems.
 Washing machines, compressors and dryers.
 Fans, pumps and blowers.

35
4.9 SPEED CONTROLLER MODELLING
PID controllers are used for speed control. When compared to a PD controller, a PID
controller allows for more precise speed tracking. Besides the error tracking of a PI controller
is outstanding, but the operation period is too slow. The tuning of the controller (PID) is the
issue. Through MATLAB/Simulink software the tuning of the system is very easy. The PID
variable value is shown in Table below. The mentioned bi-directional converter necessitates
the control of the switches T1, T2.
A PI controller will be used to control the switches. The DC- link voltage of VSI is
connected to the controller or a feedback system to control the speed through the hysteresis
control in the motoring mode. For turning on the switch T1 the DC link voltage is adjusted.
The gate logic command of a bi – directional DC-DC converter is shown in Figure 4.6.

Fig 4.7: Control logics for the Bi-directional converter.

36
Because the actual speed must be similar to the reference speed during the regenerative mode,
current control is done to control the switch T2.

TABLE I
PID CONTROLLER PARAMETERS

4.10 PID CONTROLLER


A proportional–integral–derivative controller (PID controller or three-term controller)
is a control loop mechanism employing feedback that is widely used in industrial control
systems and a variety of other applications requiring continuously modulated control. A PID
controller continuously calculates an error value {\display style e(t)}e(t) as the difference
between a desired set point (SP) and a measured process variable (PV) and applies a
correction based on proportional, integral, and derivative terms (denoted P, I, and D
respectively).

In practical terms it automatically applies an accurate and responsive correction to


a control function. An everyday example is the cruise control on a car, where ascending a
hill would lower speed if only constant engine power were applied. The controller's PID
algorithm restores the measured speed to the desired speed with minimal delay and
overshoot by increasing the power output of the engine.

37
Fig 4.8: A block diagram of a PID controller in a feedback loop. r(t) is the desired process
value or set point (SP), and y(t) is the measured process value (PV).

The distinguishing feature of the PID controller is the ability to use the three control terms of
proportional, integral and derivative influence on the controller output to apply accurate and
optimal control. The block diagram on the right shows the principles of how these terms are
generated and applied.

It shows a PID controller, which continuously calculates an error value as the


difference between a desired set point and a measured process variable , and applies a
correction based on proportional, integral, and derivative terms. The controller attempts to
minimize the error over time by adjustment of a control variable, such as the opening of
a control valve, to a new value determined by a weighted sum of the control terms.

In this model:

 Term P is proportional to the current value of the SP − PV error . For example, if the
error is large and positive, the control output will be proportionately large and
positive, taking into account the gain factor "K". Using proportional control alone
will result in an error between the set point and the actual process value because it
requires an error to generate the proportional response. If there is no error, there is no
corrective response.

38
 Term I accounts for past values of the SP − PV error and integrates them over time to
produce the I term. For example, if there is a residual SP − PV error after the
application of proportional control, the integral term seeks to eliminate the residual
error by adding a control effect due to the historic cumulative value of the error.
When the error is eliminated, the integral term will cease to grow. This will result in
the proportional effect diminishing as the error decreases, but this is compensated for
by the growing integral effect.
 Term D is a best estimate of the future trend of the SP − PV error, based on its
current rate of change. It is sometimes called "anticipatory control", as it is
effectively seeking to reduce the effect of the SP − PV error by exerting a control
influence generated by the rate of error change. The more rapid the change, the
greater the controlling or damping effect

Fig 4.9: System response of PID controller

39
4.10.1 Applicability

The use of the PID algorithm does not guarantee optimal control of the system or
its control stability . Situations may occur where there are excessive delays: the measurement of
the process value is delayed, or the control action does not apply quickly enough. In these
cases lead–lag compensation is required to be effective. The response of the controller can be
described in terms of its responsiveness to an error, the degree to which the system overshoots a
set point, and the degree of any system oscillation. But the PID controller is broadly applicable
since it relies only on the response of the measured process variable, not on knowledge or a
model of the underlying process.

40
CHAPTER 5
PROPOSED SIMULATION RESULTS

5.1 INTRODUCTION

Simulink is a software package for modeling, simulating, and analyzing dynamical


systems. It supports linear and nonlinear systems, modeled in continuous time, sampled time, or
a hybrid of the two. For modeling, Simulink provides a graphical user interface (GUI) for
building models as block diagrams, using click-and-drag mouse operations. Models are
hierarchical, so we can build models using both top-down and bottom-up approaches. We can
view the system at a high level, then double-click on blocks to go down through the levels to see
increasing levels of model detail.

This approach provides insight into how a model is organized and how its parts interact.
After we define a model, we can simulate it, using a choice of integration methods, either from
the Simulink menus or by entering commands in MATLAB's command window. Using scopes
and other display blocks, we can see the simulation results while the simulation is running. In
addition, we can change parameters and immediately see what happens, for "what if"
exploration.

The simulation results can be put in the MATLAB workspace for post processing and
visualization. Simulink can be used to explore the behavior of a wide range of real-world
dynamic systems, including electrical circuits, shock absorbers, braking systems, and many other
electrical, mechanical, and thermodynamic systems.

Simulating a dynamic system is a two-step process with Simulink. First, we create a


graphical model of the system to be simulated, using Simulink's model editor. The model depicts
the time-dependent mathematical relationships among the system’s inputs, states, and outputs.
Then, we use Simulink to simulate the behavior of the system over a specified time span.
Simulink uses information that you entered into the model to perform the simulation.

41
5.2. BLOCK DIAGRAM

A Simulink block diagram is a pictorial model of a dynamic system. It consists of a set of


symbols, called blocks, interconnected by lines. Each block represents an elementary dynamic
system that produces an output either continuously (a continuous block) or at specific points in
time (a discrete block).

The lines represent connections of block inputs to block outputs. Every block in a block
diagram is an instance of a specific type of block. The type of the block determines the
relationship between a block's outputs and its inputs, states, and time. A block diagram can
contain any number of instances of any type of block needed to model a system. Blocks
represent elementary dynamic systems that Simulink knows how to simulate. A block comprises
one or more of the following:

1) A set of inputs,
2) A set of states, and
3) A set of outputs.
A block's output is a function of time and the block's inputs and states (if any). The
specific function that relates a block's output to its inputs, states, and time depends on the type of
block of which the block is an instance. Continuous Versus discrete Blocks Simulink's standard
block set includes continuous blocks and discrete blocks. Continuous blocks respond
continuously to continuously changing input. Discrete blocks, by contrast, respond to changes in
input only at integral multiples of a fixed interval called the block's sample time.

Discrete blocks hold their output constant between successive sample time hits. Each
discrete block includes a sample time parameter that allows you to specify its sample rate. The
Simulink blocks can be either continuous or discrete, depending on whether they are driven by
continuous or discrete blocks. A block that can be either discrete or continuous is said to have an
implicit sample rate. The implicit sample time is continuous if any of the block's inputs are
continuous.

42
The implicit sample time is equal to the shortest input sample time if all the input sample
times are integral multiples of the shortest time. Otherwise, the input sample time is equal to the
fundamental sample time of the inputs, where the fundamental sample time of a set of sample
times is defined as the greatest integer divisor of the set of sample times.

Simulink can optionally color code a block diagram to indicate the sample times of the
blocks it contains, e.g., black (continuous), magenta (constant), yellow (hybrid), red (fastest
discrete), and so on. The block contains block name, icon, and block library that contain the
block, the purpose of the block.

5.3 SIMULINK BLOCK LIBRARIES

Simulink organizes its blocks into block libraries according to their behavior.

1) The Sources library contains blocks that generate signals.


2) The Sinks library contains blocks that display or write block output.
3) The Discrete library contains blocks that describe discrete-time components.
4) The Continuous library contains blocks that describe linear functions.
5) The Math library contains blocks that describe general mathematics functions.
6) The Functions & Tables library contains blocks that describe general functions and table
look-up operations.
7) The Nonlinear library contains blocks that describe nonlinear functions.
8) The Signal & Systems library contains blocks that allow multiplexing and de-
multiplexing, implement external input/output, pass data to other parts of the model, and
perform other functions.
9) The Subsystems library contains blocks for creating various types of subsystems.
10) The Block sets and Toolboxes library contains the Extras block library of specialized
blocks.

43
5.4 SUB SYSTEMS

Simulink allows to model a complex system as a set of interconnected subsystems each


of which is represented by a block diagram. We create a subsystem using Simulink's Subsystem
block and the Simulink model editor. We can embed subsystems with subsystems to any depth to
create hierarchical models. We can create conditionally executed subsystems that are executed
only when a transition occurs on a triggering or enabling input.

5.5 SOLVERS

Simulink simulates a dynamic system by computing its states at successive time step
solver a specified time span, using information provided by the model. The process of computing
the successive states of a system from its model is known as solving the model.

No single method of solving a model suffices for all systems. Accordingly, Simulink
provides a set of programs, known as solvers, that each embody a particular approach to solving
a model. The Simulation Parameters dialog box allows us to choose the solver most suitable for
our model.

5.5.1 Fixed-Step and Variable-Step Solvers

Fixed-step solvers solve the model at regular time intervals from the beginning to the end
of the simulation. The size of the interval is known as the step-size. We can specify the step size
or let the solver choose the step size. Generally decreasing the step size increases the accuracy of
the results while increasing the time required to simulate the system.

Variable-step solvers vary the step size during the simulation, reducing the step size to
increase accuracy when a model's states are changing rapidly and increasing the step size to
avoid taking unnecessary steps when the model's states are changing slowly. Computing the step
size adds to the computational overhead at each step but can reduce the total number of steps,
and hence simulation time, required to maintain a specified level of accuracy for models with
rapidly changing or piecewise continuous states.

44
5.5.2 Continuous and Discrete Solvers

Continuous solvers use numerical integration to compute a model's continuous states at


the current time step from the states at previous time steps and the state derivatives. Continuous
solvers rely on the model's blocks to compute the values of the model's discrete states at each
time step. Mathematicians have developed a wide variety of numerical integration techniques for
solving the ordinary differential equations (ODEs) that represent the continuous states of
dynamic systems. Simulink provides an extensive set of fixed-step and variable-step continuous
solvers, each implementing a specific ODE solution method.

Some continuous solvers subdivide the simulation time span into major and minor steps,
where a minor time step represents a subdivision of the major time step. The solver produces a
result at each major time step. It use results at the minor time steps to improve the accuracy of
the result at the major time step.

Discrete solvers exist primarily to solve purely discrete models. They compute the next
simulation time-step for a model and nothing else. They do not compute continuous states and
they rely on the model's blocks to update the model's discrete states.We can use a continuous
solver, but not a discrete solver, to solve a model that contains both continuous and discrete
states. This is because a discrete solver does not handle continuous states. If you select a discrete
solver for a continuous model, Simulink disregards your selection and uses a continuous solver
instead when solving the model.

Simulink provides two discrete solvers, a fixed-step discrete solver and a variable-step
discrete solver. The fixed-step solver by default chooses a step size and hence simulation rate
fast enough to track state changes in the fastest block in our model. The variable-step solver
adjusts the simulation step size to keep pace with the actual rate of discrete state changes in our
model. This can avoid unnecessary steps and hence shorten simulation time for multi-rate
models.

45
5.6 MODEL EXECUTION PHASE

In the simulation model execution phase, Simulink successively computes the states and
outputs of the system at intervals from the simulation start time to the finish time, using
information provided by the model. The successive time points at which the states and outputs
are computed are called time steps.

The length of time between steps is called the step size. The step size depends on the type of
solver used to compute the system's continuous states, the system's fundamental sample time,
and whether the system's continuous states have discontinuities (Zero Crossing Detection). At
the start of the simulation, the model specifies the initial states and outputs of the system to be
simulated. At each step, Simulink computes new values for the system's inputs, states, and
outputs and updates the model to reflect the computed values. At the end of the simulation, the
model reflects the final values of the system's inputs, states, and outputs. At each time step:

1) Simulink Updates the outputs of the models' blocks in sorted order. Simulink computes a
block's outputs by invoking the block's output function. Simulink passes the current time
and the block's inputs and states to the output function as it may require these arguments
to compute the block's output. Simulink updates the output of a discrete block only if the
current step is an integral multiple of the block's sample time.
2) Updates the states of the model's blocks in sorted order. Simulink computes a block's
discrete states by invoking its discrete state update function. Simulink computes a block's
continuous states by numerically integrating the time derivatives of the continuous states.
It computes the time derivatives of the states by invoking the block's continuous
derivatives function.
3) Optionally checks for discontinuities in the continuous states of blocks. Simulink uses a
technique called zero crossing detection to detect discontinuities in continuous states.
4) Computes the time for the next time step.
Simulink repeats steps 1 through 4 until the simulation stop time is reached.

46
5.7 BLOCK SORTING RULES
Simulink uses the following basic update rules to sort the blocks:

1) Each block must be updated before any of the direct-feed through blocks that it drives.
This rule ensures that the inputs to direct-feed through blocks will be valid when they are
updated.
2) Non-direct feed through blocks can be updated in any order as long as they are updated
before any direct-feed through blocks that they drive. This rule can be met by putting all
non-direct feed through blocks at the head of the update list in any order. It thus allows
Simulink to ignore non direct-feed through blocks during the sorting process.

The result of applying these rules is an update list in which non-direct feed through blocks
appear at the head of the list in no particular order followed by direct-feed through blocks in the
order required to supply valid inputs to the blocks they drive. During the sorting process,
Simulink checks for and flags the occurrence of algebraic loops, that is, signal loops in which an
output of a direct-feed through block is connected directly or indirectly to one of the block's
inputs. Such loops seemingly create a deadlock condition since Simulink needs the input of a
direct-feed through block in order to compute its output.

However, an algebraic loop can represent a set of simultaneous algebraic equations (hence
the name) where the block's input and output are the unknowns. Further, these equations can
have valid solutions at each time step. The simulation is executed in order to demonstrate the
behaviour of the system. In Table below, the values of the BLDC motor used are listed.

TABLE II
PARAMETERS OF THE BLDC MOTOR

47
TABLE III
BATTERY PARAMETERS

The voltage covering the inverter is shown in Figure. 5(h). The voltage over the dc-link
can be achieved by the forward braking, where it is reducing from 3 sec. to 3.5 sec, through the
rectification of the three- phase back EMF. The load torque generated with electromagnetic
torque is depicted in Figure. 5(g).

For 8 seconds, the simulation results are displayed. The motor's steady-state operation in
four quadrants is correctly depicted. The BLDC motor first operates in the forward motoring
mode for 3 seconds, followed by 0.5 seconds of braking to lower the speed from 1000 rpm - 350
rpm. Figure 5(k) shows the variation of speed, back EMF and phase current.

TABLE IV

PARAMETERS

48
Fig 5.1: Proposed circuit configuration

49
Graph 5(a): Reference speed

Graph 5(b): Actual speed

50
Graph 5(c): Reference torque

Graph 5(d): Voltage across the inverter.

51
Graph 5(e): Battery State of charge

Graph 5(f): Battery voltage, current, SOC

52
Graph 5(g): Three-Phase current waveform and Three-phase back EMF of the motor.

Graph 5(h): Three-Phase current waveform and Three-phase back EMF of the motor.

53
CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSION

The four quadrant operation is simulated for the electric drive with maximum efficiency
keeping in mind the fuel constraint. The battery is charged during the regenerative mode and the
speed control using the closed loop control is performed. The proposed method requires the
minimum hardware and the operation can be controlled in all the four quadrants. During the
regenerative mode, the kinetic energy is returned via the bi-directional converter to charge the
battery. The abovementioned proposal could be applied in electric vehicle downhill run by
controlling the speeding in gravitational action where the speed becomes more than the reference
speed. The practical implementation is under progress for the proposed method.

54
REFERENCES

[1] B. Prasanth, Deepa Kaliyaperumal, R. Jeyanthi, Saravanan Brahmanandam, Electric


Vehicles and the Future of Energy Efficient Transportation, pp. 193, 2021.
[2] Biswajit Saha, Bhim Singh, "Sensorless PMBLDC Motor Driven Solar-PV Battery
Fed EV System With Regenerative Braking Employing ZetaConverter", Sustainable
Energy and Future Electric Transportation (SEFET) 2021 International Conference
on, pp. 1-6, 2021.

[3] Khalil Sinjari, Joydeep Mitra, "Electric Vehicle Charging with Reactive Power
Compensation to Distribution Systems", IEEE Industry Applications Society Annual
Meeting 2020, pp. 1-6, 2020.

[4] Deepa M. U, Bindu G. R, "A Novel Switching Scheme for Regenerative Braking and
Battery Charging for BLDC motor Drive Used in Electric Vehicle", Power and
Renewable Energy Conference (IPRECON) 2020 IEEE International, pp. 1-6, 2020.

[5] Ujjwal Kumar Kalla,Kusum Lata Agarwal,Nikhil Bhati,Sanjeev Singh, Shailendra


Kumar, Bhim Singh,"Battery Powered LSB Converter Fed BLDC Drive System for
Electric Vehicle Applications",India Council International Conference (INDICON)
2020 IEEE 17th, pp. 1-6, 2020.

[6] Amit Kumar, Raja Gandhi, Robin Wilson, Rakesh Roy, "Analysis of Permanent
Magnet BLDC Motor Design with Different Slot Type", Power Electronics Smart
Grid and Renewable Energy (PESGRE2020) 2020 IEEE International Conference
on, pp. 1-6, 2020.
[7] Rakhi J S, Rajeev T, Archana A N, "Power Management Strategy Based on Vehicle
Dynamics for the Performance Improvement of Electric Vehicles", Power Electronics
Drives and Energy Systems (PEDES) 2020 IEEE International Conference on, pp. 1-
4, 2020.
[8] Qixun Zhou, Jianhua Shu, Ziwei Cai, Quanlong Liu, Guanghui Du, "Improved PWM-
OFF-PWM to Reduce Commutation Torque Ripple of Brushless DC Motor Under
Braking Conditions", Access IEEE, vol. 8, pp. 204020-204030, 2020.
55
[9] Kyoung-Min Choo, Chung-Yuen Won, "Design and Analysis of Electrical
Braking Torque Limit Trajectory for Regenerative Braking in Electric Vehicles With
PMSM Drive Systems", Power Electronics IEEE Transactions on, vol. 35, no. 12,
pp. 13308-13321, 2020.

[10] Valentin Totev, Vultchan Gueorgiev, "Efficiency of Regenerative Braking in


Electric Vehicles", Electrical Apparatus & Technologies (SIELA) 2020 21st
International Symposium on, pp. 1-4, 2020.

[11] F. Hong, B. Ji, Y. Wu and Y. Zhou, "Single-stage variable-turns-ratio high frequency


link grid-connected inverter", IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 34, no. 8, pp. 7629-
7636, Aug. 2019.

[12] Shoeib Heydari, Poria Fajri, Reza Sabzehgar, Mohammad Rasouli, "A Novel
Approach for Maximizing Regenerative Braking Energy Extraction of Electric
Vehicles Using Motor Performance Lookup Table", Transportation Electrification
Conference and Expo (ITEC) 2019 IEEE, pp. 1-5, 2019.

[13] Salem Alshahrani, Muhammad Khalid, Muhammad Almuhaini,"Electric Vehicles


Beyond Energy Storage and Modern Power Networks: Challenges and
Applications", Access IEEE, vol. 7, pp. 99031-99064, 2019.

[14] Wei Liu, Hongzhong Qi, Xintian Liu and Y. Wang, "Evaluation of regenerative
braking based on single-pedal control for electric vehicles", Frontiers of Mechanical
Engineering, 2019.

[15] C. Zhu, C. Zhao and Z. Li, "A Joint Simulation for Electric Vehicle Design based on
MATLAB/Simulink and CarSim", 2019 IEEE International Conference of Vehicular
Electronics and Safety (ICVES), pp. 1-6, 2019.

56
APPENDIX
MATLAB is a high-performance language for technical computing. It integrates
computation, visualization, and programming in an easy-to-use environment where problems and
solutions are expressed in familiar mathematical notation. Typical uses include

 Math and computation


 Algorithm development
 Data acquisition
 Modeling, simulation, and prototyping
 Data analysis, exploration, and visualization
 Scientific and engineering graphics

MATLAB is an interactive system whose basic data element is an array that does not
require dimensioning. This allows solving many technical computing problems, especially those
with matrix and vector formulations, in a fraction of the time it would take to write a program in
a scalar non-interactive language such as C or FORTRAN.

The MATLAB system consists of six main parts:

(a) Development Environment

This is the set of tools and facilities that help to use MATLAB functions and files. Many
of these tools are graphical user interfaces. It includes the MATLAB desktop and Command
Window, a command history, an editor and debugger, and browsers for viewing help, the
workspace, files and the search path.

(b) The MATLAB Mathematical Function Library

This is a vast collection of computational algorithms ranging from elementary functions,


like sum, sine, cosine, and complex arithmetic, to more sophisticated functions like matrix
inverse, matrix Eigen values, Bessel functions, and fast Fourier transforms.

57
(c) The MATLAB Language

This is a high-level matrix/array language with control flow statements, functions, data
structures, input/output, and object-oriented programming features. It allows both "programming
in the small" to rapidly create quick and dirty throw-away programs, and "programming in the
large" to create large and complex application programs.

(d) Graphics

MATLAB has extensive facilities for displaying vectors and matrices as graphs, as well
as annotating and printing these graphs. It includes high-level functions for two-dimensional and
three-dimensional data visualization, image processing, animation, and presentation graphics. It
also includes low-level functions that allow to fully customize the appearance of graphics as well
as to build complete graphical user interfaces on MATLAB applications.

(e) The MATLAB Application Program Interface (API)


This is a library that allows writing in C and FORTRAN programs that interact with
MATLAB. It includes facilities for calling routines from MATLAB (dynamic linking), calling
MATLAB as a computational engine, and for reading and writing MAT-files.

(f) MATLAB Documentation


MATLAB provides extensive documentation, in both printed and online format, to help
to learn about and use all of its features. It covers all the primary MATLAB features at a high
level, including many examples. The MATLAB online help provides task-oriented and reference
information about MATLAB features. MATLAB documentation is also available in printed form
and in PDF format.

58
(1) Three phase source block

Fig 6.1: Three Phase Source Block

The Three-Phase Source block implements a balanced three-phase voltage source with
internal R-L impedance. The three voltage sources are connected in Y with a neutral connection
that can be internally ground.

(2) VI measurement block

The Three-Phase V-I Measurement block is used to measure three-phase voltages and
currents in a circuit. When connected in series with three-phase elements, it returns the three
phase-to-ground or phase-to-phase voltages and the three line currents

Fig 6.2: Three Phase V-I Measurement

(3) Scope

Display signals generated during a simulation. The Scope block displays its input with
respect to simulation time. The Scope block can have multiple axes (one per port); all axes have
a common time range with independent y-axes.

59
The Scope allows you to adjust the amount of time and the range of input values displayed. You
can move and resize the Scope window and you can modify the Scope's parameter values during
the simulation

Fig 6.3: Scope

(4) Three-Phase Series RLC Load

The Three-Phase Series RLC Load block implements a three-phase balanced load as a
series combination of RLC elements. At the specified frequency, the load exhibits constant
impedance. The active and reactive powers absorbed by the load are proportional to the square of
the applied voltage.

Fig 6.4: Three-Phase Series RLC Load

(5) Three-Phase Breaker block

The Three-Phase Breaker block implements a three-phase circuit breaker where the
opening and closing times can be controlled either from an external Simulink signal or from an
internal control signal.

Fig 6.5: Three-Phase Breaker Block

60
(6) Integrator

Library: Continuous

Fig 6.6: Integrator

The integrator block outputs the integral of its input at the current time step. The
following equation represents the output of the block y as a function of its input u and an initial
condition y0, where y and u are vector functions of the current simulation time t.

(7) Breaker

Implement circuit breaker opening at current zero crossing.

Library: Elements

Fig 6.7: Circuit Breaker

Purpose: The Breaker block implements a circuit breaker where the opening and closing times
can be controlled either from an external SIMULINK signal (external control mode), or from an
internal control timer (internal control mode).

61
A series Rs-Cs snubber circuit is included in the model. It can be connected to the circuit
breaker. If the Breaker block happens to be in series with an inductive circuit, an open circuit or
a current source, you must use a snubber.

When the breaker block is set in external control mode, a SIMULINK input appears on
the block icon. The control signal connected to the SIMULINK input must be either 0 or 1 (0 to
open the breaker, 1 to close it).

When the Breaker block is set in internal control mode, the switching times are specified
in the dialog box of the block.

When the breaker is closed, it is represented by a resistance Ron. The Ron value can be set
as small as necessary in order to be negligible compared with external components (a typical
value is 10 m ohms). When the breaker is open, it has an infinite resistance.

(8) Three-Phase Programmable Voltage Source

Implement three-phase voltage source with programmable time variation of amplitude,


phase, frequency, and harmonics

Library: Electrical Sources

Fig 6.8: Three Phase Voltage Sources

Purpose: This block is used to generate a three-phase sinusoidal voltage with time-varying
parameters. It can be programmed with the time variation for the amplitude, phase or frequency
of the fundamental component of the source. In addition, two harmonics can be programmed and
superimposed on the fundamental signal.

62
(9) Trigonometric Function

Specified trigonometric function on input

Library: Math Operations

Fig 6.9: Trigonometric Function

Purpose: The Trigonometric Function block performs common trigonometric functions

(10) Three-Phase Transformer (Two Windings)

Implement three-phase transformer with configurable winding connections

Library: Elements

Fig 6.10: Three Phase Transformer

Purpose:

The Three-Phase Transformer (Two Windings) block implements a three-phase transformer


using three single-phase transformers.

63
The saturation characteristic, when activated, is the same as the one described for the
saturable Transformer block, and the icon of the block is automatically updated. If the fluxes are
not specified, the initial values are automatically adjusted so that the simulation starts in steady
state.

Three-Phase Transformer 12 Terminals

Implement three single-phase, two-winding transformers where all terminals are accessible

Library: Elements

Fig 6.11: Two winding Transformer

Purpose:

The Three-Phase Transformer 12 Terminals block implements three single-phase, two-


winding linear transformers where all the twelve winding connectors are accessible. The block
can be used in place of the Three-Phase Transformer (Two Windings) block to implement a
three-phase transformer when primary and secondary are not necessarily connected in Star or
Delta.

64
(11) IGBT/Diode

Implements ideal IGBT, GTO, or MOSFET and antiparallel diode

Library: Power Electronics

Fig 6.12: IGBT

Purpose:

The IGBT/Diode block is a simplified mode of an IGBT (or GTO or MOSFET)/Diode


pair where the forward voltages of the forced-commutated device and diode are ignored.

65
A

PROJECT REPORT

On

DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF BI-DIRECTIONAL


DC-DC DRIVER FOR ELECTRIC VEHICLE

Submitted by

1) Ms. J. Sanjana (17K81A0219)


2) Ms. P. Srujana (18K85A0202)
3) Ms. S. Lokeshwari (17K81A0237)
4) Mr. T. ChandraPrakash (18K85A0204)

in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING


Under The Guidance of
Mrs. C.N. Sangeetha, M.Tech,(PhD)
Assistant Professor
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

ST. MARTIN’S ENGINEERING COLLEGE


(An Autonomous Institute)
Dhulapally, Secunderabad – 500 100
BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project entitled DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF BI-
DIRECTIONAL DC-DC DRIVER FOR ELECTRICAL VEHICLE, is being submitted by
1.Ms.J.Sanjana(17K81A0219),2.Ms.P.Srujana(18K85A0202),3.Ms.S.Lokeshwari(17K81
A0237),4.Mr.T.ChandraPrakash(18K85A0204) in partial fulfillment of the requirement for
the award of the degree of BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY IN ELECTRICAL AND
ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING is recorded of bonafide work carried out by them. The result
embodied in this report have been verified and found satisfactory.

Head of the Department


Mrs. C.N. Sangeetha Dr. N. Ramchandra
Department of EEE Department of EEE

Internal Examiner External Examiner

Place:

Date:

I
DECLARATION

We, the student of Bachelor of Technology in Department of ‘ELECTRICAL AND


ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING’, session: 2017 – 2021, St. Martin’s Engineering College,
Dhulapally, Kompally, Secunderabad, hereby declare that work presented in this Project Work
entitled DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF BI-DIRECTIONAL DC-DC DRIVER FOR
ELECTRICAL VEHICLE is the outcome of our own bonafide work and is correct to the best
of our knowledge and this work has been undertaken taking care of Engineering Ethics. This
result embodied in this project report has not been submitted in any university for award of any
degree.

J. Sanjana (17K81A0219)
P. Srujana (18K85A0202)
S. Lokeshwari (17K81A0237)
T. ChandraPrakash (18K85A0204)

II
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The satisfaction and euphoria that accompanies the successful completion of any task
would be incomplete without the mention of the people who made it possible and whose
encouragements and guidance have crowded effects with success.
First and foremost, we would like to express my deep sense of gratitude and
indebtedness to our College Management for their kind support and permission to use
the facilities available in the Institute.
We especially would like to express my deep sense of gratitude and indebtedness to Dr.
P. Santosh Kumar Patra, our beloved Principal, St. Martin’s Engineering College
for his invaluable encouragement, suggestions and support from an early stage of this
research and providing me extraordinary experiences throughout the work. Above all, his
priceless and meticulous supervision at each and every phase of work inspired me in
innumerable ways.
We would like to express our gratitude to Dr. N. Ramchandra, Head &Professor, the
Dept. of Electrical and Electronics Engineering for his advice, supervision, and the vital
contribution as and when required during this research. We are proud to record that we
had the opportunity to work with an exceptionally experienced Professor like him. The
time spent with him will remain in my memory for years to come.
We would like to thank our supervisor, Mrs. C.N. Sangeetha, Assistant professor,
Dept. of EEE for his/her continuous support and valuable guidance for our research work.
We would like to express our gratitude to our dept. project coordinators Mr. K. V.
Govardhan Rao, Assistant Professor, Dept. of EEE and Mr. T. Penchalaiah, Assistant
Professor, Dept of EEE for their involvement with originality has triggered and nourished
my intellectual maturity that will help me for a long time to come.
Finally, we are highly grateful and obliged to our college level Project Coordinators Dr.
Maalyadri, Professor in IT and Dr. R. Santhosh Kumar, Associate Professor in CSE
for their advice, supervision, and the vital contribution as and when required during this
research work and for their support and co- operation that is difficult to express in words.

1. J. Sanjana
2. P. Srujana
3 S. Lokeshwari
4 T. ChandraPrakash

III
TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER NO TITLE PAGE NO

Certificate i
Declaration ii
Acknowledgement iii
Table of contents iv-v
List of Figures vi
Nomenclature vii
Abstract viii

1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction to designed EV motor driver 1
1.2 Introduction to FLC 3
1.3 Introduction to Electrical Propulsion Systems 3
1.4 Introduction to EVs 5
1.5 Introduction to BEVs 6

2 LITERATURE SURVEY
2.1 Literature survey of the project 8

3 BATTERY STORAGE SYSTEM


3.1 Introduction to the Battery 10
3.2 Battery Characteristics 11
3.3 History of Battery 11
3.4 Basic Battery Operation 12
3.5 Battery voltage 13
3.6 Classification of Batteries 14
3.6.1 Primary 14
3.6.2 Secondary 15
3.7 Types of Batteries 15
3.7.1 Lead Acid Battery 15
3.7.2 VRLA Battery 15
3.8 Cell Types 16
3.9 Cell Performance 18

IV
4 PROPOSED DC DC CONVERTER
4.1 Buck-boost Converter 24
4.1.1 Introduction to Buck Boost Converter 25
4.1.2 Principle of operation of Buck Boost converter 26
4.1.3 Modes of Operation of Buck Boost Converter 26
4.2 Circuit Analysis of Buck Converter 28
4.3Application of Buck Boost Converter 31

5 PULSE WIDTH MODULATION


5.1 WHY PULSE WIDTH MODULATION 31
5.2 Modulation technique 31
5.3 PWM technique 32
5.3.1 Advantage of PWM 32
5.3.2 Principle of PWM 33

6 PROPOSED BRUSHLESS DC MOTORS


6.1 Brushless DC Motors 40
6.1.1 Construction of BLDC Motor 42
6.2 Rotor 43
6.3 Hall Sensors 44
6.4 Working Principle and Operation of BLDC 44
6.5 Brushless DC Motor Drive 46
6.6 MOSFET BRIDGE 47
6.7 Advantages of BLDC Motor 47
6.8 Disadvantages of BLDC Motor 48
6.9Application of BLDC Motor 48

7 PROPOSED CONTROLLER
7.1 Introduction of fuzzy logic Technique 49
7.2 Uses of fuzzy logic 51
7.3 Fuzzy logic Controller 52
7.4 Membership Functions 55
7.4.1 Types of membership functions 55

8 SIMULATION RESULTS 55

9 CONCLUSION 58

10 REFERENCES 59-60

11 APPENDIX 61-69

V
LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO DESCRIPTION PAGE NO

1.1 Proposed circuit configuration 3


4.1 Proposed converter 25
5.1 Wave for combined positive and negative pulse 33
5.2 A simple method to generate the PWM pulse 35
5.3 SPWM block diagram 37
5.4 SPWM simulation diagram 37
5.5 Scope view 38
5.6 Scope 1 view 38
5.7 Scope 2 view 38
6.1 Brushless DC motor 41
6.2 BLDC motor 42
6.3 Stator diagram 43
6.4 Rotor diagram 44
6.5 Switching sequence and BLDC motor 46
6.6 Mosfet Bridge 47
7.1 Fuzzy Description 51
7.2 A simple Fuzzy logic control system 52
7.3 Straight line membership Function 56
7.4 Trapezoidal membership Function 56
7.5 Gaussian membership Function 57
7.6 Triangular membership Function 58
8.1 Proposed circuit configuration 60
8.2 Proposed system Battery SOC, current, voltage 61
8.3 Proposed system Speed of the dc machine 61
8.4 Proposed system Armature current, Field current 62
8.5 Proposed DC machine across voltage 62

VI
NOMENCLATURE

EV Electrical Vehicle
HEVs Hybrid Electrical Vehicle
ICE Internal combustion engine
FLC Fuzzy Logic Controller
BEVs Battery Electrical Vehicles
VRLA Valve regulated lead–acid battery
AGM Absorbed Glass Mat
SOC State of Charge

VII
ABSTRACT

The level of exhaust gases is rising with increasing usage of internal combustion
engine vehicles. In order to reduce carbon emission, researchers and industry head up
for improving electric vehicle technologies in all over the word. This paper deals with
design and simulation of a bi-directional power converter of electric vehicle. The power
electronics block is comprised by batteries, bi-directional dc-dc converter and dc
machine. The initial state of battery charge is set around 90% where the discharge
current is 44.5 A during motor mode. The nominal voltage of battery stack is 350 V
and maximum capacity is 100 Ah. The rated power of dc machine is set to 250 HP with
500 V armature voltage and 300 V field voltage. The operating mode of power
converter is determined according to the torque values of dc machine which is operated
in motor and generator modes. The charge and discharge conditions of batteries have
been controlled regarding to operating modes of dc machine. The bi-directional dc-dc
converter is controlled with fuzzy logic controller in both modes. The proposed
converter and controller are designed to meet charge control and motor drive
requirements of an all-electric vehicle.

VIII

x
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

Transportation sector occupies a fundamental place in the world. Fossil fuels


used in conventional vehicles technology emit greenhouse gases such as carbon
dioxide, carbon monoxide and methane. The excessive consumption of these gases
causes air pollution, climate change and global warming. In order to reduce these
effects, there is a tendency to electric vehicle (EV) technology. The EV has much lower
fuel cost according to fossil fueled car since they are mainly composed of battery
system, power electronic circuits and electric machine. The battery system in an EV is
the most crucial component in charge control time and determining distance. The
electric machines of an EV are operated in both motor and generator modes due to
regenerative breaking feature that enables electric machine to be operated in generator
mode which is impossible in conventional internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles.
Therefore, electric machine charges the battery by operating in generator mode during
the regenerative braking and it ensures recharging the batteries. EV are classified into
two types as hybrid EVs (HEVs) and all-electric vehicles. The HEV technology is used
in conjunction conventional vehicle technology. The main system in HEV technology
includes fuel tank and ICE such as diesel or gasoline engine, and auxiliary system which
is comprised by electric machine, power electronic circuits and battery. HEVs are
classified as parallel and series hybrid vehicles that the parallel HEV consists ICE and
electrical machine together. As the parallel electric vehicles operates at electric mode
during the acceleration of electric machine, the motor operation is supplied from battery

1.1 Introduction to designed EV motor driver:

The designed EV motor driver is comprised by four sections such as battery, bi-
directional dc-dc converter, FLC and dc machine as shown In this study, the starting
voltage of battery is set to 378 V while the operating voltage of dc machine used in
traction system is 500 V dc. The battery voltage is increased up to 500 V with bi-
directional dc-dc converter in generator mode. The battery is discharged when dc
machine is started acceleration. The motor mode simulation with various torque values
are performed to observe battery parameters such as state of charge (SoC), current,
voltage and voltage of the dc machine. The voltage of the dc machine is decreased to
500 V with bidirectional dc-dc converter which is controlled with FLC. The battery is

1
charged during the generator mode operation of dc machine. The FLC determines duty
cycle of S1 and S2 to ensure charge and discharge of battery. The dc machine is
comprised by brushes, armature core and windings, commutator, field core and
windings. Armature circuit is comprised by series structure with inductor, resistance
and counter-electromotive source. Similarly, battery parameters such as SoC, current,
voltage and voltage of the dc machine are observed in the generator mode simulation
regarding to various torque values applied to dc machine.

1.1 Proposed circuit configuration

The electrical energy is converted to mechanical energy or vice versa by dc


machine that operates regarding to electromechanical energy conversion theory. If a
conductor is moved within the magnetic field, the voltage is induced on it which is
known as generator operating mode. If alternating current passes through the conductor,
magnetic field is created around it which explains the motor mode operation. When the
dc machine is started acceleration, the resultant positive torque is achieved. On the other

2
hand, negative torque is generated at the dc machine when it is operated in generator
mode

1.2 Introduction to FLC:


FLC is comprised by fuzzification, rule base, interface mechanism,
defuzzification. Fuzzification is used to convert digital signals received through the
system into linguistic variable. Rule base is comprised by the conditions to set for
controlling the system at desired location. Interface mechanism makes inferences
according to the rules of system by establishing a relationship between inputs.
Defuzzification is used to convert linguistic variable received through the system into
digital signals

1.3 Introduction to Electric Propulsion Systems:

The European new vehicle CO2 regulation (with a mandatory target value of 95
grams of CO2 per kilometer by 2021 for passenger cars) is currently in the process of
being extended to 2025. In this context, one of the key questions is at what point a
significant uptake of the electric vehicle market is to be expected. In order to help
inform this debate about how electric vehicle technology could fit in a lower-carbon
2020–2030 new vehicle fleet in Europe, this paper focuses on collecting, analyzing, and
aggregating the available research literature on the underlying technology costs and
carbon emissions. In terms of technologies, it concentrates on the three electric
propulsion systems: battery electric vehicles (BEVs), plug-in hybrid electric vehicles
(PHEVs), and hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles (HFCEVs).
The collected cost data is used to estimate the technology cost for automotive
lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries and fuel cells. The cost of battery packs for BEVs declined
to an estimated €250 per kWh for industry leaders in 2015. Further cost reductions
down to as low as €130–€180 per kWh are anticipated in the 2020–25 time frame. The
costs of fuel cell systems are also expected to decrease considerably, but cost estimates
are highly uncertain. Furthermore, the application of fuel cells and batteries in
HFCEVs, BEVs, and PHEVs is approximated using a bottom-up cost approach.
Overall, the different power train costs largely depend on battery and fuel cell costs.
It concludes that the costs of all power trains will decrease significantly between
2015 and 2030 (Figure S 1). As shown, power trains for PHEVs will achieve about a
50% cost reduction, compared with approximate cost reductions of 60% for BEVs and

3
70% for HFCEVs. Costs for hydrogen and electricity chargers are estimated separately.
Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and energy demand for electric and conventional
vehicles are presented on a well-to-wheel (WTW) basis, capturing all direct and indirect
emissions of fuel and electricity production and vehicle operation. The results are based
on former analyses, and are updated and refined with real-world fuel consumption
levels. Real-world fuel consumption is commonly about 20%–40% higher than official
type approval measurements.
Finally, WTW estimates for electric and conventional vehicles are put in the
context of the 2021 CO2 standard for European passenger vehicles. It is found that
carbon emissions of BEVs using European grid-mix electricity are about half of average
European vehicle emissions, whereas HFCEVs and PHEVs have a lower emissions
reduction potential. In the 2020 context, electric vehicle WTW emissions are expected
to continue offering greater carbon benefits due to more efficient power trains and
increasing low-carbon electric power. A lower-carbon grid and higher power train
efficiency by 2020 could cut average electric vehicle emissions by one-third again.
However, the expected cost reductions and potential CO2 emission cuts will not be
achieved without targeted policy intervention. More stringent CO2 standards, and fiscal
and non-fiscal incentives for electric vehicles, can help the electric vehicle market to
grow and costs to fall. Also, efforts need to be combined with activities to decarbonize
the grid, or emission reductions will not be as great as they could be. Although the
analysis is focused on the European context, similar dynamics with electric vehicle
technology, policy, and market development are prevalent across major markets in
North America and Asia.

1.4 Introduction to EVs:

The first EVs were introduced as early as 1838—or 52 years before internal
combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs) entered the market. Despite recent growing
interest, EVs have remained a relatively small market until today (IEA, 2015).
However, the global share of EVs is expected to increase significantly, driven by
substantial battery technology improvements and a variety of policies that are
accelerating the development of the electric vehicle market. Overall, the market has
grown from just hundreds of EV sales in 2010 to more than 500,000 sales worldwide
in 2015 (EV Sales, 2016). The early development of markets for electric vehicles is

4
seen predominantly in parts of China, Europe, and the United States, where electric
vehicle support policies are helping promote the technology, while costs are still
relatively high compared with conventional vehicles. Table 1 shows the global and
regional estimated stock of BEV and PHEV passenger cars as of 2015, and electric
vehicle supply equipment (EVSE) as of 2014. EVSE includes semipublic or public
charging points or outlets, but not private charging points. Most of the electric vehicles
on the road today are registered in the United States, with about half of those in the state
of California. The United States also has the largest number of electric vehicle charging
points. The Netherlands is the European country with the highest electric vehicle
passenger car and charging-plug stock in terms of absolute sales. The following
countries have achieved relatively high market sales shares of passenger electric
vehicles, as a percentage of all 2014 passenger vehicle sales: Norway (13.7%), the
Netherlands (3.9%), Sweden (1.5%) (Mock, 2015), and the United States (1.5%)
(Lutsey, 2015b). Most other major automobile markets have EV sales shares at or below
1%.

1.5 Introduction to BEVs:

Pure battery electric vehicles (BEVs) are also referred to as battery-only electric
vehicles (BOEVs). BEVs have no engine and are propelled by electricity that comes
from one or several onboard high-energy batteries. Modern models use a regenerative
braking system to save energy. Examples include the Renault Zoe and the Nissan Leaf.
The Zoe has a 22 kWh Li-ion battery, and an energy consumption of 14.6 kWh per 100
km, which yields a range of about 140 km to 210 km per battery charge on the New
European Driving Cycle (NEDC). The 2015 Leaf comes with a 24 kWh battery (plus a
30 KWh option for the 2016 model), and an official consumption of 15 kWh per 100
km. 3.2. PHEVs Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) allow electric driving on
batteries (in charge-depleting mode), but also conventional combustion fueled driving
(in charge-sustaining mode).
Usually, they are equipped with an electric motor and a high energy battery,
which can be charged from the power grid. Modern PHEVs can be driven in electric
mode over varying distances before the combustion engine is required. In electric-
driving mode, the energy efficiency of the propulsion system is much higher, and is
comparable to that of a BEV. Available models include the Chevrolet Volt in U.S.
markets (which is the Opel Ampera in EU markets), and the Toyota Prius Plug-in

5
Hybrid. The 2015 Opel Ampera uses a 16 kWh Li-ion battery and consumes 16.9 kWh
per 100 km in electric mode on the NEDC. The 2015 Chevrolet Volt has a 16.5 kWh
battery, and the 2016 model has an 18.4 kWh battery
PHEVs and BEVs use similar batteries, with Li-ion being the most common
chemistry. There are two primary ways to extract the lithium used in batteries: mining
spodumene and petalite ore using evaporation ponds on salt lakes. The majority of
lithium is obtained from brine operation (USGS, 2015). The battery system is the key
technology of electric vehicles and defines their range and performance characteristics.
The battery works like a transducer by turning chemical energy into electrical energy.
Li-ion is expected to be the dominant chemistry for BEVs and PHEVs for the
foreseeable future, as most research is done in the field of Li-ion batteries. They provide
relatively high power and energy for a given weight or size, and can significantly reduce
costs compared with other battery concepts. Energy density of the battery pack is
estimated to roughly double, up to about 300 Wh per kg, between 2007 and 2030
(Kromer & Heywood, 2007; Ricardo-AEA, 2015; NAS, 2013). Also, they have a
relatively long life cycle and low self discharging losses.
One of their few drawbacks is their sensitivity to overcharging, which is why
they require a battery management system. Other automotive battery concepts include
nickel-metal hydride (Ni-MH), sodium-nickel chloride (Na/NiCl2), and non-
electrochemical alternatives such as supercapacitors, which allow fast charging but
provide low energy density. As a result, batteries with higher energy and power
densities are being developed, such as lithiumair (Li-air), lithium-metal or
lithiumsulphur (Li-S), but these are far from commercialization (Cookson, 2015;
Hacker, Harthan, Matthes & Zimmer, 2009). Li-air batteries may reach energy densities
of up to 11,680Wh per kg (Imanishi & Yamamoto, 2014), which approximates the
energetic content of gasoline.

6
CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE SURVEY

2.1 Literature survey

R. Goutham Govind Raju et al., formulated a zero voltage switching (ZVS)


bidirectional isolated DC- DC converter. This is used in high power application
especially for power supply in fuel cell vehicles electric vehicle driving system and
power generation where a high power density is required. This technique has the
advantages of low cost, light weight and high reliability power converter where the
power semiconductor devices (MOSFET, IGBT, etc) and packaging of the individual
units and the system integration play a major role in isolated DC/DC converter
hybrid/fuel cell vehicles.

Zhe Zhang et al., designed a bidirectional isolated DC-DC converter controlled by


phase-shift and duty cycle for the fuel cell hybrid energy system is analysed and
designed. The proposed topology minimizes the number of switches and their
associated gate driver components by using two high frequency transformers which
combine a half-bridge circuit and a full-bridge circuit together on the primary side.

Hyun-Wook Seong et al., describes non-isolated high step-up DC-DC converters


using zero voltage switching (ZVS) boost integration technique (BIT) and their
light-load frequency modulation (LLFM) control. The proposed ZVS BIT
integrates a bidirectional boost converter with a series output module as a parallel-
input and series-output (PISO) configuration.

Lisheng Shi et al., presented the basic requirements and specifications for PHEV
bidirectional ac dc converter designs. Generally, there are two types of topologies used
for PHEVs: an independent topology and a combination topology that utilizes the drive
motor’s inverter. Evaluations of the two converter topologies are analysed in detail.
The combination topology analysis is emphasized because it has more advantages in
PHEVs, in respect to savings in cost, volume and weight.

7
Tanmoy Bhattacharya et al., proposed a multi power-port topology which is
capable of handling multiple power sources and still maintains simplicity and features
like obtaining high gain, wide load variations, lower output-current ripple, and
capability of parallel battery energy due to the modular structure. The scheme
incorporates a transformer winding technique which drastically reduces the leakage
inductance of the coupled inductor.

8
CHAPTER 3
BATTERY STORAGE SYSTEM

3.1 Introduction of Battery

A battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells with


external connections for powering electrical devices such as flashlights, mobile phones,
and electric cars. When a battery is supplying electric power, its positive terminal is
the cathode and its negative terminal is the anode. The terminal marked negative is the
source of electrons that will flow through an external electric circuit to the positive
terminal. When a battery is connected to an external electric load, a redox reaction
converts high-energy reactants to lower-energy products, and the free-
energy difference is delivered to the external circuit as electrical energy. Historically
the term "battery" specifically referred to a device composed of multiple cells, however
the usage has evolved to include devices composed of a single cell.

3.2 Battery characteristics

Primary (single-use or "disposable") batteries are used once and discarded, as


the electrode materials are irreversibly changed during discharge; a common example
is the alkaline battery used for flashlights and a multitude of portable electronic
devices. Secondary (rechargeable) batteries can be discharged and recharged multiple
times using an applied electric current; the original composition of the electrodes can
be restored by reverse current. Examples include the lead-acid batteries used in vehicles
and lithium-ion batteries used for portable electronics such as laptops and mobile
phones.
Batteries come in many shapes and sizes, from miniature cells used to
power hearing aids and wristwatches to small, thin cells used in smartphones, to
large lead acid batteries or lithium-ion batteries in vehicles, and at the largest extreme,
huge battery banks the size of rooms that provide standby or emergency power
for telephone exchanges and computer data centers.
Batteries have much lower specific energy (energy per unit mass) than
common fuels such as gasoline. In automobiles, this is somewhat offset by the higher

9
efficiency of electric motors in converting chemical energy to mechanical work,
compared to combustion engines.

3.3 History of Battery

The usage of "battery" to describe a group of electrical devices dates


to Benjamin Franklin, who in 1748 described multiple Leyden jars by analogy to
a battery of cannon (Benjamin Franklin borrowed the term "battery" from the military,
which refers to weapons functioning together).
Italian physicist Alessandro Volta built and described the first electrochemical
battery, the voltaic pile, in 1800.This was a stack of copper and zinc plates, separated
by brine-soaked paper disks, that could produce a steady current for a considerable
length of time. Volta did not understand that the voltage was due to chemical reactions.
He thought that his cells were an inexhaustible source of energy, and that the associated
corrosion effects at the electrodes were a mere nuisance, rather than an unavoidable
consequence of their operation, as Michael Faraday showed in 1834.
Although early batteries were of great value for experimental purposes, in
practice their voltages fluctuated and they could not provide a large current for a
sustained period. The Daniell cell, invented in 1836 by British chemist John Frederic
Daniell, was the first practical source of electricity, becoming an industry standard and
seeing widespread adoption as a power source for electrical telegraph networks. It
consisted of a copper pot filled with a copper sulfate solution, in which was immersed
an unglazed earthenware container filled with sulfuric acid and a zinc electrode. These
wet cells used liquid electrolytes, which were prone to leakage and spillage if not
handled correctly. Many used glass jars to hold their components, which made them
fragile and potentially dangerous. These characteristics made wet cells unsuitable for
portable appliances. Near the end of the nineteenth century, the invention of dry cell
batteries, which replaced the liquid electrolyte with a paste, made portable electrical
devices practical

10
3.4 Basic Battery Operation

Batteries convert chemical energy directly to electrical energy. In many cases,


the electrical energy released is the difference in the cohesive or bond energies of the
metals, oxides, or molecules undergoing the electrochemical reaction. For instance,
energy can be stored in Zn or Li, which are high-energy metals because they are not
stabilized by d-electron bonding, unlike transition metals. Batteries are designed such
that the energetically favorable redox reaction can occur only if electrons move through
the external part of the circuit.
A battery consists of some number of voltaic cells. Each cell consists of
two half-cells connected in series by a conductive electrolyte containing metal cations.
One half-cell includes electrolyte and the negative electrode, the electrode to
which anions (negatively charged ions) migrate; the other half-cell includes electrolyte
and the positive electrode, to which cations (positively charged ions) migrate. Cations
are reduced (electrons are added) at the cathode, while metal atoms are oxidized
(electrons are removed) at the anode.[14] Some cells use different electrolytes for each
half-cell; then a separator is used to prevent mixing of the electrolytes while allowing
ions to flow between half-cells to complete the electrical circuit.

3.5 Battery voltage

half-cell has an electromotive force (emf, measured in volts) relative to


a standard. The net emf of the cell is the difference between the emfs of its half-
cells. Thus, if the electrodes have emfs then the net emf in other words, the net emf is
the difference between the reduction potentials of the half-reactions.
The electrical driving force or across the terminals of a cell is known as
the terminal voltage (difference) and is measured in volts. The terminal voltage of a cell
that is neither charging nor discharging is called the open-circuit voltage and equals the
emf of the cell. Because of internal resistance, the terminal voltage of a cell that is
discharging is smaller in magnitude than the open-circuit voltage and the terminal
voltage of a cell that is charging exceeds the open-circuit voltage. An ideal cell has
negligible internal resistance, so it would maintain a constant terminal voltage of until
exhausted, then dropping to zero. If such a cell maintained 1.5 volts and produce a

11
charge of one coulomb then on complete discharge it would have performed
1.5 joules of work. In actual cells, the internal resistance increases under discharge and
the open-circuit voltage also decreases under discharge. If the voltage and resistance
are plotted against time, the resulting graphs typically are a curve; the shape of the curve
varies according to the chemistry and internal arrangement employed.
The voltage developed across a cell's terminals depends on the energy release
of the chemical reactions of its electrodes and electrolyte. Alkaline and zinc–
carbon cells have different chemistries, but approximately the same emf of 1.5 volts;
likewise NiCd and NiMH cells have different chemistries, but approximately the same
emf of 1.2 volts. The high electrochemical potential changes in the reactions
of lithium compounds give lithium cells emfs of 3 volts or more.

3.6 Classification of Batteries

Batteries are classified into primary and secondary forms:


Primary batteries are designed to be used until exhausted of energy then
discarded. Their chemical reactions are generally not reversible, so they cannot be
recharged. When the supply of reactants in the battery is exhausted, the battery stops
producing current and is useless.
Secondary batteries can be recharged; that is, they can have their chemical
reactions reversed by applying electric current to the cell. This regenerates the original
chemical reactants, so they can be used, recharged, and used again multiple times.
Some types of primary batteries used, for example, for telegraph circuits, were
restored to operation by replacing the electrodes. Secondary batteries are not
indefinitely rechargeable due to dissipation of the active materials, loss of electrolyte
and internal corrosion.

3.6.1 Primary
Main article: Primary cell
Primary batteries, or primary cells, can produce current immediately on
assembly. These are most commonly used in portable devices that have low current
drain, are used only intermittently, or are used well away from an alternative power
source, such as in alarm and communication circuits where other electric power is only

12
intermittently available. Disposable primary cells cannot be reliably recharged, since
the chemical reactions are not easily reversible and active materials may not return to
their original forms. Battery manufacturers recommend against attempting to recharge
primary cells. In general, these have higher energy densities than rechargeable
batteries, but disposable batteries do not fare well under high-drain applications
with loads under 75 ohms (75 Ω). Common types of disposable batteries include zinc–
carbon batteries and alkaline batteries.

3.6.2 Secondary
Main article: Rechargeable battery
Secondary batteries, also known as secondary cells, or rechargeable batteries,
must be charged before first use; they are usually assembled with active materials in
the discharged state. Rechargeable batteries are (re)charged by applying electric
current, which reverses the chemical reactions that occur during discharge/use. Devices
to supply the appropriate current are called chargers.

3.7 Types of Batteries

3.7.1 Lead Acid Battery


The oldest form of rechargeable battery is the lead–acid battery, which are
widely used in automotive and boating applications. This technology contains liquid
electrolyte in an unsealed container, requiring that the battery be kept upright and the
area be well ventilated to ensure safe dispersal of the hydrogen gas it produces during
overcharging. The lead–acid battery is relatively heavy for the amount of electrical
energy it can supply. Its low manufacturing cost and its high surge current levels make
it common where its capacity (over approximately 10 Ah) is more important than
weight and handling issues. A common application is the modern car battery, which
can, in general, deliver a peak current of 450 amperes.

3.7.2 VRLA Battery


The sealed valve regulated lead–acid battery (VRLA battery) is popular in the
automotive industry as a replacement for the lead–acid wet cell. The VRLA battery

13
uses an immobilized sulfuric acid electrolyte, reducing the chance of leakage and
extending shelf life. VRLA batteries immobilize the electrolyte. The two types are:
Gel batteries (or "gel cell") use a semi-solid electrolyte. Absorbed Glass Mat (AGM)
batteries absorb the electrolyte in a special fiberglass matting.
Other portable rechargeable batteries include several sealed "dry cell" types,
that are useful in applications such as mobile phones and laptop computers. Cells of
this type (in order of increasing power density and cost) include nickel–
cadmium (NiCd), nickel–zinc (NiZn), nickel metal hydride (NiMH), and lithium-
ion (Li-ion) cells. Li-ion has by far the highest share of the dry cell rechargeable market.
NiMH has replaced NiCd in most applications due to its higher capacity, but NiCd
remains in use in power tools, two-way radios, and medical equipment.
In the 2000s, developments include batteries with embedded electronics such
as USBCELL, which allows charging an AA battery through
a USB connector, nanoball batteries that allow for a discharge rate about 100x greater
than current batteries, and smart battery packs with state-of-charge monitors and
battery protection circuits that prevent damage on over-discharge. Low self-
discharge (LSD) allows secondary cells to be charged prior to shipping.

3.8 Cell Types

Many types of electrochemical cells have been produced, with varying chemical
processes and designs, including galvanic cells, electrolytic cells, fuel cells, flow
cells and voltaic piles.

3.8.1 Wet Cell


A wet cell battery has a liquid electrolyte. Other names are flooded cell, since
the liquid covers all internal parts, or vented cell, since gases produced during operation
can escape to the air.
Wet cells were a precursor to dry cells and are commonly used as a learning tool
for electrochemistry. They can be built with common laboratory supplies, such
as beakers, for demonstrations of how electrochemical cells work. A particular type of
wet cell known as a concentration cell is important in understanding corrosion. Wet
cells may be primary cells (non-rechargeable) or secondary cells (rechargeable).

14
Originally, all practical primary batteries such as the Daniell cell were built as open-top
glass jar wet cells. Other primary wet cells are the Leclanche cell, Grove cell, Bunsen
cell, Chromic acid cell, Clark cell, and Weston cell. The Leclanche cell chemistry was
adapted to the first dry cells. Wet cells are still used in automobile batteries and in
industry for standby power for switchgear, telecommunication or large uninterruptible
power supplies, but in many places batteries with gel cells have been used instead.
These applications commonly use lead–acid or nickel–cadmium cells.

3.8.2 Dry Cell


A dry cell uses a paste electrolyte, with only enough moisture to allow current
to flow. Unlike a wet cell, a dry cell can operate in any orientation without spilling, as
it contains no free liquid, making it suitable for portable equipment. By comparison,
the first wet cells were typically fragile glass containers with lead rods hanging from
the open top and needed careful handling to avoid spillage. Lead–acid batteries did not
achieve the safety and portability of the dry cell until the development of the gel battery.
A common dry cell is the zinc–carbon battery, sometimes called the
dry Leclanché cell, with a nominal voltage of 1.5 volts, the same as the alkaline
battery (since both use the same zinc–manganese dioxide combination). A standard dry
cell comprises a zinc anode, usually in the form of a cylindrical pot, with
a carbon cathode in the form of a central rod. The electrolyte is ammonium chloride in
the form of a paste next to the zinc anode. The remaining space between the electrolyte
and carbon cathode is taken up by a second paste consisting of ammonium chloride and
manganese dioxide, the latter acting as a depolariser. In some designs, the ammonium
chloride is replaced by zinc chloride.

3.8.3 Molten Salt


Molten salt batteries are primary or secondary batteries that use a molten salt as
electrolyte. They operate at high temperatures and must be well insulated to retain heat.

3.8.4 Reserve
A reserve battery can be stored unassembled (un activated and supplying no
power) for a long period (perhaps years). When the battery is needed, then it is
assembled (e.g., by adding electrolyte); once assembled, the battery is charged and
ready to work. For example, a battery for an electronic artillery fuse might be activated

15
by the impact of firing a gun. The acceleration breaks a capsule of electrolyte that
activates the battery and powers the fuse's circuits. Reserve batteries are usually
designed for a short service life (seconds or minutes) after long storage (years).
A water-activated battery for oceanographic instruments or military applications
becomes activated on immersion in water.

3.9 Cell Performance

A battery's characteristics may vary over load cycle, over charge cycle, and over
lifetime due to many factors including internal chemistry, current drain, and
temperature. At low temperatures, a battery cannot deliver as much power. As such, in
cold climates, some car owners install battery warmers, which are small electric heating
pads that keep the car battery warm.
A battery's capacity is the amount of electric charge it can deliver at the rated
voltage. The more electrode material contained in the cell the greater its capacity. A
small cell has less capacity than a larger cell with the same chemistry, although they
develop the same open-circuit voltage.[30] Capacity is measured in units such as amp-
hour (A·h). The rated capacity of a battery is usually expressed as the product of 20
hours multiplied by the current that a new battery can consistently supply for 20 hours
at 68 °F (20 °C), while remaining above a specified terminal voltage per cell. For
example, a battery rated at 100 A·h can deliver 5 A over a 20-hour period at room
temperature. The fraction of the stored charge that a battery can deliver depends on
multiple factors, including battery chemistry, the rate at which the charge is delivered
(current), the required terminal voltage, the storage period, ambient temperature and
other factors.
The higher the discharge rate, the lower the capacity. The relationship between
current, discharge time and capacity for a lead acid battery is approximated (over a
typical range of current values) by Peukert's law:
where

is the capacity when discharged at a rate of 1 amp.

is the current drawn from battery (A).

16
is the amount of time (in hours) that a battery can sustain.

is a constant around 1.3.


Batteries that are stored for a long period or that are discharged at a small
fraction of the capacity lose capacity due to the presence of generally irreversible side
reactions that consume charge carriers without producing current. This phenomenon is
known as internal self-discharge. Further, when batteries are recharged, additional side
reactions can occur, reducing capacity for subsequent discharges. After enough
recharges, in essence all capacity is lost and the battery stops producing power.
Internal energy losses and limitations on the rate that ions pass through the
electrolyte cause battery efficiency to vary. Above a minimum threshold, discharging
at a low rate delivers more of the battery's capacity than at a higher rate. Installing
batteries with varying A·h ratings does not affect device operation (although it may
affect the operation interval) rated for a specific voltage unless load limits are exceeded.
High-drain loads such as digital cameras can reduce total capacity, as happens with
alkaline batteries. For example, a battery rated at 2 A·h for a 10- or 20-hour discharge
would not sustain a current of 1 A for a full two hours as its stated capacity implies.
The C-rate is a measure of the rate at which a battery is being charged or
discharged. It is defined as the current through the battery divided by the theoretical
current draw under which the battery would deliver its nominal rated capacity in one
hour.[32] It has the units h−1.
C-rate is used as a rating on batteries to indicate the maximum current that a
battery can safely deliver on a circuit. Standards for rechargeable batteries generally
rate the capacity over a 4-hour, 8 hour or longer discharge time. Types intended for
special purposes, such as in a computer uninterruptible power supply, may be rated by
manufacturers for discharge periods much less than one hour. Because of internal
resistance loss and the chemical processes inside the cells, a battery rarely delivers
nameplate rated capacity in only one hour.

3.9.1 Fast-charging, large and light batteries


As of 2017, the world's largest battery was built in South Australia by Tesla. It
can store 129 MWh. A battery in Hebei Province, China which can store 36 MWh of
electricity was built in 2013 at a cost of $500 million. Another large battery, composed

17
of Ni–Cd cells, was in Fairbanks, Alaska. It covered 2,000 square metres
(22,000 sq ft)—bigger than a football pitch—and weighed 1,300 tonnes. It was
manufactured by ABB to provide backup power in the event of a blackout. The battery
can provide 40 MW of power for up to seven minutes. Sodium–sulfur batteries have
been used to store wind power. A 4.4 MWh battery system that can deliver 11 MW for
25 minutes stabilizes the output of the Auwahi wind farm in Hawaii.
Lithium–sulfur batteries were used on the longest and highest solar-powered flight.

3.9.2 Lifetime
Battery life (and its synonym battery lifetime) has two meanings for
rechargeable batteries but only one for non-chargeables. For rechargeables, it can mean
either the length of time a device can run on a fully charged battery or the number of
charge/discharge cycles possible before the cells fail to operate satisfactorily. For a non-
rechargeable these two lives are equal since the cells last for only one cycle by
definition. (The term shelf life is used to describe how long a battery will retain its
performance between manufacture and use.) Available capacity of all batteries drops
with decreasing temperature. In contrast to most of today's batteries, the Zamboni pile,
invented in 1812, offers a very long service life without refurbishment or recharge,
although it supplies current only in the nanoamp range. The Oxford Electric Bell has
been ringing almost continuously since 1840 on its original pair of batteries, thought to
be Zamboni piles.

3.9.3 Self-discharge
Disposable batteries typically lose 8 to 20 percent of their original charge per
year when stored at room temperature (20–30 °C). This is known as the "self-discharge"
rate, and is due to non-current-producing "side" chemical reactions that occur within
the cell even when no load is applied. The rate of side reactions is reduced for batteries
stored at lower temperatures, although some can be damaged by freezing.
Old rechargeable batteries self-discharge more rapidly than disposable alkaline
batteries, especially nickel-based batteries; a freshly charged nickel cadmium (NiCd)
battery loses 10% of its charge in the first 24 hours, and thereafter discharges at a rate
of about 10% a month. However, newer low self-discharge nickel metal hydride
(NiMH) batteries and modern lithium designs display a lower self-discharge rate (but
still higher than for primary batteries).

18
3.9.4 Corrosion
Internal parts may corrode and fail, or the active materials may be slowly
converted to inactive forms.

3.9.5 Physical component changes


The active material on the battery plates changes chemical composition on each
charge and discharge cycle; active material may be lost due to physical changes of
volume, further limiting the number of times the battery can be recharged. Most nickel-
based batteries are partially discharged when purchased, and must be charged before
first use. Newer NiMH batteries are ready to be used when purchased, and have only
15% discharge in a year.
Some deterioration occurs on each charge–discharge cycle. Degradation usually
occurs because electrolyte migrates away from the electrodes or because active material
detaches from the electrodes. Low-capacity NiMH batteries (1,700–2,000 mA·h) can
be charged some 1,000 times, whereas high-capacity NiMH batteries (above
2,500 mA·h) last about 500 cycles. NiCd batteries tend to be rated for 1,000 cycles
before their internal resistance permanently increases beyond usable values.

3.10 Lithium-ion battery

A lithium-ion battery or Li-ion battery is a type of rechargeable battery.


Lithium-ion batteries are commonly used for portable electronics and electric
vehicles and are growing in popularity for military and aerospace applications. A
prototype Li-ion battery was developed by Akira Yoshino in 1985, based on earlier
research by John Goodenough, M. Stanley Whittingham, Rachid Yazami and Koichi
Mizushima during the 1970s–1980s, and then a commercial Li-ion battery was
developed by a Sony and Asahi Kasei team led by Yoshio Nishi in 1991.

In the batteries, lithium ions move from the negative electrode through
an electrolyte to the positive electrode during discharge, and back when charging. Li-
ion batteries use an intercalated lithium compound as the material at the positive
electrode and typically graphite at the negative electrode. The batteries have a
high energy density, no memory effect (other than LFP cells) and low self-discharge.
They can however be a safety hazard since they contain flammable electrolytes, and if
19
damaged or incorrectly charged can lead to explosions and fires. Samsung was forced
to recall Galaxy Note 7 handsets following lithium-ion fires, and there have been
several incidents involving batteries on Boeing 787s.

Chemistry, performance, cost and safety characteristics vary across types of lithium-
ion batteries. Handheld electronics mostly use lithium polymer batteries (with a
polymer gel as electrolyte), a lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO
2) cathode material, and a graphite anode, which together offer a high energy density.
Lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO
4), lithium manganese oxide (LiMn
2O

4 spinel, or Li
2MnO

3-based lithium rich layered materials (LMR-NMC)), and lithium nickel manganese
cobalt oxide (LiNiMnCoO
2 or NMC) may offer longer lives and may have better rate capability. Such batteries
are widely used for electric tools, medical equipment, and other roles. NMC and its
derivatives are widely used in electric vehicles.

Research areas for lithium-ion batteries include extending lifetime, increasing energy
density, improving safety, reducing cost, and increasing charging speed,[18] among
others. Research has been under way in the area of non-flammable electrolytes as a
pathway to increased safety based on the flammability and volatility of the organic
solvents used in the typical electrolyte. Strategies include aqueous lithium-ion
batteries, ceramic solid electrolytes, polymer electrolytes, ionic liquids, and heavily
fluorinated systems.

20
CHAPTER 4
PROPOSED DC-DC CONVERTER

4.1 Buck–boost converter

Buck–boost converter is a type of DC-to-DC converter that has an output


voltage magnitude that is either greater than or less than the input voltage magnitude.
It is equivalent to a flyback converter using a single inductor instead of a transformer.
Two different topologies are called buck–boost converter. Both of them can produce a
range of output voltages, ranging from much larger (in absolute magnitude) than the
input voltage, down to almost zero.

Fig 4.1 Proposed converter

The output voltage is of the opposite polarity than the input. This is a switched-
mode power supply with a similar circuit topology to the boost converter and the buck
converter. The output voltage is adjustable based on the duty cycle of the switching
transistor. One possible drawback of this converter is that the switch does not have a
terminal at ground; this complicates the driving circuitry. However, this drawback is of
no consequence if the power supply is isolated from the load circuit (if, for example,
the supply is a battery) because the supply and diode polarity can simply be reversed.
When they can be reversed, the switch can be on either the ground side or the supply
side.
A buck (step-down) converter combined with a boost (step-up) converter

21
The output voltage is typically of the same polarity of the input, and can be
lower or higher than the input. Such a non-inverting buck-boost converter may use a
single inductor which is used for both the buck inductor mode and the boost inductor
mode, using switches instead of diodes,[2][3] sometimes called a "four-switch buck-
boost converter", it may use multiple inductors but only a single switch as in
the SEPIC and Ćuk topologies.
Buck Boost converter-principle of operation-applications

4.1.1 Introduction to Buck Boost converter


A Buck converter is a switch mode DC to DC converter in which the output
voltage can be transformed to a level less than or greater than the input voltage. The
magnitude of output voltage depends on the duty cycle of the switch.It is also called as
step up/step down converter. The name step up/step down converter comes from the
fact that analogous to step up/step down transformer the input voltage can be stepped
up/down to a level greater than/less than the input voltage. By law of conservation of
energy the input power has to be equal to output power (assuming no losses in the
circuit).
Input power (Pin) = output power (Pout)
In step up mode Vin < Vout in a Buck Boost converter, it follows then that the output
current will be less than the input current. Therefore for a Buck Boost converter in step
up mode

Vin < Vout and Iin >Iout


In step down mode Vin > Vout in a Buck Boost converter, it follows then that the output
current will be greater than the input current. Therefore for a Buck Boost converter in
step down mode
Vin >Vout and Iin <Iout

4.1.2 Principle of operation of Buck converter


The main working principle of Buck Boost converter is that the inductor in the
input circuit resists sudden variations in input current. When switch is ON the inductor
stores energy from the input in the form of magnetic energy and discharges it when
switch is closed. The capacitor in the output circuit is assumed large enough that the

22
time constant of RC circuit in the output stage is high. The large time constant compared
to switching period ensures that in steady state a constant output voltage.

4.1.3 Modes of operation of Buck Boost converter


This type of converter nowadays is mainly used in electric vehicles. It is also
called a Half-Bridge DC-DC converter. When the Buck and the boost converters are
connected in antiparallel across each other with the resulting circuit is primarily having
the same structure as the basic Boost and Buck structure but with the combined feature
of bidirectional power flow is called Bi directional dc-dc converter. It works in both
directions.
The above circuit can work in buck or boost mode depending on the switching of the
Mosfets Q1 and Q2. The switches Q1 or Q2 in sequence with the anti-parallel diodes
D1 or D2 (acting as a freewheeling diode) respectively, which makes the circuit step
up or step down the voltage connected across them. The bidirectional operation of the
above circuit can be described in the below two modes as follows:

Mode 1 (Boost Mode):


In this mode switch Q2 and diode D1 begin into conduction depending on the duty
cycle whereas the switch Q1 and diode D2 are off all the time. This mode can moreover
be divided into two intervals depending on the conduction on the switch Q1 and diode
D2.

Interval 1 (Q2-on, D2-off; Q1-off, D2-Off):


In this mode Q2 is on and hence can be examined to be short-circuited, hence the lower
voltage battery charges the inductor and the inductor current goes on rising till not the
gate pulse is separated from the Q2. Also since the diode D1 is reversed biased in this
mode and the switch Q1 is off, no current flows into the switch Q1.

Interval 2 (Q1-off, D1-off; Q2-off, D2-on):


In this mode, Q2 and Q1 both are off and therefore can be considered to be opened
circuited. Now since the current flowing into the inductor cannot change immediately,
the polarity of the voltage across it reverses and hence it starts acting in series with the
input voltage. Therefore the diode D1 is forward biased and so the inductor current
charges the output capacitor C2 to a greater voltage. Therefore the output voltage boosts

23
up.

Mode 2 (Buck Mode):


In this mode switch Q1 and diode D2 begin into conduction depending on the duty
cycle whereas the switch Q2 and diode D1 are off all the time. This mode can moreover
be divided into two intervals depending on the conduction on the switch Q2 and diode
D1.

Interval 1 (Q2-on, D2-off; Q1-off, D2-Off):


In this mode, Q1 is on and Q2 is off. The greater voltage battery will charge the inductor
and the o/p capacitor will get charged by battery.

Interval 2 (Q1-off, D1-off; Q2-off, D2-on): In this mode, Q2 and Q1 both are off.
Again as the inductor current cannot change instantaneously, it gets discharged via the
freewheeling diode D2. The voltage across the load is stepped down as correlated to the
input voltage.
A comparison between the features of the non-isolated bidirectional topologies have
been explained below:

The Buck Boost converter can be operated in two modes

a) Continuous conduction mode in which the current through inductor never goes to
zero. i.e inductor partially discharges before the start of the switching cycle.
b) Discontinuous conduction mode in which the current through inductor goes to zero
i.e. inductor is completely discharged at the end of switching cycle.

4.2 Circuit analysis of Buck converter

Assume in the entire analysis that the current swing (maximum to minimum
value) through inductor and voltage swing through capacitor is very less so that they
vary in a linear fashion. This is to ease the analysis and the results we will get through
this analysis are quite accurate compared to real values.

24
4.2.1 Continuous conduction mode
case-1: When switch S is ON

When switch in ON for a time ton, the diode will be open circuited since it does
not allow currents in reverse direction from input to output. Hence the Buck Boost
converter can be redrawn as follows
During this state the inductor charges and the inductor current increases. The current
through the inductor is given as

Assume that prior to the opening of switch the inductor current is I’L, off. Since the input
voltage is constant

Assume the switch is open for ton seconds which is given by D*Ts where D is duty
cycle and Ts is switching time period. The current through the inductor at the end of
switch on state is given as
IL, on = (1/L) *Vin*D*Ts + I’L, on (equation 1)
Hence ΔIL,on = (1/L)*Vin*D*Ts.

case 2: When switch is off

When switch in OFF the diode will be forward biased as it allows current from
output to input (p to n terminal) and the Buck Boost converter circuit can be redrawn
as follows
The inductor now discharges through the diode and RC combination. Assume that prior
to the closing of switch the inductor current is I’’L, off. The current through the inductor
is given as

Note the negative sign at the front end of equation signifies that the inductor is
discharging. Assume the switch is open for toff seconds which is given by (1-

25
D)*Ts where D is duty cycle and Ts is switching time period. The current through the
inductor at the end of switch off state is given as
I’’’L, off = -(1/L) *Vout*(1-D)*Ts + I’’L, off (equation 2)
In steady state condition as the current through the inductor does not change abruptly,
the current at the end of switch on state and the current at the end of switch off state
should be equal. Also the currents at the start of switch off state should be equal to
current at the end of switch on state. Hence
I’’’L, off =IL, on also I’L, off =I’’L, off
Using the equations 1 and 2 we get
(1/L) *Vin*D*Ts = (1/L) *Vout*(1-D)*Ts
Vin*D =Vout*(1-D)
Vout/Vin = D/(1-D)
Since D < 1, Vout can be greater than or less than Vin.For D>0.5 the Buck boost
converter acts as boost converter with Vout >Vin.
For D<0.5 the Buck boost converter a as buck converter with Vout >Vin.

Assuming no losses in the circuit and applying the law of conservation of energy
Vout*Iout = Vin*Iin
This implies Iout/Iin = (1-D)/D, Thus Iout > Iin for D<0.5 and Iout < Iin for D<0.5 . As the
duty cycle increases the output voltage increases and output current decreases.

4.2.2 Discontinuous conduction mode

As mentioned before the converter when operated in discontinuous mode the


inductor drains its stored energy completely before completion of switching cycle. The
current and voltage wave forms of Buck Boost converter in discontinuous mode is
shown in the figure below
The inductor in discontinuous mode drains all the current which it piled up in charging
interval of same switching cycle. The current through the inductor is given as

= (1/L)*area under the curve of voltage v/s

26
time. Hence from the wave forms shown in the figure
Vout*δ*Ts = Vin*D*Ts
Vout/Vin =D/δ
and the ratio of output to input current from law of conservation of energy is Iout/Iin =
δ/D.

4.3 Applications of Buck boost converter

• It is used in the self regulating power supplies.


• It has consumer electronics.
• It is used in the Battery power systems.
• Adaptive control applications.
• Power amplifier applications.

27
CHAPTER-5
PULSE WIDTH MODULATION

5.1 WHY PULSE WIDTH MODULATION

1. Cheap to make.

2. Little heat whilst working.

3. Low power consumption.

4. Can utilize very high frequencies (40-100 Khz is not uncommon.)

5. Very energy-efficient when used to convert voltages or to dim light bulbs.

6. High power handling capability

7. Efficiency up to 90%

5.2 Modulation technique

A modulation technique used to encode a message into a pulsing signal.

Although this modulation technique can be used to encode information for

transmission, its main use is to allow the control of the power supplied to electrical

devices, especially to inertial loads such as motors. In addition, PWM is one of the two

principal algorithms used in photovoltaic solar battery chargers, the other being MPPT.

The average value of voltage (and current) fed to the load is controlled by

turning the switch between supply and load on and off at a fast rate. The longer the

switch is on compared to the off periods, the higher the total power supplied to the load.

5.3 PWM technique

The PWM switching frequency has to be much higher than what would affect

the load (the device that uses the power), which is to say that the resultant waveform

28
perceived by the load must be as smooth as possible. Typically switching has to be done

several times a minute in an electric stove, 120 Hz in a lamp dimmer, from few kilohertz

(kHz) to tens of kHz for a motor drive and well into the tens or hundreds of kHz in

audio amplifiers and computer power supplies.

The term duty cycle describes the proportion of 'on' time to the regular interval

or 'period' of time; a low duty cycle corresponds to low power, because the power is off

for most of the time. Duty cycle is expressed in percent, 100% being fully on.

5.3.1 Advantage of PWM

The main advantage of PWM is that power loss in the switching devices is very

low. When a switch is off there is practically no current, and when it is on and power is

being transferred to the load, there is almost no voltage drop across the switch. Power

loss, being the product of voltage and current, is thus in both cases close to zero. PWM

also works well with digital controls, which, because of their on/off nature, can easily

set the needed duty cycle.

PWM has also been used in certain communication systems where its duty cycle

has been used to convey information over a communications channel.

29
Fig 5.1 wave for combined positive and negative pulse

An example of PWM in an idealized inductor driven by a voltage source: the

voltage source (blue) is modulated as a series of pulses that results in a sine-like

current/flux (red) in the inductor. The blue rectangular pulses nonetheless result in a

smoother and smoother red sine wave as the switching frequency increases. Note that

the red waveform is the (definite) integral of the blue waveform.

5.3.2 Principle of PWM

Pulse-width modulation uses a rectangular pulse wave whose pulse width is

modulated resulting in the variation of the average value of the waveform. If we

consider a pulse waveform , with period , low value , a high

value and a duty cycle D (see figure 1), the average value of the waveform is

given by:

As is a pulse wave, its value

is for and for . The above

expression then becomes:

This latter expression can be fairly simplified in many cases

where as . From this, it is obvious that the average

value of the signal ( ) is directly dependent on the duty cycle D.

30
Fig. 5.2: A simple method to generate the PWM pulse train corresponding to a given signal is the

intersective PWM

the signal (here the red sinewave) is compared with a sawtooth waveform (blue). When

the latter is less than the former, the PWM signal (magenta) is in high state (1).

Otherwise it is in the low state (0).

The simplest way to generate a PWM signal is the intersective method, which

requires only a sawtooth or a triangle waveform (easily generated using a

simple oscillator) and a comparator. When the value of the reference signal (the red

sine wave in figure 2) is more than the modulation waveform (blue), the PWM signal

(magenta) is in the high state, otherwise it is in the low state.

5.3.3 Applications of PWM Technique

The PWM is a technique which is used to drive the inertial loads since a very

long time.The simple example of an inertial load is a motor. Apply the power to a motor

for a very short period of time and then turn off the power: it can be observed that the

motor is still running even after the power has been cut off from it. This is due to the
31
inertia of the motor and the significance of this factor is that the continuous power is

not required for that kind of devices to operate. A burst power can save the total power

supplied to the load while achieving the same performance from the device as it runs

on continuous power.

The PWM technique is use in devices like DC motors, Loudspeakers, Class -

D Amplifiers, SMPS etc. They are also used in communication field as-well. The

modulation techniques like AM, FM are widely used RF communication whereas the

PWM is modulation technique is mostly used in Optical Fiber Communication (OFC).

As in the case of the inertial loads mentioned previously, the PWM in a

communication link greatly saves the transmitter power. The immunity of the PWM

transmission against the inter-symbol interference is another advantage. This article

discusses the technique of generating a PWM wave corresponding to a modulating sine

wave.

5.3.4 Description of PWM :

The Pulse Width Modulation is a technique in which the ON time or OFF time

of a pulse is varied according to the amplitude of the modulating signal, keeping t

32
5.3 SPWM block diagram

5.4 SPWM SIMULATION DIAGRAM

5.5 SCOPE view

33
5.6 SCOPE 1 view

5.7 SCOPE 2 view

the (ON time + OFF time) time of the pulse as constant. The (ON time + OFF

time) of a pulse is called ‘Period’ of the pulse, and the ratio of the ON time or OFF time

with the Period is called the ‘Duty Cycle’. Hence the PWM is a kind of modulation

which keeps the Period of pulses constant but varying their duty cycle according to the

amplitude of the modulating signal.

The conventional method of generating a PWM modulated wave is to compare

the message signal with a ramp waveform using a comparator. The block diagram

required for the generation of a simple PWM is shown

34
CHAPTER 6
PROPOSED BRUSHLESS DC MOTORS

6.1 BRUSHLESS DC MOTOR:

Brushless DC motors (BLDC) have been a much focused area for numerous
motor manufacturers as these motors are increasingly the preferred choice in many
applications, especially in the field of motor control technology. BLDC motors are
superior to brushed DC motors in many ways, such as ability to operate at high
speeds, high efficiency, and better heat dissipation. They are an indispensable part of
modern drive technology, most commonly employed for actuating drives, machine
tools, electric propulsion, robotics, computer peripherals and also for electrical power
generation. With the development of sensorless technology besides digital control,
these motors become so effective in terms of total system cost, size and reliability.

A brushless DC motor (known as BLDC) is a permanent magnet synchronous


electric motor which is driven by direct current (DC) electricity and it accomplishes
electronically controlled commutation system (commutation is the process of
producing rotational torque in the motor by changing phase currents through it at
appropriate times) instead of a mechanically commutation system. BLDC motors are
also referred as trapezoidal permanent magnet motors.

Unlike conventional brushed type DC motor, wherein the brushes make the
mechanical contact with commutator on the rotor so as to form an electric path
between a DC electric source and rotor armature windings, BLDC motor employs
electrical commutation with permanent magnet rotor and a stator with a sequence of
coils. In this motor, permanent magnet (or field poles) rotates and current carrying
conductors are fixed.

35
Fig 6.1 Brushless DC motor

The armature coils are switched electronically by transistors or silicon


controlled rectifiers at the correct rotor position in such a way that armature field is in
space quadrature with the rotor field poles. Hence the force acting on the rotor causes
it to rotate. Hall sensors or rotary encoders are most commonly used to sense the
position of the rotor and are positioned around the stator. The rotor position feedback
from the sensor helps to determine when to switch the armature current.
This electronic commutation arrangement eliminates the commutator arrangement and
brushes in a DC motor and hence more reliable and less noisy operation is achieved.
Due to the absence of brushes BLDC motors are capable to run at high speeds. The
efficiency of BLDC motors is typically 85 to 90 percent, whereas as brushed type DC
motors are 75 to 80 percent efficient. There are wide varieties of BLDC motors
available ranging from small power range to fractional horsepower, integral
horsepower and large power ranges.

36
6.1.1 Construction of BLDC Motor

BLDC motors can be constructed in different physical configurations. Depending on


the stator windings, these can be configured as single-phase, two-phase, or three-
phase motors. However, three-phase BLDC motors with permanent magnet rotor are
most commonly used.
The construction of this motor has many similarities of three phase induction motor as
well as conventional DC motor. This motor has stator and rotor parts as like all other
motors.

Fig 6.2 BLDC motor

Stator of a BLDC motor made up of stacked steel laminations to carry the windings.
These windings are placed in slots which are axially cut along the inner periphery of
the stator. These windings can be arranged in either star or delta. However, most
BLDC motors have three phase star connected stator. Each winding is constructed
with numerous interconnected coils, where one or more coils are placed in each slot.
In order to form an even number of poles, each of these windings is distributed over

37
the stator periphery. The stator must be chosen with the correct rating of the voltage
depending on the power supply capability. For robotics, automotive and small
actuating applications, 48 V or less voltage BLDC motors are preferred. For industrial
applications and automation systems, 100 V or higher rating motors are used.

Fig 6.3 stator diagram

6.2 Rotor Description

BLDC motor incorporates a permanent magnet in the rotor. The number of


poles in the rotor can vary from 2 to 8 pole pairs with alternate south and north poles
depending on the application requirement. In order to achieve maximum torque in the
motor, the flux density of the material should be high. A proper magnetic material for
the rotor is needed to produce required magnetic field density.

38
Fig 6.4 Rotor diagram
Ferrite magnets are inexpensive, however they have a low flux density for a given
volume. Rare earth alloy magnets are commonly used for new designs. Some of these
alloys are Samarium Cobalt (SmCo), Neodymium (Nd), and Ferrite and Boron
(NdFeB). The rotor can be constructed with different core configurations such as the
circular core with permanent magnet on the periphery, circular core with rectangular
magnets, etc.

6.3 Hall Sensors

Hall sensor provides the information to synchronize stator armature excitation


with rotor position. Since the commutation of BLDC motor is controlled
electronically, the stator windings should be energized in sequence in order to rotate
the motor. Before energizing a particular stator winding, acknowledgment of rotor
position is necessary. So the Hall Effect sensor embedded in stator senses the rotor
position. Most BLDC motors incorporate three Hall sensors which are embedded into
the stator. Each sensor generates Low and High signals whenever the rotor poles pass
near to it. The exact commutation sequence to the stator winding can be determined
based on the combination of these three sensor’s response.

6.4 Working Principle and Operation of BLDC Motor

BLDC motor works on the principle similar to that of a conventional DC


motor, i.e., the Lorentz force law which states that whenever a current carrying
conductor placed in a magnetic field it experiences a force. As a consequence of
reaction force, the magnet will experience an equal and opposite force. In case BLDC
motor, the current carrying conductor is stationary while the permanent magnet
moves. When the stator coils are electrically switched by a supply source, it becomes
electromagnet and starts producing the uniform field in the air gap. Though the source
of supply is DC, switching makes to generate an AC voltage waveform with
trapezoidal shape. Due to the force of interaction between electromagnet stator and
permanent magnet rotor, the rotor continues to rotate. Consider the figure below in
which motor stator is excited based on different switching states. With the switching

39
of windings as High and Low signals, corresponding winding energized as North and
South poles. The permanent magnet rotor with North and South poles align with stator
poles causing motor to rotate. Observe that motor produces torque because of the
development of attraction forces (when North-South or South-North alignment) and
repulsion forces (when North-North or South-South alignment). By this way motor
moves in a clockwise direction.
Here, one might get a question that how we know which stator coil should be
energized and when to do. This is because; the motor continuous rotation depends on
the switching sequence around the coils. As discussed above that Hall sensors give
shaft position feedback to the electronic controller unit. Based on this signal from
sensor, the controller decides particular coils to energize. Hall-effect sensors generate
Low and High level signals whenever rotor poles pass near to it. These signals
determine the position of the shaft.

Fig 6.5 Switching sequence and BLDC Motor

40
6.5 Brushless DC Motor Drive

As described above that the electronic controller circuit energizes appropriate motor
winding by turning transistor or other solid state switches to rotate the motor
continuously. The figure below shows the simple BLDC motor drive circuit which
consists of MOSFET bridge (also called as inverter bridge), electronic controller, hall
effect sensor and BLDC motor.
Here, Hall-effect sensors are used for position and speed feedback. The electronic
controller can be a microcontroller unit or microprocessor or DSP processor or FPGA
unit or any other controller. This controller receives these signals, processes them and
sends the control signals to the MOSFET driver circuit.

6.6 Mosfet Bridge:

41
Fig 6.6 Mosfet Bridge
In addition to the switching for a rated speed of the motor, additional electronic
circuitry changes the motor speed based on required application. These speed control
units are generally implemented with PID controllers to have precise control. It is also
possible to produce four-quadrant operation from the motor whilst maintaining good
efficiency throughout the speed variations using modern drives.

6.7Advantages of BLDC Motor

BLDC motor has several advantages over conventional DC motors and some of these
are
• It has no mechanical commutator and associated problems
• High efficiency due to the use of permanent magnet rotor.
• High speed of operation even in loaded and unloaded conditions due to the absence
of brushes that limits the speed
• Smaller motor geometry and lighter in weight than both brushed type DC and
induction AC motors
• Long life as no inspection and maintenance is required for commutator system
• Higher dynamic response due to low inertia and carrying windings in the stator
• Less electromagnetic interference
• Quite operation (or low noise) due to absence of brushes

6.8 Disadvantages of Brushless Motor

• These motors are costly


• Electronic controller required control this motor is expensive
• Not much availability of many integrated electronic control solutions, especially for
tiny BLDC motors
• Requires complex drive circuitry
• Need of additional sensors

42
6.9 Applications of Brushless DC Motors (BLDC)

Brushless DC Motors (BLDC) are used for a wide variety of application requirements
such as varying loads, constant loads and positioning applications in the fields of
industrial control, automotive, aviation, automation systems, health care equipments,
etc. Some specific applications of BLDC motors are
• Computer hard drives and DVD/CD players
• Electric vehicles, hybrid vehicles, and electric bicycles
• Industrial robots, CNC machine tools, and simple belt driven systems
• Washing machines, compressors and dryers
• Fans, pumps and blowers

43
CHAPTER 7
PROPOSED CONTROLLER

7.1 Introduction about Fuzzy Logic Technique

In recent years, the number and variety of applications of fuzzy logic have
increased significantly. The applications range from consumer products such as
cameras, camcorders, washing machines, and microwave ovens to industrial process
control, medical instrumentation, decision-support systems, and portfolio selection.

Fuzzy logic has two different meanings. In a narrow sense, fuzzy logic is a
logical system, which is an extension of multivalve logic. However, in a wider sense
fuzzy logic (FL) is almost synonymous with the theory of fuzzy sets, a theory which
relates to classes of objects with un-sharp boundaries in which membership is a matter
of degree. In this perspective, fuzzy logic in its narrow sense is a branch of fl. Even in
its more narrow definition, fuzzy logic differs both in concept and substance from
traditional multivalve logical systems.

The basic concept in FL, which plays a central role in most of its applications,
is that of a fuzzy if-then rule or, simply, fuzzy rule. Although rule-based systems have
a long history of use in Artificial Intelligence (AI), what is missing in such systems is
a mechanism for dealing with fuzzy consequents and fuzzy antecedents. In fuzzy logic,
this mechanism is provided by the calculus of fuzzy rules. The calculus of fuzzy rules
serves as a basis for what might be called the Fuzzy Dependency and Command
Language (FDCL). Although FDCL is not used explicitly in the toolbox, it is effectively
one of its principal constituents. In most of the applications of fuzzy logic, a fuzzy logic
solution is, in reality, a translation of a human solution into FDCL.

A trend that is growing in visibility relates to the use of fuzzy logic in


combination with neuro computing and genetic algorithms. More generally, fuzzy
logic, neuro-computing, and genetic algorithms may be viewed as the principal
constituents of what might be called soft computing. Unlike the traditional, hard
computing, soft computing accommodates the imprecision of the real world.

The guiding principle of soft computing is: Exploit the tolerance for
imprecision, uncertainty, and partial truth to achieve tractability, robustness, and low

44
solution cost. In the future, soft computing could play an increasingly important role in
the conception and design of systems who’s MIQ (Machine IQ) is much higher than
that of systems designed by conventional methods.

Among various combinations of methodologies in soft computing, the one that


has highest visibility at this juncture is that of fuzzy logic and neuro computing, leading
to neuro-fuzzy systems. Within fuzzy logic, such systems play a particularly important
role in the induction of rules from observations.

Fuzzy logic is a fascinating area of research because it does a good job of trading
off between significance and precision. something that humans have been managing for
a very long time. In this sense, fuzzy logic is both old and new because, although the
modern and methodical science of fuzzy logic is still young, the concept of fuzzy logic
relies on age-old skills of human reasoning.

Fig. 7.1 Fuzzy Description

7.2. Uses of fuzzy logic

Fuzzy logic is a convenient way to map an input space to an output space. Mapping
input to output is the starting point for everything. Consider the following examples:

• With information about how good your service was at a restaurant, a fuzzy logic
system can tell you what the tip should be.

45
• With your specification of how hot you want the water, a fuzzy logic system
can adjust the faucet valve to the right setting.

• With information about how far away the subject of your photograph is, a fuzzy
logic system can focus the lens for you.

• With information about how fast the car is going and how hard the motor is
working, a fuzzy logic system can shift gears for you.

To determine the appropriate amount of tip requires mapping inputs to the


appropriate outputs. Between the input and the output, the preceding figure shows a
black box that can contain any number of things: fuzzy systems, linear systems, expert
systems, neural networks, differential equations, interpolated multidimensional lookup
tables, or even a spiritual advisor, just to name a few of the possible options. Clearly
the list could go on and on. Fuzzy is faster and cheaper.

7.3. Fuzzy Logic Controller


7.3.1. Simple Fuzzy Logic Controllers

First-generation simple fuzzy logic controllers can generally be depicted by a


block diagram.

The knowledge-base module contains knowledge about all the input and output
fuzzy partitions. It will include the term set and the corresponding membership
functions defining the input variables to the fuzzy rule-base system and the output
variables, or control actions, to the plant under control.

46
Fig. 7.2 A Simple Fuzzy Logic Control System

❖ The steps in designing a simple fuzzy logic control system are as follows:
❖ Identify the variables (inputs, states and outputs) of the plant. Partition the
universe of discourse or the interval spanned by each variable into a number of
fuzzy subsets, assigning each a linguistic label (subsets include all the elements
in the universe).
❖ Assign or determine a membership function for each fuzzy subset.
❖ Assign the fuzzy relationships between the inputs or states fuzzy subsets on the
one hand and the outputs fuzzy subsets on the other hand, thus forming the rule-
base.
❖ Choose appropriate scaling factors for the input and output variables in order to
normalize the variables to the [0, 1] or the [-1, 1] interval.
❖ Fuzzily the inputs to the controller.
❖ Use fuzzy approximate reasoning to infer the output contributed from each rule.

47
❖ Aggregate the fuzzy outputs recommended by each rule.
❖ Apply defuzzification to form a crisp output.

In a nonadaptive simple fuzzy logic controller, the methodology used and the
results of the nine steps mentioned above are fixed, whereas in an adaptive fuzzy logic
controller, they are adaptively modified based on some adaptation law in order to
optimize the control.

A simple fuzzy logic control system has the following features:

❖ Fixed and uniform input- and output- scaling factors.


❖ Flat, single-partition rule-base with fixed and noninetractive rules. All the rules
have the same degree of certainty and confidence, equal to unity.
❖ Fixed membership functions.
❖ Limited number of rules, which increase exponentially with the number of input
variables.
❖ Fixed metaknowledge including the methodology for approximate reasoning,
rules-aggregation, and output defuzzification.
❖ Low-level control and no hierarchical rule structure.

7.3.2. General Fuzzy Logic Controllers

The principal design elements in a general fuzzy logic control system are as
follows:

1. Fuzzification strategies and the interpretation of a fuzzification operator, or fuzzifier.

2. Knowledge base:

a. Discrimination/normalization of the universe of discourse.

b. Fuzzy partitions of the input and output spaces.

c. Completeness of the partitions.

48
d. Choice of the membership functions of a primary fuzzy set.

3. Rule-base:

a. Choice of process state (input) variables and control (output) variables.

b. Source of derivation of fuzzy control rules.

c. Types of fuzzy control rules.

d. Consistency, interactivity, and completeness of fuzzy control rules.

4. Decision-making logic:

a. Definition of a fuzzy implication.

b. Interpretation of sentence connective and

c. Interpretation of sentence connective or.

d. Inference mechanism.

5. Defuzzification strategies and the interpretation of a defuzzification operator


(defuzzifier).

Adaptation or change in any of the five design parameters above creates an


adaptive fuzzy logic control system. If all are fixed, the fuzzy logic control system is
simple and nonadaptive.

7.4. Membership Functions

Definition: A graph that defines how each point in the input space is mapped to
membership value between 0 and 1. Input space is often referred as the universe of
discourse or universal set (u), which contain all the possible elements of concern in each
particular application.

7.4.1. Types of membership functions

49
Before we start defining different types of membership functions, let us consider
a Fuzzy IF-THEN rule for a car:

IF the speed of a car is high, THEN apply less force to the accelerator

IF the speed is low, THEN apply more force to the accelerator

Straight line:

The simplest membership function is formed by straight line. We consider the


speed of car in Fig. 7.3 and plot the membership function for high. Where the horizontal
represent the speed of the car and vertical axis represent the membership value for high.

Fig. 7.3 Straight Line Membership Function

Trapezoidal:

If we consider the case 7.3 and plot the membership function for “less”, we get
a trapezoidal membership function. Fig. 7.3 shows a graphical representation, where
the horizontal axis represent the force applied to the accelerator and the vertical shows
membership value for “less”. The function is often represented by “trapmf”.

50
Fig. 7.4 Trapezoidal Membership Function

Gaussian:

Let say a fuzzy set Z which represent “number close to zero”. The possible
membership function for Z is

2
µ𝑍 (𝑥) = 𝑒 −𝑥
(5.1)

If we plot this function we get a graph shown in Fig 5.5 and are refer as Gaussian
membership function.

51
Fig. 7.5 Gaussian Membership Function

Triangular:

This is formed by the combination of straight lines. The function is name as


“trimf” .We considers the above case i.e. fuzzy set Z to represent the “number close to
zero”. So mathematically we can also represent it as

0 if X<-1

µ𝑍 (𝑥) = X + 1 if -1 ≤ X <0
(5.2)

=1–X if 0 ≤ X <1

=0 if 1≤ X

Fig. 7.6 called “triangular membership function”

52
Fig. 7.6 Traingular Membership Function

7.5 Fuzzy Logic Tool Box:

In fuzzy Logic Toolbox software, fuzzy logic should be interpreted as FL, that
is, fuzzy logic in its wide sense. The basic ideas underlying FL are explained very
clearly and insightfully in Foundations of Fuzzy Logic. What might be added is that the
basic concept underlying FL is that of a linguistic variable, that is, a variable whose
values are words rather than numbers. In effect, much of FL may be viewed as a
methodology for computing with words rather than numbers. Although words are
inherently less precise than numbers, their use is closer to human intuition.
Furthermore, computing with words exploits the tolerance for imprecision and thereby
lowers the cost of solution

The fuzzy logic toolbox is highly impressive in all respects. It makes fuzzy logic
an effective tool for the conception and design of intelligent systems. The fuzzy logic
toolbox is easy to master and convenient to use. And last, but not least important, it
provides a reader friendly and up-to-date introduction to methodology of fuzzy logic
and its wide ranging applications.

You can create and edit fuzzy inference systems with Fuzzy Logic Toolbox
software. You can create these systems using graphical tools or command-line
functions, or you can generate them automatically using either clustering or adaptive

53
neuro-fuzzy techniques.

If you have access to SIMULINK software, you can easily test your fuzzy
system in a block diagram simulation environment.

The toolbox also lets you run your own stand-alone C programs directly. This
is made possible by a stand-alone Fuzzy Inference Engine that reads the fuzzy systems
saved from a MATLAB session. You can customize the stand-alone engine to build
fuzzy inference into your own code. All provided code is ansi compliant.

Because of the integrated nature of the MATLAB environment, you can create
your own tools to customize the toolbox or harness it with another toolbox, such as the
Control System Toolbox, Neural Network Toolbox, or Optimization Toolbox software.

The Fuzzy Logic Toolbox extends the MATLAB technical computing


environment with tools for designing systems based on fuzzy logic. Graphical user
interfaces (GUIs) guide you through the steps of fuzzy inference system design.
Functions are provided for many common fuzzy logic methods, including fuzzy
clustering and adaptive neuro fuzzy learning.
The toolbox lets you model complex system behaviors using simple logic rules
and then implements these rules in a fuzzy inference system. You can use the toolbox
as a standalone fuzzy inference engine. Alternatively, you can use fuzzy inference
blocks in SIMULINK and simulate the fuzzy systems within a comprehensive model
of the entire dynamic system.

54
CHAPTER 8
SIMULATION RESULTS

Fig 8.1 Proposed circuit configuration

55
Fig 8.2 Proposed system Battery SOC, current, voltage

Fig 8.3 Proposed system Speed of the dc machine

56
Fig 8.4 Proposed system Armature current, Field current, Electromagnetic torque

Fig 8.5 Proposed Dc machine across voltage

57
CHAPTER 9

CONCLUSION
This project presents design and control bi-directional dc-dc converter for all-
electric vehicle. The bi-directional dc-dc converter is controlled with FLC according to
rules. When the battery is discharged, the dc machine is operated in motor mode and
bi-directional dc-dc converter is operated in boost mode. Variable positive torque
values are applied to the dc machine and condition of the battery is observed. According
to simulation result, the battery SoC is reduced from %88 to %87.337 and voltage of
the dc machine is constant at 500 V. When the battery is charged, the dc machine is
operated generator mode and bi-directional dc-dc converter is operated in buck mode.
Variable negative torque values are applied to the dc machine and effect on the battery
is observed. According to simulation result, the battery SoC is increased from %87.337
to %87.445. In all-electric vehicle, regenerative breaking is occurred in this state.
Charge and discharge states of the battery are the most essential for distance to
determining.

58
CHAPTER 10
REFERENCES
• J. Zhang, T. Shen, Receding Horizon “Optimal Control of PHEV with
Demanded Torque Estimation Model,” IFAC-PapersOnLine , Volume 51, vol:
31, 2018, pp: 183-187
• S .Mohammadsalehian , F .Sedaghati , R. Eskandari and E. Shokati Asl, “A
Modified Double input Z_Source DC_DC conveter for standlone PV/Battery
system application “,Proc. 11th international power electronics drive system and
technologies conference (PEDSTC),pp. 1-7 , 2020.
• A. Tiwari and O. P. Jaga, “Component selection for an electric vehicle: A
review,” International Conference on Computation of Power, Energy
Information and Commuincation(ICCPEIC), Melmaruvathur 2019, pp. 492-
499.
• Jia Ying Yong, Vigna K. Ramachandaramurthy, Kang Miao Tan, N.
Mithulananthan, “A review on the state-of-the-art technologies of electric
vehicle, its impacts and prospects,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy
Reviews, vol: 49, 2018, pp: 365-385
• Yanzhi Wang, Xue Lin, M. Pedram and N. Chang, “Joint automatic control of
the powertrain and auxiliary systems to enhance the electro mobility in hybrid
electric vehicles,” 2020 52nd ACM/EDAC/IEEE Design Automation
Conference (DAC), San Francisco, CA, 2020, pp. 1-6.
• F . Sedaghati , S. Mohammadsalehian , H. Shayeghi and E. S. Asl, “ A
configuration for double input Z-source DC-DC converter”, 9th annual power
electronics drivers systems and technologies conference (PEDSTC),pp. 449-
455, 2018.
• Deepak Ravi, Bandi Mallikarjuna Reddy , Shimi Sudha Letha , Paulson Samuel
,”Analysis , modelling and design of dc/dc converters for the proton exchange
fuel cell hybrid electric vechicles “ international journal of engineering and
technology 2018
• M. S. Perdigao, J. P. F. Trovao, J. M. Alonso and E. S. Saraiva, “Large-Signal
Characterization of Power Inductors in EV Bidirectional DC–DC Converters

59
Focused on Core Size Optimization,” IEEE Transactions on Industrial
Electronics, vol. 62, no. 5, pp. 3042-3051.
• R. Cipin, M. Mach, M. Toman and J. Knobloch, “Measurement and evaluation
of DC motor starting torque,” 2019 IEEE International Conference on
Environment and Electrical Engineering and 2017 IEEE Industrial and
Commercial Power Systems Europe (EEEIC / I&CPS Europe), Milan, 2019,
pp.1-5.
• S. H. Hosseni, R. Ghazi, S. Farzamkia and M. Bahari,”A Novel High Gain
Extendable DC-DC Bidirectional Boost-Buck Converter”, Proc. 11th
international power electronics drive systems and technologies conference
(PEDSTC),pp. 1-6 , 2020
• F . Sedaghati , S. Mohammadsalehian , H. Shayeghi and E. S. Asl, “ A
configuration for double input Z-source DC-DC converter”, 9th annual power
electronics drivers systems and technologies conference (PEDSTC),pp. 449-
455, 2018.
• Deepak Ravi, Bandi Mallikarjuna Reddy , Shimi Sudha Letha , Paulson Samuel
,”Analysis , modelling and design of dc/dc converters for the proton exchange
fuel cell hybrid electric vechicles “ international journal of engineering and
technology 2018
• M. S. Perdigao, J. P. F. Trovao, J. M. Alonso and E. S. Saraiva, “Large-Signal
Characterization of Power Inductors in EV Bidirectional DC–DC Converters
Focused on Core Size Optimization,” IEEE Transactions on Industrial
Electronics, vol. 62, no. 5, pp. 3042-3051.
• R. Cipin, M. Mach, M. Toman and J. Knobloch, “Measurement and evaluation
of DC motor starting torque,” 2019 IEEE International Conference on
Environment and Electrical Engineering and 2017 IEEE Industrial and
Commercial Power Systems Europe (EEEIC / I&CPS Europe), Milan, 2019,
pp.1-5.
• S. H. Hosseni, R. Ghazi, S. Farzamkia and M. Bahari,”A Novel High Gain
Extendable DC-DC Bidirectional Boost-Buck Converter”, Proc. 11th
international power electronics drive systems and technologies conference
(PEDSTC),pp. 1-6 , 2020

60
APPENDIX

MATLAB is a high-performance language for technical computing. It integrates


computation, visualization, and programming in an easy-to-use environment where
problems and solutions are expressed in familiar mathematical notation. Typical uses
include-

➢ Math and computation

➢ Algorithm development

➢ Data acquisition

➢ Modeling, simulation, and prototyping

➢ Data analysis, exploration, and visualization

➢ Scientific and engineering graphics


MATLAB is an interactive system whose basic data element is an array that
does not require dimensioning. This allows solving many technical computing
problems, especially those with matrix and vector formulations, in a fraction of the time
it would take to write a program in a scalar non-interactive language such as C or
FORTRAN.
The MATLAB system consists of six main parts:

a) Development Environment
This is the set of tools and facilities that help to use MATLAB functions and
files. Many of these tools are graphical user interfaces. It includes the MATLAB
desktop and Command Window, a command history, an editor and debugger, and
browsers for viewing help, the workspace, files and the search path.

b) The MATLAB Mathematical Function Library


This is a vast collection of computational algorithms ranging from elementary
functions, like sum, sine, cosine, and complex arithmetic, to more sophisticated
functions like matrix inverse, matrix Eigen values, Bessel functions, and fast Fourier

61
transforms.

(c) The MATLAB Language


This is a high-level matrix/array language with control flow statements,
functions, data structures, input/output, and object-oriented programming features. It
allows both "programming in the small" to rapidly create quick and dirty throw-away
programs, and "programming in the large" to create large and complex application
programs.

(d) Graphics
MATLAB has extensive facilities for displaying vectors and matrices as graphs,
as well as annotating and printing these graphs. It includes high-level functions for two-
dimensional and three-dimensional data visualization, image processing, animation,
and presentation graphics. It also includes low-level functions that allow to fully
customize the appearance of graphics as well as to build complete graphical user
interfaces on MATLAB applications.

e) The MATLAB Application Program Interface (API)


This is a library that allows writing in C and FORTRAN programs that interact
with MATLAB. It includes facilities for calling routines from MATLAB (dynamic
linking), calling MATLAB as a computational engine, and for reading and writing
MAT-files.

(f) MATLAB Documentation


MATLAB provides extensive documentation, in both printed and online format,
to help to learn about and use all of its features. It covers all the primary MATLAB
features at a high level, including many examples. The MATLAB online help provides
task-oriented and reference information about MATLAB features. MATLAB
documentation is also available in printed form and in PDF format.

62
DIFFERENT TYPES OF BLOCKS AND THEIR PURPOSE

(1) Three phase source block

Three Phase Source Block


The Three-Phase Source block implements a balanced three-phase voltage
source with internal R-L impedance. The three voltage sources are connected in Y with
a neutral connection that can be internally ground.

(2) VI measurement block


The Three-Phase V-I Measurement block is used to measure three-phase
voltages and currents in a circuit. When connected in series with three-phase elements,
it returns the three phase-to-ground or phase-to-phase voltages and the three line
currents

Three Phase V-I Measurement

63
(3) Scope
Display signals generated during a simulation. The Scope block displays its
input with respect to simulation time. The Scope block can have multiple axes (one per
port); all axes have a common time range with independent y-axes. The Scope allows
you to adjust the amount of time and the range of input values displayed. You can move
and resize the Scope window and you can modify the Scope's parameter values during
the simulation

Scope

(4) Three-Phase Series RLC Load


The Three-Phase Series RLC Load block implements a three-phase balanced load
as a series combination of RLC elements. At the specified frequency, the load exhibits
constant impedance. The active and reactive powers absorbed by the load are
proportional to the square of the applied voltage.

Three-Phase Series RLC Load

(5) Three-Phase Breaker block


The Three-Phase Breaker block implements a three-phase circuit breaker where
the opening and closing times can be controlled either from an external Simulink signal
or from an internal control signal.

64
Three-Phase Breaker Block

(6) Integrator
Library: Continuous

Integrator
The integrator block outputs the integral of its input at the current time step. The
following equation represents the output of the block y as a function of its input u and
an initial condition y0, where y and u are vector functions of the current simulation time
t.

(7) Breaker
Implement circuit breaker opening at current zero crossing.
Library: Elements

65
Circuit Breaker
Purpose: The Breaker block implements a circuit breaker where the opening
and closing times can be controlled either from an external SIMULINK signal (external
control mode), or from an internal control timer (internal control mode).
A series Rs-Cs snubber circuit is included in the model. It can be connected to
the circuit breaker. If the Breaker block happens to be in series with an inductive circuit,
an open circuit or a current source, you must use a snubber.
When the breaker block is set in external control mode, a SIMULINK input
appears on the block icon. The control signal connected to the SIMULINK input must
be either 0 or 1 (0 to open the breaker, 1 to close it).
When the Breaker block is set in internal control mode, the switching times are
specified in the dialog box of the block.
When the breaker is closed, it is represented by a resistance Ron. The Ron value
can be set as small as necessary in order to be negligible compared with external
components (a typical value is 10 m ohms). When the breaker is open, it has an infinite
resistance.

(8) Three-Phase Programmable Voltage Source

Implement three-phase voltage source with programmable time variation of


amplitude, phase, frequency, and harmonics

Library: Electrical Sources

Three Phase Voltage Sources

Purpose: This block is used to generate a three-phase sinusoidal voltage with time-
varying parameters. It can be programmed with the time variation for the amplitude,
phase or frequency of the fundamental component of the source. In addition, two

66
harmonics can be programmed and superimposed on the fundamental signal.

(9) Trigonometric Function

Specified trigonometric function on input

Library: Math Operations

Trigonometric Function

Purpose: The Trigonometric Function block performs common trigonometric


functions

(10) Three-Phase Transformer (Two Windings)

Implement three-phase transformer with configurable winding connections

Library: Elements

Three Phase Transformer

Purpose:

The Three-Phase Transformer (Two Windings) block implements a three-


phase transformer using three single-phase transformers. The saturation characteristic,

67
when activated, is the same as the one described for the saturable Transformer block,
and the icon of the block is automatically updated. If the fluxes are not specified, the
initial values are automatically adjusted so that the simulation starts in steady state.

(11) Three-Phase Transformer 12 Terminals

Implement three single-phase, two-winding transformers where all terminals


are accessible

Library: Elements

Two winding Transformer

Purpose: The Three-Phase Transformer 12 Terminals block implements three single-


phase, two-winding linear transformers where all the twelve winding connectors are
accessible. The block can be used in place of the Three-Phase Transformer (Two
Windings) block to implement a three-phase transformer when primary and secondary
are not necessarily connected in Star or Delta.

(12) IGBT/Diode

Implements ideal IGBT, GTO, or MOSFET and antiparallel diode

Library: Power Electronics

68
IGBT

Purpose: The IGBT/Diode block is a simplified mode of an IGBT (or GTO or


MOSFET)/Diode pair where the forward voltages of the forced-commutated device and
diode are ignored.

69
A
PROJECT REPORT
On
STABILITY ANALYSIS OF A DC DISTRIBUTION
SYSTEM FOR POWER SYSTEM INTEGRATION OF
PLUG-IN ELECTRIC VEHICLES
Submitted by

1) D. Rithvik (17K81A0212) 2) K. Lokeswara Ravindra Rao(17K81A0224)


3) A. Gurcharan (17K81A0203) 4) C. Kapil Kumar Reddy (17K81A0210)

in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Under The Guidance of


Ms. T.V. SAI KALYANI, M.Tech,(PhD)
Assistant Professor
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

ST.MARTIN’S ENGINEERING COLLEGE


(An Autonomous Institute)
Dhulapally, Secunderabad – 500 100
JUNE
i
2021
BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project entitled STABILITY ANALYSIS OF A DC DISTRIBUTION


SYSTEM FOR POWER SYSTEM INTEGRATION OF PLUG-IN ELECTRTIC VEHICLE
is being submitted by 1.D.Rithvik(17K81A0212), 2.K.Lokeswara Ravindra Rao
(17K81A0224), 3.A.GuruCharan(17K81A0203), 4.C.Kapil Kumar Reddy(17K81A0210) in
partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the degree of BACHELOR OF
TECHNOLOGY IN ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING is recorded of
bonafide work carried out by them. The result embodied in this report have been verified and
found satisfactory.

Head of the Department


Ms. T. V. Sai Kalyani Dr. N. Ramchandra
Department of Electrical and Electronics Department of Electrical and Electronics

Internal Examiner External Examiner

Place:

Date:

ii
DECLARATION

We, the student of Bachelor of Technology in Department of Electrical And Electronics


Engineering, session: 2017 – 2021, St. Martin’s Engineering College, Dhulapally,
Kompally, Secunderabad, hereby declare that work presented in this Project Work entitled
STABILITY ANALYSIS OF A DC DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM FOR POWER
SYSTEM INTEGRATION OF PLUG-IN ELECTRTIC VEHICLE is the outcome of
our own bonafide work and is correct to the best of our knowledge and this work has been
undertaken taking care of Engineering Ethics. This result embodied in this project report has
not been submitted in any university for award of any degree.

D. Rithvik 17K81A0212
K. Lokeswara Ravindra Rao 17K81A0224
A. Gurucharan 17K81A0203
C. Kapil Kumar Reddy 17K81A0210

iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The satisfaction and euphoria that accompanies the successful completion of any task would
be incomplete without the mention of the people who made it possible and whose
encouragements and guidance have crowded effects with success.
First and foremost, we would like to express my deep sense of gratitude and indebtedness
to our College Management for their kind support and permission to use the facilities
available in the Institute.
We especially would like to express my deep sense of gratitude and indebtedness to
Dr.P.Santosh Kumar Patra, our beloved Principal, St.Martin’s Engineering College for
his invaluable encouragement, suggestions and support from an early stage of this research
and providing me extraordinary experiences throughout the work. Above all, his priceless and
meticulous supervision at each and every phase of work inspired me in innumerable ways.
We would like to express our gratitude to Dr. N. Ramchandra, Head &Professor, the
Dept. of Electrical and Electronics Engineering for his advice, supervision, and the vital
contribution as and when required during this research. We are proud to record that we had
the opportunity to work with an exceptionally experienced Professor like him. The time spent
with him will remain in my memory for years to come.
We would like to thank our supervisor, Ms.T.V.Sai Kalyani, Assistant professor, Dept. of
EEE for her continuous support and valuable guidance for our research work.
We would like to express our gratitude to our dept. project coordinators Mr. K. V.
Govardhan Rao, Assistant Professor, Dept. of EEE and Mr. T. Penchalaiah, Assistant
Professor, Dept of EEE for their involvement with originality has triggered and nourished my
intellectual maturity that will help me for a long time to come.
Finally, we are highly grateful and obliged to our college level Project Coordinators
Dr.Maalyadri, Professor in IT and Dr.R.Santhosh Kumar, Associate Professor in CSE
for their advice, supervision, and the vital contribution as and when required during this
research work and for their support and co- operation that is difficult to express in words.

1. D. Rithvik
2. K. Lokeswara Ravindra Rao
3. A. Gurucharan
4. C. Kapil Kumar Reddy

iv
ABSTRACT

This project proposes a method for enhancing the stability of a dc distribution system that integrates plug-in
hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) with an ac power grid. The DC distribution system is interfaced with the host AC
grid via a voltage-sourced converter and can also embed photovoltaic (PV) modules. Thus, bidirectional DC–DC
electronic power converters act as battery chargers and interface the PHEVs with the DC distribution system, while
DC Link modules are interfaced with the DC distribution system via unidirectional DC–DC converters. The DC
distribution system is expected to be more efficient and economical than a system of AC–DC battery chargers
directly interfaced with an AC grid, but it is prone to instabilities due to the constant-power property of the DC–DC
converters. Using a nonlinear control strategy, the proposed stability enhancement method mitigates the issue of
instability by altering the power set points of the battery chargers, bidirectional DC–DC converters, without a need
for changing system. The project presents mathematical models for the original and modified systems and
demonstrates that the proposed technique expands the stable operating region of the dc distribution system.

v
TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER NO TITLE PAGE NO

CERTIFICATE i
DECLARATION iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT v
ABSTRACT vi
LIST OF FIGURES ix
LIST OF OUTPUT SCREENS xi
LIST OF ACRONYMS xii

1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.0 OVERVIEW OF THE PROJECT 1
1.1 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY 3
1.2 SCOPE OF THE STUDY 4
1.3 MATERIAL REQUIREMENT 4
1.4 PROCUMENT OF EQUIPMENT 5
1.5 ORGANIZATION OF CHAPTERS 11
1.5 .0 INTRODUCTION 11
1.5.1 LITERATURE SURVEY 14
1.5.2 PROJECT DESIGN 14
1.5.3 PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION 15
1.5.4 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE ENHANCEMENT 15
2 LITERATURE SURVEY 16
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW ON RESEARCH AREA 16
2.1 REVIEW ON RELATED LITERATURE 17
2.2 CONCLUSIONS ON REVIEWS 18
3 PROJECT DESIGN 19
3.0 OVERVIEW OF THE DESIGN 19

vi
3.1 EQUIPMENT ANALYSIS 22
3.1.1 INTRODUCTION 22
3.1.2 BATTERY STORAGE SYSTEM 23
3.1.3 PROPOSED DC DC CONVERTER 24
3.1.4 INTRODUCTION TO BUCK BOOST CONVERTER 25
3.1.5 PULSE WIDTH MODULATION 28
3.1.6 PROPOSED AC DC CONVERTER 34
3.1.7 BLOCK DIAGRAM 38
3.1.8 SUB SYSTEMS 39
3.1.9 SOLVERS 40
3.1.10 CONTINUOUS AND DISCRETE SOLVERS 41
3.1.11 MODEL EXECUTION PHASE 43
3.1.12 DETERMINING BLOCK UPDATE ORDER 44
3.2 MODULE DEFINITION 45
3.3 MODULE FUNTIONALITIES 46
3.4 RELATEDED GRAPHS 52

4 PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION 54
4.0 IMPLEMTATION STAGES 54
4.1 MODES OF IMPLEMENTATIONS 54
4.2 RESULTS 59

5 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE ENHANCEMENT 62

PUBLICATION 63

REFERENCES 64

APPENDICES 69

vii
LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO TITLE PAGE NO


1.1 Three Phase Source Block 5
1.2 Three Phase V-I Measurement 5
1.3 Scope 6
1.4 Three-Phase Series RLC Load 6
1.5 Three-Phase Breaker Block 6
1.6 Integrator 7
1.7 Circuit Breaker 7
1.8 Three Phase Voltage Sources 8
1.9 Trigonometric Functions 8
1.10 Three Phase Transformer 9
1.11 Two winding Transformer 9
1.12 IGBT 10
1.13 Dc bus for distribution of power in a parking lot for PHEV’s 11
1.14 Schematic diagram of the dc system. 13
1.15 Block diagram of a DC distribution system 14
1.16 Connection the circuit in MATLAB software 15
3.1 Schematic Diagram of the dc system 19
3.2 Proposed circuit configuration without compensation 20
3.3 Proposed circuit configuration with current charging method 21
3.4. Proposed circuit configuration with power charging method 21
3.5. Proposed circuit configuration with voltage charging method 22
3.6. Proposed converter 24
3.7 wave for combined positive and negative pulse 29
3.8. SPWM block diagram 31
3.9 SPWM SIMULATION DIAGRAM 32
3.10 SCOPE view 33
3.11 SCOPE 1 view 33
3.12 SCOPE 2 view 33
3.13. Three-phase, two-level voltage-source converter 36
3.14. Three Phase Source Block 46

viii
3.15. Three Phase V-I Measurement 46
3.16. Scope 46
3.17 Three-Phase Series RLC Load 47
3.18. Three-Phase Breaker Block 47
3.19. Integrator 48
3.20. Circuit Breaker 48
3.21. Three Phase Voltage Sources 49
3.22. Trigonometric Functions 49
3.23. Three Phase Transformer 49
3.24. Two winding Transformer 50
3.25. IGBT 51
3.26. Charging profile of 30 kWh Nissan Leaf EV 52
from 0% to 90% of state
3.27. DC link voltage without any compensation 53
4.1. Proposed circuit configuration without compensation 55
4.2. Proposed circuit configuration with current charging method 56
4.3. Proposed circuit configuration with power charging method 57
4.4. Proposed circuit configuration with voltage charging method 58

ix
LIST OF OUTPUT SCREENS

O.S.NO TITLE PAGE NO

4.5. DC link voltage without any compensation 59


4.6. DC link voltage with current charging method 59
4.7. DC link voltage with power charging method 60
4.8. DC link voltage with voltage charging method 61

x
LIST OF ACRONYMS

AC Alternating Current
DC Direct Current
BEV Battery Electric Vehicle
EMS Energy Management Strategy
EV Electric Vehicle
GUI Graphical User Interface
PCC Point of Common Coupling
PEV Plug-in Electric Vehicle
PFC Power-Factor Correction
PHEV Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle
PI Proportional-Integral
PWM Pulse width modulation

xi
INTRODUCTION

1.0 OVERVIEW OF THE PROJECT

These days Electric vehicle charging market is very high. In which we have the most
of the companies involved in research and development of this areas and work to reduce the
charging time of EV’s. Today most of the EV’s can be charged at 50KW and 400V following
the fast-charging standards and are designed to withstand higher charging power. So, the output
power characteristics are key features of EV’s charging system by using power electronics
building block (PEBB). Connecting EV charger to medium level voltage (MV) AC grid.
Bidirectional PEBB is connected to MV grid through 50/60 Hz transformer. Advantage of this
is that the battery charger can be fully assembled with half-bridge power modules. It is a two-
stage power conversion system. Converts three phase AC to DC pulse DC to DC.

The front-end circuit consists of three phase two level voltage source rectifier which
has low complexity, low cost and proper voltage conversion rate. The back-end circuit has
three channel pulse width modulators with DC-DC buck type converter. This feature improves
the current shared between parallel circuits and results in the improvement in total conduction
and switching losses. PWM will cancel out the high frequency harmonics in both voltage and
current. The power which we get from the dc link will be given to different loads as per the
requirement. Here we will be having a battery which stores the dc power to charge the electric
vehicles. At the other output we will be giving it to a dc machine which might bring initial
harmonics in the DC bus, where we have to analyze the stability by using three different modes.

In the first part, a systematic method for developing a model for a dc distribution
system, based on the configuration of the system is proposed. The developed model is of the
matrix form and, therefore, can readily be expanded to represent a dc distribution system of
any desired number of dc-dc converters. The model captures both the steadystate and dynamic
characteristics of the system, and includes the port capacitors of the converters, as well as the
interconnection cables. Thus, it can be used for identifying the condition for the existence of a
steady state, as well as for stability analysis.

In the second part, the thesis proposes a method for enhancing the stability of the dc

1
distribution system. Using a nonlinear control strategy, the proposed stability enhancement
method mitigates the issue of instability by altering the power setpoints of the battery chargers,
bidirectional dc-dc converters, without a need for changing system parameters or hardware.
The thesis presents mathematical models for the original and modified systems and
demonstrates that the proposed technique expands the stable operating region of the dc
distribution system.

The power system integration of Plug-in Electric Vehicles (PEVs) and the possibility
of bidirectional power exchange between them and the host grid have attracted attentions
recently. In addition to providing traction power, batteries in a PEV can potentially be used for
bulk energy storage in such applications as peak shaving, reactive power compensation, and
the integration of renewable energy resources

2
1.1 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY:

Comparing with AC power distribution systems, DC power distribution systems have


the advantages of low external interference, low power loss, large power supply capacity, high
power quality, strong power supply reliability, and easy access to distributed power sources.
Therefore, the DC power distribution system has become a new development direction of the
future urban power distribution system, but the disordered random charge and discharge
requirements of the electric vehicle may affect the stability of the DC power distribution
system, which may easily cause instability of the DC power distribution system.

Therefore, how to improve the stability of DC power distribution system including


electric vehicles has become a hot research topic. In the stability analysis model of DC power
distribution system with plug-in electric vehicle is established. The potential random charging
demand of electric vehicle can cause the instability of DC power distribution system. A power
setting for changing the charging device of electric vehicle is proposed. The fixed-point
nonlinear control strategy effectively improves the stability of the system. The influence of
electric vehicle charging on the stability of DC power distribution system is analyzed from the
aspects of load, grid loss and voltage. The intelligent charging method of electric vehicle is
proposed, which effectively enhances system stability and improves voltage quality.

None of the documents gives the stability difference of the DC distribution system
including the electric vehicle under the constant current charging (discharging) mode and the
constant voltage charging mode (Electric vehicles cannot be discharged by constant voltage
discharge mode) . In order to enrich theoretical research, the stability of DC distribution system
with electric vehicles under constant current charging (discharging) mode, constant voltage
charging mode and constant power charging (discharging) mode will be studied. Firstly, the
stability model of DC power distribution system with electric vehicles under different charging
(discharging) modes is established. Secondly, the stability of DC power distribution system
under different charging (discharging) modes is determined by Nyquist stability criterion.
Finally, the example of DC power distribution system with electric vehicle is built in Dig
SILENT simulation software and verifies the rationality of the above theoretical analysis.

3
1.2 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

Stability analysis is a key performance which is used to analyse the stable nature of every
DC distribution network. This analysis will provide un-interrupted power supply to the output
load with good efficiency. Off-boarding charging can be installed effectively with high power
quality. The power system integration of Plug-in Electric Vehicles (PEVs) and the possibility
of bidirectional power exchange between them and the host grid have attracted attentions
recently [1,2]. In addition to providing traction power, batteries in a PEV can potentially be
used for bulk energy storage in such applications as peak shaving, reactive power compensation
[3], and the integration of renewable energy resources. Public parking areas within hospitals,
department stores, and residential and commercial premises are examples of locations where a
large number of PEVs can be integrated with the power system

1.3 MATERIAL REQUIREMENT

• Matlab
• Three phase source blocks
• VI measurement block
• Scope
• Three-Phase Series RLC Load
• Three-Phase Breaker block
• Integrator
• Breaker
• Three-Phase Programmable Voltage Source
• Trigonometric Function
• Three-Phase Transformer (Two Windings)
• PWM converter
• Reactor
• Voltage Source Converter
• Battery
• Dc machine
• Buck Boost Chopper
• PI controller
4
• IGBT/Diode
• Three-Phase Transformer 12 Terminals
• IGBT/Diode

1.3 PROCUMENT OF EQUIPMENT:

MATLAB Documentation

MATLAB provides extensive documentation, in both printed and online format, to help to learn
about and use all of its features. It covers all the primary MATLAB features at a high level,
including many examples. The MATLAB online help provides task-oriented and reference
information about MATLAB features. MATLAB documentation is also available in printed
form and in PDF format.
Three phase source block

Fig1.1: Three Phase Source Block


The Three-Phase Source block implements a balanced three-phase voltage source with internal
R-L impedance. The three voltage sources are connected in Y with a neutral connection that
can be internally ground.

VI measurement block:
The Three-Phase V-I Measurement block is used to measure three-phase voltages and currents
in a circuit. When connected in series with three-phase elements, it returns the three phase-to-
ground or phase-to-phase voltages and the three line currents

Fig1.2:Three Phase V-I Measurement

5
Scope:
Display signals generated during a simulation. The Scope block displays its input with
respect to simulation time. The Scope block can have multiple axes (one per port); all axes
have a common time range with independent y-axes. The Scope allows you to adjust the
amount of time and the range of input values displayed. You can move and resize the Scope
window and you can modify the Scope's parameter values during the simulation

Fig:1.3: Scope

Three-Phase Series RLC Load:


The Three-Phase Series RLC Load block implements a three-phase balanced load as a series
combination of RLC elements. At the specified frequency, the load exhibits constant
impedance. The active and reactive powers absorbed by the load are proportional to the square
of the applied voltage.

Fig:1.4: Three-Phase Series RLC Load

Three-Phase Breaker block:


The Three-Phase Breaker block implements a three-phase circuit breaker where the opening
and closing times can be controlled either from an external Simulink signal or from an internal
control signal.

Fig:1.5: Three-Phase Breaker Block


6
Integrator:

Library: Continuous

Fig:1.6: Integrator
The integrator block outputs the integral of its input at the current time step. The following
equation represents the output of the block y as a function of its input u and an initial condition
y0, where y and u are vector functions of the current simulation time t.

Breaker:
Implement circuit breaker opening at current zero crossing.
Library: Elements

Fig:1.7: Circuit Breaker

Purpose: The Breaker block implements a circuit breaker where the opening and closing times
can be controlled either from an external SIMULINK signal (external control mode), or from
an internal control timer (internal control mode).

A series Rs-Cs snubber circuit is included in the model. It can be connected to the circuit
breaker. If the Breaker block happens to be in series with an inductive circuit, an open circuit
or a current source, you must use a snubber.

When the breaker block is set in external control mode, a SIMULINK input appears on the
block icon. The control signal connected to the SIMULINK input must be either 0 or 1 (0 to
open the breaker, 1 to close it).

7
When the Breaker block is set in internal control mode, the switching times are specified in the
dialog box of the block.

When the breaker is closed, it is represented by a resistance Ron. The Ron value can be set as
small as necessary in order to be negligible compared with external components (a typical value
is 10 m ohms). When the breaker is open, it has an infinite resistance.

Three-Phase Programmable Voltage Source:


Implement three-phase voltage source with programmable time variation of amplitude, phase,
frequency, and harmonics
Library: Electrical Sources

Fig:1.8: Three Phase Voltage Sources


Purpose: This block is used to generate a three-phase sinusoidal voltage with time-varying
parameters. It can be programmed with the time variation for the amplitude, phase or frequency
of the fundamental component of the source. In addition, two harmonics can be programmed
and superimposed on the fundamental signal.

Trigonometric Function:
Specified trigonometric function on input

Library: Math Operations

Fig.1.9: Trigonometric Functions

Purpose: The Trigonometric Function block performs common trigonometric functions

8
Three-Phase Transformer (Two Windings):

Implement three-phase transformer with configurable winding connections

Library: Elements

Fig:1.10: Three Phase Transformer

Purpose:

The Three-Phase Transformer (Two Windings) block implements a three-phase transformer


using three single-phase transformers. The saturation characteristic, when activated, is the same
as the one described for the saturable Transformer block, and the icon of the block is
automatically updated. If the fluxes are not specified, the initial values are automatically
adjusted so that the simulation starts in steady state.

Three-Phase Transformer 12 Terminals:

Implement three single-phase, two-winding transformers where all terminals are accessible

Library: Elements

Fig:1.11. Two winding Transformer

Purpose: The Three-Phase Transformer 12 Terminals block implements three single-phase,


two-winding linear transformers where all the twelve winding connectors are accessible. The
block can be used in place of the Three-Phase Transformer (Two Windings) block to implement
9
a three-phase transformer when primary and secondary are not necessarily connected in Star
or Delta.

IGBT/Diode

Implements ideal IGBT, GTO, or MOSFET and antiparallel diode

Library: Power Electronics

Fig:1.12. IGBT

Purpose: The IGBT/Diode block is a simplified mode of an IGBT (or GTO or


MOSFET)/Diode pair where the forward voltages of the forced-commutated device and diode
are ignored.

10
1.5 ORGANIZATION OF CHAPTERS

1.5.0 INTRODUCTION:

The outlook of a large number of electric vehicles, including plug-in hybrid electric
vehicles (PHEVs), and their potential impacts on the power system have motivated much
research recently. The U.S. Department of Energy projects that more than about one million
PHEVs will have been sold in the U.S. by 2015 and the current incentives by the U.S.
government will promote and increase the sales of PHEVs.
In public parking areas where a sizable number of PHEVs are interfaced with the power
grid, such ancillary services as the provision of back-up power for commercial facilities,
voltage support, frequency regulation, peak shaving, reactive-power support, and integration
of photovoltaic (PV) panels can be offered by PHEV batteries. To provide such services,
bidirectional battery chargers must be employed to enable energy exchange between PHEVs
and the host grid. In most proposed integration strategies, ac–dc power electronic converters
act as the battery chargers and are directly interfaced with the power grid As a perceived
technically and economically superior alternative, dc distribution systems have recently been
proposed in which dc–dc converters act as the battery charges, especially for public areas.

Fig:1.13. Dc bus for distribution of power in a parking lot for PHEV’s

11
A dc distribution system can more efficiently host PV modules and interfaced with the
power grid via a central ac–dc power-electronic converter. However, due to the constant-power
property of dc–dc converters, it becomes unstable if the powers absorbed by the battery
chargers exceed certain values [13].
This phenomenon inflicts a limit on the maximum power that can be imported to charge
the batteries and, consequently, precludes full utilization of the installed capacities and
prolongs the charging times. Therefore, it is imperative to: 1) systematically characterize the
phenomenon and identify the prevailing constraints; 2) devise a stability enhancement
technique, in order to push the limits and expand the stable operating region of the dc system.
To mitigate the aforementioned issue of instabilities caused by constant-power elements in a
dc distribution system, various methods have been proposed in the literature, [17]–[19]. The
method proposed in [17] stabilizes a dc-link electric propulsion system where a dc–ac converter
drives an induction motor, by altering the torque setpoint of the motor. The proposed technique,
therefore, is applied to a dc system with one constant power element; there is no analysis for
multiple constant-power elements.
The techniques proposed in [18] and [19] deal with a system in which a dc–dc converter
is assumed to be supplying another constant-power element. However, both techniques require
information about the internal state variables and access to the pulse width modulation (PWM)
signal of the dc–dc converter. Moreover, the studied systems include only one dc–dc converter
and one constant-load element. Expanding upon the idea proposed in [17], this paper proposes
a control technique for expanding the stable operating region of a dc distribution system
integrating PHEVs via bidirectional dc–dc converters (battery chargers), such that the dc
system and its PHEVs can import larger powers from the host ac grid. The proposed technique
is simple, does not require information internal to the system or its embedded converters, and
does not need hardware modifications. Rather, it only employs local measurements and
individual power set points and, therefore, can be exercised in a decentralized fashion.
These, in turn, permit the use of commercially available dc–dc converters (battery
chargers), expected to further reduce the overall cost of the system. The proposed technique is
also applicable to other dc distribution systems, e.g., shipboard power systems, that have
multiple power-electronic converters 1 illustrates a dc distribution system, for example, in a
parking lot, that hosts PHEVs and PV modules. In this system, dc–dc converters are utilized as
battery chargers for the PHEVs and also for interfacing the PV modules. Moreover, a central
voltage-sourced converter (VSC) interfaces the dc distribution system to the host ac grid. A
communication network [20] is used to enable the exchange of metering and control
12
information for a management unit, to and from the dc–dc converters and the central VSC. The
management unit calculates the limits of the power exchange set points and sends them to the
dc–dc converters, to ensure that the dc system operates in its stable operation region. The PHEV
owners, on the other hand, can set state-of-charge (SoC) limits for their vehicles, to permit
power exchanges only if the SoC resides within a certain range. For example, if the SoC is
above 70%, then energy can be sold to the rest of the system, whereas if the SoC is below 40%,
then the vehicle should buy energy from the rest of the system.
The aforementioned limits (determined based on the trip plans, electricity price, and
other factors) translate into power setpoints for the corresponding dc–dc converters. For
example, for a PHEV with 20 kWh of battery capacity, if the SoC limit for energy export is
70% and the present SoC is 85%, then 3 kWh (that is, 15% of the battery capacity) can be sold
by the PHEV to the rest of the system, meaning that the power setpoint of this particular PHEV
can be set to export 9 kW of power in 20 min, or 3 kW of power in 1 h, and so on.

Fig:1.14. Schematic diagram of the dc system.

13
1.5.1 LITERATURE SURVEY

This focuses on the mathematical model for the dc distribution system. A dc distribution system
is expected to offer a higher efficiency and to enable an easier integration of renewable energy
sources such as photovoltaic (PV) and fuel-cell systems [26,27], as compared with a system of
ac-dc battery chargers. However, it is prone to instabilities due to constant-power property of
the hosted dc-dc converters, if powers drawn by the dc-dc converters (to charge the batteries)
exceed certain limits [20,28,29]. Thus, one needs a model of the system to characterize the
steady-state and dynamic behaviors of the system. Such a model should be tractable, while
adequately accurate, and it should also represent both the steady-state and dynamic
characteristics of the system.

1.5.2 PROJECT DESIGN:

In this overall design ac grid will be converted into dc bus by a voltage source converter
which in fact provides to charge the plug in electric vehicles. The particulars of the overall
design are concentrated more on the controllers which are PI controllers which provide
analyzing the stability of the DC distribution system when it is connected to the load

Fig:1.15: Block diagram of a DC distribution system

14
1.5.3 PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION;

The stability analysis of a Dc distribution system can be done on the MATLAB software
which provides the analyzation of the harmonics which are present in the DC distribution
system when it is integrated with the plug-in electric vehicles. Which in fact provides us in
analyzing the best way to find out to reduce the initial harmonics which are present in the DC
distribution system.

Fig:1.16.Connection the circuit in MATLAB software

1.5.4 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE ENHANCEMENT:


This project is advance development in power systems where we are eliminating
Transformers and other costly equipment needed for High voltage conversion. Future scope of
this project is to connect Renewable Sources like Solar PV panels to the system. By connecting
PV panels we can also supply energy towards the Grid as it is a bidirectional system.

15
2. LITERATURE SURVEY

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW ON RESEARCH AREA:

A dc distribution system is expected to offer a higher efficiency and to enable an easier


integration of renewable energy sources such as photovoltaic (PV) and fuel-cell systems [26,
27], as compared with a system of ac-dc battery chargers. However, it is prone to instabilities
due to constant-power property of the hosted dc-dc converters, if powers drawn by the dc-dc
converters (to charge the batteries) exceed certain limits [20, 28, 29]. Thus, one needs a model
of the system to characterize the steady-state and dynamic behaviors of the system. Such a
model should be tractable, while adequately accurate, and it should also represent both the
steady-state and dynamic characteristics of the system.
One should also be able to systematically expand it to represent a system of any
desired, and most likely large, number of dc-dc converters. To the author’s best of knowledge,
the published technical literature does not present a model with the aforementioned features.
Several prior studies have reported system-level models for dc distribution systems
[30–33]. The main issue associated with the aforementioned studies is that they consider a
limited number of dc-dc converters on the dc distribution system and develop the model for the
system based on that assumption. Reference [30], proposes a model for a dc distribution
system, but the model only describes the steady-state behavior of the system. Reference [31]
develops a model, and proposes a method for stabilizing a dc distribution system.
However, the presented model is limited to three converters and, consequently, cannot
be adopted for a dc distribution system with a large number of converters. In [27] a model is
proposed for a dc distribution system with multiple loads and sources, but it does not consider
the interconnection cables of the system. Reference [34] proposes a reduced-order model for a
generic dc micro grid.
The presented model, however, does not account for the terminal capacitors of the dc-
dc converters; the interconnection cables and the terminal capacitors both play important roles
in the steady-state and dynamic behaviors of a dc distribution system and, therefore, cannot be
ignored. To address the foregoing shortcomings, this thesis proposes a systematic approach to
develop a mathematical model for a dc distribution system. The proposed mathematical model
is of the matrix form and can be used to analyze small-signal dynamic behavior of the dc
distribution system with an arbitrarily large number of dc-dc converters. The thesis also derives

16
a set of computationally efficient equations for calculating the dc distribution system
eigenvalues to facilitate online stability assessment of the system on an embedded signal-
processing platform.
Due to the constant-power property of dc-dc converters [28,35], the dc distribution
systems, that include dc-dc converters, become unstable if the powers absorbed by the
converters exceed certain values [20]. This phenomenon inflicts a limit on the maximum power
that can be imported to charge the batteries and, consequently, precludes full utilization of the
installed capacities and prolongs the charging times. Therefore, it is imperative to
systematically characterize the phenomenon and identify the prevailing constraints, and devise
a stability enhancement technique, in order to push the limits and expand the stable operating
region of the dc system. To mitigate the aforementioned issue of instabilities caused by
constant-power elements in a dc distribution system, various methods have been proposed in
the literature, [31, 36–41]. The method proposed in [36] stabilizes a dc-link electric propulsion
system where a dc-ac converter drives an induction motor, by altering the torque setpoint of
the motor.

2.1 REVIEW ON RELATED LITERATURE:

Several recent reported studies have proposed charging strategies for PEVs [7,24,43– 49].
Reference [24] proposes algorithms for optimizing the PEV charging schedule from the
owner’s perspective. A real-time smart load management control strategy is proposed in [7] to
coordinate the charging of PEV, to minimize the power loss and the charging cost, and to
mitigate the voltage fluctuations at the host ac grid. A strategy is proposed in [43] to mitigate
the adverse impacts that uncontrolled charging of the PEVs impose on the host power system.
Using empirical driving profiles, reference [44] shows the economic benefits of a smart
charging strategy against a uncontrolled charging strategy for charging the PEVs. In [45], it is
assumed that there is a limited future knowledge of the mobility of the PEVs and it is shown
that by using this information, the negative impacts of the PEV charging can be reduced.
Reference [46] proposes charging control strategies for a battery swapping station, where the
PEV owners can quickly swap their depleted batteries with previously charged batteries. In
[47], optimal scheduling has been proposed for both charging and discharging of the PEVs.
The references cited above do not necessarily concern dc systems. However, they all assume
an integral entity, an aggregator, that negotiates with the PEVs, in one hand, and with the host
power system in the other hand. Hence, the host ac grid deals with only one entity, the
17
aggregator, rather than a large number of PEVs.
In the majority of the reported studies, the proposed strategies aim to only optimize the
charging costs for the PEV owners, or minimize the power loss within the system, but do not
offer to the owners an option for fast battery charging (by which the charging time is minimized
rather than the charging cost). Further, the reported studies commonly assume that the PEV
owners fully comply with the (proposed) charging strategies, i.e., they connect their vehicles
to the chargers, for the entire specified period, and do not depart early. In practice, however,
an owner may decide to leave before the planned period has elapsed.
Most of the reported studies also assume a unidirectional power flow, that is, into the
PEVs, whereas there is a possibility for bidirectional power exchange among the PEVs and the
host ac grid. To address the foregoing shortcomings, this thesis proposes an energy
management strategy that offers both fast and optimized energy exchange options to the PEV
owners. The proposed strategy limits the power consumption and power generation of the dc
distribution system to prevent the negative impacts of simultaneous charging or discharging of
a large number of electric vehicles on the ac power grid. The proposed strategy seamlessly
handles requests for charging or discharging of the electric vehicles and also takes into account
the likelihood of early departure of the PEV owners.

2.2 CONCLUSIONS ON REVIEWS:

This review concentrates on mitigating the instability issue of the dc distribution


system. Due to the constant-power property of dc-dc converters, the dc distribution systems,
that include dc-dc converters, become unstable if the powers absorbed by the converters exceed
certain values. This phenomenon inflicts a limit on the maximum power that can be imported
to charge the batteries and, consequently, precludes full utilization of the installed capacities
and prolongs the charging times. Therefore, it is imperative to systematically characterize the
phenomenon and identify the prevailing constraints, and devise a stability enhancement
technique, in order to push the limits and expand the stable operating region of the dc system.

18
3. PROJECT DESIGN

3.0 OVERVIEW OF THE DESIGN

In this system, dc–dc converters are utilized as battery chargers for the PHEVs and also
for interfacing the PV modules. Moreover, a central voltage-sourced converter (VSC)
interfaces the dc distribution system to the host ac grid. for a PHEV with 20 kWh of battery
capacity, if the SoC limit for energy export is 70% and the present SoC is 85%, then 3 kWh
(that is, 15% of the battery capacity) can be sold by the PHEV to the rest of the system, meaning
that the power setpoint of this particular PHEV can be set to export 9 kW of power in 20 min,
or 3 kW of power in 1 h, and so on.

Fig:3.1. Schematic Diagram of the dc system


The central VSC and its control scheme act as a controlled dc-voltage power port [21]
and regulate the dc voltage of the network (Fig. 3 illustrates the concept). The VSC is current
controlled, such that its output real power, Ps, rapidly tracks the real-power setpoint, P∗ s
,issued by a dc-voltage regulation loop ( variables with superscript * signifies the setpoints).
Pdc denotes the power that the rest of the dc system delivers to the VSC. A measure of Pdc is
incorporated in the control loop, as a feed-forward signal, to mitigate the dynamic coupling
between the dc-voltage regulation loop and the rest of the dc system.
The PHEV batteries exchange energy with the dc system through corresponding

19
bidirectional dc–dc power-electronic converters which are referred, hereafter, to as the battery
chargers. shows a simplified schematic diagram of a full-bridge dc–dc converter which, with
no loss of generality, is assumed to represent a battery charger (e.g., for the ith PHEV of the dc
system). The battery current, iBi, is regulated at its setpoint, i ∗ Bi, by a feedback control loop
in which a compensator, Ki(s), processes the error (i ∗ Bi−iBi) and generates the control signal
ui. A measure of the battery voltage, Vbati, is then added to ui, and the resulting signal is
divided by a measure of the network-side terminal voltage of the converter, vi, to generate the
pulse-width modulating (PWM) signal of the converter.
In turn, i ∗ Bi is calculated by dividing the battery power setpoint, P∗ Bi, by Vbati.
Assuming a fast and accurate current-control loop, the battery power PBi equals P∗ Bi. On the
other hand, PBi is almost equal to the power that leaves the network-side port of the converter,
Pti; the approximation is plausible in view of the typically small battery-side filter resistance
RBi and inductance LBi (due to the typically large switching frequency of the converter), as
well as negligible power losses of the converter.

Fig:3.2.PROPOSED CIRCUIT CONFIGURATION WITHOUT COMPENSATION

20
Fig:3.3. PROPOSED CIRCUIT CONFIGURATION WITH CURRENT CHARGING
METHOD

Fig:3.4. PROPOSED CIRCUIT CONFIGURATION WITH POWER CHARGING


METHOD

21
Fig:3.5.PROPOSED CIRCUIT CONFIGURATION WITH VOLTAGE CHARGING
METHOD

3.1 EQUIPMENT ANALYSIS

3.1.1 INTRODUCTION
Simulink is a software package for modeling, simulating, and analyzing dynamical systems.
It supports linear and nonlinear systems, modeled in continuous time, sampled time, or a hybrid
of the two. For modeling, Simulink provides a graphical user interface (GUI) for building
models as block diagrams, using click-and-drag mouse operations. Models are hierarchical, so
we can build models using both top-down and bottom-up approaches. We can view the system
at a high level, then double-click on blocks to go down through the levels to see increasing
levels of model detail. This approach provides insight into how a model is organized and how
its parts interact. After we define a model, we can simulate it, using a choice of integration
methods, either from the Simulink menus or by entering commands in MATLAB's command
window. Using scopes and other display blocks, we can see the simulation results while the
simulation is running. In addition, we can change parameters and immediately see what
happens, for "what if" exploration.
The simulation results can be put in the MATLAB workspace for post processing and
visualization. Simulink can be used to explore the behavior of a wide range of real-world
dynamic systems, including electrical circuits, shock absorbers, braking systems, and many
other electrical, mechanical, and thermodynamic systems.
Simulating a dynamic system is a two-step process with Simulink. First, we create a graphical

22
model of the system to be simulated, using Simulink's model editor. The model depicts the
time-dependent mathematical relationships among the system’s inputs, states, and outputs.
Then, we use Simulink to simulate the behavior of the system over a specified time span.
Simulink uses information that you entered into the model to perform the simulation.

3.1.2 BATTERY STORAGE SYSTEM:


A battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells with external
connections for powering electrical devices such as flashlights, mobile phones, and electric
cars. When a battery is supplying electric power, its positive terminal is the cathode and its
negative terminal is the anode.[2] The terminal marked negative is the source of electrons that
will flow through an external electric circuit to the positive terminal. When a battery is
connected to an external electric load, a redox reaction converts high-energy reactants to lower-
energy products, and the free-energy difference is delivered to the external circuit as electrical
energy. Historically the term "battery" specifically referred to a device composed of multiple
cells, however the usage has evolved to include devices composed of a single cell.
Primary (single-use or "disposable") batteries are used once and discarded, as
the electrode materials are irreversibly changed during discharge; a common example is
the alkaline battery used for flashlights and a multitude of portable electronic
devices. Secondary (rechargeable) batteries can be discharged and recharged multiple times
using an applied electric current; the original composition of the electrodes can be restored by
reverse current. Examples include the lead-acid batteries used in vehicles and lithium-
ion batteries used for portable electronics such as laptops and mobile phones.
Batteries come in many shapes and sizes, from miniature cells used to power hearing
aids and wristwatches to small, thin cells used in smartphones, to large lead acid batteries or
lithium-ion batteries in vehicles, and at the largest extreme, huge battery banks the size of
rooms that provide standby or emergency power for telephone exchanges and computer data
centers.
Batteries have much lower specific energy (energy per unit mass) than
common fuels such as gasoline. In automobiles, this is somewhat offset by the higher
efficiency of electric motors in converting chemical energy to mechanical work, compared to
combustion engines.
Batteries that are stored for a long period or that are discharged at a small fraction of
the capacity lose capacity due to the presence of generally irreversible side reactions that
consume charge carriers without producing current. This phenomenon is known as internal
23
self-discharge. Further, when batteries are recharged, additional side reactions can occur,
reducing capacity for subsequent discharges. After enough recharges, in essence all capacity is
lost and the battery stops producing power.
Internal energy losses and limitations on the rate that ions pass through the electrolyte
cause battery efficiency to vary. Above a minimum threshold, discharging at a low rate delivers
more of the battery's capacity than at a higher rate. Installing batteries with varying A·h ratings
does not affect device operation (although it may affect the operation interval) rated for a
specific voltage unless load limits are exceeded. High-drain loads such as digital cameras can
reduce total capacity, as happens with alkaline batteries. For example, a battery rated at 2 A·h
for a 10- or 20-hour discharge would not sustain a current of 1 A for a full two hours as its
stated capacity implies.

3.1.3 PROPOSED DC DC CONVERTER:

Buck–Boost converter is a type of DC-to-DC converter that has an output voltage


magnitude that is either greater than or less than the input voltage magnitude. It is equivalent
to a flyback converter using a single inductor instead of a transformer. Two different topologies
are called buck–boost converter. Both of them can produce a range of output voltages, ranging
from much larger (in absolute magnitude) than the input voltage, down to almost zero.

Fig:3.6.Proposed converter
The output voltage is of the opposite polarity than the input. This is a switched-mode power
supply with a similar circuit topology to the boost converter and the buck converter. The output
voltage is adjustable based on the duty cycle of the switching transistor. One possible drawback
of this converter is that the switch does not have a terminal at ground; this complicates the
driving circuitry. However, this drawback is of no consequence if the power supply is isolated
from the load circuit (if, for example, the supply is a battery) because the supply and diode
polarity can simply be reversed. When they can be reversed, the switch can be on either the
ground side or the supply side.
24
A buck (step-down) converter combined with a boost (step-up) converter
The output voltage is typically of the same polarity of the input, and can be lower or
higher than the input. Such a non-inverting buck-boost converter may use a single inductor
which is used for both the buck inductor mode and the boost inductor mode, using switches
instead of diodes,[2][3] sometimes called a "four-switch buck-boost converter",[4] it may use
multiple inductors but only a single switch as in the SEPIC topologies.
Buck Boost converter-principle of operation-applications
3.1.4 Introduction to Buck Boost converter
A Buck converter is a switch mode DC to DC converter in which the output voltage
can be transformed to a level less than or greater than the input voltage. The magnitude of
output voltage depends on the duty cycle of the switch. It is also called as step up/step down
converter. The name step up/step down converter comes from the fact that analogous to step
up/step down transformer the input voltage can be stepped up/down to a level greater than/less
than the input voltage. By law of conservation of energy, the input power has to be equal to
output power (assuming no losses in the circuit).

Modes of operation of Buck Boost converter


The Buck Boost converter can be operated in two modes
a) Continuous conduction mode in which the current through inductor never goes to zero i.e.
inductor partially discharges before the start of the switching cycle.
b) Discontinuous conduction mode in which the current through inductor goes to zero i.e.
inductor is completely discharged at the end of switching cycle.
Circuit analysis of Buck converter
Assume in the entire analysis that the current swing (maximum to minimum value)
through inductor and voltage swing through capacitor is very less so that they vary in a linear
fashion. This is to ease the analysis and the results we will get through this analysis are quite
accurate compared to real values.

25
Continuous conduction mode
case-1: When switch S is ON
When switch in ON for a time ton, the diode will be open circuited since it does not allow
currents in reverse direction from input to output. Hence the Buck Boost converter can be
redrawn as follows
During this state the inductor charges and the inductor current increases. The current through
the inductor is given as

Assume that prior to the opening of switch the inductor current is I’L, off. Since the input voltage
is constant

Assume the switch is open for ton seconds which is given by D*Ts where D is duty cycle and
Ts is switching time period. The current through the inductor at the end of switch on state is
given as
IL, on = (1/L) *Vin*D*Ts + I’L, on (equation 1)
Hence ΔIL,on = (1/L)*Vin*D*Ts.
case 2: When switch is off
When switch in OFF the diode will be forward biased as it allows current from output to input
(p to n terminal) and the Buck Boost converter circuit can be redrawn as follows
The inductor now discharges through the diode and RC combination. Assume that prior to the
closing of switch the inductor current is I’’L, off. The current through the inductor is given as

Note the negative sign at the front end of equation signifies that the inductor is discharging.
Assume the switch is open for toff seconds which is given by (1-D)*Ts where D is duty cycle
and Ts is switching time period. The current through the inductor at the end of switch off state
is given as
I’’’L, off = -(1/L) *Vout*(1-D)*Ts + I’’L, off (equation 2)
In steady state condition as the current through the inductor does not change abruptly, the
current at the end of switch on state and the current at the end of switch off state should be
equal. Also the currents at the start of switch off state should be equal to current at the end of
26
switch on state. Hence
I’’’L, off =IL, on also I’L, off =I’’L, off
Using the equations 1 and 2 we get
(1/L) *Vin*D*Ts = (1/L) *Vout*(1-D)*Ts
Vin*D =Vout*(1-D)
Vout/Vin = D/(1-D)
Since D < 1, Vout can be greater than or less than Vin.For D>0.5 the Buck boost converter acts
as boost converter with Vout >Vin.For D<0.5 the Buck boost converter acts as buck converter
with Vout >Vin. Assuming no losses in the circuit and applying the law of conservation of
energy
Vout*Iout = Vin*Iin
This implies Iout/Iin = (1-D)/D, Thus Iout > Iin for D<0.5 and Iout < Iin for D<0.5 . As the duty
cycle increases the output voltage increases and output current decreases.
Discontinuous conduction mode
As mentioned before the converter when operated in discontinuous mode the inductor drains
its stored energy completely before completion of switching cycle. The current and voltage
wave forms of Buck Boost converter in discontinuous mode is shown in the figure below
The inductor in discontinuous mode drains all the current which it piled up in charging interval
of same switching cycle. The current through the inductor is given as

and the ratio of output to input current from law of conservation of energy is Iout/Iin = δ/D.
Applications of Buck boost converter

• It is used in the self-regulating power supplies.


• It has consumer electronics.
• It is used in the Battery power systems.
• Adaptive control applications.
• Power amplifier applications

27
3.1.5 PULSE WIDTH MODULATION:

A modulation technique used to encode a message into a pulsing signal. Although this
modulation technique can be used to encode information for transmission, its main use is to
allow the control of the power supplied to electrical devices, especially to inertial loads such
as motors. In addition, PWM is one of the two principal algorithms used in photovoltaic solar
battery chargers,[1] the other being MPPT.

The average value of voltage (and current) fed to the load is controlled by turning the
switch between supply and load on and off at a fast rate. The longer the switch is on compared
to the off periods, the higher the total power supplied to the load.

The PWM switching frequency has to be much higher than what would affect the load
(the device that uses the power), which is to say that the resultant waveform perceived by the
load must be as smooth as possible. Typically switching has to be done several times a minute
in an electric stove, 120 Hz in a lamp dimmer, from few kilohertz (kHz) to tens of kHz for a
motor drive and well into the tens or hundreds of kHz in audio amplifiers and computer power
supplies.

The term duty cycle describes the proportion of 'on' time to the regular interval or
'period' of time; a low duty cycle corresponds to low power, because the power is off for most
of the time. Duty cycle is expressed in percent, 100% being fully on.

The main advantage of PWM is that power loss in the switching devices is very low.
When a switch is off there is practically no current, and when it is on and power is being
transferred to the load, there is almost no voltage drop across the switch. Power loss, being the
product of voltage and current, is thus in both cases close to zero. PWM also works well with
digital controls, which, because of their on/off nature, can easily set the needed duty cycle.

PWM has also been used in certain communication systems where its duty cycle has
been used to convey information over a communications channel.

28
Fig 3.7 wave for combined positive and negative pulse
An example of PWM in an idealized inductor driven by a voltage source: the voltage
source (blue) is modulated as a series of pulses that results in a sine-like current/flux (red) in
the inductor. The blue rectangular pulses nonetheless result in a smoother and smoother red
sine wave as the switching frequency increases. Note that the red waveform is the (definite)
integral of the blue waveform.

Principle

Pulse-width modulation uses a rectangular pulse wave whose pulse width is modulated
resulting in the variation of the average value of the waveform. If we consider a pulse

waveform , with period , low value , a high value and a duty cycle D (see
figure 1), the average value of the waveform is given by:

As is a pulse wave, its value


is for and for . The above expression
then becomes:

29
This latter expression can be fairly simplified in many cases where as .
From this, it is obvious that the average value of the signal ( ) is directly dependent on the duty
cycle D.

Fig. 4.2: A simple method to generate the PWM pulse train corresponding to a given signal is

the intersective PWM: the signal (here the red sinewave) is compared with a sawtooth

waveform (blue). When the latter is less than the former, the PWM signal (magenta) is in high

state (1). Otherwise it is in the low state (0).

The simplest way to generate a PWM signal is the intersective method, which requires
only a sawtooth or a triangle waveform (easily generated using a simple oscillator) and
a comparator. When the value of the reference signal (the red sine wave in figure 2) is more
than the modulation waveform (blue), the PWM signal (magenta) is in the high state, otherwise
it is in the low state.

The PWM is a technique which is used to drive the inertial loads since a very long
time.The simple example of an inertial load is a motor. Apply the power to a motor for a very
short period of time and then turn off the power: it can be observed that the motor is still running
even after the power has been cut off from it. This is due to the inertia of the motor and the
significance of this factor is that the continuous power is not required for that kind of devices

30
to operate. A burst power can save the total power supplied to the load while achieving the
same performance from the device as it runs on continuous power.
The PWM technique is use in devices like DC motors, Loudspeakers, Class -D
Amplifiers, SMPS etc. They are also used in communication field as-well. The modulation
techniques like AM, FM are widely used RF communication whereas the PWM is modulation
technique is mostly used in Optical Fiber Communication (OFC).
As in the case of the inertial loads mentioned previously, the PWM in a communication
link greatly saves the transmitter power. The immunity of the PWM transmission against the
inter-symbol interference is another advantage. This article discusses the technique of
generating a PWM wave corresponding to a modulating sine wave.
DESCRIPTION:

The Pulse Width Modulation is a technique in which the ON time or OFF time of a
pulse is varied according to the amplitude of the modulating signal, keeping time

Fig:3.8. SPWM block diagram

31
Fig:3.9 SPWM SIMULATION DIAGRAM

Fig:3.10. SCOPE VIEW

Fig:3.11 SCOPE 1 VIEW

32
Fig:3.12 SCOPE 2 view

the (ON time + OFF time) time of the pulse as constant. The (ON time + OFF time) of
a pulse is called ‘Period’ of the pulse, and the ratio of the ON time or OFF time with the Period
is called the ‘Duty Cycle’. Hence the PWM is a kind of modulation which keeps the Period of
pulses constant but varying their duty cycle according to the amplitude of the modulating
signal.
The conventional method of generating a PWM modulated wave is to compare the
message signal with a ramp waveform using a comparator. The block diagram required for the
generation of a simple PWM is shown

WHY PULSE WIDTH MODULATION


1.Cheap to make.
2. Little heat whilst working.
3. Low power consumption.
4. Can utilize very high frequencies (40-100 Khz is not uncommon.)
5. Very energy-efficient when used to convert voltages or to dim light bulbs.
6. High power handling capability
7. Efficiency up to 90%

33
3.1.6 PROPOSED AC DC CONVERTER:
Because thyristors can only be turned on (not off) by control action, and rely on the
external AC system to effect the turn-off process, the control system only has one degree of
freedom – when to turn on the thyristor. This limits the usefulness of HVDC in some
circumstances because it means that the AC system to which the HVDC converter is connected
must always contain synchronous machines in order to provide the commutating voltage – the
HVDC converter cannot feed power into a passive system. With some other types of
semiconductor device such as the insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT), both turn-on and
turn-off can be controlled, giving a second degree of freedom. As a result, IGBTs can be used
to make self-commutated converters.
In such converters, the polarity of DC voltage is usually fixed and the DC voltage,
being smoothed by a large capacitance, can be considered constant. For this reason, an HVDC
converter using IGBTs is usually referred to as a voltage-source converter (or voltage-sourced
converter). The additional controllability gives many advantages, notably the ability to switch
the IGBTs on and off many times per cycle in order to improve the harmonic performance, and
the fact that (being self-commutated) the converter no longer relies on synchronous machines
in the AC system for its operation. A voltage-sourced converter can therefore feed power to an
AC network consisting only of passive loads, something which is impossible with LCC HVDC.
Voltage-source converters are also considerably more compact than line-commutated
converters (mainly because much less harmonic filtering is needed) and are preferable to line-
commutated converters in locations where space is at a premium, for example on offshore
platforms.
In contrast to line-commutated HVDC converters, voltage-source converters maintain
a constant polarity of DC voltage and power reversal is achieved instead by reversing the
direction of current. This makes voltage-source converters much easier to connect into a Multi-
terminal HVDC system or “DC Grid”. HVDC systems based on voltage-source converters
normally use the six-pulse connection because the converter produces much less harmonic
distortion than a comparable LCC and the twelve-pulse connection is unnecessary. This
simplifies the construction of the converter transformer. However, there are several different
configurations of voltage-source converter and research is continuing to take place into new
alternatives.
Two-level converter
From the very first VSC-HVDC scheme installed (the Hellsjön experimental link
commissioned in Sweden in 1997[7]) until 2012, most of the VSC HVDC systems built were
34
based on the two level converter. The two-level converter is the simplest type of three-phase
voltage-source converter and can be thought of as a six pulse bridge in which the thyristors
have been replaced by IGBTs with inverse-parallel diodes, and the DC
smoothing reactors have been replaced by DC smoothing capacitors. Such converters derive
their name from the fact that the voltage at the AC output of each phase is switched between
two discrete voltage levels, corresponding to the electrical potentials of the positive and
negative DC terminals. When the upper of the two valves in a phase is turned on, the AC output
terminal is connected to the positive DC terminal, resulting in an output voltage of +½ Ud with
respect to the midpoint potential of the converter. Conversely when the lower valve in a phase
is turned on, the AC output terminal is connected to the negative DC terminal, resulting in an
output voltage of -½ Ud. The two valves corresponding to one phase must never be turned on
simultaneously, as this would result in an uncontrolled discharge of the DC capacitor, risking
severe damage to the converter equipment.

Fig:3.13. Three-phase, two-level voltage-source converter


The simplest (and also, the highest-amplitude) waveform that can be produced by a
two-level converter is a square wave; however this would produce unacceptable levels of
harmonic distortion, so some form of Pulse-width modulation (PWM) is always used to
improve the harmonic distortion of the converter. As a result of the PWM, the IGBTs are
switched on and off many times (typically 20) in each mains cycle.[30]
This results in high switching losses in the IGBTs and reduces the overall
transmission efficiency. Several different PWM strategies are possible for HVDC[31] but in all
cases the efficiency of the two-level converter is significantly poorer than that of a LCC
because of the higher switching losses. A typical LCC HVDC converter station has power
losses of around 0.7% at full load (per end, excluding the HVDC line or cable) while with 2-

35
level voltage-source converters the equivalent figure is 2-3% per end.
Another disadvantage of the two-level converter is that, in order to achieve the very
high operating voltages required for an HVDC scheme, several hundred IGBTs have to be
connected in series and switched simultaneously in each valve.[32] This requires specialized
types of IGBT with sophisticated gate drive circuits, and can lead to very high levels
of electromagnetic interference. In an attempt to improve on the poor harmonic performance
of the two-level converter, some HVDC systems have been built with three level converters.
Three-level converters can synthesize three (instead of only two) discrete voltage levels at the
AC terminal of each phase: +½ Ud, 0 and -½ Ud. A common type of three-level converter is
the diode-clamped (or neutral-point-clamped) converter, where each phase contains four IGBT
valves, each rated at half of the DC line to line voltage, along with two clamping diode
valves.[32] The DC capacitor is split into two series-connected branches, with the clamping
diode valves connected between the capacitor midpoint and the one-quarter and three-quarter
points on each phase. To obtain a positive output voltage (+½ Ud) the top two IGBT valves are
turned on, to obtain a negative output voltage (-½ Ud) the bottom two IGBT valves are turned
on and to obtain zero output voltage the middle two IGBT valves are turned on. In this latter
state, the two clamping diode valves complete the current path through the phase.

In a refinement of the diode-clamped converter, the so-called active neutral-point


clamped converter, the clamping diode valves are replaced by IGBT valves, giving additional
controllability. Such converters were used on the Murray link project in Australia and the
Cross Sound Cable link in the United States.[34] However, the modest improvement in
harmonic performance came at a considerable price in terms of increased complexity, and the
design proved to be difficult to scale up to DC voltages higher than the ±150 kV used on those
two projects.
Another type of three-level converter, used in some adjustable-speed drives but never
in HVDC, replaces the clamping diode valves by a separate, isolated, flying capacitor
connected between the one-quarter and three-quarter points.[32] The operating principle is
similar to that of the diode-clamped converter. Both the diode-clamped and flying capacitor
variants of three-level converter can be extended to higher numbers of output levels (for
example, five), but the complexity of the circuit increases disproportionately and such circuits
have not been considered practical for HVDC applications.
First proposed for HVDC applications in 2003 by Marquardt and first used
commercially in the Trans Bay Cable project in San Francisco, the Modular Multi-Level

36
Converter (MMC) is now becoming the most common type of voltage-source converter for
HVDC.
Like the two-level converter and the six-pulse line-commutated converter, a MMC
consists of six valves, each connecting one AC terminal to one DC terminal. However, where
each valve of the two-level converter is effectively a high-voltage controlled switch consisting
of a large number of IGBTs connected in series, each valve of a MMC is a separate controllable
voltage source in its own right. Each MMC valve consists of a number of independent
converter submodules, each containing its own storage capacitor. In the most common form of
the circuit, the half-bridge variant, each submodule contains two IGBTs connected in series
across the capacitor, with the midpoint connection and one of the two capacitor terminals
brought out as external connections.[35]

Depending on which of the two IGBTs in each submodule is turned on, the capacitor is
either bypassed or connected into the circuit. Each submodule therefore acts as an independent
two-level converter generating a voltage of either 0 or Usm (where Usm is the submodule
capacitor voltage). With a suitable number of submodules connected in series, the valve can
synthesize a stepped voltage waveform that approximates very closely to a sine-wave and
contains very low levels of harmonic distortion.

37
3.1.7 BLOCK DIAGRAM

A Simulink block diagram is a pictorial model of a dynamic system. It consists of a set of


symbols, called blocks, interconnected by lines. Each block represents an elementary dynamic system
that produces an output either continuously (a continuous block) or at specific points in time (a
discrete block). The lines represent connections of block inputs to block outputs. Every block in a
block diagram is an instance of a specific type of block. The type of the block determines the
relationship between a block's outputs and its inputs, states, and time. A block diagram can contain
any number of instances of any type of block needed to model a system. Blocks represent elementary
dynamic systems that Simulink knows how to simulate. A block comprises one or more of the
following:

1) A set of inputs,

2) A set of states, and

3) A set of outputs.

A block's output is a function of time and the block's inputs and states (if any). The
specific function that relates a block's output to its inputs, states, and time depends on the type
of block of which the block is an instance. Continuous Versus discrete Blocks Simulink's
standard block set includes continuous blocksand discrete blocks. Continuous blocks respond
continuously to continuously changing input. Discrete blocks, by contrast, respond to changes
in input only atintegral multiples of a fixed interval called the block's sample time. Discrete
blocks hold their output constant between successive sample time hits. Each discrete block
includes a sample time parameter that allows you to specify its sample rate. The Simulink
blocks can be either continuous or discrete, dependingon whether they are driven by continuous
or discrete blocks.

A block that can beeither discrete or continuous is said to have an implicit sample
rate. The implicitsample time is continuous if any of the block's inputs are continuous. The implicit
sample time is equal to the shortest input sample time if all the input sample timesare integral
multiples of the shortest time. Otherwise, the input sample time is equal to the fundamental
sample time of the inputs, where the fundamental sample time of a set of sample times is
defined as the greatest integer divisor of the set of sample times.
Simulink can optionally color code a block diagram to indicate the sampletimes of the

38
blocks it contains, e.g., black (continuous), magenta (constant),yellow (hybrid), red (fastest
discrete), and so on. The block contains block name,icon, and block library that contain the
block, the purpose of the block SIMULINK BLOCK LIBRARIES

Simulink organizes its blocks into block libraries according to their behavior.

1) The Sources library contains blocks that generate signals.

2) The Sinks library contains blocks that display or write block output.

3) The Discrete library contains blocks that describe discrete-time


components.

4) The Continuous library contains blocks that describe linear functions.

5) The Math library contains blocks that describe general mathematics functions.
6) The Functions & Tables library contains blocks that describe general functions
and table look-up operations.
7) The Nonlinear library contains blocks that describe nonlinear functions.

8) The Signal & Systems library contains blocks that allow multiplexing and
demultiplexing, implement external input/output, pass data to other parts of the model,
and perform other functions.
9) The Subsystems library contains blocks for creating various types of subsystems.
10) The Block sets and Toolboxes library contains the Extras block library of specialized
blocks.

3.1.8 SUB SYSTEMS

Simulink allows to model a complex system as a set of interconnected subsystems each


of which is represented by a block diagram. We create a subsystem using Simulink's Subsystem
block and the Simulink model editor. We can embed subsystems with subsystems to any depth
to create hierarchical models. We can create conditionally executed subsystems that are
executed onlywhen a transition occurs on a triggering or enabling input.

39
3.1.9 SOLVERS

Simulink simulates a dynamic system by computing its states at successive time step
solver a specified time span, using information provided by the model. The process of
computing the successive states of a system from its model is known as solving the model. No
single method of solving a model suffices for allsystems. Accordingly, Simulink provides a
set of programs, known as solvers, that each embody a particular approach to solving a model.
The Simulation Parameters dialog box allows us to choose the solver most suitable for our
model. Fixed-Step and Variable-Step Solvers
Fixed-step solvers solve the model at regular time intervals from the beginning to the
end of the simulation. The size of the interval is known as the step-size. We can specify the
step size or let the solver choose the step size. Generally decreasing the step size increases the
accuracy of the results while increasing the time required to simulate the system.
Variable-step solvers vary the step size during the simulation, reducing the step size to
increase accuracy when a model's states are changing rapidly and increasing the step size to
avoid taking unnecessary steps when the model's states are changing slowly. Computing the
step size adds to the computational overhead at each step but can reduce the total number of
steps, and hence simulation time, required to maintain a specified level of accuracy for models
with rapidly changing or piecewise continuous states.
Fixed-step solvers solve the model at regular time intervals from the beginning to the
end of the simulation. The size of the interval is known as the step size. You can specify the
step size or let the solver choose the step size. Generally, decreasing the step size increases the
accuracy of the results while increasing the time required to simulate the system.
Variable-step solvers vary the step size during the simulation. They reduce the step size
to increase accuracy when a model's states are changing rapidly and increase the step size to
avoid taking unnecessary steps when the model's states are changing slowly. Computing the
step size adds to the computational overhead at each step but can reduce the total number of
steps, and hence the simulation time required to maintain a specified level of accuracy for
models with rapidly changing or piecewise continuous states.
Fixed-step and variable-step solvers compute the next simulation time as the sum of the
current simulation time and the step size. The Type control on the Solver configuration pane
allows you to select the type of solver. With a fixed-step solver, the step size remains constant
throughout the simulation. With a variable-step solver, the step size can vary from step to step,
depending on the model dynamics. In particular, a variable-step solver increases or reduces the

40
step size to meet the error tolerances that you specify.
The choice between these types depends on how you plan to deploy your model and the
model dynamics. If you plan to generate code from your model and run the code on a real-time
computer system, choose a fixed-step solver to simulate the model. You cannot map the
variable-step size to the real-time clock.
If you do not plan to deploy your model as generated code, the choice between a
variable-step and a fixed-step solver depends on the dynamics of your model. A variable-step
solver might shorten the simulation time of your model significantly. A variable-step solver
allows this saving because, for a given level of accuracy, the solver can dynamically adjust the
step size as necessary. This approach reduces the number of steps required. The fixed-step
solver must use a single step size throughout the simulation, based on the accuracy
requirements. To satisfy these requirements throughout the simulation, the fixed-step solver
typically requires a small step.

3.1.10 Continuous and Discrete Solvers

Continuous solvers use numerical integration to compute a model's continuous states at


the current time step from the states at previous time steps and the state derivatives. Continuous
solvers rely on the model's blocks to compute the values of the model's discrete states at each
time step. Mathematicians have developed a wide variety of numerical integration techniques
for solving the ordinary differential equations (ODEs) that represent the continuous states of
dynamic systems. Simulink provides an extensive set offixed-step and variable-step continuous
solvers, each implementing a specific ODE solution method. Some continuous solvers
subdivide the simulation time span into major and minor steps, where a minor time step
represents a subdivisionof the major time step. The solver produces a result at each major time
step. It use results at the minor time steps to improve the accuracy of the result at the major
time step.

Discrete solvers exist primarily to solve purely discrete models. They compute the
next simulation time-step for a model and nothing else. They do notcompute continuous states
and they rely on the model's blocks to update the model's discrete states. We can use a
continuous solver, but not a discrete solver,to solve a model that contains both continuous and
discrete states. This is becausea discrete solver does not handle continuous states. If you select

41
a discrete solverfor a continuous model, Simulink disregards your selection and uses a continuous
solver instead when solving the model.

Simulink provides two discrete solvers, a fixed-step discrete solver and a variable-step
discrete solver. The fixed-step solver by default chooses a step size and hence simulation rate
fast enough to track state changes in the fastest block in our model. The variable-step solver
adjusts the simulation step size to keep pace with the actual rate of discrete state changes in our
model. This can avoid unnecessary steps and hence shorten simulation time for multirate
models.

Simulink provides both continuous and discrete solvers. When you select a solver
type, you can also select a specific solver. Both sets of solvers include discrete and continuous
solvers. Discrete and continuous solvers rely on the model blocks to compute the values of any
discrete states. Blocks that define discrete states are responsible for computing the values of
those states at each time step. However, unlike discrete solvers, continuous solvers use
numerical integration to compute the continuous states that the blocks define. When choosing
a solver, determine first whether to use a discrete solver or a continuous solver.

If your model has no continuous states, then Simulink switches to either the fixed-step
discrete solver or the variable-step discrete solver. If your model has only continuous states or
a mix of continuous and discrete states, choose a continuous solver from the remaining solver
choices based on the dynamics of your model. Otherwise, an error occurs.

Continuous solvers use numerical integration to compute a model's continuous states


at the current time step based on the states at previous time steps and the state derivatives.
Continuous solvers rely on the individual blocks to compute the values of the model's discrete
states at each time step.

Discrete solvers exist primarily to solve purely discrete models. They compute the
next simulation time step for a model and nothing else. In performing these computations, they
rely on each block in the model to update its individual discrete states. They do not compute
continuous states.

The solver library contains two discrete solvers: a fixed-step discrete solver and a
variable-step discrete solver. The fixed-step solver by default chooses the step size and
simulation rate fast enough to track state changes in the fastest block in your model. The
variable-step solver adjusts the simulation step size to keep pace with the actual rate of discrete

42
state changes in your model. This adjustment can avoid unnecessary steps and shorten
simulation time for multirate models. See Sample Times in Systems for more information.

3.1.11 MODEL EXECUTION PHASE

In the simulation model execution phase, Simulink successively computesthe states and
outputs of the system at intervals from the simulation start time to the finish time, using
information provided by the model. The successive time points at which the states and outputs
are computed are called time steps. The length of time between steps is called the step size.
The step size depends on thetype of solver used to compute the system's continuous states, the
system's fundamental sample time, and whether the system's continuous states have
discontinuities (Zero Crossing Detection). At the start of the simulation, the model specifies
the initial states and outputs of the system to be simulated. At each step, Simulink computes
new values for the system's inputs, states, and outputs and updates the model to reflect the
computed values. At the end of the simulation, the model reflects the final values of the
system's inputs, states, and outputs. At each time step:

1) Simulink Updates the outputs of the models' blocks in sorted order. Simulink computes a
block's outputs by invoking the block's output function. Simulink passes the current time and
the block's inputs and statesto the output function as it may require these arguments to compute
the block's output. Simulink updates the output of a discrete block only if the current step is an
integral multiple of the block's sample time.
2) Updates the states of the model's blocks in sorted order. Simulink computes a block's discrete
states by invoking its discrete state update function. Simulink computes a block's continuous
states by numerically integratingthe time derivatives of the continuous states. It computes the
time derivatives of the states by invoking the block's continuous derivatives function.
3) Optionally checks for discontinuities in the continuous states of blocks. Simulink uses a
technique called zero crossing detection to detect discontinuities in continuous states.
4) Computes the time for the next time step.

Simulink repeats steps 1 through 4 until the simulation stop time is reached.

Block Sorting Rules

Simulink uses the following basic update rules to sort the blocks:

43
1) Each block must be updated before any of the direct-feed through blocks that it drives. This
rule ensures that the inputs to direct-feed through blocks will be valid when they are updated.
2) Non direct-feed through blocks can be updated in any order as long as theyare updated before
any direct-feed through blocks that they drive. This rule can be met by putting all non direct-feed
through blocks at the head of the update list in any order. It thus allows Simulink to ignore non
direct-feed through blocks during the sorting process.
The result of applying these rules is an update list in which non direct- feed through
blocks appear at the head of the list in no particular order followed by direct-feed through
blocks in the order required to supply valid inputs to the blocks they drive. During the sorting
process, Simulink checks for and flags the occurrence of algebraic loops, that is, signal loops
in which an output of a direct-feed through block is connected directly or indirectly to one of the
block's inputs.Such loops seemingly create a deadlock condition since Simulink needs the input
of a direct-feed through block in order to compute its output. However, an algebraic loop can
represent a set of simultaneous algebraic equations (hence thename) where the block's input
and output are the unknowns. Further, these equations can have valid solutions at each time
step. Accordingly, Simulink assumes that loops involving direct-feed through blocks do, in
fact, represent a solvable set of algebraic equations and attempts to solve them each time the block
is updated during a simulation.

3.1.12 DETERMINING BLOCK UPDATE ORDER

During a simulation, Simulink updates the states and outputs of a model's blocks once
per time step. The order in which the blocks are updated is thereforecritical to the validity of
the results. In particular, if a block's outputs are a function of its inputs at the current time step,
the block must be updated after theblocks that drive its inputs. Otherwise, the block's outputs
will be invalid. The order in which blocks are stored in a model file is not necessarily the order
in which they need to be updated during a simulation. Consequently, Simulink sortsthe blocks
into the correct order during the model initialization phase.
In order to create a valid update ordering, Simulink categorizes blocks according to
the relationship of outputs to inputs. Blocks whose current outputs depend on their current
inputs are called direct feed through blocks. All other blocks are called non direct-feed through
blocks. Examples of direct-feed through blocks include the Gain, Product, and Sum blocks.
Examples of non direct-feed through blocks include the Integrator block (its output is a function

44
purely of its state), the Constant block (it does not have an input), and the Memory block (its
output is dependent on its input in the previous time step). Simulink allows you to assign update
priorities to blocks. Simulink updates higher priority blocks before lower priority blocks.
Simulink honors the priorities only if they are consistent with its block sorting rules.
Some of SIMULINK blocks, which are used in this thesis, are given

below.

MATLAB is a high-performance language for technical computing. It integrates


computation, visualization, and programming in an easy-to-use environment where problems
and solutions are expressed in familiar mathematical notation. Typical uses include
➢ Math and computation

➢ Algorithm development

➢ Data acquisition

➢ Modeling, simulation, and prototyping

➢ Data analysis, exploration, and visualization

➢ Scientific and engineering graphics

3.2 MODULE DEFINITION

MATLAB is an interactive system whose basic data element is an array that does not
require dimensioning. This allows solving many technical computing problems, especially
those with matrix and vector formulations, in a fraction of the time it would take to write a
program in a scalar non-interactivelanguage such as C or FORTRAN.

45
3.3 MODULE FUNTIONALITIES:

Three phase source block

Fig:3.14. Three Phase Source Block


The Three-Phase Source block implements a balanced three-phase voltage source with internal
R-L impedance. The three voltage sources are connected in Y with a neutral connection that
can be internally ground.

VI measurement block:
The Three-Phase V-I Measurement block is used to measure three-phase voltages and currents
in a circuit. When connected in series with three-phase elements, it returns the three phase-to-
ground or phase-to-phase voltages and the three line currents

Fig:3.15.Three Phase V-I Measurement

Scope:
Display signals generated during a simulation. The Scope block displays its input with
respect to simulation time. The Scope block can have multiple axes (one per port); all axes
have a common time range with independent y-axes. The Scope allows you to adjust the
amount of time and the range of input values displayed. You can move and resize the Scope
window and you can modify the Scope's parameter values during the simulation

Fig:3.16. Scope

46
Three-Phase Series RLC Load:
The Three-Phase Series RLC Load block implements a three-phase balanced load as a series
combination of RLC elements. At the specified frequency, the load exhibits constant
impedance. The active and reactive powers absorbed by the load are proportional to the square
of the applied voltage.

Fig:3.17Three-Phase Series RLC Load

Three-Phase Breaker block:


The Three-Phase Breaker block implements a three-phase circuit breaker where the opening
and closing times can be controlled either from an external Simulink signal or from an internal
control signal.

Fig:3.18. Three-Phase Breaker Block

Integrator:

Library: Continuous

Fig:3.19. Integrator

47
The integrator block outputs the integral of its input at the current time step. The following
equation represents the output of the block y as a function of its input u and an initial condition
y0, where y and u are vector functions of the current simulation time t.

Breaker:
Implement circuit breaker opening at current zero crossing.
Library: Elements

Fig:3.20. Circuit Breaker

Purpose: The Breaker block implements a circuit breaker where the opening and closing times
can be controlled either from an external SIMULINK signal (external control mode), or from
an internal control timer (internal control mode).
A series Rs-Cs snubber circuit is included in the model. It can be connected to the circuit
breaker. If the Breaker block happens to be in series with an inductive circuit, an open circuit
or a current source, you must use a snubber.
When the breaker block is set in external control mode, a SIMULINK input appears on
the block icon. The control signal connected to the SIMULINK input must be either 0 or 1 (0
to open the breaker, 1 to close it).
When the Breaker block is set in internal control mode, the switching times are specified in the
dialog box of the block.
When the breaker is closed, it is represented by a resistance Ron. The Ron value can be set
as small as necessary in order to be negligible compared with external components (a typical
value is 10 m ohms). When the breaker is open, it has an infinite resistance.

48
Three-Phase Programmable Voltage Source:
Implement three-phase voltage source with programmable time variation of amplitude, phase,
frequency, and harmonics
Library: Electrical Sources

Fig:3.21. Three Phase Voltage Sources


Purpose: This block is used to generate a three-phase sinusoidal voltage with time-varying
parameters. It can be programmed with the time variation for the amplitude, phase or frequency
of the fundamental component of the source. In addition, two harmonics can be programmed
and superimposed on the fundamental signal.
Trigonometric Function:
Specified trigonometric function on input

Library: Math Operations

Fig:3.22. Trigonometric Functions

Purpose: The Trigonometric Function block performs common trigonometric functions


Three-Phase Transformer (Two Windings):
Implement three-phase transformer with configurable winding connections

Library: Elements

Fig:3.23. Three Phase Transformer

49
Purpose:

The Three-Phase Transformer (Two Windings) block implements a three-phase transformer


using three single-phase transformers. The saturation characteristic, when activated, is the same
as the one described for the saturable Transformer block, and the icon of the block is
automatically updated. If the fluxes are not specified, the initial values are automatically
adjusted so that the simulation starts in steady state.

Three-Phase Transformer 12 Terminals:

Implement three single-phase, two-winding transformers where all terminals are accessible

Library: Elements

Fig:3.24. Two winding Transformer

Purpose: The Three-Phase Transformer 12 Terminals block implements three single-


phase, two-winding linear transformers where all the twelve winding connectors are
accessible. The block can be used in place of the Three-Phase Transformer (Two Windings)
block to implement a three-phase transformer when primary and secondary are not
necessarily connected in Star or Delta.

50
IGBT/Diode

Implements ideal IGBT, GTO, or MOSFET and antiparallel diode

Library: Power Electronics

Fig:3.25.IGBT

Purpose: The IGBT/Diode block is a simplified mode of an IGBT (or GTO or


MOSFET)/Diode pair where the forward voltages of the forced-commutated device and
diode are ignored.

51
3.4 RELATED GRAPHS

Fig. 3.26. charging profile of a 30 kWh Nissan Leaf EV from 0% to 90% of


state of-charging

52
Fig. 3.27. DC LINK VOLTAGE WITHOUT ANY COMPENSATION

53
4. Project Implementation:

4.0. Implementation Stages:


4.1. Mode of Implementation:
Simulink provides a graphical user interface (GUI) for building models as block
diagrams, using click-and-drag mouse operations. Models are hierarchical, so we can build
models using both top-down and bottom-up approaches. The simulation results can be put in
the MATLAB workspace for post processing and visualization .Here we will be simulating
three scenarios and by them we can obtain the stability criterion.
Simulink simulates a dynamic system by computing its states at successive time step
solver a specified time span, using information provided by the model. The process of
computing the successive states of a system from its model is known as solving the model. No
single method of solving a model suffices for all systems Fixed-step solvers solve the model at
regular time intervals from the beginning to the end of the simulation. The size of the interval
is known as the step-size. We can specify the step size or let the solver choose the step size.
Generally decreasing the step size increases the accuracy of the results while increasing the
time required to simulate the system.
Variable-step solvers vary the step size during the simulation, reducing the step size to
increase accuracy when a model's states are changing rapidly and increasing the step size to
avoid taking unnecessary steps when the model's states are changing slowly. Computing the
step size adds to the computational overhead at each step but can reduce the total number of
steps, and hence simulation time, required to maintain a specified level of accuracy for models
with rapidly changing or piecewise continuous states.

54
PROPOSED CIRCUIT CONFIGURATION WITHOUT COMPENSATION:

Fig:4.1.PROPOSED CIRCUIT CONFIGURATION WITHOUT COMPENSATION

This is the basic Simulink model of the DC power integration system without
compensation. This basic module has the instability of the dc power in the output. To identify
the best stability module we will introduce three charging modes by which the output scope
waves can be occurred in the nyquist plots. So by them we will be comparing all the output
nyquist waveforms and can obtain a conclusion about the best stability method.

55
PROPOSED CIRCUIT CONFIGURATION WITH CURRENT CHARGING
METHOD

Fig:4.2.PROPOSED CIRCUIT CONFIGURATION WITH CURRENT CHARGING


METHOD
In current charging method, the current is kept as constant by using PI controller which
is given as a feedback to the dc side bus. When the constant current is set to the circuit model
then the output voltage waveform will be obtained in the scope. As power is drawn from the
AC grid through the AC bus it will be passed through converter. In the converter PWM module
plays a key role in reducing the harmonics. Through the DC bus the dc power is passed towards
the DC-DC converter and to the battery. Here PI controller is installed taking power from the
battery and feedback is set to the dc bus so as to reduce the stability error signals. Here in the
PI controller current is made constant and the plot is drawn in nyquist plot.

56
PROPOSED CIRCUIT CONFIGURATION WITH POWER CHARGING METHOD

Fig:4.3.PROPOSED CIRCUIT CONFIGURATION WITH POWER CHARGING METHOD

In power charging method, the power is kept as constant by using PI controller which
is given as a feedback to the dc side bus. Here voltage and current are to considered so as to set
the power as constant by using PI controller. When the constant power is set to the circuit
model then the output voltage waveform will be obtained in the scope. As power is drawn from
the AC grid through the AC bus it will be passed through converter. In the converter PWM
module plays a key role in reducing the harmonics. Through the DC bus the dc power is passed
towards the DC-DC converter and to the battery. Here PI controller is installed taking power
from the battery and feedback is set to the dc bus so as to reduce the stability error signals. Here
in the PI controller power is made constant and observed in scope.

57
PROPOSED CIRCUIT CONFIGURATION WITH VOLTAGE CHARGING
METHOD

Fig:4.4.PROPOSED CIRCUIT CONFIGURATION WITH VOLTAGE CHARGING


METHOD

In voltage charging method, the voltage is kept as constant by using PI controller which
is given as a feedback to the dc side bus. When the constant voltage is set to the circuit model
then the output voltage waveform will be obtained in the scope. As power is drawn from the
AC grid through the AC bus it will be passed through converter. In the converter PWM module
plays a key role in reducing the harmonics. Through the DC bus the dc power is passed towards
the DC-DC converter and to the battery. Here PI controller is installed taking power from the
battery and feedback is set to the dc bus so as to reduce the stability error signals. Here in the
PI controller voltage is made constant and the plot is drawn in Nyquist plot

58
4.2. Result:

OS:4.5. DC LINK VOLTAGE WITHOUT ANY COMPENSATION

Here in this nyquist plot of circuit without any compensation the harmonic distortions
have been occurred in wide range. These distortions are being observed through scope. So to
reduce these distortions the following three methods have been installed to get the stabililty of
the system.

OS:4.6.DC LINK VOLTAGE WITH CURRENT CHARGING METHOD

59
In the circuit with constant current as a motive the nyquist plot has been acquired with few
harmonic distortions. These distortions are being recorded so that it can be compared with other
modes of nyquist plots.

OS:4.7.DC LINK VOLTAGE WITH POWER CHARGING METHOD

In the circuit with constant power as a motive the nyquist plot has been acquired with
few harmonic distortions. These distortions are being recorded so that it can be compared with
other modes of nyquist plots. In this the harmonics are the combination of constant voltage and
current which can be set by the help of PI controller. As compared with the current charging
method, the power charging method has higher distortions which is comparatively tough to
obtain the stability

60
OS:4.8.DC LINK VOLTAGE WITH VOLTAGE CHARGING METHOD

In the circuit with constant voltage as a motive the Nyquist plot has been acquired with
few harmonic distortions. These distortions are being recorded so that it can be compared with
other modes of Nyquist plots. As compared with other Nyquist plots, we can observe that the
voltage charging method has the least distortions so that the stability can be enabled by using
the voltage charging method. These minute distortions occurred due to constant voltage.

61
5. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE ENHANCEMENT

This project is advance development in power systems where we are eliminating


Transformers and other costly equipment needed for High voltage conversion. Future scope of
this project is to connect Renewable Sources like Solar PV panels to the system. By connecting
PV panels, we can also supply energy towards the Grid as it is a bidirectional system. A method
was proposed for enhancing the stability of a dc distribution system intended to integrate EVs
with an ac power grid. The dc distribution system is interfaced with the host ac grid via a VSC
and can also embed DC modules.
Thus, bidirectional dc–dc power-electronic converters act as battery chargers and
interface the EVs with the dc distribution system, while DC modules are interfaced with the dc
distribution system via unidirectional dc–dc converters. It was demonstrated the proposed
stability enhancement method mitigates the issue of instability by altering the power set points
of the battery chargers, without a need for changing system parameters or hardware. DC power
distribution system is an important development direction of future urban power distribution
system.
The project presented mathematical models for the original and modified systems and
demonstrated that the proposed technique expands the stable operating region of the dc
distribution system. Simulation studies were conducted to demonstrate the effectiveness of the
proposed method. This proposes a dc distribution system for power system integration of plugin
electric vehicles. The proposed system is expected to be more efficient an economical than an
equivalent aggregate of ac-dc battery charges connected to the ac grid, since it relieves the
battery chargers from the need for a bidirectional, front-end, power-factor correction (PFC)
stage. Further, due to its DC nature, the proposed system is amenable to integration of
Photovoltaic (PV) modules.

62
PUBLICATION

PROPOSED TITLE : Stability Analysis Of A Dc Distribution System For Power System


Integration Of Plug-In Electric Vehicles.

CONFERENCE NAME: International conference on “Recent Developments in Power


Engineering (ICRDPE21)”, organized by Department of Electrical And Electronics
ST.MARTIN’S ENGINEERING COLLEGE, HYDERABAD

63
REFERENCES
[1] D. P. Tuttle and R. Baldick, “The evolution of plug-in electric vehiclegrid interactions,”
IEEE Trans. Smart Grid, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 500–505, Mar. 2012.
[2] K. Clement-Nyns, E. Haesen, and J. Driesen, “The impact of charging plug-in hybrid
electric vehicles on a residential distribution grid,” IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 25, no. 1, pp.
371–380, Feb. 2010.
[3] K. Sikes et al., “Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle market introduction study,” U.S. Dept.
Energy, Washington, DC, USA, Final Rep. ORNL/TM-2010/46, Jul. 2010.
[4] W. Su and M. Chow, “Performance evaluation of an EDA-based largescale plug-in hybrid
electric vehicle charging algorithm,” IEEE Trans. Smart Grid, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 308–315, Mar.
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68
APPENDICES

MATLAB is a high-performance language for technical computing. It integrates


computation, visualization, and programming in an easy-to-use environment where problems
and solutions are expressed in familiar mathematical notation. Typical uses include-
➢ Math and computation
➢ Algorithm development
➢ Data acquisition
➢ Modeling, simulation, and prototyping
➢ Data analysis, exploration, and visualization
➢ Scientific and engineering graphics

MATLAB is an interactive system whose basic data element is an array that does not
require dimensioning. This allows solving many technical computing problems, especially
those with matrix and vector formulations, in a fraction of the time it would take to write a
program in a scalar non-interactive language such as C or FORTRAN.
The MATLAB system consists of six main parts:
(a) Development Environment
This is the set of tools and facilities that help to use MATLAB functions and files. Many
of these tools are graphical user interfaces. It includes the MATLAB desktop and Command
Window, a command history, an editor and debugger, and browsers for viewing help, the
workspace, files and the search path.
(b) The MATLAB Mathematical Function Library
This is a vast collection of computational algorithms ranging from elementary
functions, like sum, sine, cosine, and complex arithmetic, to more sophisticated functions like
matrix inverse, matrix Eigen values, Bessel functions, and fast Fourier transforms.

(c) The MATLAB Language


This is a high-level matrix/array language with control flow statements, functions, data
structures, input/output, and object-oriented programming features. It allows both
"programming in the small" to rapidly create quick and dirty throw-away programs, and
"programming in the large" to create large and complex application programs.
(d) Graphics
MATLAB has extensive facilities for displaying vectors and matrices as graphs, as well

69
as annotating and printing these graphs. It includes high-level functions for two-dimensional
and three-dimensional data visualization, image processing, animation, and presentation
graphics. It also includes low-level functions that allow to fully customize the appearance of
graphics as well as to build complete graphical user interfaces on MATLAB applications.
(e) The MATLAB Application Program Interface (API)
This is a library that allows writing in C and FORTRAN programs that interact with
MATLAB. It includes facilities for calling routines from MATLAB (dynamic linking), calling
MATLAB as a computational engine, and for reading and writing MAT-files.
(f) MATLAB Documentation
MATLAB provides extensive documentation, in both printed and online format, to help
to learn about and use all of its features. It covers all the primary MATLAB features at a high
level, including many examples. The MATLAB online help provides task-oriented and
reference information about MATLAB features. MATLAB documentation is also available in
printed form and in PDF format.

70
VEHICLE
TRACKING SYSTEM
A
PROJECT REPORT
On
VEHICLE TRACKING SYSTEM
Submitted by

1) Mr.KOMMINENI VAMSHI Regd.No: 17K81A0225

2) Mr.GALALA SAIKIRAN Regd.No: 17K81A0213

3) Mr.ATHELLI PRUDHVIRAJ GOUD Regd.No: 17K81A0204

4) Mr.CHILUKA ANVESH KUMAR Regd.No: 18K85A0212

in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Under The Guidance of


Mr. DANIEL MANOJ NETHALA., M.Tech, MIAENG
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

ST. MARTIN’S ENGINEERING COLLEGE


(An Autonomous Institute)
Dhulapally, Secunderabad – 500 100
JUNE 2021

I
BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project entitled VEHICLE TRACKING SYSTEM, is being submitted
by 1. Mr.KOMMINENI VAMSHI Regd.No:17K81A0225, 2. Mr.GALALA SAIKIRAN
Regd.No:17K81A0213, 3. Mr.ATHELLI PRUDHVIRAJ GOUD Regd.No:17K81A0204
4. Mr.CHILUKA ANVESH KUMAR Regd.No:18K85A0212 in partial fulfillment of the
requirement for the award of the degree of BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY IN
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING is recorded of bonafide work
carried out by them. The result embodied in this report have been verified and found
satisfactory.

Mr.Daniel Manoj Nethala Dr.N.Ramchandra


Assistant Professor Professor & HOD
Department of EEE Department of EEE

Internal Examiner External Examiner

Place: Dhulapally

Date:

II
DECLARATION

We, the student of Bachelor of Technology in Department of ELECTRICAL AND


ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, session: 2017 - 2021, St. Martin’s Engineering
College, Dhulapally, Kompally, Secunderabad, hereby declare that work presented in
this Project Work entitled VEHICLE TRACKING SYSTEM is the outcome of our
own bonafide work and is correct to the best of our knowledge and this work has been
undertaken taking care of Engineering Ethics. This result embodied in this project
report has not been submitted in any university for award of any degree.

KOMMINENI VAMSHI 17K81A0225


GALALA SAIKIRAN 17K81A0213
ATHELLI PRUDHVIRAJ GOUD 17K81A0204
CHILUKA ANVESH KUMAR 18K85A0212

III
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The satisfaction and euphoria that accompanies the successful completion of any task
would be incomplete without mention of the people who made it possible and whose
encouragements and guidance have crowded effects with success.
First and foremost, we would like to express my deep sense of gratitude and
indebtedness to our College Management for their kind support and permission to use
the facilities available in the Institute.
We especially would like to express my deep sense of gratitude and indebtedness to
Dr.P.Santosh Kumar Patra, our beloved Principal, St.Martin’s Engineering
College for his invaluable encouragement, suggestions and support from an early stage
of this research and providing me extraordinary experiences throughout the work. Above
all, his priceless and meticulous supervision at each and every phase of work inspired
me in innumerable ways.
We would like to express our gratitude to Dr.N.Ramchandra, Head &Professor, the
Dept. of Electrical and Electronics Engineering for his advice, supervision, and the vital
contribution as and when required during this research. We are proud to record that we
had the opportunity to work with an exceptionally experienced Professor like him. The
time spent with him will remain in my memory for years to come.
We would like to thank our supervisor Mr.Daniel Manoj Nethala, Assistant
professor, Dept. of EEE for his continuous support and valuable guidance for our
research work.
We would like to express our gratitude to our dept. project coordinators Mr. K. V.
Govardhan Rao, Assistant Professor, Dept. of EEE and Mr. T. Penchalaiah,
Assistant Professor, Dept of EEE for their involvement with originality has triggered
and nourished my intellectual maturity that will help me for a long time to come.
Finally, we are highly grateful and obliged to our college level Project Coordinators
Dr.Maalyadri, Professor in IT and Dr.R.Santhosh Kumar, Associate Professor in
CSE for their advice, supervision, and the vital contribution as and when required
during this research work and for their support and co- operation that is difficult to
express in words.
1. KOMMINENI VAMSHI Regd.No: 17K81A0225
2. GALALA SAIKIRAN Regd.No: 17K81A0213
3. ATHELLI PRUDHVIRAJ GOUD Regd.No: 17K81A0204
4. CHILUKA ANVESH KUMAR Regd.No: 18K85A0212
IV
ABSTRACT

This project presents a vehicle tracking system that can be remotely monitored by a GSM
phone. It is designed to track the position of a vehicle at any period of time. It comprises of
a GPS receiver, a microcontroller and a GSM module. The combination of these
technologies produces a tracking system. The GPS continuously takes input data from the
satellite and stores the latitude and longitude values in a ATmega328P microcontroller.
This basically means that if a person has to track a vehicle, a message has to be sent to a
GSM device, by which it gets activated. The location of the vehicle is identified using
global positioning system (GPS) and global system for mobile communication (GSM).
These systems constantly watch a moving vehicle and report the status on demand. When
theft is identified, the owner sends an SMS to the microcontroller and the microcontroller
sends back a message containing the location of the vehicle in terms of latitude, longitude
and time.

Key Words: Vehicle tracking security, GSM, GPS, SMS, microcontroller.

V
TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER NO TITLE PAGE NO

CERTIFICATE I
DECLARATION III
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT IV
ABSTRACT V
LIST OF FIGURES VIII
LIST OF TABLES IX
LIST OF OUTPUT SCREENS X

1 INTRODUCTION
1.0 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 OVERVIEW OF THE PROJECT 2
1.2 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY 3
1.3 SCOPE OF THE STUDY 4
1.4 MATERIAL REQUIREMENT 5
2 LITERATURE SURVEY
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW ON RESEARCH AREA 27
2.1 REVIEW ON RELATED LITERATURE 28
2.2 CONCLUSIONS ON REVIEWS 29
3 PROJECT DESIGN
3.0 OVERVIEW OF THE DESIGN 30
3.1 EQUIPMENT ANALYSIS 32
3.2 DEFINE THE MODULES 33
3.3 MODULE FUNTIONALITIES 36
4 PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION
4.0 IMPLEMTATION STAGES 39
4.1 SOFTWARE EXPLANATION 40
4.2 RESULTS 40
5 PROJECT TESTING
5.0 OVERVIEW OF TESTING METHODS 41
5.1 OPERATION AND TESTING 42
VI
5.2 ADVANTAGES, APPLICATIONS & DRAWBACKS 43
5.3 SNAPSHOT OF VTS 44
6 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE ENHANCEMENT 45

PUBLICATION 46

REFERENCES 47

BIBILOGRAPHY 49
.
APPENDICES 50

VII
LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO TITLE PAGE NO


1. Overview of the VTS 2
2. Objectives of VTS 3
3. Scope of VTS 4
4. Arduino UNO 7
5. GSM Module 8
6. GPS Module 9
7. Power Supply 9
8. MAX 232 IC 10
9. RS 232 11
10. 16x2 LCD & its pin description 12
11. Illustration of LED 12
12. Infrared Sensor 13
13. Jumper Wires 13
14. Resistor 15
15. Capacitor 16
16. Transformer 17
17. IC LM 7805 17
18. DB 107 18
19. Pin configuration of ATMega 328 19
20. Relay 20
21. DC Motor 21
22. Adapter 23
23. Modes of Operation 23
24. Arduino IDE 25
25. Interfacing GSM, GPS & Arduino 31
26. Additional Components 32
27. Arduino UNO 33
28. GPS Module 34
29. GSM Module 35
30. Output screens 40
31. Image of the Complete Assembly of proposed VTS 41
32. Image of the System when Sending an SMS 41

VIII
LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO TITLE PAGE NO

1. Literature Survey of VTS 29

IX
LIST OF OUTPUT SCREENS

SCREENS NO TITLE PAGE NO

1. OUTPUT SCREENS 40

X
VEHICLE TRACKING SYSTEM

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.0 INTRODUCTION

The rising cases of vehicle theft, vehicle hijack, kidnapping, diversion of crude oil and petrol, change of
route by drivers of transport companies and theft of valuable containers and items in sea ports have necessitated
the use of a more reliable security system in vehicles and storage facilities for valuable items. A security system
that can track, monitor and give feedback of the location of the vehicle or container.
Several technologies have been developed to provide reliable security for vehicles and valuable goods.
Some of the technologies are locking systems such as the steering wheel lock, central locking systems, theft
detection systems, fuel and ignition disabling system, etc. all these can reduce the possibility of vehicle been
stolen but can easily be manipulated by the thief and does not give a trace or location of the vehicle or goods if
the vehicle is eventually stolen. Several researchers and companies have designed and constructed vehicle
monitoring and tracking device. Many of them are microcontroller-based system.
The Atmel 8-bit AVR RISC-based microcontroller combines 32 KB ISP flash memory with read-while-
write capabilities, 1 KB EEPROM, 2 KB SRAM, 23 general purpose I/O lines, 32 general purpose working
registers, three flexible timer/counters with compare modes, internal and external interrupts, serial
programmable USART, a byte oriented 2 wire serial interface, SPI serial port 6 channel 10-bit A/D converter
programmable watch dog timer with internal oscillator and five software selectable power saving modes. The
device operates between 1.8-5.5 volts. The device achieves approaching put 1MIPS per MHz.
The vehicle tracking system presented here is a vehicle theft or location change monitoring and tracking
system that gives information on demand of the new location of vehicle. This system is suitable for vehicle
owners, school buses, transport business companies, fleet management, crude oil and petrol tankers owners etc.
It consists of small electronic unit which is fixed in a hidden place in the vehicle to monitor the location of the
vehicle. It is fixed in the vehicle in such a manner that it is not visible to anyone who is inside or outside the
vehicle except the owner of the vehicle or the company that installed it. After installation, the system will locate
target by the use of a web application (HTML based application) in Google map. When the vehicle changes
location or is stolen, the GPS module (receiver) in the device receives information about the location
(coordinates) from the GPS satellites and transmits data to the microcontroller. The GSM modem provided with
a registered SIM card receives the GPS parameters of latitude, longitude and time from the microcontroller. The
Exact location of the vehicle is indicated in the form of latitude and longitude along with the exact navigated
track on Google map. The arrived data, in the form of latitude and longitude is used to locate the vehicle on
Google maps, the output is then displayed on the LCD and transmits to the vehicle owner mobile phone in the
form of SMS when request is made. This system is user friendly, easily installable, easily accessible and can be
used for various other purposes. The system is not limited to find the location of the target but also calculates the
distance travelled between two stations.

DEPARTMENT OF EEE
1
VEHICLE TRACKING SYSTEM

1.1 OVERVIEW OF THE PROJECT


A vehicle tracking system is a unique system based on advanced technology that is used to track vehicles
under authorization. Vehicle monitoring System allows a party to track, trace and monitor its vehicles in real
time. Vehicle Tracking System allows a party to track, trace and monitor its vehicles in real time using
GSM/GPRS technology.
Vehicle Tracking System:
A vehicle tracking system is a unique system based on advanced technology that is used to track vehicles
under authorization. It is a system based on electronics that uses highly sophisticated technology to ensure that
the results are not only accurate, but also proper authorised. It is essentially a software installed at every
operational base to enable the owner or a third party to track the vehicle's location. Vehicle monitoring System
allows a party to track, trace and monitor its vehicles in real time. Vehicle Tracking System allows a party to
track, trace and monitor its vehicles in real time using GSM/GPRS technology.

Fig 1: Overview of VTS

Vehicle Security using VTS:


Vehicle Security is a primary concern for all vehicle owners. Owners as well as researchers are always on
the lookout for new and improved security systems for their vehicles. One has to be thankful for the upcoming
technologies, like GPS systems, which enables the owner to closely monitor and track his vehicle in real-time
and also check the history of vehicles movements. This new technology, popularly called Vehicle Tracking
Systems has done wonders in maintaining the security of the vehicle tracking system is one of the biggest
technological advancements to track the activities of the vehicle. The security system uses Global Positioning
System GPS, to find the location of the monitored or tracked vehicle and then uses satellite or radio systems to
send to send the coordinates and the location data to the monitoring center. Due to real-time tracking facility,
vehicle tracking systems are becoming increasingly popular among owners of expensive vehicles.

DEPARTMENT OF EEE
2
VEHICLE TRACKING SYSTEM

1.2 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY


A GPS tracking vehicle tracking devices gadget isn't the same as an auto GPS. Equally GPS
products operate by employing details by using satellite coordinates. The fundamental function of the GPS
tracker is usually to monitor a particular concentrate on auto or motor vehicles. The tracking machine will
be able to relay info relating to where by the motor vehicle has travelled, just how long the automobile
stopped, and so on. GPS monitoring equipment are generally set up in autos. Having said that, GPS
tracking units may be useful for motor cycles, scooters and bicycles. Some GPS trackers are created to
monitor and keep track of movements of laptop computer pcs if computer is lost or stolen.
All GPS trackers use worldwide positioning satellites which may identify properly a vehicle's locale
and speed. The GPS monitoring process sends info to orbiting GPS satellites which route the info by way
of a mobile or cellular phone network back to an linked obtaining machine. GPS trackers may also send
details by means of the internet and warn the receiver by using SMS text messaging.
Like a popular auto GPS procedure, GPS trackers may deliver thorough mapping information
showing in which a concentrate on vehicle has traveled. The mapping particulars obtained is often archived
for later on reference.

Fig 2: Objective of VTS


GPS trackers are utilized by law enforcement, private investigators, fraud or coverage investigators,
corporate and personal folks to safe details needed for investigative applications. Some firms, like
limousine firms, cab providers and supply providers, use GPS trackers keep an eye on and preserve precise
facts records on how company car or truck fleets or homes are being utilized. In addition, GPS monitoring
equipment is usually accustomed to keep track of company autos if stolen.
Some providers applied GPS monitoring systems to enhance productiveness by monitoring mileage
and pace of organization motor vehicles to control gas use, therefore preserving fuel charge. GPS tracking
units may be accustomed to log how staff use organization autos for consumer linked shipping and delivery
of solutions by detailing just each time a merchandise was shipped and acquired.
Also, GPS tracking devices can be utilised legally to monitor relatives’ pursuits, i.e., children or
spouses. Having said that, the usage of GPS trackers is controversial in these regions. Although GPS
monitoring equipment is often utilized for most States, lawfully with no special permit or license, a single
must test relevant State or Federal laws regarding the usage of GPS tracking gadgets.

DEPARTMENT OF EEE
3
VEHICLE TRACKING SYSTEM

1.3 SCOPE OF THE STUDY


Global Positioning System (GPS) is much more than just the means of finding a way while
commuting. It fulfils a much higher purpose than finding the fastest route. They help you to monitor crucial
parameters like speed, trip distance, geo-fencing, real-time tracking among others.GPS trackers have paved
the way for both automobiles like cars, trucks, buses as well as personal safety devices like GPS tracking
smartwatches. They are easily trackable via smartphone or laptop keeping you tension-free. Trackers are
small with technological advancement, tend to grow and improve. The future of GPS tracking looks
extremely promising and we can expect some interesting advancement in this area. Let’s look at what the

future holds for GPS monitoring systems.


Fig 3: Scope of VTS
Compact Size and Longer Life Span: Compact GPS devices are smaller than a cell phone butthe experts
predict that continuous development may shrink the sizes of these devices further.
The size of the tracker depends on the battery, while a thumbnail-sized receiver can be improved, it needs
to be big enough to accommodate the battery. As the battery technology unfolds, in the future, we may be
able to see GPS trackers getting smaller in size.
These days, the best trackers can go up to 30 days without a recharge but to go longer, extended battery
packs may be needed which provide up to 6 months of uninterrupted usage.
Affordability: GPS trackers are no longer a luxury reserved for big organizations and governmentagencies.
The low-price points have brought it within the reach of small companies andeven individuals. GPS vehicle
tracking is a must for every business and the raised productivity andefficiency make it a value for money.
They are immensely useful for both the professional and personal front. As per their requirements,
different sections of people can be catered through the affordable price range. The devices are getting
compact yet powerful. Hence, this is the best time to invest in GPS tracking solutions.
Extensive Usage: Past few years have seen a considerable rise in businesses turning to GPS technology, as
an effective way to manage their transports, employees, and assets. GPS fleet management systems allow
enterprises to access driver’s performance, vehicle maintenance to providing other necessary inputs like
live vehicle tracking. As the crime rate increases with each passing day, GPS trackers give a sigh of relief
for parents. Trackers ensure the safety of your loved ones- be it children or elderly family members.
Parents rely on these trackers to keep a watch and control their inexperienced young teenagers’ reckless
driving.
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1.4 MATERIAL REQUIREMENT

HARDWARE REQUIREMENT:
1. Ardunio UNO
2. GSM Module
3. GPS Module
4. Power supply
5. Max232
6. RS232
7. LCD display
8. LED
9. Infrared sensor
10. Jumper Wires
11. Resistors
12. Capacitors
13. Transformers
14. IC LM7805
15. Bridge rectifier
16. Microcontroller Atmega328
17. Relay
18. DC Motor
19. Adapter

SOFTWARE REQUIREMENT :

1. Aruduino IDE

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HARDWARE REQUIREMENT:

1. ARDUINO UNO:
The Arduino Uno is an open-source microcontroller board based on the Microchip ATmega328P
microcontroller and developed by Arduino.cc. The board is equipped with sets of digital and analog input/output
(I/O) pins that may be interfaced to various expansion boards (shields) and other circuits.The board has 14
digital I/O pins (six capable of PWM output), 6 analog I/O pins, and is programmable with the Arduino IDE
(Integrated Development Environment), via a type B USB cable. It can be powered by the USB cable or by an
external 9-volt battery, though it accepts voltages between 7 and 20 volts. It is similar to the Arduino Nano and
Leonardo. The hardware reference design is distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution Share-Alike 2.5
license and is available on the Arduino website. Layout and production files for some versions of the hardware
are also available.

1.1 Technical specifications:


Operating Voltage: 5 Volts
Input Voltage: 7 to 20 Volts
Digital I/O Pins: 14 (of which 6 can provide PWM output)
UART: 1
I2C: 1
SPPI: 1
Analog Input Pins: 6
DC Current per I/O Pin: 20 Ma
DC Current for 3.3V Pin: 50 mA
Flash Memory: 32 KB of which 0.5 KB used by bootloader
SRAM: 2 KB
EEPROM: 1 KB
Clock Speed: 16 MHz
Length: 68.6 mm
Width: 53.4 mm
Weight: 25 g
Headers

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1.2 General Pin functions:


LED: There is a built-in LED driven by digital pin 13. When the pin is high value, the LED is on, when the pin
is low, it is off.
VIN: The input voltage to the Arduino/Genuino board when it is using an external power source (as opposed to
5 volts from the USB connection or other regulated power source). You can Arduino UNO … supply voltage
through this pin, or, if supplying voltage via the power jack, access it through this pin.
5V: This pin outputs a regulated 5V from the regulator on the board. The board can be supplied with power
either from the DC power jack (7 - 20V), the USB connector (5V), or the VIN pin of the board (7-20V).
Supplying voltage via the 5V or 3.3V pins bypasses the regulator, and can damage the board.
3V3: A 3.3 volt supply generated by the on-board regulator. Maximum current draw is 50 mA.
GND: Ground pins. IOREF: This pin on the Arduino/Genuino board provides the voltage reference with which
the microcontroller operates. A properly configured shield can read the
IOREF pin voltage and select the appropriate power source, or enable voltage translators on the outputs to work
with the 5V or 3.3V.
Reset: Typically used to add a reset button to shields that block the one on the board.
Special pin functions Each of the 14 digital pins and 6 analog pins on the Uno can be used as an input or
output, under software control (using … pinMode(), digitalWrite(), and digitalRead() functions).
They operate at 5 volts. Each pin can provide or receive 20 mA as the recommended operating condition
and has an internal pull-up resistor (disconnected by default) of 20-50K ohm. A maximum of 40mA must not be
exceeded on any I/O pin to avoid permanent damage to the microcontroller.
The Uno has 6 analog inputs, labeled A0 through A5; each provides 10 bits of resolution (i.e. 1024
different values). By default, they measure from ground to 5 volts, though it is possible to change the upper end
of the range using the AREF pin and the analogReference() function]

Fig 4: Arduino UNO

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In addition, some pins have specialized functions:


Serial / UART: pins 0 (RX) and 1 (TX). Used to receive (RX) and transmit (TX) TTL serial data. These pins
are connected to the corresponding pins of the ATmega8U2 USB-to-TTL serial chip.
External interrupts: pins 2 and 3. These pins can be configured to trigger an interrupt on a low value, a rising
or falling edge, or a change in value.
PWM (pulse-width modulation): pins 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, and 11. Can provide 8-bit PWM output with the
analogWrite() function.
SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface): pins 10 (SS), 11 (MOSI), 12 (MISO), and 13 (SCK). These pins support SPI
communication using the SPI library.
TWI (two-wire interface) / I²C: pin SDA (A4) and pin SCL (A5). Support TWI communication using the Wire
library.
AREF (analog reference): Reference voltage for the analog inputs.

2. GSM MODULE (GLOBAL SYSTEM FOR MOBILE COMMUNICATIONS):


A GSM modem or GSM module is a hardware device that uses GSM mobile telephone technology to
provide a data link to a remote network. From the view of the mobile phone network, they are essentially
identical to an ordinary mobile phone, including the need for a SIM to identify themselves to the network. GSM
modems typically provide TTL-level serial interfaces to their host. They are usually used as part of an embedded
system.

GSM Module ( SIM800A):


SIM800 is a complete Quad-band GSM/GPRS solution in a SMT type which can be embedded in the
customer applications. SIM800 support Quad-band 850/900/1800/1900MHz, it can transmit Voice, SMS and
data information with low power consumption.

Fig 5: GSM Module


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3. GPS MODULE (GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM):


The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a navigation system using satellites, a receiver and algorithms
to synchronize location, velocity and time data for air, sea and land travel.

GPS Module (SKG13BL):


The SKG13BL is a complete GPS module that features with super sensitivity, ultra low power and small
form factor. The GPS signal is applied to the antenna input of module, the serial interface output NMEA
protocol data or customer protocol data with position, velocity and time information.

Fig 6: GPS Module

4. POWER SUPPLY:
It consists of step down transformer, bridge rectifier, capacitors and voltage regulatorICs. 230V
AC is converted to 12V DC using transformer and bridge rectifier. This 12VDC is further reduced to 5V
DC using voltage regulator IC.

Fig 7: Power Supply

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5. Max232:
The MAX232 is an IC, first created in 1987 by Maxim Integrated Products, that converts signals
from an RS-232 serial port to signals suitable for use in TTL compatible digital logic circuits. The MAX232
is a dual driver/receiver and typically converts the RX, TX, CTS and RTS signals.
The drivers provide RS-232 voltage level outputs (approx. ± 7.5 V) from a single + 5 V supply via
on-chip charge pumps and external capacitors. This makes it useful for implementing RS-232 in devices
that otherwise do not need any voltages outside the 0 V to + 5 V range, as power supply design does not
need to be made more complicated just for driving the RS-232 in this case.
The receivers reduce RS-232 inputs (which may be as high as ± 25 V), to standard 5 V TTL levels.
These receivers have a typical threshold of 1.3 V, and a typical hysteresis of 0.5 V.

Fig 8: MAX232 IC Fig 8: PIN DIAGRAM OF MAX232 IC

6.RS232:
In telecommunications systems used today RS-232 is a standard for serial communication transmission
of data. It formally defines the signals connecting between a DTE (data terminal equipment) such as a
computer terminal, and a DCE (data circuit-terminating equipment, originally defined as data
communication equipment), such as a modem.
The RS-232 standard is commonly used in computer serial ports. The standard defines theelectrical
characteristics and timing of signals, the meaning of signals, and the physical size and pinout of connectors.
The current version of the standard is TIA-232-F Interface Between Data Terminal Equipment and Data
Circuit-Terminating Equipment Employing Serial Binary Data Interchange, issued in 1997.

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An RS-232 serial port was once a standard feature of a personal computer, used for connections to
modems, printers, mice, data storage, uninterruptible power and other peripheral devices. RS-232 is
hampered by low transmission speed, large voltage swing, and large standard connectors.
In modern personal computers, USB has displaced RS-232 from most of its peripheral interface
roles. Many computers do not come equipped with RS- 232 ports and must use either an external USB-to-
RS-232 converter or an internal expansion card with one or more serial ports to connect to RS-232
peripherals. Nevertheless, RS-232 devices are still used, especially in industrial machines, networking
equipment and scientific instruments.

Fig 9: RS232

7. LCD DISPLAY:
A liquid-crystal display (LCD) is a flat panel display, electronic visual display, or video display that
uses the light modulating properties of liquid crystals. Liquid crystals do not emit light directly.
LCDs are available to display arbitrary images (as in a general-purpose computer display) or fixed
images which can be displayed or hidden, such aspreset words, digits, and 7-segment displays as ina digital
clock. They use the same basic technology, except that arbitrary images are made up of a large number of
small pixels, while other displays have larger elements.
LCDs are used in a wide range of applications including computer monitors, televisions, instrument
panels, aircraft cockpit displays, and signage. They are common in consumer devices such as DVD
players, gaming devices, clocks, watches, calculators, and telephones, and have replaced cathode ray tube
(CRT) displays in most applications.The LCD screen is more energy efficient and can be disposed of
more safely than a CRT. Its low electrical power consumption enables it to be used in battery-powered
electronic equipment.

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Fig 10: 16*2 lcd and its pin description

8. LED:
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a two-lead semiconductor light source. It is a pn-junction diode,
which emits light when activated. When a suitable voltage is applied to the leads, electrons are able to
recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect

Fig 11: ILLUSTRATION OF LIGHT EMITTED BYLED

is called electroluminescence, and the color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photon) is
determined by the energy band gap of the semiconductor.

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9. INFRARED SENSOR:

An infrared sensor is an electronic instrument which is used to sense certain characteristics of its
surroundings by either emitting and/or detecting infrared radiation. Infrared sensors are also capable
of measuring the heat being emitted by an object and detecting motion.

Fig 12: INFRARED SENSOR & HOW IT WORKS

10. JUMPER WIRES:


A jump wire (also known as jumper, jumper wire, jumper cable, DuPont wire or cable) is an electrical
wire, or group of them in a cable, with a connector or pin at each end (or sometimes without them – simply
"tinned"), which is normally used to interconnect the components of a breadboard or other prototype or test
circuit, internally or with other equipment or components, without soldering
Individual jump wires are fitted by inserting their "end connectors" into the slots provided in a
breadboard, the header connector of a circuit board, or a piece of test equipment. Stranded 22AWG jump wires
with solid tips
Types Jumper wires with crocodile clips Jump wires at the end of a multi-coloured ribbon cable are used
to connect the pin header at the left side of a blue USB2Serial board to a white breadboard below. Another
jumper cable ending in a USB micro male connector mates to the right side of the USB2Serial board. Red and
black tinned jump wires can be seen on the breadboard.

Fig 13: Jumper Wires


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TYPES OF JUMPER WIRES:


There are different types of jumper wires. Some have the same type of electrical connector at both ends, while
others have different connectors. Some common connectors are:
Solid tips – are used to connect on/with a breadboard or female header connector. The arrangement of the
elements and ease of insertion on a breadboard allows increasing the mounting density of both components
and jump wires without fear of shortcircuits. The jump wires vary in size and colour to distinguish the different
working signals.
Crocodile clips – are used, among other applications, to temporarily bridge sensors, buttons and other
elements of prototypes with components or equipment that have arbitrary connectors, wires, screw terminals,
etc.
Banana connectors – are commonly used on test equipment for DC and lowfrequency AC signals.
Registered jack (RJnn) – are commonly used in telephone (RJ11) and computer networking (RJ45).
RCA connectors – are often used for audio, low-resolution composite video signals, or other low-frequency
applications requiring a shielded cable.
RF connectors – are used to carry radio frequency signals between circuits, test equipment, and antennas.
RF jumper cables - Jumper cables is a smaller and more bendable corrugated cable which is used to connect
antennas and other components to network cabling.

11. RESISTORS:
A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance as a circuit
element. Resistors act to reduce current flow, and, at the same time, act to lower voltage levels within circuits.
In electronic circuits resistors are used to limit current flow, to adjust signal levels, bias active elements,
terminate transmission lines among other uses. High-power resistors that can dissipate many watts of electrical
power as heat may be used as part of motor controls, in power distribution systems, or as test loads for
generators.
Fixed resistors have resistances that only change slightly with temperature, time or operating voltage.
Variable resistors can be used to adjust circuit elements (such as a volume control or a lamp dimmer), or
as sensing devices for heat, light, humidity, force, or chemical activity.
Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous in
electronic equipment. Practical resistors as discrete components can be composed of various compounds and
forms.

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Fig 14 : Resistor

The electrical function of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common commercial resistors are
manufactured over a range of more than nine orders of magnitude. The nominal value of the resistance will fall
with in a manufacturing tolerance.
Resistor is a circuit element having the function of introducing electrical resistance in to the circuit. There
are three basic types of resistors.
a) Fixed resistor
b) Rheostat
c)Potentiometer
A fix resistor is a two terminal device which electrical resistance is constant. A rheostat is a resistor that
can be changed in resistance value without opening the circuit to make adjustment.
A potentiometer is an adjustable resistor with three terminals, on a teach end of the resistor element and
thin movable along its length.
There are three basic types of resistors:
1.Carbon composite resistors
2.Wire wound resistors
3.Carbon-Film resistors.

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12. CAPACITORS:
A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two- terminal electrical component used to
store energy electrostatically in an electric field. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at
least two electrical conductors (plates) separated by a dielectric (i.e. insulator). The conductors can be thin films,
foils or sintered beads of metal or conductive electrolyte, etc. The nonconducting dielectric acts to increase the
capacitor's charge capacity. A dielectric can be glass, ceramic, plastic film, air, vacuum, paper, mica, oxide layer
etc. Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices. Unlike a
resistor, an ideal capacitor does not dissipate energy. Instead, a capacitor stores energy in the form of an
electrostatic field between its plates.

Fig 15 : Capacitor

13. TRANSFORMERS:
A transformer is an electrical device that transfers energy between two or more circuits through
electromagnetic induction. A varying current in the transformer's primary winding creates a varying magnetic
flux in the core and a varying magnetic field impinging on the secondary winding. This varying magnetic field at
the secondary induces a varying electromotive force (EMF) or voltage in the secondary winding. Making use of
Faraday’s Law in conjunction with high magnetic permeability core properties, transformers can thus be
designed to efficiently change AC voltages from one voltage level to another within power networks.
Transformers range in size from RF transformers less than a cubic centimetre in volume to units
interconnecting the power grid weighing hundreds of tons. A wide range of transformer designs is encountered
in electronic and electric power applications. Since the invention in 1885 of the first constant potential
transformer, transformers have become essential for the AC transmission, distribution , and utilization of
electrical energy.

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Fig 16 : Transformer

14. IC LM7805:
7805 is a voltage regulator integrated circuit. It is a member of 78xx series of fixed linear voltage
regulator ICs. The voltage source in a circuit may have fluctuations and would not give the fixed voltage output.
The voltage regulator IC maintains the output voltage at a constant value. The xx in 78xx indicates the fixed
output voltage it is designed to provide. 7805provides +5V regulated power supply. Capacitors of suitable values
can be connected at input and output pins depending upon the respective voltage levels.

Fig 17 : IC LM7805

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15. BRIDGE RECTIFIER:

A bridge rectifier is an arrangement of four or more diodes in a bridge circuit configuration which
provides the same output polarity for either input polarity. It is used for converting an alternating current (AC)
input into a direct current (DC) output.

DB 107:

Now -a -days Bridge rectifier is available in IC with a number of DB107. In our project we are using an IC in
place of bridge rectifier. The picture of DB 107 is shown below

Features:

 Good for automation insertion.


 Surge overload rating - 30 amperes peak.
 Ideal for printed circuit board.
 Reliable low cost construction utilizing molded.
 Glass passivated device.
 Polarity symbols molded on body.
 Mounting position: Any.
 Weight: 1.0 gram.

Fig 18: DB107

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16. MICROCONTROLLER ATMEGA328:

The Atmel AVR core combines a rich instruction set with 32 general purpose working registers. All the 32 registers
are directly connected to the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), allowing two independent registers to be accessed in one single
instruction executed in one clock cycle. The resulting architecture is more code efficient while achieving throughputs up
to ten times faster than conventional CISC microcontrollers.

Fig 19: Pin Configuration of Microcontroller Atmega328

The Atmega168 provides the following features: 16 Kbytes of In-System Programmable Flash with Read-While-Write
capabilities, 512 bytes of EEPROM, 1 Kbyte of SRAM, 23 general purpose I/O lines, 32 general purpose working registers,
three flexible Timer/Counters with compare modes, internal and external interrupts, a serial programmable USART, a
byte oriented Two wire Serial Interface, a 6-channel ADC (eight channels in TQFP and QFN/MLF packages)with 10-bit
accuracy, a programmable Watchdog Timer with Internal Oscillator, an SPI serial port, and five software selectable power
saving modes. The Idle mode stops the CPU while allowing the SRAM; Timer/Counters, SPI port, and interrupt system to
continue Function.

The Power down mode saves the register contents but freezes the Oscillator, disabling all other chip functions until the
next Interrupt or Hardware Reset. In Power-save mode, the asynchronous timer continues to run, allowing the user to
maintain a timer base while the rest of the device is sleeping. The ADC Noise Reduction mode stops the CPU and all I/O
modules except asynchronous timer and ADC, to minimize switching noise during ADC conversions. In Standby mode, the
crystal/resonator Oscillator is running while the rest of the device is sleeping. This allows very fast start-up combined
with low-power consumption.

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17. RELAY:

Relay is an electromagnetic switch operated by a relatively small electric current that can turn on or off a
much larger electric current. The heart of a relay is an electromagnet (a coil of wire that becomes a
temporary magnet when electricity flows through it). You can think of a relay as a kind of electric lever: switch
it on with a tiny current and it switches on ("leverages") another appliance using a much bigger current. Why is
that useful? As the name suggests, many sensors are incredibly sensitive pieces of electronic equipment and
produce only small electric currents. But often we need them to drive bigger pieces of apparatus that use bigger
currents. Relays bridge the gap, making it possible for small currents to activate larger ones. That means relays
can work either as switches (turning things on and off) or as amplifiers (converting small currents into larger
ones).

Fig:20-Relay
When power flows through the first circuit (1), it activates the electromagnet (brown), generating a magnetic
field (blue) that attracts a contact (red) and activates the second circuit (2). When the power is switched off,
a spring pulls the contact back up to its original position, switching the second circuit off again.

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This is an example of a "normally open" (NO) relay: the contacts in the second circuit are not connected by
default, and switch on only when a current flows through the magnet. Other relays are "normally closed" (NC;
the contacts are connected so a current flows through them by default) and switch off only when the magnet is
activated, pulling or pushing the contacts apart. Normally open relays are the most common.
Here's another animation showing how a relay links two circuits together. It's essentially the same thing drawn in
a slightly different way. On the left side, there's an input circuit powered by a switch or a sensor of some kind.
When this circuit is activated, it feeds current to an electromagnet that pulls a metal switch closed and activates
the second, output circuit (on the right side). The relatively small current in the input circuit thus activates the
larger current in the output circuit

1. The input circuit (black loop) is switched off and no current flows through it until something (either a sensor
or a switch closing) turns it on. The output circuit (blue loop) is also switched off.
2. When a small current flow in the input circuit, it activates the electromagnet (shown here as a red coil),
which produces a magnetic field all around it.
3. The energized electromagnet pulls the metal bar in the output circuit toward it, closing the switch and
allowing a much bigger current to flow through the output circuit.
4. The output circuit operates a high-current appliance such as a lamp or an electric motor.

18. DC MOTOR:

Fig:21- DC Motor

DC motors are configured in many types and sizes, including brush less, servo, and gear motor types. A
motor consists of a rotor and a permanent magnetic field stator. The magnetic field is maintained using either
permanent magnets or electromagnetic windings. DC motors are most commonly used in variable speed and
torque.
Motion and controls cover a wide range of components that in some ways are used to generate and/or
control motion. Areas within this category include bearings and bushings, clutches and brakes, controls and
drives, drive components, encoders and resolves, Integrated motion control, limit switches, linear actuators,
linear and rotary motion components, linear position sensing, motors (both AC and DC motors), orientation
position sensing, pneumatics and pneumatic components, positioning stages, slides and guides, power
transmission ,seals.
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Motors are the devices that provide the actual speed and torque in a drive system. This family includes
AC motor types (single and multiphase motors, universal, servo motors, induction, synchronous, and gear
motor) and DC motors (brush less, servo motor, and gear motor) as well as linear, stepper and air motors, and
motor contactors and starters.
In any electric motor, operation is based on simple electromagnetism. A current-carrying conductor
generates a magnetic field; when this is then placed in an external magnetic field, it will experience a force
proportional to the current in the conductor, and to the strength of the external magnetic field. As you are well
aware of from playing with magnets as a kid, opposite (North and South) polarities attract, while like
polarities (North and North, South and South) repel. The internal configuration of a DC motor is designed to
harness the magnetic interaction between a current-carrying conductor and an external magnetic field to
generate rotational motion.
Let's start by looking at a simple 2-pole DC electric motor (here red represents a magnet or winding with
a "North" polarization, while green represents a magnet or winding with a "South" polarization).
Every DC motor has six basic parts -- axle, rotor (a.k.a., armature), stator, commutator, field magnet(s),
and brushes. In most common DC motors (and all that Beamers will see), the external magnetic field is
produced by high-strength permanent magnets1. The stator is the stationary part of the motor -- this includes
the motor casing, as well as two or more permanent magnet pole pieces. The rotor (together with the axle and
attached commutator) rotates with respect to the stator. The rotor consists of windings (generally on a core),
the windings being electrically connected to the commutator. The above diagram shows a common motor
layout -- with the rotor inside the stator (field) magnets.
The geometry of the brushes, commutator contacts, and rotor windings are such that when power is
applied, the polarities of the energized winding and the stator magnet(s) are misaligned, and the rotor will
rotate until it is almost aligned with the stator's field magnets. As the rotor reaches alignment, the brushes
move to the next commutator contacts, and energize the next winding. Given our example two-pole motor,
the rotation reverses the direction of current through the rotor winding, leading to a "flip" of the rotor's
magnetic field, and driving it to continue rotating.
In real life, though, DC motors will always have more than two poles (three is a very common number).
In particular, this avoids "dead spots" in the commutator. You can imagine how with our example two-pole
motor, if the rotor is exactly at the middle of its rotation (perfectly aligned with the field magnets), it will get
"stuck" there. Meanwhile, with a two-pole motor, there is a moment where the commutator shorts out the
power supply (i.e., both brushes touch both commutator contacts simultaneously). This would be bad for the
power supply, waste energy, and damage motor components as well. Yet another disadvantage of such a
simple motor is that it would exhibit a high amount of torque” ripple" (the amount of torque it could produce
is cyclic with the position of the rotor).
You'll notice a few things from this -- namely, one pole is fully energized at a time (but two others are
"partially" energized). As each brush transitions from one commutator contact to the next, one coil's field will
rapidly collapse, as the next coil's field will rapidly charge up (this occurs within a few microsecond). We'll
see more about the effects of this later, but in the meantime, you can see that this is a direct result of the coil
windings' series wiring:

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There's probably no better way to see how an average dc motor is put together, than by just opening one
up. Unfortunately this is tedious work, as well as requiring the destruction of a perfectly good motor.

19. ADAPTER (12V):


An AC adapter, AC/DC adapter, or AC/DC converter is a type of external power supply, often enclosed
in a case similar to an AC plug. Other common names include plug pack, plug-in adapter, adapter
block, domestic mains adapter, line power adapter, wall wart, power brick, and power adapter. Adapters for
battery-powered equipment may be described as chargers or rechargers (see also battery charger). AC
adapters are used with electrical devices that require power but do not contain internal components to derive
the required voltage and power from mains power. The internal circuitry of an external power supply is very
similar to the design that would be used for a built-in or internal supply.
External power supplies are used both with equipment with no other source of power and with battery-
powered equipment, where the supply, when plugged in, can sometimes charge the battery in addition to
powering the equipment.

Fig:22- Adapter
Use of an external power supply allows portability of equipment powered either by mains or battery
without the added bulk of internal power components, and makes it unnecessary to produce equipment for use
only with a specified power source; the same device can be powered from 120 VAC or 230 VAC mains,
vehicle or aircraft battery by using a different adapter. Another advantage of these designs can be increased
safety; since the hazardous 120- or 240-volt mains power is transformed to a lower, safer voltage at the wall
outlet and the appliance that is handled by the user is powered by this lower voltage.

Modes of operation:

Fig:23- Modes of Operation


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An AC adapter disassembled to reveal a simple, unregulated linear DC supply circuit: a transformer, four
diodes in a bridge rectifier, and an electrolytic capacitor to smooth the waveform
Originally, most AC/DC adapters were linear power supplies, containing a transformer to convert
the mains electricity voltage to a lower voltage, a rectifier to convert it to pulsating DC, and a filter to smooth
the pulsating waveform to DC, with residual ripple variations small enough to leave the powered device
unaffected. Size and weight of the device was largely determined by the transformer, which in turn was
determined by the power output and mains frequency. Ratings over a few watts made the devices too large
and heavy to be physically supported by a wall outlet. The output voltage of these adapters varied with load;
for equipment requiring a more stable voltage, linear voltage regulator circuitry was added. Losses in the
transformer and the linear regulator were considerable; efficiency was relatively low, and significant power
dissipated as heat even when not driving a load.
Early in the twenty-first century, switched-mode power supplies (SMPSs) became almost ubiquitous for
this purpose. Main’s voltage is rectified to a high direct voltage driving a switching circuit, which contains a
transformer operating at a high frequency and outputs direct current at the desired voltage. The high-
frequency ripple is more easily filtered out than mains-frequency. The high frequency allows the transformer
to be small, which reduces its losses; and the switching regulator can be much more efficient than a linear
regulator. The result is a much more efficient, smaller, and lighter device. Safety is ensured, as in the older
linear circuit, because a transformer still provides galvanic isolation.
A linear circuit must be designed for a specific, narrow range of input voltages (e.g., 220–240 VAC) and
must use a transformer appropriate for the frequency (usually 50 or 60 Hz), but a switched-mode supply can
work efficiently over a very wide range of voltages and frequencies; a single 100–240 VAC unit will handle
almost any mains supply in the world.
However, unless very carefully designed and using suitable components, switching adapters are more
likely to fail than the older type, due in part to complex circuitry and the use of semiconductors. Unless
designed well, these adapters may be easily damaged by overloads, even transient ones, which can come
from lightning, brief mains overvoltage (sometimes caused by an incandescent light on the same power
circuit failing), component degradation, etc. A very common mode of failure is due to the use of electrolytic
capacitors whose equivalent series resistance (ESR) increases with age; switching regulators are very
sensitive to high ESR (the older linear circuit also used electrolytic capacitors, but the effect of degradation is
much less dramatic). Well-designed circuits pay attention to the ESR, ripple current rating, pulse operation,
and temperature rating of capacitors.
Many inexpensive switched-mode AC adapters do not implement adequate filtering and/or shielding
for electromagnetic interference that they generate. The nature of these high speed, high-energy switching
designs is such that when these preventative measures are not implemented, relatively high energy harmonics
can be generated, and radiated, well into the radio portion of the spectrum. The amount of RF energy typically
decreases with frequency; so, for instance, interference in the medium wave (US AM) broadcast band in the
one-megahertz region may be strong, while interference with the FM broadcast band around 100 megahertz
may be considerably less. Distance is a factor; the closer the interference is to a radio receiver, the more
intense it will be. Even WiFi reception in the gigahertz range can be degraded if the receiving antennae are
very close to a radiating AC adapter. A determination of if interference is coming from a specific AC adaptor
can be made simply by unplugging the suspect adapter while observing the amount of interference received in

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the problem radio band. In a modern household or business environment, there may be multiple AC adapters
in use; in such a case, unplug them all, then plug them back in one by one until the culprit or culprits is found.
SOFTWARE REQUIREMENT:
1. ARDUINO IDE:
Arduino Compiler:
The Arduino IDE is a cross-platform application written in Java, and is derived from the IDE for the
Processing programming language and the Wiring project. It is designed to introduce programming to
artists and other newcomers unfamiliar with software development. It includes a code editor with features
such as syntax highlighting, brace matching, and automatic indentation, and is also capable of compiling
and uploading programs to the board with a single click. There is typically no need to edit make files or run
programs on a command-line interface. Although building on command-line is possible if required with
some third-party tools such a Ino.
The Arduino IDE comes with a C/C++ library called "Wiring" (from the project of the same name), which
makes many common input/output operations much easier. Arduino programs are written in C/C++.

Fig:24-Arduino IDE
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Eagle version 5.6.0:

EAGLE (for: Easily Applicable Graphical Layout Editor, German: Einfach anzuwendender grafischer
Layout-Editor) by CAD Soft Computer is a flexible, expandable and scriptable EDA application with
schematic capture editor, PCB layout editor, auto-router and CAM and BOM tools developed by CAD
Soft Computer GmbH,Germany, since 1988.
EAGLE is popular among smaller design houses and in academia for its favourable licensing termsand rich
availability of component libraries on the web.

Google maps:
Google Maps is a desktop and mobile web mapping service application and technology provided by
Google, offering satellite imagery, street maps, and Street View perspectives, as well as functions such as a
route planner for traveling by foot, car, bicycle (beta test), or with public transportation. Also supported are
maps embedded on third-party websites via the Google Maps API, and a locator for urban businesses and
other organizations in numerous countries around the world. Google Maps satellite images are not updated
in real time; however, Google adds data to their Primary Database on a regular basis. Google Earth support
states that most of the images areno more than 3 years old.

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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE SURVEY

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW ON RESEARCH AREA


GPS based vehicle tracking and monitoring system:
A solution for public transportation. The author of the paper provides a solution for tracking and
monitoring the public transportation vehicles using devices such as Raspberry Pi and GPS Antenna.
Raspberry Pi processing board can be used to receiving values and gives the result. This method can find a
way to monitor the transportation vehicle from the location source to destination. In this paper, there is a
use of GPS receiver module for receiving the latitude and longitude values of the present locationof the
vehicle continuously. A passenger of the vehicle will give different locations to the system between the
source and destination locations. These values will be stored in the Raspberry Pi database and Raspberry Pi
processor will compare the passenger specified values with the current vehicle location values and if the
result is not the same then the passenger will be informed with warning message via display system that
driver is driving in the wrong direction.

Real-time GPS vehicle tracking system:


In this paper implementation and designing of a real-time GPS tracker system via Arduino was
applied. This method was applicable for salesman tracking, private driver and for vehicle safety. The author
of the paper also tried to solve the problem of owners who have expensive cars to observe and track the
vehicle and find out vehicle movement and its past activities of vehicle. The system has GPS/GSM
modules controlled by Arduino MEGA placed inside the vehicle. The vehicle position will be updated every
time as the vehicle moves. Then User will send SMS on registered number and they will receive the
coordinate location. At the same time the data will get stored on SD card continuously. The location will be
accessible to users by system via website over the internet.

Android app-based vehicle tracking using GPS and GSM:


The author of this paper has explained an embedded system, used to know the locationof the vehicle
using technologies like GSM and GPS. System needs closely linked GPS and GSM module with a
microcontroller. Initially, the GPS installed in the device will receive the vehicle location from satellite and
store it in a microcontroller ‘s buffer. In order to track location, the registered mobile number has to send
request, once authentication of number get completed, the location will be sent to mobile number in the
form of SMS. Then GSM get deactivated and GPS get activated again. The SMS consist of latitude and
longitude value of vehicle. This value received in the SMS can be viewed via android app and this
coordinate will be plotted in the app automatically.

Survey paper:
On vehicle tracking system using GPS and android This paper propose a GPS based vehicle tracking
system to help organization for finding addresses of their vehicles and locate their positions on mobile
devices. The author states system will give the exact location of vehicle along with distance between user
and vehicle. The system will have single android mobile, GPS and GSM modems along with processor that
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is installed in vehicle. When vehicle get activated and starts moving, the location of the vehicle will be
updated continuously to a server using GPRS service. Monitoring unit will access the database from server
to check the vehicle location. The location information present on database will be plotted using Google
maps on monitoring device. Monitoring unit can be a Web application or Android application or a through
which user will get to know the actual position of the proposed vehicle.

Review of Accident Alert and Vehicle Tracking System:


In this paper, the author has described the system that can track the vehicle and detect an accident.
There will be automatic detection of traffic accidents using vibration sensors or a piezoelectric sensor. This
sensor will first sense the occurrence of an accident and give its output tothe microcontroller. As soon as
vehicle meets accident the GPS module will detect the latitude andlongitudinal position of a vehicle. Then
the GSM module sends latitude and longitude position of the vehicle to the ambulance which is near to that
location. This message sending operation will beautomatically done and an alert message may send to the
central emergency dispatch server. This system is familiar with vibration sensor, Raspberry Pi, GPS and
GSM modules to detect traffic accidents.

2.1 REVIEW ON RELATED LITERATURE

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Table:1- Literature survey of VTS

2.2 CONCLUSION ON REVIEWS

The aim of the paper is to give an overview of vehicle tracking system. This system used to track the
vehicle by using GPS which is one of the biggest technological advancements to track the activities of the
vehicle. This system can be used in both cases of personal as well as business purpose to improve safety and
security. This technology can also help to advance the system of transportation and can be used in many
organizations for security purpose and tracking purpose. This system allows organizations to track their vehicles
and to get the exact location of the vehicle.

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CHAPTER 3
PROJECT DESIGN

3.0 OVERVIEW OF THE DESIGN

Arduino is used for controlling whole the process with a GPS Receiver and GSM module. GPS
Receiver is used for detecting coordinates of the vehicle, GSM module is used for sending the coordinates to
user by SMS. And an optional 16x2 LCD is also used for displaying status messages or coordinates. We have
used GPS Module SKG13BL and GSM Module SIM800A.

Block Diagram of VTS

When we ready with our hardware after programming, we can install it in our vehicle and power it up.
Then we just need to send a SMS, “Track Vehicle”, to the system that is placed in our vehicle. We can also use
some prefix (#) or suffix (*) like #Track Vehicle*, to properly identify the starting and ending of the string, like
we did in these projects:

GSM Based Home Automation and Wireless Notice Board :

Sent message is received by GSM module which is connected to the system and sends message data to
Arduino. Arduino reads it and extract main message from the whole message. And then compare it with
predefined message in Arduino. If any match occurs then Arduino reads coordinates by extracting $GPGGA
String from GPS module data (GPS working explained above) and send it to user by using GSM module. This
message contains the coordinates of vehicle location.

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Circuit Explanation for Interfacing GSM and GPS with Arduino:

Here Tx pin of GPS Module is directly connected to digital pin number 10 of Arduino. By using Software
Serial Library here, we have allowed serial communication on pin 10 and 11, and made them Rx and Tx respectively
and left the Rx pin of GPS Module open. By default, Pin 0 and 1 of Arduino are used for serial communication but by
using Software Serial library, we can allow serial communication on other digital pins of the Arduino. 12 Volt supply
is used to power the GPS Module.

Fig 25: Interfacing GSM and GPS with Arduino

GSM Module:

Tx and Rx pins of are directly connected to pin Rx and Tx of Arduino. GSM module is also powered by
12v supply.
LCD Display:
An optional LCD’s data pins D4, D5, D6 and D7 are connected to pin number 5, 4, 3, and 2 of Arduino.
Command pin RS and EN of LCD are connected with pin number 2 and 3 of Arduino and RW pin is directly
connected with ground. A Potentiometer is also used for setting contrast or brightness of LCD.

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3.1EQUIPMENT ANALYSIS

 In this project the basic components used are Arduino UNO and GSM, GPS Modules. But in extension of
this we can also use components based on the requirement and the price that are willing to support by the
customer.
 Extension is that we can also use LCD (16*2) to display the virtual location of the vehicle.

Fig:26- Additional components

• Elements involved are Arduino uno, , GSM & GPS Modules.


• The program used to make this project is c language.
• The cost we estimated was around 4,000 but due to some changes our expenses went till 6,000.
• The problem already told and mentioned is that the dot at the end of the google maps link.
• Project can be extended at any means necessary. For example, many extensions can be made to this
project but those extensions will be coming up with a certain cost. So if the buyer or the consumer is
ready to take the burden of the cost and feels safety is more important than he can go with it.

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3.2 DESIGN THE MODULES

ARDUINO UNO:

The Arduino Uno is an open-source microcontroller board based on the Microchip ATmega328P
microcontroller and developed by Arduino.cc. The board is equipped with sets of digital and analog input
/output (I/O) pins that may be interfaced to various expansion boards (shields) and other circuits The board
has 14 digital I/O pins (six capable of PWM output), 6 analog I/O pins, and is programmable with the
Arduino IDE (Integrated Development Environment), via a type B USB cable. It can be powered by the USB
cable or by an external 9 -volt battery, though it accepts voltages between 7 and 20 volts. It is similar to the
Arduino Nano and Leonardo. The hardware reference design is distributed under a Creative Commons
Attribution Share-Alike 2.5 license and is available on the Arduino website.

Fig 27: Arduino UNO

Layout and production files for some versions of the hardware are also available. The word "uno"
means "one" in Italian and was chosen to mark the initial release of Arduino Software’The Uno board is the
first in a series of USB-based Arduino boards; it and version 1.0 of the Arduino IDE were the reference
versions of Arduino, which have now evolved to newer releases. The ATmega328 on the board comes pre-
programmed with a bootloader that allows uploading new code to it without the use of an external hardware
programmer

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Global Positioning System:

The Global Positioning System (GPS), originally Navstar GPS is a satellite-based radionavigation
system owned by the United States government and operated by the United States Space Force. It is one of
the global navigation satellite systems (GNSS) that provides geolocation and time information to a GPS
receiver anywhere on or near the Earth where there is an unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS
satellites. Obstacles such as mountains and buildings block the relatively weak GPS signals. The GPS does
not require the user to transmit any data, and it operates independently of any telephonic or internet
reception, though these technologies can enhance the usefulness of the GPS positioning information. The
GPS provides critical positioning capabilities to military, civil, and commercial users around the world.
The United States government created the system, maintains it, and makes it freely accessible to anyonewith
a GPS receiver.
GPS MODULE (SKG13BL):
The SKG13BL is a complete GPS module that features with super sensitivity, ultra-low power and
small form factor. The GPS signal is applied to the antenna input of module, the serial interface output NMEA
protocol data or customer protocol data with position, velocity and time information.

Fig 28: GPS Module

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GSM MODULE:

A GSM modem is a specialized type of modem which accepts a SIM card, and operates over a
subscription to a mobile operator, just like a mobile phone. From the mobile operator perspective, a GSM
modem looks just like a mobile phone.
When a GSM modem is connected to a computer, this allows the computer to use the GSM modem to
communicate over the mobile network. While these GSM modems are most frequently used to provide
mobile internet connectivity, many of them can also be used for sending and receiving SMS and MMS
messages.
GSM Module ( SIM800A):
SIM800 is a complete Quad-band GSM/GPRS solution in a SMT type which can be embedded in the
customer applications. SIM800 support Quad-band 850/900/1800/1900MHz, it can transmit Voice, SMS and
data information with low power consumption.

Fig 29: GSM Module

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3.3 MODULE FUNCTIONALITIES:

ARDUINO UNO:

Pin Category Pin Name Details


Power Vin, 3.3V, 5V, GND Vin: Input voltage to Arduino when using an external power
source.
5V: Regulated power supply used to power microcontroller
and other components on the board.
3.3V: 3.3V supply generated by on-board voltage regulator.
Maximum current draw is 50mA.
GND: ground pins.
Reset Reset Resets the microcontroller.
Analog Pins A0 – A5 Used to provide analog input in the range of 0-5V
Input/Output Digital Pins 0 - 13 Can be used as input or output pins.
Pins
Serial 0(Rx), 1(Tx) Used to receive and transmit TTL serial data.
External 2, 3 To trigger an interrupt.
Interrupts
PWM 3, 5, 6, 9, 11 Provides 8-bit PWM output.
SPI 10 (SS), 11 (MOSI), 12 Used for SPI communication.
(MISO) and 13 (SCK)
Inbuilt LED 13 To turn on the inbuilt LED.
TWI A4 (SDA), A5 (SCA) Used for TWI communication.
AREF AREF To provide reference voltage for input voltage.

Operating Voltage 5V
Recommended Input Voltage 7-12V
Input Voltage Limits 6-20V
Analog Input Pins 6 (A0 – A5)
Digital I/O Pins 14 (Out of which 6 provide PWM output)

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DC Current on I/O Pins 40 mA


DC Current on 3.3V Pin 50 mA
Flash Memory 32 KB (0.5 KB is used for Bootloader)
SRAM 2 KB
EEPROM 1 KB
Frequency (Clock Speed) 16 MHz
Table:2-pins of Arduino Uno

 Serial Pins 0 (Rx) and 1 (Tx): Rx and Tx pins are used to receive and transmit TTL serial data. They are
connected with the corresponding ATmega328P USB to TTL serial chip.
 External Interrupt Pins 2 and 3: These pins can be configured to trigger an interrupt on a low value, a
rising or falling edge, or a change in value.
 PWM Pins 3, 5, 6, 9 and 11: These pins provide an 8-bit PWM output by using analogWrite() function.
 SPI Pins 10 (SS), 11 (MOSI), 12 (MISO) and 13 (SCK): These pins are used for SPI communication.
 In-built LED Pin 13: This pin is connected with an built-in LED, when pin 13 is HIGH – LED is on and
when pin 13 is LOW, its off.

Along with 14 Digital pins, there are 6 analog input pins, each of which provide 10 bits of resolution, i.e. 1024
different values. They measure from 0 to 5 volts but this limit can be increased by using AREF pin with analog
Reference () function.

 Analog pin 4 (SDA) and pin 5 (SCA) also used for TWI communication using Wire library.

Arduino Uno has a couple of other pins as explained below:

 AREF: Used to provide reference voltage for analog inputs with analogReference() function.
 Reset Pin: Making this pin LOW, resets the microcontroller.

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GSM MODULE : SIM800A


• Bands: GSM 850MHz, EGSM 900MHz, DCS 800MHz, PCS 1900MH.
• GPRS class 2/10.
• Voltage Supply : 9VDC to 12VDC with atleast 2A Peak Current Capability.
• 5V interface for direct communication with MCU kit.
• Built-in SIM Card holder.
• Built-in Network Status LED.
• Inbuilt Powerful TCP/IP protocol stack for internet data transfer over GPRS.
• Low power.
• Operating temperature: -40C to +85C.
• External Finger type antenna.

GPS MODULE - SKG13BL


• Ultra high sensitivity: -165dBm.
• Extremely fast TTFF at low signal level.
• Built-in 12 multi-tone active interference canceller.
• Ultra low power consumption .
• ±10ns high accuracy time pulse (1PPS).
• Brand: Robocraze.
• Color: Blue And Black.
• Supply Voltage: 3.3V or 12V DC.
• Operating Temperature: -40C to 85C.

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CHAPTER 4

PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION
4.0 IMPLEMENTATION STAGES

In the development of the vehicle tracking system controlled by a microcontroller, hardware and software
design techniques are needed.

A. Arduino Microcontroller the Atmega328P based Arduino UNO

Microcontroller is used as the brain to control the vehicle tracking system. Arduino Shields are used for
the GPS and the GSM/GPRS modules. A software program to control them is written in the C programming
language, compiled and then saved into the microcontroller’s flash memory.

B. GPS module

The Global Positioning System in vehicle tracking systems is commonly used to provide users with
information such as the location coordinates, speed, time, and so on, anywhere on Earth. In this work, a GPS
module and a GPS receiver available from the Spark fun website, is adopted to implement the in-vehicle device.
The GPS module has the GPS receiver with antenna. There are two slide switches and one push button switch.

The GPS module is identical to the one offers detail about the GPS module. The switch for UART and
DLINE selection. When the DLINE is selected, Rx and Tx in the GPS module will be connected to
microcontroller digital pins 2 and 3, respectively. If the UART was selected, Rx and Tx in the GPS module will
be connected to microcontroller digital pins 0 and 1, respectively. In this work, Tx and Rx in a GSM/GPRS
module uses microcontroller digital pins 2 and 3. So, the GPS switch 1 must be set to the UART position,
otherwise if DLINE position is selected its digital pins will overlap that of the GSM/GPRS module. Even when
UART is selected, while trying to uploaded program code to the Arduino, users will see error message in the
microcontroller because the UART uses programming, but nothing should get damaged. For these reasons, the
GPS module should select the switch in the UART position after the source code is uploaded. The GPS receiver.
It is required for getting the location information. The GPS receiver module uses the 20 channel EM-406A SiRF
receive Once the microcontroller and the GPS module have everything assembled, the GPS module is almost
ready to get the vehicle’s location information. The Tiny GPS library was used to communicate with and access
data from the GPS module. The EM-406 works at 4800 bps, but if users are using another type of GPS, they
should identify the correct baud rate for their specific device.

C. GSM/GPRS module

The GSM/GPRS module is responsible of establishing connections between an in-vehicle device and a
remote server for transmitting the vehicle’s location information, using TCP/IP connection through the
GSM/GPRS network.

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4.1 SOFTWARE EXPLANATION


In this project, Proteus software was used for both the simulation and the PCB design while the Arduino
compiler were used to program and compile the microcontroller.
The Arduino IDE is a cross-platform application written in C language, and is derived from the IDE for
the processing programming language and the wiring project. It is designed to introduce programming to artists
and other beginners that have little knowledge of software development. It includes a code editor with features
such as syntax highlighting, brace matching, and automatic indentation, and is also capable of compiling and
uploading programs to the board with a single click. The Arduino IDE comes with a C/C++ library called
"Wiring", which makes many common input/output operations much easier.

4.2 RESULTS
The vehicle tracking system works mainly by receiving messages from a mobile phone. There is a
message command by which we can track the vehicle. And this command is to send an SMS; “TRACK” to the
registered SIM card number in the GSM modem. This command initiates the GPS modem and receives the
latitude and longitude position and this information will then be sent as SMS to the mobile device. Whenever
theft occurs or on demand request of the vehicle’s location, the device sends a message to the vehicle owner’s
mobile device as shown on the mobile phone screen in Fig. 30 as follows:
Vehicle tracking alert:
Your vehicle current location is:
Latitude: 17.47389
Longitude :78.48272

Fig:30 output screens

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CHAPTER 5
PROJECT TESTING

5.0 OVERVIEW OF TESTING METHODS


Fig. 31 shows the assembling of the different modules of the proposed vehicle tracking system and Fig 32 shows
the system when sending SMS. In testing, we fixed the completed vehicle tracking device in a bike as shown in
Fig.32 and allow the bike to be driven away to a different location. We then send an SMS with a registered
mobile phone to the GSM modem with a registered SIM card with a” TRACK VEHICLE” and an SMS was
received by the mobile phone. The SMS gave the latitude, longitude and time as shown in Fig. 30.

Fig-31: Image of the complete assembly of the different modules of the proposed vehicle tracking system.

Fig - 32: Image of the system when sending an SMS.

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5.1 OPERATION AND TESTING

OPERATION :

Whenever a vehicle is parked, it is kept at vehicle tracking security mode. Once the vehicle is stolen, the
position of the vehicle changes, the owner can send an SMS to the vehicle to know the location or position of the
vehicle. The SMS sent would pass through the GSM service provider and then reach the vehicle, which is
travelling, because the vehicle has a GSM device with a SIM card. This GSM modem will receive the SMS and
send to the microcontroller in the vehicle. The microcontroller will receive this SMS and compare the password
and the command. If the information matches the already programmed one, then it will perform the request
required by the owner. It will then send the required location; latitude, longitude and time to the registered
number of the owner and the results will be display on the screen of the owner’s mobile phone. The owner can
then send a message to stop the engine of the vehicle.

TESTING:

1. Connect the circuit to GPS and GSM modem.


2. Switch on the circuit and you will see LED glow.
3. Switch on the GPS module and wait for 10-15 minutes for initialisation.
4. Switch on the GSM modem.
5. Dial the mobile number in the GSM modem. After two rings, the ringing stops automatically. Wait for a few
seconds. You will get an SMS alert in your mobile.
6. Check your SMS inbox. You will see the latitude and longitude data in the form of SMS text.
7. Open a standard map and locate the point on the map. You can also enter latitude and longitude values in a
software.

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5.2 ADVANTAGES, APPLICATIONS AND DRAWBACKS


ADVANTAGES:

1. Flexible and reliable.


2. This application is easy to install and easy to operate .
3. More realiable than manual operation.
4. In this project losses are minimal.
5. This project can implement for security of supply.
6. Automatically controlled band easy to use.

APPLICATIONS:

1.Remote Data Monitor and Control.


2. AMR(Automatic meter reading).
3. Power station monitoring and control.
4. Remote POS(point big scale) terminals.
5. Traffic signals monitor and control.
6. Central heating system supervision.
7.Power distribution network supervision.

DRAWBACKS:

1. GPS location can be inaccurate sometimes.


2. Battery might drain out.
3. Employees might feel offended.
4. Monitoring travel data might consume time and labour.
5. Environmental conditions.

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5.3 SNAPSHOT OF VEHICLE TRACKING SYSTEM

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CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE ENHANCEMENT

CONCLUSION
We have successfully developed and implemented a vehicle tracking system that gives feedback
information of the location of stolen vehicle using GPS-GSM technology. It is user friendly, easily installable,
easily accessible and can be used for various other purposes. The system is not limited to find the location of the
target but also calculates the distance travelled between two stations. It can also be applied for better
management of fleet with a return of large profit, better scheduling or route planning to enable large job schedule.
If this project is properly implemented it will improve safety, reduce vehicle loss due to theft, increase
productivity, reduce diversion of routes by transport company’s drivers. We are still working on the possibility
of improving on the system to give SMS feedback to the vehicle owner when an accident occurs. This will help
to reduce the delay in evacuation of accident victims to hospital and reduce the chances of losing life.

FUTURE ENHANCEMENT
While doing this survey, it was found that vehicle tracking is a huge field. There are number of
techniques that can be used to track the vehicle. The technique should be cheaper and also efficient. Due to the
increasing ratio of vehicle in today’s world, the vehicle tracking system will have a great scope in future. A
various type of database can be created to record the route of the vehicle. The hardware can be replaced by
installing the device with sensors like fire sensors and proximity sensors. Proximity sensors will be exceedingly
supportive in case whenever vehicle will meet with an accident. It is possible to make the device wearable by
reducing the size of the hardware so that not only for finding the location of the vehicle but the device could also
be used to find the shortest path to reach the destination.

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PUBLICATION

Proposed Title :VEHICLE TRACKING SYSTEM


Conference Name: International conference on “Recent Developments in Power Engineering (ICRDPE-
21)”,organized by Department of Electrical And Electronics, ST.MARTIN’S ENGINEERING COLLEGE,
HYDERABAD.

DEPARTMENT OF EEE
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VEHICLE TRACKING SYSTEM

REFERENCES

[1] Cong Liu, Hui Liu, Lijin Han, Changle Xiang, Bin Xu, "A Layered Coordinated Trajectory Tracking for
High-Speed A-4WID-EV in Extreme Conditions", Vehicular Control and Intelligence (CVCI) 2020 4th CAA
International Conference on, pp. 590-595, 2020.
[2] Guoxing Bai, Yu Meng, Qing Gu, Kailun Li, Shuai Li,"Improvement of Vehicle Path Tracking by Relaxing
the Steering Angle Speed Limit", Automation Congress (CAC)2020 Chinese, pp. 6886-6889, 2020.
[3] Simon Cheung, "Implementation and Application of Big Data Platform for the Internet of Vehicles", Power
Electronics Systems and Applications (PESA) 2020 8th International Conference on, pp. 1-5, 2020.
[4] Luqi Tang, Fuwu Yan, Bin Zou, Kewei Wang, Chen Lv,"An Improved Kinematic Model Predictive Control
for High-Speed Path Tracking of Autonomous Vehicles", Access IEEE, vol. 8, pp. 51400-51413, 2020.
[5] Qiangqiang Yao, Ying Tian, Qun Wang, Shengyuan Wang, "Control Strategies on Path Tracking for
Autonomous Vehicle: State of the Art and Future Challenges", Access IEEE, vol. 8, pp. 161211-161222, 2020.
[6] Cong Liu, Hui Liu, Lijin Han, Changle Xiang, Bin Xu, "A Layered Coordinated Trajectory Tracking for
High- Speed -4WID-EV in Extreme Conditions", Vehicular Control and Intelligence (CVCI) 2020 4th CAA
International Conference on, pp. 590-595, 2020.
[7] Changhua Dai, Changfu Zong, Guoying Chen, "Path Tracking Control Based on Model Predictive Control
With Adaptive Preview Characteristics and Speed-Assisted Constraint", Access IEEE, vol. 8, pp. 184697-
184709, 2020.
[8] Kibeom Lee, Seungmin Jeon, Heegwon Kim, Dongsuk Kum, "Optimal Path Tracking Control of
Autonomous Vehicle: Adaptive Full-State Linear Quadratic Gaussian (LQG) Control", Access IEEE, vol. 7, pp.
109120-109133, 2019.
[9] B. Zhang, C. Zong, G. Chen and B. Zhang, "Electrical vehicle path tracking based model predictive control
with a laguerre function and exponential weight", IEEE Access, vol. 7, pp.17082-17097, Jan. 2019.
[10] C. Zhang, J. Hu, J. Qiu, W. Yang, H. Sun and Q. Chen, "A novel fuzzy observer-based steering control
approach for path tracking in autonomous vehicles", IEEE Trans. Fuzzy Syst., vol. 27, no. 2, pp. 278-290, Feb.
2019.
[11]Jingfa wei ,cui-hui chiu, feijiang huang ,junjun zhang and chenglin cai “ A cost- effective decentralized
vehicle remote p ositioning and tracking system using BeiDou Navigation Satellite Syst em and M obile ”,
EURASIP journal on wireless communications and networking, (2019).
[12] Hengyang Wang, Biao Liu, Xianyao Ping, Quan An, "Path Tracking Control for Autonomous Vehicles
Based on an Improved MPC", Access IEEE, vol. 7, pp. 161064-161073, 2019.
[13] Bian Meihui, Zhang Yang and Du Zhiqi, "Influence of Track Pretension on Ride Comfort of Tracked
Vehicle", Vehicle & Power Technology. Beijing, vol. 153, pp. 34-37, 2019.

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VEHICLE TRACKING SYSTEM

[14] Q. Yao and Y. Tian, "A model predictive controller with longitudinal speed compensation for autonomous
vehicle path tracking", Appl. Sci., vol. 9, pp. 4739, Nov. 2019.
[15] X. Zhang and X. Zhu, "Autonomous path tracking control of intelligent electric vehicles based on lane
detection and optimal preview method", Expert Syst. Appl., vol. 121, pp. 38-48, May 2019.

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VEHICLE TRACKING SYSTEM

BIBILOGRAPHY

[1] Open GTS-Open GPS Tracking System. Available at, http://www.opengts.org.


[2] Survey of Prediction Algorithms for Object Tracking in Wireless Sensor Networks. Available at,
https://www.researchgate.net.
[3] Amol Dhumal, Amol Naikoji, Yutika Patwa, Manali Shilimkar, Prof. M. K.Nighot, ”Vehicle Tracking
System using GPS and Android OS”, april 2015.
[4] Pradip V Mistary, R H Chile, ”Real Time Vehicle Tracking System Based on ARM7 GPS and GSM ”, IEEE
INDICON 2015.
[5] Pankaj Verma , J.S Bhatia, ”Design And Development Of GPS-GSM based Tracking System With Google
Map Based Monitoring”,IJCSEA june 2013.
[6] Fleischer, Nelson, Sowah, Bremang, ”Design and Development of GPS/GSM Based Vehicle Tracking and
Alert System for Commercial Inter-City Busses”, IEEE 2012.
[7] Abid khan, Ravi Mishra, GPS GSM Based Tracking System International Journal of Engineering Trends and
Technology-2012.
[8] Iman M. Almomani, Nour Y. Alkhalil, Enas M. Ahmad, Rania M. Jodeh, Ubiquitous GPS Vehicle Tracking
and Management System, IEEE Jordan Conference on Applied Electrical Engineering and Computing
Technologies (AEECT) 2011.
[9] Stephen Teang Soo Thong, Chua Tien Han and Tharek Abdul Rahman, ”Intelligent Fleet Management
System with Concurrent GPS and GSM Real-Time Positioning Technology”, IEEE 2007.
[10] M. Mesgarpoura, I. Dickinson: Archives of Transport System Telematics: Enhancing the value of
commercial vehicle telematics data through analytics and op View publication stats timization techniques.

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VEHICLE TRACKING SYSTEM

APPENDICES
#include <SoftwareSerial.h>
#include <TinyGPS.h>

SoftwareSerial gpsSerial(5,6);
TinyGPS gps;
char* lati = new char[20];
char* longi = new char[20];
float latitude,longitude;

char inchar;
int relay=13;
int c=1;

void setup()
{
Serial.begin(9600);
gpsSerial.begin(9600);
pinMode(relay, OUTPUT);
delay(3000);
Serial.println("AT+CMGF=1");
delay(200);
Serial.println("AT+CNMI=2,2,0,0,0");
delay(200);
}

void loop()
{
while(c==1)

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VEHICLE TRACKING SYSTEM

{
getlat();
if((latitude>0)&&(latitude<100))
{
systemon();
Serial.println("system on");
c=c+1;
}
}

while(c==2)
{
if(Serial.available()>0)
{
inchar=Serial.read();
if (inchar=='#')
{
delay(10);
inchar=Serial.read();

if (inchar=='c')
{
digitalWrite(relay, LOW);
}
else if (inchar=='o')
{
digitalWrite(relay, HIGH);
}
else if (inchar=='l')
{

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VEHICLE TRACKING SYSTEM

sendlocation();
}
c=3;
Serial.println("got msg");
Serial.println("AT+CMGD=1,4"); // delete all SMS
}
}
}
c=2;
}

void getlat()
{
while(gpsSerial.available())
{
if(gps.encode(gpsSerial.read()))
{
gps.f_get_position(&latitude,&longitude);
dtostrf(latitude,7,5,lati);
dtostrf(longitude,7,5,longi);
}
}
}

void sendlocation()
{
Serial.println("AT+CMGF=1");
delay(1000);

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VEHICLE TRACKING SYSTEM

Serial.println("AT+CMGS=\"+917981342555\"\r");
delay(1000);
Serial.println("YOUR");
delay(100);
Serial.print(" VEHICLE AT LOCATION= http://www.google.com/maps/place/");
delay(100);
Serial.print(lati);
delay(100);
Serial.print(",");
delay(100);
Serial.print(longi);
delay(100);
Serial.println((char)26);
delay(1000);
}

void systemon()
{
Serial.println("AT+CMGF=1"); //Sets the GSM Module in Text Mode
delay(1000); // Delay of 1000 milli seconds or 1 second
Serial.println("AT+CMGS=\"+917981342555\"\r"); // Replace x with mobile number
delay(1000);
Serial.println("System is ready");// The SMS text you want to send
delay(100);
Serial.println((char)26);// ASCII code of CTRL+Z
delay(1000);
}

DEPARTMENT OF EEE
53
A
PROJECT REPORT

On
ENERGY MANAGEMENT STRATEGY OF A PHOTOVOLTAIC
ELECTRIC VEHICLE CHARGING STATION
Submitted by

1) Mr. K R SAI RUSHAB (18K85A0209)


2) Mr. D SAI TEJA (17K81A0211)
3) Mr. G RAJASHEKAR (17K81A0218)

Inpartial fulfillment for the award of the

degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
Under The Guidance of
Mrs. G ESHA M.TECH., (Ph.D)
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

ST.MARTIN’S ENGINEERING COLLEGE


(An Autonomous Institute)
Dhulapally, Secunderabad – 500100
JUNE 2021
BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project entitled ENERGY MANAGEMENT STRATEGY OF A


PHOTOVOLTAIC ELECTRIC VEHICLE CHARGING STATION, is being submitted by 1.Mr. K R SAI
RUSHAB 18K85A0209, 2.Mr. D SAI TEJA 17K81A0211, 3.Mr. G RAJASHEKAR 17K81A0218 in
partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the degree of BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY IN
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING is recorded of bonafide work carried out by them.
The result embodied in this report have been verified and found satisfactory.

Head of the Department


Mrs. G ESHA Dr. N Ramachandra
Department of Electrical and electronics
engineering Department of Electrical and
electronics engineering

Internal Examiner External Examiner

Place:

Date:

i
DECLARATION

We, the student of Bachelor of Technology in Department of Electrical and


electronics’, session: 2017 – 2021, St. Martin’s Engineering College, Dhulapally,
Kompally, Secunderabad, hereby declare that work presented in this Project Work
entitled “energy management strategy of a photovoltaic electric vehicle charging
station” is the outcome of our own bonafide work and is correct to the best of our
knowledge and this work has been undertaken taking care of Engineering Ethics. This
result embodied in this project report has not been submitted in any university for
award of any degree.

1)Mr. K R SAI RUSHAB (18K85A0209)


2)Mr. D SAI TEJA (17K81A0211)
3) Mr. G RAJASHEKAR (17K81A0218)

ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The satisfaction and euphoria that accompanies the successful completion of any
task would be incomplete without the mention of the people who made it possible and
whose encouragements and guidance have crowded effects with success.
First and foremost, we would like to express my deep sense of gratitude and
indebtedness to our College Management for their kind support and permission to use
the facilities available in the Institute.
We especially would like to express my deep sense of gratitude and indebtedness to
Dr.P.Santosh Kumar Patra, our beloved Principal, St.Martin’s Engineering
College for his invaluable encouragement, suggestions and support from an early stage
of this research and providing me extraordinary experiences throughout the work. Above
all, his priceless and meticulous supervision at each and every phase of work inspired
me in innumerable ways.
We would like to express our gratitude to Dr. N Ramachandra, Head&Professor,
the Dept. of Electrical and Electronics Engineering for his advice, supervision, and the
vital contribution as and when required during this research.We are proud to record that
we had the opportunity to work with an exceptionally experienced Professor like
him.The time spent with him will remain in my memory for years to come.
We would like to thank our supervisor, Mrs. G. Esha, Assistant professor, Dept. of
EEE for her continuous support and valuable guidance for our research work.
We would like to express our gratitude to our dept. project coordinators Mr. K.
V. Govardhan Rao, Assistant Professor, Dept. of EEE and Mr. T. Penchalaiah, Assistant
Professor, Dept of EEE for their involvement with originality has triggered and
nourished my intellectual maturity that will help me for along time to come.
Finally, we are highly grateful and obliged to our college level Project Coordinators
Dr.Maalyadri, Professor in IT and Dr.R.Santhosh Kumar, Associate Professor in
CSE for their advice,supervision,and the vital contribution as and when required during
this research work and for their supportand co-operation that is difficult to express in
words.

1. K R SAI RUSHAB
2. D SAI TEJA
3. G RAJASHEKAR

iii
ABSRACT

The adoption of the photovoltaic electric vehicle charging stationshas been on the rise. In this
paper, a grid connected electric vehicle charging stationpowered a by photovoltaic solar system
and a pack of batteries as storage system, is evaluated and analyzed. The most important
parameter for supervising the system is the direct current bus voltage. The grid or the energy
storage system can supply the electric vehicle charging station to maintain the bus voltage at its
level. This supervision is tested by simulating the charging system under different irradiance
conditions taking into account the cost of the energy transmission and the state of charge of the
battery. The results validate the performance of the proposed energy management and the proper
operation of electric vehicle charging station .

iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER NO TITLE PAGE NO

CERTIFICATE i
DECLARATION ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iii
ABSTRACT iv
TABLE OF CONTENT v-vi
LISTOFTABLE vii
LISTOFFIGURES viii-ix
LIST OF GRAPHS x
1. INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 BASIC INTRODUCTION 3
1.1.1 PHOTOVOLTAIC EFFECT 3
1.1.2 PHOTOVOLTAIC MODULE 4
1.1.3 PHOTOVOLTAIC ARRAY 4
1.1.4 WORKING OF PV CELL 5
1.1.5 MODELLING OF PV PANEL 6
1.2 SOLAR CELLS 6
1.3 PHOTOVOLTAIC INVERTER 8
1.4 MPPT 9
1.4.1 VOLTAGE CONTROL MPPT 11
1.4.2 CURRENT CONTROL MPPT 12
2. CONVERTERS 13
2.1 DC-DC CONVERTER BASICS 13
2.2 BUCK CONVERTER STEPDOWN CONVERTER 13
2.3 BOOST CONVERTER STEPUP CONVERTER 14
2.4 BUCK-BOOST CONVERTER 15
2.5 BUCK CONVERTER 15
2.6 BOOST CONVERTER 17
2.6.1 BLOCK DIAGAM OF BOOST CONVERTER 18
3. MODELLING OF CASE STUDY 20
3.1 CIRCUIT TOPOLOGY 20
3.2 ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM 23

v
4. PI CONTROLLER 25
4.1 DISCRETE PI CONTROLLER 25
4.1.1 OVERVIEW OF PI CONTROLLER 25
4.2 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES 27
4.2.1 INTEGRAL ACTION AND PI CONTROL 27
4.2.2 THE PI ALGORITHM 27
5. PULSEWIDTH MODULATION 29
5.1 PWM INTRODUCTION 29
5.1.1 PULSEWIDTH MODULATOR 30
5.1.2 DITHER 33
5.1.3 PWM FREQUENCY IS IMPORTANT 34
5.1.4 MOTOR SPEED CONTROL 34
5.1.5 PWM CNTROLLER FUTURE 35
5.1.6 ADVANTAGES OF THIS TECHNOLOGY 37
6. ENERGY STORAGE TECHNOLOGY 38
6.1 STORAGE TYPES 38
6.2 COMPONENTS OF BESS 40
6.2.1 ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEM COMPONENTS 40
6.2.2 GRID CONNECTION FOR UTILITY 41

7. MATLAB SOFTWARE 42
7.1 INTRODUCTION TO MATLAB 42
7.2 INTRODUCTION SIMULINK 43
7.3. CONCEPT OF SIGNAL AND LOGIC FLOW 44
7.4 SOURCES AND SINKS 45
7.5 CONTINUOS AND DISCRETE SYSTEMS 46
7.6 NON LINEAR OPERATORS 47
7.6.1 MATHEMATICAL OPERATIONS 47
7.6.2 SIGNALS AND DATA TRANSFER 48
7.6.3 MAKING SUBSYSTEM 48
7.6.4 SETTING SIMULATION PARAMETERS 49
8. MATLAB AND SIMULATION RESULTS 50
8.1 SIMULATION CIRCUITS 50
8.2 SIMULATION RESULTS 51
9. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE 53
10. REFERENCES 54

vi
LIST OF TABLES

TABLENO TITLE PAGENO.

1. Main parameters of EVCS 24


2. Parameters of Li-Ion battery 24
3. Discharge time and energy to power and the ratio of different battery technologies 40

vii
LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE.NO TITLE PAGE NO.

1.1 PV Module 3

1.2 Basic structure of PV cell 3

1.3 Photovoltaic System 5

1.4 Working of PV cell 5

2.1 Buck converter 13

2.2 Boost converter circuit 14

2.3 Schematic for buck boost converter 15

2.4 Buck converter 16

2.5 Buck on-state 16

2.6 Buck off-state 16

2.7 Boost converter 17

2.8 Basic blocks of boost converter 18

2.9 Boost converter schematic 19

2.10 The two configuration of boost converter, depending on state of switch 19

3.1 Configuration of EVCS 20

3.2 Standard battery model 22

3.3 Schematic diagram of buck boost converter 23

4.1 Block diagram of PI speed controller 26

6.1 Classification of storage technologies , By energy type 38

6.2 Different technologies for different purposes 39

6.3 Schematic of a battery energy storage system 40

viii
6.4 Grid connections 41

7.1 Simulink library browser 44

7.2 Connecting blocks 45

7.3 Sources and sinks 46

7.4 Continues and discrete systems 46

7.5 Simulink blocks 47

7.6 Simulink math blocks 48

7.7 Signals and systems 48

8.1 Simulation circuit 50

8.2 Buck boost converter 50

8.3 Battery controller 51

8.4 Load DC-DC controller 51

ix
LIST OF GRAPHS

FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGENO.

1.1 I-V curve for solar cells 9

2.1 V-I changes 13

2.2 V-I waveforms 14

2.3 Waveforms for buck boost converter 16

5.1 Average voltage exactly half of 12V 29

5.2 Average voltage will be ¾ of 12V 29

5.3 Average output voltage at 12V 30

5.4 PWM waveform 30

5.5 Duty cycle variation 31

5.6 Current steady state values 32

5.7 The current will be able to rise higher before it becomes constant 33

8.1 Power utilization 51

8.2 DC voltage variation 52

8.3 Battery and load requirement 52

x
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BASIC INTRODUCTION
Plug–in electric vehicles (PEVs) which comprise all electric vehicles and plug-in
hybrid electric vehicles provide the chance to modify the transportation energy
demands from petroleum to electricity. Although, the impact of charging the electric
vehicles (EVs) via the electrical grid, especially during the peak demand period
cannot be neglected, it cause many problems such as harmonics, voltage outages and
fluctuations . The use of charging stations integrated with distributed generation based
on renewable energy sources (RES), to boost the power generation, can be a viable
solution to mitigate this problem. In addition, the combination of these distributed
energy sources into the charging infrastructure has an important role to decrease the
environmental effects and to enhance the efficiency of the charging system. Due to
the stochastic nature of RES, there is a persistent need to add an energy storage
system (ESS) which has a crucial role in the incorporation of electric vehicle charging
station (EVCS). The photovoltaic (PV) power is known as the most competitive
source of energy to support the grid utility thanks to the persistent decreasing
tendency on the prices of the PV panels. Furthermore, the PV system, in terms of fuel
and labor is approximately maintenance free.The use of the PV power to supply the
EVs is improved by the advancement in the power conversion technologies. One of
the important challenges for the EVCS, particularly the public ones, is making the
charging duration as short as possible. There are many standards organizations in the
world that work to define the electrical characteristics of EVCS i.e. the Society of
Automotive Engineering (SAE), CHAdeMO association and International Electro
technical Commission (IEC). The latter develops four modes of charging basing on
the type of the charging rate, the level and the type of voltage, the mode of
communication between the EVs and the CS and the presence of the protections and
its location. These fast charging station (FCS) present two topologies normalized by
the IEC 61851-1, the first is tied to a common AC bus suppling all the AC-DC
converters ,on the other hand, the second topology is based on a common DC bus
which feed the various DC-DC chargers. Experimental studies showed that the second

1
architecture is the best option due to the reduced number of the conversion stages, the
nature of loads and fluent integration of energy storage systems or distributed
generation. Apart from that, the synchronous charge of a fleet of EVs can cause an
increase in the peak power demand to the utility grid. Dealing with a fleet of EVs at
different poles of charging needs a study on appropriate management strategy, so two
ways have been suggested, i.e. centralized or decentralized management strategy. The
latter strategy, applied to the EVCS, is based on local controllers, and each source of
energy works independently from the others, in addition to that the energy flow
management between the sources of energy is accomplished without the necessity of
communication interface between the energy sources or between the energy
management system (EMS) and sources of energy. It facilitate the extension of the
charging system and the medium voltage direct current (MVDC) network by adding
new element such as others sources of energy (ESS, RES) or new EVs, since the EMS
does not need to be changed. Also, comparing these two strategies, it was concluded
that the adoption of the decentralized strategy represents the most feasible option
thanks to the benefit of not needing a communication interface. In our study, a PV-
grid charging station is studied to maximize the use of the photovoltaic power
whenever it possible and to use the grid or/and the ESS as a buffer system when the
solar irradiance is unavailable or there is an excess of power, This strategy allows the
buffer‘s connection taking into account the energy transmission cost (ETC) and the
state of charge of the battery (SOC). The proposed approach promotes the smart grid
concept by combining the RES with the utility grid. In order to get more revenues,
Vehicle to Grid (V2G) technology can be also integrated where EVs owners can
realize a balance of demand between charging and discharging modes. However, this
approach would produce a short lifetime of the EV‘s battery and other unsolved
problems. The rest of the paper is organized as follows. Section 2 describes the
configuration of the EVCS. The models used for the simulation are summarized in
section 3. The fourth section presents the decentralized EMS. Section 5 discusses the
results of the simulation. Finally, section 6 reports the conclusions.

2
1.1.1 Photovoltaic effect

The photoelectric effect was first noted by French physicist Edmund Becquerel in
1839. He proposed that certain materials have property of producing small amounts of
electric current when exposed to sunlight. In 1905, Albert Einstein explained the
nature of light and the photoelectric effect which has become the basic principle for
photovoltaic technology. In 1954 the first photovoltaic module was built by Bell
Laboratories.

A photovoltaic system makes use of one or more solar panels to convert solar
energy into electricity. It consists of various components which include the
photovoltaic modules, mechanical and electrical connections and mountings and
means of modifying the electrical output.

Fig.1.1 PV Module

Fig 1.2 Basic structure of PV cell

The basic ingredients of PV cells are semiconductor materials, such as silicon. For
solar cells, a thin semiconductor wafer creates an electric field, on one side
positive and negative on the other. When light energy hits the solar cell, electrons are
knocked loose from the atoms in the semiconductor material. When electrical
conductors are connected to the positive and negative sides an electrical circuit is

3
formed and electrons are captured in the form of an electric current that is,
electricity. This electricity is used to power a load. A PV cell can either be circular or
square in construction.

1.1.2 Photovoltaic module

Because of the low voltage generation in a PV cell (around 0.5V), several PV


cells are connected in series (for high voltage) and in parallel (for high current) to
form a PV module for desired output. In case of partial or total shading and at night
there may be requirement of separate diodes to avoid reverse currents The p-n
junctions of mono-crystalline silicon cells may have adequate reverse current
characteristics and these are not necessary. There is wastage of power because of
reverse currents which directs to over-heating of shaded cells. At higher temperatures
solar cells provide less efficiency and installers aim to offer good ventilation behind
solar panel. Usually there are of 36 or 72 cells in general PV modules. The modules
consist of transparent front side, encapsulated PV cell and backside. The front side is
usually made up of low-iron and tempered glass material. The efficiency of a PV
module is less-then a PV cell. This is because of some radiation is reflected by the
glass cover and frame shadowing etc.

1.1.3 Photovoltaic array

A photo voltaic array(PV system)is an inter connection of modules which is


made up of many PVcells in series or parallel.The power produced by single module
is not enough to meet the requirements of commercial applications, so modules are
connected to form array to supply the load.In an array the connection of the modules
is same as that of cells in a module.The modules in a PV array are usually first
connected in series to obtain the desired voltages the individual modules are then
connected in parallel to allow the system to produce more current. In urban uses,
generally the arrays are mounted on a roof top. PV array output can directly feed to a
DC motor in agricultural applications.

4
Fig 1.3 Photovoltaic system
1.1.4 Working of PV cell

The basic principle behind the operation of a PV cell is photo electric effect. In
this effect electron gets ejected from the conduction band as are sult of the absorption
of sunlight of a certain wave length by the matter (metallic or non-metallic solids,
liquids or gases). So in a photovoltaic cell, when sunlight hits its surface, some
portion of the solar energy is absorbed in the semi conductor material.

Fig 1.4.Working of PV cell

The electron from valence band jumps to the conduction band when absorbed
energy is greater than the band gap energy of the semiconductor. By these hole-
electrons pairs are created in the illuminated region of the semiconductor. The
electrons created in the conduction band are now free to move. These free electrons
are enforced to move in a particular direction by the action of electric field present in
5
the PV cells. These electrons flowing comprise current and can be drawn for external
use by connecting a metal plate on top and bottom of PV cell. This current and the
voltage produces required power.

1.1.5 Modelling of PV panel

The photovoltaic system can generate direct current electricity without


environmental impact when is exposed to sunlight. The basic building block of PV
arrays is the solar cell, which is basically a p-n junction that directly convert slight
energy into electricity.The output characteristic of PV module depends on the cell
temperature, solar irradiation, and output voltage of the module. The figure shows the
equivalent circuit of a PV array with a load

1.2 SOLAR CELLS

Photovoltaic are best known as a method for generating electric power by


using solar cells to convert energy from the sun into a flow of electrons. The
photovoltaic effect refers to photons of light exciting electrons into a higher state of
energy, allowing them to act as charge carriers for an electric current. The
photovoltaic effect was first observed by Alexandre-Edmond Becquerel in 1839. The
term photovoltaic denotes the unbiased operating mode of a photodiode in which
current through the device is entirely due to the transuded light energy. Virtually all
photovoltaic devices are some type of photodiode.

Solar cells produce direct current electricity from sun light which can be used
to power equipment or to recharge a battery. The first practical application of
photovoltaic’s was to power orbiting satellites and other spacecraft, but today the
majority of photovoltaic modules are used for grid connected power generation. In
this case an inverter is required to convert the DC to AC. There is a smaller market for
off-grid power for remote dwellings, boats, recreational vehicles, electric cars,
roadside emergency telephones, remote sensing, and cathodic protection of pipelines.

Photovoltaic power generation employs solar panels composed of a number of


solar cells containing a photovoltaic material. Materials presently used for
photovoltaic’s include mono crystalline silicon, polycrystalline silicon, amorphous

6
silicon, cadmium telluride, and copper indium gallium selenide/sulfide Copper solar
cables connect modules (module cable), arrays (array cable), and sub-fields. Because
of the growing demand for renewable energy sources, the manufacturing of solar cells
and photovoltaic arrays has advanced considerably in recent years.

Advantages and disadvantages

The 122 PW of sunlight reaching the Earth's surface is plentiful—almost


10,000 times more than the 13 TW equivalent of average power consumed in 2005 by
humans. This abundance leads to the suggestion that it will not be long before solar
energy will become the world's primary energy source. Additionally, solar electric
generation has the highest power density (global mean of 170 W/m2) among
renewable energies.

Solar power is pollution-free during use. Production end-wastes and emissions


are manageable using existing pollution controls. End-of-use recycling technologies
are under development and policies are being produced that encourage recycling from
producers.

PV installations can operate for 100 years or even more with little
maintenance or intervention after their initial set-up, so after the initial capital cost of
building any solar power plant, operating costs are extremely low compared to
existing power technologies.

Grid-connected solar electricity can be used locally thus reducing


transmission/distribution losses (transmission losses in the US were approximately
7.2% in 1995). Compared to fossil and nuclear energy sources, very little research
money has been invested in the development of solar cells, so there is considerable
room for improvement. Nevertheless, experimental high efficiency solar cells already
have efficiencies of over 40% in case of concentrating photovoltaic cells and
efficiencies are rapidly rising while mass-production costs are rapidly falling.

In some states of the United States, much of the investment in a home-


mounted system may be lost if the home-owner moves and the buyer puts less value
on the system than the seller. The city of Berkeley developed an innovative financing
method to remove this limitation, by adding a tax assessment that is transferred with
the home to pay for the solar panels. Now known as PACE, Property Assessed Clean
7
Energy, 28 U.S. states have duplicated this solution. There is evidence, at least in
California, that the presence of a home-mounted solar system can actually increase
the value of a home. According to a paper published in April 2011 by the Ernest
Orland Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory titled An Analysis of the Effects of
Residential Photovoltaic Energy Systems on Home Sales Prices in California.

The research finds strong evidence that homes with PV systems in California
have sold for a premium over comparable homes without PV systems. More
specifically, estimates for average PV premiums range from approximately $3.9 to
$6.4 per installed watt (DC) among a large number of different model specifications,
with most models coalescing near $5.5/watt. That value corresponds to a premium of
approximately $17,000 for a relatively new 3,100 watt PV system (the average size of
PV systems in the study).

1.3 PHOTOVOLTAIC INVERTER


The inverter is the heart of the PV system and is the focus of all utility-
interconnection codes and standards. A Solar inverter or PV inverter is a type
of electrical inverter that is made to change the direct current (DC) electricity from
a photovoltaic array into alternating current (AC) for use with home appliances and
possibly a utility grid. Since the PV array is a dc source, an inverter is required to
convert the dc power to normal ac power that is used in our homes and offices.

To save energy they run only when the sun is up and should be located in cool
locations away from direct sunlight. The PCU is a general term for all the equipment
involved including the inverter and the interface with the PV (and battery system if
used) and the utility grid. It is very important to point out that inverters are by design
much safer than rotating generators. Of particular concern to utility engineers is how
much current a generator can deliver during a fault on their system. Inverters
generally produce less than 20% of the fault current as a synchronous generator of the
same nameplate capacity. This is a very significant difference.

8
INVERTER CLASSIFICATION

Solar inverters may be classified into three broad types :


▪ Stand-alone inverters, used in isolated systems where the inverter draws its
DC energy from batteries charged by photovoltaic arrays and/or other sources,
such as wind turbines, hydro turbines, or engine generators. Many stand-alone
inverters also incorporate integral battery chargers to replenish the battery
from an AC source, when available. Normally these do not interface in any
way with the utility grid, and as such, are not required to have anti-islanding
protection.
▪ Grid tie inverters, which match phase with a utility-supplied sine wave. Grid-
tie inverters are designed to shut down automatically upon loss of utility
supply, for safety reasons. They do not provide backup power during utility
outages.
▪ Battery backup inverters. These are special inverters which are designed to
draw energy from a battery, manage the battery charge via an onboard charger,
and export excess energy to the utility grid. These inverters are capable of
supplying AC energy to selected loads during a utility outage, and are required
to have anti-islanding protection.

1.4 MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING (MPPT)

Graph no 1.1: I-V curve for a solar cell, showing the maximum power point P max.

9
Maximum power point tracking is a technique that solar inverters use to get
the most possible power from the PV array. Any given PV module or string of
modules will have a maximum power point: essentially, this defines current that the
inverter should draw from the PV in order to get the most possible power (power is
equal to voltage times current).

A maximum power point tracker (or MPPT) is a high efficiency DC to DC


converter that presents an optimal electrical load to a solar panel or array and
produces a voltage suitable for the load.

PV cells have a single operating point where the values of the current (I)
and Voltage (V) of the cell result in a maximum power output. These values
correspond to a particular load resistance, which is equal to V/I as specified by Ohm's
Law. A PV cell has an exponential relationship between current and voltage, and the
maximum power point (MPP) occurs at the knee of the curve, where the resistance is
equal to the negative of the differential resistance (V/I = -dV/dI). Maximum power
point trackers utilize some type of control circuit or logic to search for this point and
thus to allow the converter circuit to extract the maximum power available from a
cell.

Traditional solar inverters perform MPPT for an entire array as a whole. In


such systems the same current, dictated by the inverter, flows though all panels in the
string. But because different panels have different IV curves, i.e. different MPPs (due
to manufacturing tolerance, partial shading, etc.) this architecture means some panels
will be performing below their MPP, resulting in the loss of energy.

Some companies (see power optimizer) are now placing peak power point
converters into individual panels, allowing each to operate at peak efficiency despite
uneven shading, soiling or electrical mismatch.

At night, an off-grid PV power system uses batteries to supply its loads.


Although the battery pack voltage when fully charged may be close to the PV array's
peak power point, this is unlikely to be true at sunrise when the battery is partially
discharged. Charging may begin at a voltage considerably below the array peak power
point, and a MPPT can resolve this mismatch.

10
When the batteries in an off-grid system are full and PV production exceeds
local loads, a MPPT can no longer operate the array at its peak power point as the
excess power has nowhere to go. The MPPT must then shift the array operating point
away from the peak power point until production exactly matches demand. (An
alternative approach commonly used in spacecraft is to divert surplus PV power into a
resistive load, allowing the array to operate continuously at its peak power point.

In a grid-tied photovoltaic system, the grid is essentially a battery with near


infinite capacity. The grid can always absorb surplus PV power, and it can cover
shortfalls in PV production (e.g., at night). Batteries are thus needed only for
protection from grid outages. The MPPT in a grid tied PV system will always operate
the array at its peak power point unless the grid fails when the batteries are full and
there are insufficient local loads. It would then have to back the array away from its
peak power point as in the off-grid case (which it has temporarily become).Using a
series of filters and multipliers and then used to calculate the array
conductance. Then the algorithm decides the direction of movement of MPPT
operating point. There is one disadvantage in this algorithm that the parasitic
capacitance in each module is very small, and can perform well in large PV arrays
where several PV modules are connected in parallel.

1.4.1 Voltage control maximum power point tracker

The maximum power point (MPP) of a PV module is assumed to lie about


0.75 times the open circuit voltage of the module. Hence a reference voltage can be
generated by calculating the open circuit voltage and then the feed forward
voltage control scheme can be implemented to bring the solar PV module voltage
to the point of maximum power. The difficulty associated with this technique is that
there is variation of open circuit voltage with the

Temperature As there is increase in temperature because of the change in open


circuit voltage of the module, module’s open circuit is needed to be calculated
frequently.

11
1.4.2 Current control maximum power point tracker

The module’s peak power lies at the point which is about 0.9 times the short circuit
current of the module. The module has to be short-circuited to measure this point.
After that module current is adjusted to the value by using the current mode control
which is approximately 0.9 times the short circuit current. In this case a high power
resistor is required which can sustain the short-circuit current. This is the problem
with this algorithm. The module has to be short circuited to measure the short circuit
current as it goes on varying with the changes in irradiation level.

12
CHAPTER-2

CONVERTERS
2.1 DC-DC CONVERTER BASICS

A DC-to-DC converter is a device that accepts a DC input voltage and produces a DC


output voltage. Typically the output produced is at a different voltage level than the
input. In addition, DC-to-DC converters are used to provide noise isolation, power
bus regulation, etc.

2.2 BUCK CONVERTER STEP-DOWN CONVERTER

In this circuit the transistor turning ON will put voltage Vin on one end of the
inductor. This voltage will tend to cause the inductor current to rise. When the
transistor is OFF, the current will continue flowing through the inductor but now
flowing through the diode.

We initially assume that the current through the inductor does not reach zero, thus the
voltage at Vx will now be only the voltage across the conducting diode during the full
OFF time. The average voltage at Vx will depend on the average ON time of the
transistor provided the inductor current is continuous.

Fig 2.1 Buck Converter

Graph no. 2.1 : Voltage and current changes

13
2.3 BOOST CONVERTER STEP-UP CONVERTER

The schematic shows the basic boost converter. This circuit is used when a higher
output voltage than input is required.

Fig 2.2 Boost Converter Circuit

While the transistor is ON Vx =Vin, and the OFF state the inductor current flows
through the diode giving Vx =Vo. For this analysis it is assumed that the inductor
current always remains flowing (continuous conduction). The voltage across the
inductor is shown in Fig. 7 and the average must be zero for the average current to
remain in steady state

Graph no. 2.2 : Voltage and current waveforms (Boost Converter)

Since the duty ratio "D" is between 0 and 1 the output voltage must always be higher
than the input voltage in magnitude. The negative sign indicates a reversal of sense of
the output voltage.

14
2.4 BUCK-BOOST CONVERTER

Fig 2.3 schematic for buck-boost converter

With continuous conduction for the Buck-Boost converter Vx =Vin when the transistor
is ON and Vx =Vo when the transistor is OFF. For zero net current change over a
period the average voltage across the inductor is zero

Graph no. 2.3 : Waveforms for buck-boost converter

2.5 BUCK CONVERTER

The buck, boost and buck-boost converters all transferred energy between input and
output using the inductor, analysis is based of voltage balance across the inductor.
The BUCK converter uses capacitive energy transfer and analysis is based on current
balance of the capacitor. The circuit in Fig. below(BUCK converter) is derived from
DUALITY principle on the buck-boost converter.

15
Fig 2.4 BUCK Converter

If we assume that the current through the inductors is essentially ripple free we can
examine the charge balance for the capacitor C1. For the transistor ON the circuit
becomes

Fig 2.5 BUCK "ON-STATE"

and the current in C1 is IL1. When the transistor is OFF, the diode conducts and the
current in C1 becomes IL2.

Fig 2.6 BUCK "OFF-STATE"

Since the steady state assumes no net capacitor voltage rise ,the net current is zero.

16
2.6 BOOST CONVERTER:

A boost converter (step-up converter) is a power converter with an output DC voltage


greater than its input DC voltage. It is a class of switching-mode power supply
(SMPS) containing at least two semiconductor switches (a diode and a transistor) and
at least one energy storage element. Filters made of capacitors (sometimes in
combination with inductors) are normally added to the output of the converter to
reduce output voltage ripple.

Figure 2.7 Boost converter

Power can also come from DC sources such as batteries, solar panels, rectifiers and
DC generators. A process that changes one DC voltage to a different DC voltage is
called DC to DC conversion. A boost converter is a DC to DC converter with an
output voltage greater than the source voltage. A boost converter is sometimes called
a step-up converter since it “steps up” the source voltage. Since power
(P = VI or P = UI in Europe) must be conserved, the output current is lower than the
source current.

A boost converter may also be referred to as a 'Joule thief'. This term is usually used
only with very low power battery applications, and is aimed at the ability of a boost
converter to 'steal' the remaining energy in a battery. This energy would otherwise be
wasted since a normal load wouldn't be able to handle the battery's low voltage.*

▪ This energy would otherwise remain untapped because in most low-frequency


applications, currents will not flow through a load without a significant
difference of potential between the two poles of the source (voltage.)

17
2.6.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM

The basic building blocks of a boost converter circuit are shown in Fig.

Magnetic
Field Storage
Element

Voltage Switch Switching


Control Output
Source Element
Rectifier and
Filter

Fig.2.8 Block diagram

The voltage source provides the input DC voltage to the switch control, and to the
magnetic field storage element. The switch control directs the action of the switching
element, while the output rectifier and filter deliver an acceptable DC voltage to the
output.

Operating principle:

The key principle that drives the boost converter is the tendency of an inductor to
resist changes in current. When being charged it acts as a load and absorbs energy
(somewhat like a resistor), when being discharged, it acts as an energy source
(somewhat like a battery). The voltage it produces during the discharge phase is
related to the rate of change of current, and not to the original charging voltage, thus
allowing different input and output voltages.

18
Fig 2.9: Boost converter schematic

Fig.2.10 The two configurations of a boost converter, depending on the state of the
switch.

▪ In the On-state, the switch S (see figure) is closed, resulting in an increase in


the inductor current;

▪ In the Off-state, the switch is open and the only path offered to inductor
current is through the flyback diode D, the capacitor C and the load R. This
result in transferring the energy accumulated during the On-state into the
capacitor.

The input current is the same as the inductor current as can be seen in figure. So it is
not discontinuous as in the buck converter and the requirements on the input filter are
relaxed compared to a buck converter

19
CHAPTER-3
MODELLING OF CASE STUDY

3.1 CIRCUIT TOPOLOGY

DESCRIPTION AND MODELLING OF THE EVCS

Figure 3.1: . Configuration of EVCS

Description of the EVCS :

The configuration of the FCS is depicted in fig 3.1. It is composed of three 50 kW fast
charging units (FCU), a PV system, a Li-ion ESS, and the grid connection. All of the
elements are tied to 1500 V MVDC common bus via their corresponding converter,
which ensures the charge of a group of EVs with a high power supply and adopts their
outputs voltages to the DC link, also it control the power balance between them and
the DC bus. Furthermore, the grid connection consists of a bi-directional DC/AC
converter and a transformer. According to the IEC 61851-1, all the FCU are defined
as DC level 2(voltage inferior to 500V, current inferior to 200 A) and it adopts the
fourth mode (fast charging with an external charger in DC), in addition to that, the
rated capacity of the EV’s battery is around 23 kWh.

20
B. PV system

The model of the PV system used in this project is a singlediode model, it consists of
just one diode, one controllable source of current and a couple of resistances, the first
is in parallel (Rsh) and the second is in series (Rs). The following expression is used
to calculate the PV system output current (Ipv):

are the solar induced current, the solar induced current at 300° K, and the diode
saturation current, respectively and Vg is the voltage applied to the terminals of the
diode. K0 and K1 are both constants whose values depend on the PV system, K is the
Boltzmann constant, N represents the diode quality factor, q is known as the electron
elementary charge, and finally Tpv is the operating temperature.

C. EV and ESS batteries Nowadays, the most competitive type of battery is Lithium
battery due to its highest energy efficiency level, its density of power and its
lightweight also its compactness . In addition to that, it allows the fast charging ability
and provides a wide range of operating temperature, also it is characterized by its long
life cycle, low self-discharge and it does not have a memory effect. The model of Li-
ion battery consists of a variable voltage source and a resistance in Rint as presented
in Fig.2, and the expression of the output voltage is the following:

Where E0 is the voltage of no load battery (V), K represents the polarization voltages
(V), Q is the capacity of battery (Ah), A is the amplitude of the exponential zone (V),
21
B is the exponential zone time constant inverse (Ah-1), Vbat is voltage of battery (V),
Ibat is the current of battery (A), and ∫ i dt is the charge supplied and drawn by the
battery (Ah). The SOC is the most important parameters of the battery which must be
controlled to avoid an extra-charge or a deep battery discharging. Its expression is
presented in the following equation:

Figure 3.2: Standard battery model.

In this project, through buck-boost converter the dc link side is connected to the
batteries, the principal objective of the control of this converter is to maintain constant
the dc bus voltage as its reference value in addition to discharge/charge current
from/to the batteries according to the desired load power.

22
Control scheme and schematic diagram.

Figure 3.3 : schematic diagram of the converter.

The schematic diagram of the converter is represented in above figure and its control
scheme is depicted in Fig.4, which is made via the keys S1 and S2. For the mode of
charging, the converter establishes the buck mode (S1=0, S2=1), and for charging
process it establishes the boost mode (S1=1, S2=0).

3.2 ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

In this study, the chosen model of the charging infrastructure based on the grid-
connected photovoltaic charging topology consists of several sources of energy i.e.
PV system, ESS and the grid, where the control was established by a PI controllers.
This structure was used to test the comportment of the decentralized strategy. This
type of control is characterized by the independent work of each source of energy, so
it provide the management of the energy flow between the sources of energy without
the requirement for communication structure among the sources of energy , or
between the latter and the EMS. Thus, the extension of the MVDC network is simpler
and smoother due to the unnecessary of a new system of communication also the
EMS does not require any modification. Moreover, the DC bus voltage is the only
variable in common between the different sources of energy (all the energy sources
are tied to the DC bus), which was chosen as the key parameter for supervising the
system.
23
Thus, the most important element of the studied strategy is that the change in the state
of charge of the ESS (ESS SOC) allows the transition among the modes of operation.
The supervising strategy was developed to maximize the usage of PV power for EV
charging and minimize the grid dependency, in which the utility connection is
conditioned by the cost of energy transmission (ETC). This strategy is depicted in the
following diagram fig.5. When an EV is plugged into the charger, the PV system is
used to supply the EVs when it is possible. If more power is needed, the deficit of
power is generated by the battery or by the utility grid during off-peak hours (when
the ETC is low). If no electric vehicle is pluggedin, the PV energy is stored in the
ESS; finally if the ESS SOC reaches its highest level, the excess of PV power is given
to the grid.

24
CHAPTER 4

PI CONTROLLER
A variation of Proportional Integral Derivative (PID) control is to use only the
proportional and integral terms as PI control. The PI controller is the most popular
variation, even more than full PID controllers. The value of the controller output u(t)
is fed into the system as the manipulated variable input.

e(t)=SP−PV

u(t)=ubias+Kce(t)+KcτI∫t0e(t)dt

The ubias term is a constant that is typically set to the value of u(t) when the
controller is first switched from manual to automatic mode. This gives "bumpless"
transfer if the error is zero when the controller is turned on. The two tuning values for
a PI controller are the controller gain, Kc and the integral time constant τI. The value
of Kc is a multiplier on the proportional error and integral term and a higher value
makes the controller more aggressive at responding to errors away from the set point.
The set point (SP) is the target value and process variable (PV) is the measured value
that may deviate from the desired value. The error from the set point is the difference
between the SP and PV and is defined as e(t)=SP−PV

4.1 DISCRETE PI CONTROLLER

Digital controllers are implemented with discrete sampling periods and a


discrete form of the PI equation is needed to approximate the integral of the error.
This modification replaces the continuous form of the integral with a summation of
the error and uses Δt as the time between sampling instances and nt as the number of
sampling instances.

u(t)=ubias+Kce(t)+KcτInt∑i=1ei(t)Δt

4.1.1 Overview Of Pi Control

PI control is needed for non-integrating processes, meaning any process that


eventually returns to the same output given the same set of inputs and disturbances. A
P-only controller is best suited to integrating processes. Integral action is used to

25
remove offset and can be thought of as an adjustable ubias. Common tuning
correlations for PI control are the ITAE (Integral of Time-weighted Absolute Error)
method and IMC (Internal Model Control). IMC is an extension of lambda tuning by
accounting for time delay. The parameters Kc, τp, and θp are obtained by fitting
dynamic input and output data to a first-order plus dead-time (FOPDT) model.The
general block diagram of the PI speed controller is shown in Figure.

Fig.4.1.Block diagram of PI speed controller

The output Of the speed controller (torque command) at n-thinstant is expressed as


follows

Te (n)=Te(n−1)+Kp_ωre(n)+Kiωre(n) (10)

Where Te (n) is the torque output of the controller at the n-th instant, and Kpand Ki
the

proportional and integral gain constants, respectively.

A limit of the torque command is imposed as

The gains of PI controller shown in (10) can be selected by many methods


such as trial and error method, Ziegler–Nichols method and evolutionary techniques-
based searching. The numerical values of these controller gains depend on the ratings
of the motor.

26
4.2 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

The integral term in a PI controller causes the steady-state error to reduce to


zero, which is not the case for proportional-only control in general.

The lack of derivative action may make the system more steady in the steady
state in the case of noisy data. This is because derivative action is more sensitive to
higher-frequency terms in the inputs.

Without derivative action, a PI-controlled system is less responsive to real


(non-noise) and relatively fast alterations in state and so the system will be slower to
reach set point and slower to respond to perturbations than a well-tuned PID system
may be.

4.2.1 Integral Action and PI Control

Like the P-Only controller, the Proportional-Integral (PI) algorithm computes


and transmits a controller output (CO) signal every sample time, T, to the final control
element (e.g., valve, variable speed pump). The computed CO from the PI algorithm
is influenced by the controller tuning parameters and the controller error, e(t).

PI controllers have two tuning parameters to adjust. While this makes them
more challenging to tune than a P-Only controller, they are not as complex as the
three parameter PID controller.

Integral action enables PI controllers to eliminate offset, a major weakness of


a P-only controller. Thus, PI controllers provide a balance of complexity and
capability that makes them by far the most widely used algorithm in process control
applications.

4.2.2 The PI Algorithm

While different vendors cast what is essentially the same algorithm in different
forms, here we explore what is variously described as the dependent, ideal,
continuous, position form

27
Where:

CO = controller output signal (the wire out)

CObias = controller bias or null value; set by bumpless transfer as explained below

e(t) = current controller error, defined as SP – PV

SP = set point

PV = measured process variable (the wire in)

Kc = controller gain, a tuning parameter

Ti = reset time, a tuning parameter

The first two terms to the right of the equal sign are identical to the P-Only
controller referenced at the top of this article.The integral mode of the controller is the
last term of the equation. Its function is to integrate or continually sum the controller
error, e(t), over time.Some things we should know about the reset time tuning
parameter, Ti.

It provides a separate weight to the integral term so the influence of integral


action can be independently adjusted. It is in the denominator so smaller values
provide a larger weight to (i.e. increase the influence of) the integral term.It has units
of time so it is always positive.

28
CHAPTER 5
PULSE WIDTH MODULATION
5.1 PWM INTRODUCTION

Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) is the most effective means to achieve


constant voltage battery charging by switching the solar system controller’s power
devices. When in PWM regulation, the current from the solar array tapers according
to the battery’s condition and recharging needs consider a waveform such as this: it is
a voltage switching between 0v and 12v. It is fairly obvious that, since the voltage is
at 12v for exactly as long as it is at 0v, then a 'suitable device' connected to its output
will see the average voltage and think it is being fed 6v - exactly half of 12v. So by
varying the width of the positive pulse - we can vary the 'average' voltage.

Graph no.5.1 : Average voltage exactly half of 12v

Similarly, if the switches keep the voltage at 12 for 3 times as long as at 0v, the
average will be 3/4 of 12v - or 9v, as shown below.

Graph no.5.2 : Average voltage will be 3/4 of 12v

29
Graph no.5.3 : Average output voltage at 12v
And if the output pulse of 12v lasts only 25% of the overall time, then the
average is by varying - or 'modulating' - the time that the output is at 12v (i.e. the
width of the positive pulse) we can alter the average voltage. So we are doing 'pulse
width modulation'. I said earlier that the output had to feed 'a suitable device'. A radio
would not work from this: the radio would see 12v then 0v, and would probably not
work properly. However a device such as a motor will respond to the average, so
PWM is a natural for motor control.

5.1.1 Pulse Width modulator

So, how do we generate a PWM waveform? It's actually very easy, there are
circuits available in the TEC site. First you generate a triangle waveform as shown in
the diagram below. You compare this with a d.c voltage, which you adjust to control
the ratio of on to off time that you require. When the triangle is above the 'demand'
voltage, the output goes high. When the triangle is below the demand voltage.

Graph no. 5.4 : Pulse Width modulator Wave form

30
When the demand speed it in the middle (A) you get a 50:50 output, as in
black. Half the time the output is high and half the time it is low. Fortunately, there is
an IC (Integrated circuit) called a comparator: these come usually 4 sections in a
single package. One can be used as the oscillator to produce the triangular waveform
and another to do the comparing, so a complete oscillator and modulator can be done
with half an IC and maybe 7 other bits.

The triangle waveform, which has approximately equal rise and fall slopes, is
one of the commonest used, but you can use a saw tooth (where the voltage falls
quickly and rinses slowly). You could use other waveforms and the exact linearity
(how good the rise and fall are) is not too important.

Traditional solenoid driver electronics rely on linear control, which is the


application of a constant voltage across a resistance to produce an output current that
is directly proportional to the voltage. Feedback can be used to achieve an output that
matches exactly the control signal. However, this scheme dissipates a lot of power as
heat, and it is therefore very inefficient.

A more efficient technique employs pulse width modulation (PWM) to


produce the constant current through the coil. A PWM signal is not constant. Rather,
the signal is on for part of its period, and off for the rest. The duty cycle, D, refers to
the percentage of the period for which the signal is on. The duty cycle can be
anywherefrom 0, the signal is always off, to 1, where the signal is constantly on. A
50% D results in a perfect square wave.

Graph no. 5.5 : Duty cycle variation


31
A solenoid is a length of wire wound in a coil. Because of this configuration,
the solenoid has, in additionto its resistance, R, a certain inductance, L. When a
voltage, V, is applied across an inductive element, thecurrent, I, produced in that
element does not jump up to its constant value, but gradually rises to itsmaximum
over a period of time called the rise time. Conversely, I does not
disappearinstantaneously, even if V is removed abruptly, but decreases back to zero in
the same amount of time asthe rise time.

Graph no.5.6 : Current steady state value

Therefore, when a low frequency PWM voltage is applied across a solenoid,


the current through it will be increasing and decreasing as V turns on and off. If D is
shorter than the rise time, I will never achieve its maximum value, and will be
discontinuous since it will go back to zero during V’s off period. In contrast, if D is
larger than the rise time, I will never fall back to zero, so it will be continuous, and
have a DC average value. The current will not be constant, however, but will have a
ripple.

At high frequencies, V turns on and off very quickly, regardless of D, such


that the current does not havetime to decrease very far before the voltage is turned
back on. The resulting current through the solenoid istherefore considered to be
constant. By adjusting the D, the amount of output current can be controlled.With a
small D, the current will not have much time to rise before the high frequency PWM
voltage takeseffect and the current stays constant. With a large D, the current will be
able to rise higher before itbecomes constant.

32
Graph no. 5.7 The current will be able to rise higher before it becomes constant

5.1.2 DITHER

Static friction, stiction, and hysteresis can cause the control of a hydraulic
valve to be erratic and unpredictable. Stiction can prevent the valve spool from
moving with small input changes, and hysteresis can cause the shift to be different for
the same input signal. In order to counteract the effects of stiction and hysteresis,
small vibrations about the desired position are created in the spool. This constantly
breaks the static friction ensuring that it will move even with small input changes, and
the effects of hysteresis are average out.

Dither is a small ripple in the solenoid current that causes the desired
vibration and there by increases the linearity of the valve. The amplitude and
frequency of the dither must be carefully chosen. The amplitude must be large enough
and the frequency slow enough that the spool will respond, yet they must also be
small and fast enough not to result in a pulsating output.

The optimum dither must be chosen such that the problems of stiction and
hysteresis are overcome without new problems being created. Dither in the output
current is a byproduct of low frequency PWM, as seen above. However, the frequency
and amplitude of the dither will be a function of the duty cycle, which is also used to
set the output current level. This means that low frequency dither is not independent
of current magnitude. The advantage of using high frequency PWM is that dither can
be generated separately, and then superimposed on top of the output current.

This allows the user to independently set the current magnitude (by adjusting
the D), as well as the dither frequency and amplitude. The optimum dither, as set by
the user, will therefore be constant at all current levels.
33
5.1.3 PWM frequency is important :

The PWM is a large amplitude digital signal that swings from one voltage
extreme to the other. And, this wide voltage swing takes a lot of filtering to smooth
out. When the PWM frequency is close to the frequency of the waveform that you are
generating, then any PWM filter will also smooth out your generated waveform and
drastically reduce its amplitude. So, a good rule of thumb is to keep the PWM
frequency much higher than the frequency of any waveform you generate.

Finally, filtering pulses is not just about the pulse frequency but about the
duty cycle and how much energy is in the pulse. The same filter will do better on a
low or high duty cycle pulse compared to a 50% duty cycle pulse. Because the wider
pulse has more time to integrate to a stable filter voltage and the smaller pulse has less
time to disturb it the inspiration was a request to control the speed of a large positive
displacement fuel pump. The pump was sized to allow full power of a boosted engine
in excess of 600 Hp.

At idle or highway cruise, this same engine needs far less fuel yet the pump
still normally supplies the same amount of fuel. As a result the fuel gets recycled back
to the fuel tank, unnecessarily heating the fuel. This PWM controller circuit is
intended to run the pump at a low speed setting during low power and allow full pump
speed when needed at high engine power levels.

5.1.4 Motor Speed Control (Power Control)

Typically when most of us think about controlling the speed of a DC motor we


think of varying the voltage to the motor. This is normally done with a variable
resistor and provides a limited useful range of operation. The operational range is
limited for most applications primarily because torque drops off faster than the
voltage drops.

Most DC motors cannot effectively operate with a very low voltage. This
method also causes overheating of the coils and eventual failure of the motor if
operated too slowly. Of course, DC motors have had speed controllers based on
varying voltage for years, but the range of low speed operation had to stay above the
failure zone described above.

34
Additionally, the controlling resistors are large and dissipate a large
percentage of energy in the form of heat. With the advent of solid state electronics in
the 1950’s and 1960’s and this technology becoming very affordable in the 1970’s &
80’s the use of pulse width modulation (PWM) became much more practical. The
basic concept is to keep the voltage at the full value and simply vary the amount of
time the voltage is applied to the motor windings. Most PWM circuits use large
transistors to simply allow power On & Off, like a very fast switch.

This sends a steady frequency of pulses into the motor windings. When full
power is needed one pulse ends just as the next pulse begins, 100% modulation. At
lower power settings the pulses are of shorter duration. When the pulse is On as long
as it is Off, the motor is operating at 50% modulation. Several advantages of PWM
are efficiency, wider operational range and longer lived motors. All of these
advantages result from keeping the voltage at full scale resulting in current being
limited to a safe limit for the windings.

PWM allows a very linear response in motor torque even down to low PWM%
without causing damage to the motor. Most motor manufacturers recommend PWM
control rather than the older voltage control method. PWM controllers can be
operated at a wide range of frequencies. In theory very high frequencies (greater than
20 kHz) will be less efficient than lower frequencies (as low as 100 Hz) because of
switching losses.

The large transistors used for this On/Off activity have resistance when
flowing current, a loss that exists at any frequency. These transistors also have a loss
every time they “turn on” and every time they “turn off”. So at very high frequencies,
the “turn on/off” losses become much more significant. For our purposes the circuit as
designed is running at 526 Hz. Somewhat of an arbitrary frequency, it works fine.

Depending on the motor used, there can be a hum from the motor at lower
PWM%. If objectionable the frequency can be changed to a much higher frequency
above our normal hearing level (>20,000Hz).

5.1.5 PWM Controller Features

This controller offers a basic “Hi Speed” and “Low Speed” setting and has the
option to use a “Progressive” increase between Low and Hi speed. Low Speed is set
35
with a trim pot inside the controller box. Normally when installing the controller, this
speed will be set depending on the minimum speed/load needed for the motor.
Normally the controller keeps the motor at this Lo Speed except when Progressive is
used and when Hi Speed is commanded (see below). Low Speed can vary anywhere
from 0% PWM to 100%.

Progressive control is commanded by a 0-5 volt input signal. This starts to


increase PWM% from the low speed setting as the 0-5 volt signal climbs. This signal
can be generated from a throttle position sensor, a Mass Air Flow sensor, a Manifold
Absolute Pressure sensor or any other way the user wants to create a 0-5 volt signal.
This function could be set to increase fuel pump power as turbo boost starts to climb
(MAP sensor). Or, if controlling a water injection pump, Low Speed could be set at
zero PWM% and as the TPS signal climbs it could increase PWM%, effectively
increasing water flow to the engine as engine load increases. This controller could
even be used as a secondary injector driver (several injectors could be driven in a
batch mode, hi impedance only), with Progressive control (0-100%) you could control
their output for fuel or water with the 0-5 volt signal.

Progressive control adds enormous flexibility to the use of this controller. Hi


Speed is that same as hard wiring the motor to a steady 12 volt DC source. The
controller is providing 100% PWM, steady 12 volt DC power. Hi Speed is selected
three different ways on this controller: 1) Hi Speed is automatically selected for about
one second when power goes on. This gives the motor full torque at the start. If
needed this time can be increased ( the value of C1 would need to be increased). 2)
High Speed can also be selected by applying 12 volts to the High Speed signal wire.
This gives Hi Speed regardless of the Progressive signal.

When the Progressive signal gets to approximately 4.5 volts, the circuit
achieves 100% PWM – Hi Speed.

36
5.1.6 Advantages of this technology :

The benefits noted above are technology driven. The more important question
is how the PWM. Technology Jumping from a 1970’s technology into the new
millennium offers:

• Longer battery life:

– reducing the costs of the solar system

– reducing battery disposal problems

More battery reserve capacity :

– increasing the reliability of the solar system

– reducing load disconnects

– opportunity to reduce battery size to lowerthe system cost

• Greater user satisfaction:

– get more power when you need it for less money

37
CHAPTER 6
ENERGY STORAGE TECHNOLOGIES

This chapter provides an overview of commonly used energy storage technologies. It


looks into various factors that differentiate storage technologies, such as cost, cycle
life, energy density, efficiency, power output, and discharge duration. One energy
storage technology in particular, the battery energy storage system (BESS), is studied
in greater detail together with the various components required for grid-scale
operation. The advantages and disadvantages of different commercially mature
battery chemistries are examined. The chapter ends with a review of best practice for
recycling and reuse lithium-ion batteries.

6.1 STORAGE TYPES


Energy storage devices can be categorized as mechanical, electrochemical, chemical,
electrical, or thermal devices, depending on the storage technology used (Figure 1.1).
Mechanical technology, including pumped hydropower generation, is the oldest
technology. However, a limitation of this technology is its need for abundant water
resources and a different geographic elevation, as well as the construction of power
transmission lines to households that consume electricity. Recently, transmission-line
construction cost has surpassed the cost of installing a pumped hydropower
generation facility.

Figure 6.1: Classification of Storage Technologies, By Energy Type

38
In addition to the recent spread of mobile information technology (IT) devices and
electric vehicles, the increased mass production of lithium secondary batteries and
their lowered costs have boosted demand for energy storage devices using such
batteries. Lithium secondary batteries convert electric energy to chemical energy, and
vice versa, using electrochemical technologies. Such technologies also include lead
storage batteries and sodium–sulfur batteries. Chemical technologies include energy
storage technologies such as fuel cells, and mechanical technologies include electric
double-layer capacitors. The performance of energy storage devices can be defined by
their output and energy density. Their use can be differentiated by place and duration
of use, as defined by the technology adopted. In Figure 1.2, the applications (in the
tan-colored boxes) are classified according to output, usage period, and power
requirement, and the energy storage devices (in the amber-colored boxes) according
to usage period, power generation, and system and/or network operation.

Figure 6.2: Different technologies for different purposes.

39
Table no 3: Discharge Time and Energy-to-Power Ratio of Different Battery
Technologies

6.2 COMPONENTS OF A BATTERY ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEM (BESS)

Figure 6.3: Schematic of A Battery Energy Storage System

6.2.1 Energy Storage System Components ESS components (Figure 1.8) are grouped
according to function into battery components, components required for reliable
system operation, and grid connection components. • The battery system consists of
the battery pack, which connects multiple cells to appropriate voltage and capacity;
the battery management system (BMS); and the battery thermal management system
(B-TMS). The BMS protects the cells from harmful operation, in terms of voltage,
temperature, and current, to achieve reliable and safe operation, and balances varying

40
cell states-of-charge (SOCs) within a serial connection. The B-TMS controls the
temperature of the cells according to their specifications in terms of absolute values
and temperature gradients within the pack. • The components required for the reliable
operation of the overall system are system control and monitoring, the energy
management system (EMS), and system thermal management. System control and
monitoring is general (IT) monitoring, which is partly combined into the overall
supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) system but may also include fire
protection or alarm units. The EMS is responsible for system power flow control,
management, and distribution. System thermal management controls all functions
related to the heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning of the containment system. •
The power electronics can be grouped into the conversion unit, which converts the
power flow between the grid and the battery, and the required control and monitoring
components— voltage sensing units and thermal management of power electronics
components (fan cooling).

6.2.2 Grid Connection for Utility-Scale BESS Projects Figure 1.9 gives an overview
of grid connection topologies for utility-scale BESS, which typically consist of
multiple battery packs and inverter units, all adding up to the total system energy and
power. Power electronics units dedicated to individual battery packs can be installed
(Figure 1.9a) or the battery packs can be connected in parallel to a common direct-
current (DC) bus (Figure 1.9b). Figure 1.9c shows an example of grid connection to a
low-voltage level, and Figure 1.9d, connection to higher grid levels via a transformer.

Figure 6.4 Grid connections :

41
CHAPTER-7
MATLAB SOFTWARE

7.1 INTRODUCTION TO MATLAB

Matlab is a high-performance language for technical computing. It integrates


computation, visualization, and programming in an easy-to-use environment where
problems and solutions are expressed in familiar mathematical notation. Typical uses
include Math and computation Algorithm development Data acquisition Modeling,
simulation, and prototyping Data analysis, exploration, and visualization Scientific
and engineering graphics Application development, including graphical user interface
building.

Matlab is an interactive system whose basic data element is an array that does
not require dimensioning. This allows you to solve many technical computing
problems, especially those with matrix and vector formulations, in a fraction of the
time it would take to write a program in a scalar no interactive language such as C or
Fortran.

The name matlab stands for matrix laboratory. Matlab was originally written
to provide easy access to matrix software developed by the linpack and eispack
projects. Today, matlab engines incorporate the lapack and blas libraries, embedding
the state of the art in software for matrix computation.

Matlab has evolved over a period of years with input from many users. In
university environments, it is the standard instructional tool for introductory and
advanced courses in mathematics, engineering, and science. In industry, matlab is the
tool of choice for high-productivity research, development, and analysis.

Matlab features a family of add-on application-specific solutions called


toolboxes. Very important to most users of matlab, toolboxes allow you to learn and
apply specialized technology. Toolboxes are comprehensive collections of matlab
functions (M-files) that extend the matlab environment to solve particular classes of
problems. Areas in which toolboxes are available include signal processing, control
systems, neural networks, fuzzy logic, wavelets, simulation, and many others.

42
The matlab system consists of five main parts:

Development Environment. This is the set of tools and facilities that help you
use matlab functions and files. Many of these tools are graphical user interfaces. It
includes the matlab desktop and Command Window, a command history, an editor
and debugger, and browsers for viewing help, the workspace, files, and the search
path.

The matlab Mathematical Function Library. This is a vast collection of


computational algorithms ranging from elementary functions, like sum, sine, cosine,
and complex arithmetic, to more sophisticated functions like matrix inverse, matrix
eigenvalues, Bessel functions, and fast Fourier transforms.

The matlab Language. This is a high-level matrix/array language with control


flow statements, functions, data structures, input/output, and object-oriented
programming features. It allows both "programming in the small" to rapidly create
quick and dirty throw-away programs, and "programming in the large" to create large
and complex application programs.

Matlab has extensive facilities for displaying vectors and matrices as graphs,
as well as annotating and printing these graphs. It includes high-level functions for
two-dimensional and three-dimensional data visualization, image processing,
animation, and presentation graphics. It also includes low-level functions that allow
you to fully customize the appearance of graphics as well as to build complete
graphical user interfaces on your matlab applications.

The matlab Application Program Interface (API). This is a library that allows
you to write C and Fortran programs that interact with matlab. It includes facilities for
calling routines from matlab (dynamic linking), calling matlab as a computational
engine, and for reading and writing MAT-files.

7.2 INTRODUCTION SIMULINK:

Simulink is a software add-on to matlab which is a mathematical tool


developed by The Math works,(http://www.mathworks.com) a company based in
Natick. Matlab is powered by extensive numerical analysis capability. Simulink is a
tool used to visually program a dynamic system (those governed by Differential
43
equations) and look at results. Any logic circuit, or control system for a dynamic
system can be built by using standard building blocks available in Simulink Libraries.
Various toolboxes for different techniques, such as Fuzzy Logic, Neural Networks,
dsp, Statistics etc. are available with Simulink, which enhance the processing power
of the tool. The main advantage is the availability of templates / building blocks,
which avoid the necessity of typing code for small mathematical processes.

7.3 CONCEPT OF SIGNAL AND LOGIC FLOW:

In Simulink, data/information from various blocks are sent to another block by


lines connecting the relevant blocks. Signals can be generated and fed into blocks
dynamic / static).Data can be fed into functions. Data can then be dumped into sinks,
which could be scopes, displays or could be saved to a file. Data can be connected
from one block to another, can be branched, multiplexed etc. In simulation, data is
processed and transferred only at Discrete times, since all computers are discrete
systems. Thus, a simulation time step (otherwise called an integration time step) is
essential, and the selection of that step is determined by the fastest dynamics in the
simulated system.

Fig 7.1 Simulink library browser

44
Fig 7.2 Connecting blocks

To connect blocks, left-click and drag the mouse from the output of one block to the
input of another block.

7.4 SOURCES AND SINKS:

The sources library contains the sources of data/signals that one would use in a
dynamic system simulation. One may want to use a constant input, a sinusoidal wave,
a step, a repeating sequence such as a pulse train, a ramp etc. One may want to test
disturbance effects, and can use the random signal generator to simulate noise. The
clock may be used to create a time index for plotting purposes. The ground could be
used to connect to any unused port, to avoid warning messages indicating
unconnected ports.

The sinks are blocks where signals are terminated or ultimately used. In most
cases, we would want to store the resulting data in a file, or a matrix of variables. The
data could be displayed or even stored to a file. the stop block could be used to stop
the simulation if the input to that block (the signal being sunk) is non-zero. Figure 3
shows the available blocks in the sources and sinks libraries. Unused signals must be
terminated, to prevent warnings about unconnected signals.

45
Fig 7.3 Sources and sinks

7.5 CONTINUOUS AND DISCRETE SYSTEMS:

All dynamic systems can be analyzed as continuous or discrete time systems.


Simulink allows you to represent these systems using transfer functions, integration
blocks, delay blocks etc.

Fig 7.4 continuous and discrete systems

46
7.6 Non-linear operators:

A main advantage of using tools such as Simulink is the ability to simulate


non-linear systems and arrive at results without having to solve analytically. It is very
difficult to arrive at an analytical solution for a system having non-linearity’s such as
saturation, signup function, limited slew rates etc. In Simulation, since systems are
analyzed using iterations, non-linearity’s are not a hindrance. One such could be a
saturation block, to indicate a physical limitation on a parameter, such as a voltage
signal to a motor etc. Manual switches are useful when trying simulations with
different cases. Switches are the logical equivalent of if-then statements in
programming.

Fig 7.5 simulink blocks

7.6.1 Mathematical operations:

Mathematical operators such as products, sum, logical operations such as and,


or, etc. .can be programmed along with the signal flow. Matrix multiplication
becomes easy with the matrix gain block. Trigonometric functions such as sin or tan
inverse (at an) are also available. Relational operators such as ‘equal to’, ‘greater
than’ etc. can also be used in logic circuits

47
Fig 7.6 Simulink math blocks :

7.6.2 SIGNALS & DATA TRANSFER:

In complicated block diagrams, there may arise the need to transfer data from
one portion to another portion of the block. They may be in different subsystems. That
signal could be dumped into a goto block, which is used to send signals from one
subsystem to another.

Multiplexing helps us remove clutter due to excessive connectors, and makes


matrix(column/row) visualization easier.

Fig 7.7 signals and systems

7.6.3 Making subsystems

Drag a subsystem from the Simulink Library Browser and place it in the parent block
where you would like to hide the code. The type of subsystem depends on the purpose
of the block. In general one will use the standard subsystem but other subsystems can

48
be chosen. For instance, the subsystem can be a triggered block, which is enabled
only when a trigger signal is received.

Open (double click) the subsystem and create input / output PORTS, which transfer
signals into and out of the subsystem. The input and output ports are created by
dragging them from the Sources and Sinks directories respectively. When ports are
created in the subsystem, they automatically create ports on the external (parent)
block. This allows for connecting the appropriate signals from the parent block to the
subsystem.

7.6.4 Setting simulation parameters:

Running a simulation in the computer always requires a numerical technique to solve


a differential equation. The system can be simulated as a continuous system or a
discrete system based on the blocks inside. The simulation start and stop time can be
specified. In case of variable step size, the smallest and largest step size can be
specified. A Fixed step size is recommended and it allows for indexing time to a
precise number of points, thus controlling the size of the data vector. Simulation step
size must be decided based on the dynamics of the system. A thermal process may
warrant a step size of a few seconds, but a DC motor in the system may be quite fast
and may require a step size of a few milliseconds.

49
CHAPTER-8

MATLAB & SIMULATION RESULTS

8.1 SIMULATION CIRCUITS

Figure 8.1: Simulation circuit

Figure 8.2: Buck boost converter

50
Figure 8.3: Battery controller

Figure 8.4: Load dc-dc controller

8.2 SIMULATION RESULTS

Graph no. 8.1 : Power utilisation

51
Graph no. 8.2: Dc voltalage variation

Graph no. 8.3: Battery and load requirments

52
CHAPTER 9
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE

CONCLUSION

In this project, the modelling and the configuration of the EVCS was presented to
evaluate thier corresponding EMS which was based on a decentralized supervision
and composed by independent control systems for each element: PV system, ESS, EV
and the utility grid. This certainly smoothed the integration of new elements in the
charging infrastructure (new EV chargers or other sources of energy) as well as its
real implementation and application. More particularly, this decentralized control had
an effective and a simple control scheme. To control the power sources of the EVCS,
a PI controllers were used. Depending on the ESS SOC and the ETC, the DC bus
voltage, as the key parameter of supervision, is controlled by a specific source of
power (PV system, ESS or the grid) while the batteries of EVs were being charged.

FUTURE SCOPE

1. Electric vehicle charging station will modifies the transportation energy demand
from petroleum to the electricity.

2. We can promote the smart grid concept by combining the renewable energy
sources and the utility grid.

53
CHAPTER 10

REFERENCES
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[2] Ellen De Schepper, Steven Van Passel and Sebastien Lizin, “Economic benefits of
combining clean energy technologies: the case of solar photovoltaics and battery
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[3] Erica Goldin, Larry Erickson, Bala Natarajan Gary Brase, and Anil Pahwa,”Solar
Powered Charge Stations for Electric Vehicles”, Environmental Progress&
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[4] Joshua Kneifel David Webb Eric O’Rear,”Energy and Economic Implications of
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[5] Gautham Ram, Chandra Mouli, Pavol. Bauer, Miro Zeman ,“System design for a
solar powered electric vehicle charging station for workplaces”, Applied Energy, vol.
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[6] Ottorino Veneri, Clemente Capasso, Diego Iannuzzi,”Experimental evaluation of


DC charging architecture for fully-electrified low-power two-wheeler”. Applied
Energy, vol. 162, pp. 1428-1438, January 2020.

[7] Muhammad Aziz, Takuya, ODA, Masakazu Ito,”Battery-assisted charging system


for simultaneous charging of electric vehicles”. Energy, vol. 100, pp. 82-90, April
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55
A
PROJECT REPORT
On
ALCOHOL DETECTION WITH MESSAGING
SYSTEM AND VEHICLE CONTROL
Submitted by

1.Ms.R. Manasa Regd.No: 17K81A0235

2.Ms.G. Kavya Regd.No: 18K85A0201

3.Mr.V. Sudha Kiran Regd.No: 18K85A0211


4.Mr.J. Anil Reddy Regd.No: 18K85A0216

5.Mr.K. Yuvis Regd.No: 18K85A0217

in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
Under The Guidance of
Mr. V. Vishnu Vardhan, M.Tech
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINNERING

ST. MARTIN’S ENGINEERING COLLEGE


(An Autonomous Institute)
Dhulapally, Secunderabad – 500 100
JUNE 2021
BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project entitled ALCOHOL DETECTION WITH


MESSAGING SYSTEM AND VEHICLE CONTROL, is being submitted By Ms. R.Manasa
-Regd.No:17K81A0235, Ms. G.Kavya-Regd.No:18K85A0201, Mr. V.Sudha Kiran-
Regd.No:18K85A0211, Mr. J.Anil Reddy-Regd.No:18K85A0216, Mr. K.Yuvis-
Regd.No:18K85A0217 in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the degree of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY in ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS
ENGINNERING is recorded of bonafide work carried out by them. The result embodied in
this report have been verified and found satisfactory.

Mr. V. Vishnu Vardhan Dr.N. Ramchandra


Assistant Professor HOD & Professor
Department of EEE Department of EEE

Internal Examiner External Examiner

Place: Dhulapally

Date:
DECLARATION

We, the students of Bachelor of Technology in Department of ELECTRICAL


AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, session: 2017–2021, St. Martin’s Engineering
College, Dhulapally, Kompally, Secunderabad, hereby declare that work presented in
this Project Work entitled ALCOHOL DETECTION WITH MESSAGING SYSTEM
AND VEHICLE CONTROL is the outcome of our own bonafide work and is correct to
the best of our knowledge and this work has been undertaken taking care of Engineering
Ethics. This result embodied in this project report has not been submitted in any
university for award of any degree.

1.Ms.R. Manasa Regd.No: 17K81A0235

2.Ms.G. Kavya Regd.No: 18K85A0201

3.Mr.V. Sudha Kiran Regd.No: 18K85A0211

4.Mr.J. Anil Reddy Regd.No:18K85A0216

5.Mr.K. Yuvis Regd.No: 18K85A0217


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The satisfaction and euphoria that accompanies the successful completion of any
task would be incomplete without the mention of the people who made it possible and
whose encouragements and guidance have crowded effects with success.
First and foremost, we would like to express my deep sense of gratitude and
indebtedness to our College Management for their kind support and permission to use
the facilities available in the Institute.
We especially would like to express my deep sense of gratitude and indebtedness to
Dr.P. Santosh Kumar Patra, our beloved Principal, St. Martin’s Engineering College
for his invaluable encouragement, suggestions and support from an early stage of this
research and providing me extraordinary experiences throughout the work. Above all, his
priceless and meticulous supervision at each and every phase of work inspired me in
innumerable ways.
We would like to express our gratitude to Dr.N. Ramchandra, Head &Professor,
the Dept. of Electrical and Electronics Engineering for his advice, supervision, and the
vital contribution as and when required during this research. We are proud to record that
we had the opportunity to work with an exceptionally experienced Professor like him. The
time spent with him will remain in my memory for years to come.
We would like to thank our supervisor, Mr. V. Vishnuvardhan, Assistant professor,
Dept. of EEE for his continuous support and valuable guidance for our research work.
We would like to express our gratitude to our dept. project coordinators Mr. K. V.
Govardhan Rao, Assistant Professor, Dept. of EEE and Mr. T. Penchalaiah, Assistant
Professor, Dept. of EEE for their involvement with originality has triggered and nourished
my intellectual maturity that will help me for a long time to come.
Finally, we are highly grateful and obliged to our college level Project Coordinators
Dr.Maalyadri, Professor in IT and Dr.R.Santhosh Kumar, Associate Professor in
CSE for their advice, supervision, and the vital contribution as and when required during
this research work and for their support and co-operation that is difficult to express in
words.
1.Ms.R. Manasa Regd.No: 17K81A0235
2.Ms.G. Kavya Regd.No: 18K85A0201
3.Mr.V. Sudha Kiran Regd.No: 18K85A0211
4.Mr.J. Anil Reddy Regd.No:18K85A0216
5.Mr.K. Yuvis Regd.No: 18K85A0217
ABSTRACT

• Driving under the influence of alcohol has affected and killed countless of people’s lives. If you
drink and drive, not only do you possibly put yourself at risk, but your passengers and pedestrians, and
other people, who were on the roads. Just think about that. Every thirty minutes someone’s life is cut
short and families are devastated. So, here we implemented a Alcohol Detection system in order to
control drunk and driving as much as we can.
• The Alcohol Detection system works on a simple principle, if a driver has been drinking, the
alcohol breath analyser sensor will detect the level of alcohol in the driver’s breath and if it crosses a set
threshold, an alert will come and the vehicle engine will stop immediately. This project is designed for
the safety of the people seating inside/outside the vehicle
• Drunk Driving is one of the biggest threats to Road Safety. Applications of Automatic Engine
Locking System Through Alcohol Detection can be used anywhere to reduce the probability of road
accidents.
• “Automatic Engine Locking System Through Alcohol Detection project” can be used in various
vehicles for detecting whether the driver has consumed alcohol or not.
TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER NO TITLE PAGE NO

CERTIFICATE
DECLARATION
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
ABSTRACT
LIST OF CONTENT
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES

1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION OF THE PROJECT 1
1.2 APPLICATION AREAS 1
1.3 OVERVIEW OF THE PROJECT 3
1.4 OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT 3
1.5 SCOPE OF THE PROJECT 3
1.6 MATERIAL REQUIREMENT 3

2 LITERATURE SURVEY 21
2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW 21
2.2 CONCLUSIONS ON REVIEWS 22

3 PROJECT DESIGN 24
3.1 OVERVIEW OF THE DESIGN 24
3.2 EQUIPMENT ANALYSIS 25
3.3 MODULE DEFENITION 26
3.4 MODULE FUNTIONALITIES 28
4 PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION 32
4.1 IMPLEMTATION STAGES 32
4.2 IMPLEMENTATION RESULTS 34

5 PROJECT TESTING 36
5.1 OVERVIEW OF TESTING METHODS 36

6 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE ENHANCEMENT 37

PUBLICATION 38

REFERENCES 39

BIBILOGRAPHY 40

APPENDICES 41
LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO TITLE PAGE NO


1. Arduino Uno 5
2. MQ3 sensor 6
3. Backside of the MQ3 Sensor 7
4. Pin Out of the MQ3 Sensor 8
5. Sensitivity of the MQ3 Sensor 8
6. Buzzer 9
7. PCB 10
8. Jumper Wires 11
9. Transistor 13
10. Adapter (12V) 14
11. Modes of Operation of Adapter 15
12. GSM Module 17
13. GPS Module 19
14. Arduino IDE 20
15. Circuit Diagram 24
16. Additional Components 25
17. Pins of Arduino 26
18. Pins of GPS module 27
19. Dismantled view of GSM Module 27
20. Pins of GSM Module 30
21. Circuit Diagram of Stage one 32
22. Circuit Diagram of Stage two 33
23. Message 34
24. Google Maps link location 35
LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO TITLE PAGE NO

1. Specifications of MQ3 Sensor 7


2. Pins of Arduino Uno 28-29
3. Pins of GPS Module 30
ALCOHOL DETECTION WITH MESSAGING SYSTEM AND VEHICLE CONTROL

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction to Embedded System:
An embedded system can be defined as a computing device that does a specific focused
job. Appliances such as the air-conditioner, VCD player, DVD player, printer, fax machine,
mobile phone etc. are examples of embedded systems. Each of these appliances will have a
processor and special hardware to meet the specific requirement of the application along with
the embedded software that is executed by the processor for meeting that specific requirement.
The embedded software is also called “firm ware”. The desktop/laptop computer is a general-
purpose computer. You can use it for a variety of applications such as playing games, word
processing, accounting, software development and so on. In contrast, the software in the
embedded systems is always fixed listed below:
Embedded systems do a very specific task, they cannot be programmed to do different
things. Embedded systems have very limited resources, particularly the memory. Generally,
they do not have secondary storage devices such as the CDROM or the floppy disk. Embedded
systems have to work against some deadlines. A specific job has to be completed within a
specific time. In some embedded systems, called real-time systems, the deadlines are stringent.
Missing a deadline may cause a catastrophe-loss of life or damage to property. Embedded
systems are constrained for power. As many embedded systems operate through a battery, the
power consumption has to be very low.
Some embedded systems have to operate in extreme environmental conditions such as
very high temperatures and humidity.

1.2 Application Areas:


Nearly 99 per cent of the processors manufactured end up in embedded systems. The
embedded system market is one of the highest growth areas as these systems are used in very
market segment- consumer electronics, office automation, industrial automation, biomedical
engineering, wireless communication, data communication, tele communications,
transportation, military and so on.

1.2.1 Telecommunications:
In the field of telecommunications, the embedded systems can be categorized as
subscriber terminals and network equipment. The subscriber terminals such as key telephones,
ISDN phones, terminal adapters, web cameras are embedded systems. The network equipment
includes multiplexers, multiple access systems, Packet Assemblers Dissemblers (PADs),
sate11ite modems etc. IP phone, IP gateway, IP gatekeeper etc. are the latest embedded systems
that provide very low-cost voice communication over the Internet.

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1.2.2 Office Automation:


The office automation products using embedded systems are copying machine, fax
machine, key telephone, modem, printer, scanner etc. the data packets from incoming pores,
analyse the packets and send them towards the destination after doing necessary protocol
conversion. Most networking equipment’s, other than the end systems (desktop computers) we use
to access the networks, are embedded systems.

1.2.3 Consumer Appliances:


At home we use a number of embedded systems which include digital camera, digital
diary, DVD player, electronic toys, microwave oven, remote controls for TV and air
conditioner, VCO player, video game consoles, video recorders etc. Today’s high-tech car has
about 20 embedded systems for transmission control, engine spark control, airconditioning,
navigation etc. Even wristwatches are now becoming embedded systems. The palmtops are
powerful embedded systems using which we can carry out many general-purpose tasks such as
playing games and word processing

1.2.4 Wireless Technologies:


Advances in mobile communications are paving way for many interesting applications
using embedded systems. The mobile phone is one of the marvels3 of the last decade of the
20’h century. It is a very powerful embedded system that provides voice communication while
we are on the move. The Personal Digital Assistants and the palmtops can now be used to
access multimedia services over the Internet. Mobile communication infrastructure such as
base station controllers, mobile switching centers are also powerful embedded systems.

1.2.5 Security:
Security of persons and information has always been a major issue. Weneed to protect
our homes and offices; and also, the information we transmit and store. Developing embedded
systems for security applications is one of the most lucrative businesses nowadays. Security
devices at homes, offices, airports etc. for authentication and verification are embedded
systems.

1.2.6 Finance:
Financial dealing through cash and cheques are now slowly paving way for transactions
using smart cards and ATM (Automatic Teller Machine, also expanded as Any Time Money)
machines. Smart card, of the size of a credit card, has a small micro-controller and memory;
and it interacts with the smart card reader! ATM machine and acts as an electronic wallet.
Smart card technology has the capability of ushering in a cashless society. Well, the list goes
on. It is no exaggeration to say that eyes wherever you go, you can see, or at least feel, the work
of an embedded system!

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1.3 Overview of Embedded System Architecture:


Every embedded system consists of custom-built hardware built around a Central
Processing Unit (CPU). This hardware also contains memory chips onto which the software is
loaded. The software residing on the memory chip is also called the ‘firmware’.

1.4 Objectives of the Study:


• To achieve the greater good to the life of mankind.
• By detecting the alcohol content people might just take care of themselves to limit their
drinking
• Not only one person’s life can be saved but the other person who is a victim of the
accident Life can be saved.

1.5 Scope of the Study:


• An effective solution is provided to develop the intelligent system for vehicles which
will monitor various parameters of vehicle.
• The designed system would finish the function of communicating with the base station
via GPS, GSM and control of various parameters.
• The whole Control system has the advantage of small volume and high reliability.
• Future scope of this system is to control the accidents and providing useful details about
the accidental vehicle, thereby reducing the rate of accidents taking place due to
drunken driving.

1.6 Material Requirement:


Hardware Components:

• ARDUINO UNO
• ALCOHOL SENSOR (MQ3 SENSOR)
• BUZZER
• PCB (PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD)
• JUMPER WIRES
• TRANSISTOR
• ADAPTER (12V)
• GSM MODULE
• GPS MODULE
Software Components:
• ARDUINO IDE (INTEGRATED DEVELOPMENT ENVIRONMENT)

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ARDUINO UNO:
The Arduino Uno is an open-source microcontroller board based on the Microchip
ATmega328P microcontroller and developed by Arduino.cc. The board is equipped with sets
of digital and analog input/output (I/O) pins that may be interfaced to various expansion boards
(shields) and other circuits. The board has 14 digital I/O pins (six capable of PWM output), 6
analog I/O pins, and is programmable with the Arduino IDE (Integrated Development
Environment), via a type B USB cable. It can be powered by the USB cable or by an external
9-volt battery, though it accepts voltages between 7 and 20 volts. It is similar to the Arduino
Nano and Leonardo. The hardware reference design is distributed under a Creative Commons
Attribution Share-Alike 2.5 license and is available on the Arduino website. Layout and
production files for some versions of the hardware are also available.
Technical specifications:
Operating Voltage: 5 Volts
Input Voltage: 7 to 20 Volts
Digital I/O Pins: 14 (of which 6 can provide PWM output)
UART: 1
I2C: 1
SPPI: 1
Analog Input Pins: 6
DC Current per I/O Pin: 20 Ma
DC Current for 3.3V Pin: 50 mA
Flash Memory: 32 KB of which 0.5 KB used by bootloader
SRAM: 2 KB
EEPROM: 1 KB
Clock Speed: 16 MHz
Length: 68.6 mm
Width: 53.4 mm
Weight: 25 g
Headers
General Pin functions:
LED: There is a built-in LED driven by digital pin 13. When the pin is high value, the LED is
on, when the pin is low, it is off.

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VIN: The input voltage to the Arduino/Genuino board when it is using an external power
source (as opposed to 5 volts from the USB connection or other regulated power source). You
can Arduino UNO … supply voltage through this pin, or, if supplying voltage via the power
jack, access it through this pin.
5V: This pin outputs a regulated 5V from the regulator on the board. The board can be supplied
with power either from the DC power jack (7 - 20V), the USB connector (5V), or the VIN pin
of the board (7-20V). Supplying voltage via the 5V or 3.3V pins bypasses the regulator, and
can damage the board.
3V3: A 3.3 volt supply generated by the on-board regulator. Maximum current draw is 50 mA.
GND: Ground pins. IOREF: This pin on the Arduino/Genuino board provides the voltage
reference with which the microcontroller operates. A properly configured shield can read the
IOREF pin voltage and select the appropriate power source, or enable voltage translators on
the outputs to work with the 5V or 3.3V.
Reset: Typically used to add a reset button to shields that block the one on the board.
Special pin functions Each of the 14 digital pins and 6 analog pins on the Uno can be
used as an input or output, under software control (using … pinMode(), digitalWrite(), and
digitalRead() functions).
They operate at 5 volts. Each pin can provide or receive 20 mA as the recommended
operating condition and has an internal pull-up resistor (disconnected by default) of 20-50K
ohm. A maximum of 40mA must not be exceeded on any I/O pin to avoid permanent damage
to the microcontroller.
The Uno has 6 analog inputs, labeled A0 through A5; each provides 10 bits of resolution
(i.e. 1024 different values). By default, they measure from ground to 5 volts, though it is
possible to change the upper end of the range using the AREF pin and the analogReference()
function]

Fig:1- Arduino Uno

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In addition, some pins have specialized functions:


Serial / UART: pins 0 (RX) and 1 (TX). Used to receive (RX) and transmit (TX) TTL serial
data. These pins are connected to the corresponding pins of the ATmega8U2 USB-to-TTL
serial chip.
External interrupts: pins 2 and 3. These pins can be configured to trigger an interrupt on a
low value, a rising or falling edge, or a change in value.
PWM (pulse-width modulation): pins 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, and 11. Can provide 8-bit PWM output
with the analogWrite() function.
SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface): pins 10 (SS), 11 (MOSI), 12 (MISO), and 13 (SCK). These
pins support SPI communication using the SPI library.
TWI (two-wire interface) / I²C: pin SDA (A4) and pin SCL (A5). Support TWI
communication using the Wire library.
AREF (analog reference): Reference voltage for the analog inputs.

ALCOHOL SENSOR (MQ3):

MQ3 is one of the most commonly used sensors in the MQ sensor series. It is a Metal
Oxide Semiconductor (MOS) type of sensor. Metal oxide sensors are also known
as Chemiresistors, because sensing is based on the change of resistance of the sensing material
when exposed to alcohol. So by placing it in a simple voltage divider network, alcohol
concentrations can be detected.

Fig:2- MQ3 Sensor

MQ3 alcohol sensor works on 5V DC and draws around 800mW. It can detect Alcohol
concentrations anywhere from 25 to 500 ppm.

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Here are the complete specifications:

Operating voltage 5V

Load resistance 200 KΩ

Heater resistance 33Ω ± 5%

Heating consumption <800mw

Sensing Resistance 1 MΩ – 8 MΩ

Concentration Scope 25 – 500 ppm

Preheat Time Over 24 hour

Table-1: Specifications of alcohol sensor

MQ3 Alcohol Sensor Module Hardware Overview:

Since the MQ3 alcohol sensor is not breadboard compatible, we recommend this handy
little breakout board. It’s very easy to use and comes with two different outputs. It not only
provides a binary indication of the presence of alcohol but also an analog representation of its
concentration in air.

Fig:3-backside of sensor

The analog output voltage provided by the sensor (at AO pin) varies in proportion to
the alcohol concentration. The higher the alcohol concentration in the air, the higher the output
voltage; Whereas lower concentration gives lower output voltage.

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MQ3 Alcohol Sensor Module Pinout:

Now let’s have a look at the pinout.

Fig:4- Pinout of MQ3 Sensor


VCC supplies power for the module. You can connect it to 5V output from your Arduino.
GND is the Ground Pin and needs to be connected to GND pin on the Arduino.
D0 provides a digital representation of the presence of alcohol.
A0 provides analog output voltage in proportional to the concentration of alcohol.

fig:5- sensitivity of MQ3 sensor

The module has a built-in potentiometer for adjusting the sensitivity of the digital output
(DO). You can use it to set a threshold; so that when the alcohol concentration exceeds the
threshold value, the module will output LOW otherwise HIGH.

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BUZZER:

Piezoelectric buzzers, or piezo buzzers, as they are sometimes called, were invented by
Japanese manufacturers and fitted into a wide array of products during the 1970s to 1980s. This
advancement mainly came about because of cooperative efforts by Japanese manufacturing
companies. In 1951, they established the Barium Titanate Application Research Committee,
which allowed the companies to be "competitively cooperative" and bring about several
piezoelectric innovations and inventions.

Fig:6- Buzzer

A piezoelectric element may be driven by an oscillating electronic circuit or


other audio signal source, driven with a piezoelectric audio amplifier. Sounds commonly used
to indicate that a button has been pressed are a click, a ring or a beep.

Interior of a readymade loudspeaker, showing a piezoelectric-disk-beeper (With 3


electrodes including 1 feedback-electrode (the central, small electrode joined with red wire in
this photo), and an oscillator to self-drive the buzzer.

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A piezoelectric buzzer/beeper also depends on acoustic cavity resonance or Helmholtz


resonance to produce an audible beep.

While technological advancements have caused buzzers to be impractical and


undesirable, there are still instances in which buzzers and similar circuits may be used.
Present day applications include:

• Novelty uses
• Judging panels
• Educational purposes
• Annunciator panels
• Electronic metronomes
• Game show lock-out device
• Microwave ovens and other household appliances
• Sporting events such as basketball games
• Electrical alarms
• Joy buzzer (mechanical buzzer used for pranks).

PCB (PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD):


A printed circuit board (PCB) mechanically supports and electrically
connects electronic components using conductive tracks, pads and other features etched from
one or more sheet layers of copper laminated onto and/or between sheet layers of a non-
conductive substrate. Components are generally soldered onto the PCB to both electrically
connect and mechanically fasten them to it.
Printed circuit boards are used in all but the simplest electronic products. They are also
used in some electrical products, such as passive switch boxes.
Alternatives to PCBs include wire wrap and point-to-point construction, both once
popular but now rarely used. PCBs require additional design effort to lay out the circuit, but
manufacturing and assembly can be automated. Electronic computer-aided design software is
available to do much of the work of layout. Mass-producing circuits with PCBs is cheaper and
faster than with other wiring methods, as components are mounted and wired in one operation.
Large numbers of PCBs can be fabricated at the same time, and the layout only has to be done
once. PCBs can also be made manually in small quantities, with reduced benefits.

`
Fig:7-PCB

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PCBs can be single-sided (one copper layer), double-sided (two copper layers on both
sides of one substrate layer), or multi-layer (outer and inner layers of copper, alternating with
layers of substrate). Multi-layer PCBs allow for much higher component density, because
circuit traces on the inner layers would otherwise take up surface space between components.
The rise in popularity of multilayer PCBs with more than two, and especially with more than
four, copper planes was concurrent with the adoption of surface mount technology. However,
multilayer PCBs make repair, analysis, and field modification of circuits much more difficult
and usually impractical.

JUMPER WIRES:
A jump wire (also known as jumper, jumper wire, jumper cable, DuPont wire or cable)
is an electrical wire, or group of them in a cable, with a connector or pin at each end (or
sometimes without them – simply "tinned"), which is normally used to interconnect the
components of a breadboard or other prototype or test circuit, internally or with other
equipment or components, without soldering
Individual jump wires are fitted by inserting their "end connectors" into the slots
provided in a breadboard, the header connector of a circuit board, or a piece of test equipment.
Stranded 22AWG jump wires with solid tips
Types Jumper wires with crocodile clips Jump wires at the end of a multi-coloured
ribbon cable are used to connect the pin header at the left side of a blue USB2Serial board to a
white breadboard below. Another jumper cable ending in a USB micro male connector mates
to the right side of the USB2Serial board. Red and black tinned jump wires can be seen on the
breadboard.

Fig:8- Jumper Wires

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TYPES OF JUMPER WIRES:


There are different types of jumper wires. Some have the same type of electrical
connector at both ends, while others have different connectors. Some common connectors are:
Solid tips – are used to connect on/with a breadboard or female header connector. The
arrangement of the elements and ease of insertion on a breadboard allows increasing the
mounting density of both components and jump wires without fear of shortcircuits. The jump
wires vary in size and colour to distinguish the different working signals.
Crocodile clips – are used, among other applications, to temporarily bridge sensors, buttons
and other elements of prototypes with components or equipment that have arbitrary connectors,
wires, screw terminals, etc.
Banana connectors – are commonly used on test equipment for DC and lowfrequency AC
signals.
Registered jack (RJnn) – are commonly used in telephone (RJ11) and computer networking
(RJ45).
RCA connectors – are often used for audio, low-resolution composite video signals, or other
low-frequency applications requiring a shielded cable.
RF connectors – are used to carry radio frequency signals between circuits, test equipment,
and antennas.
RF jumper cables - Jumper cables is a smaller and more bendable corrugated cable which is
used to connect antennas and other components to network cabling.
Jumpers are also used in base stations to connect antennas to radio units. Usually the most
bendable jumper cable diameter is 1/2".

TRANSISTOR:
A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switch electronic signals
and electrical power. Transistors are one of the basic building blocks of
modern electronics.[1] It is composed of semiconductor material usually with at least
three terminals for connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of
the transistor's terminals controls the current through another pair of terminals. Because the
controlled (output) power can be higher than the controlling (input) power, a transistor can
amplify a signal. Today, some transistors are packaged individually, but many more are found
embedded in integrated circuits.
Austro-Hungarian physicist Julius Edgar Lilienfeld proposed the concept of a field-
effect transistor in 1926, but it was not possible to actually construct a working device at that
time.[2] The first working device to be built was a point-contact transistor invented in 1947 by
American physicists John Bardeen and Walter Brattain while working under William
Shockley at Bell Labs. The three shared the 1956 Nobel Prize in Physics for their
achievement.[3] The most widely used type of transistor is the metal–oxide–semiconductor
field-effect transistor (MOSFET), which was invented by Mohamed Atalla and Dawon

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Kahng at Bell Labs in 1959.[4][5][6] Transistors revolutionized the field of electronics, and paved
the way for smaller and cheaper radios, calculators, and computers, among other things.
Most transistors are made from very pure silicon, and some from germanium, but
certain other semiconductor materials are sometimes used. A transistor may have only one kind
of charge carrier, in a field-effect transistor, or may have two kinds of charge carriers in bipolar
junction transistor devices. Compared with the vacuum tube, transistors are generally smaller
and require less power to operate. Certain vacuum tubes have advantages over transistors at
very high operating frequencies or high operating voltages. Many types of transistors are made
to standardized specifications by multiple manufacturers.

Fig:9- Transistor
Bipolar Junction Transistor, abbreviated as BJT. It is an NPN transistor.
It has three terminals named as:
• Emitter
• Collector
• Base

The maximum current gain of BC547 is 800A.


Collector-Emitter Voltage is 65V.

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Collector-Base Voltage is 80V.


Emitter-Base Voltage is 8V.
Working of BC547
BC547 has two working states which are:

Forward Biased & Reverse Biased.


In a forward biased state, the collector and emitter are connected allowing current to
pass through. While in a reverse biased state, it works as an open switch and doesn't allow the
current to pass.

Applications of BC547:
BC547 is normally used for:
• Current Amplification.
• Fast switching.
• Pulse Width Modulation.

ADAPTER (12V):
An AC adapter, AC/DC adapter, or AC/DC converter[1] is a type of external power
supply, often enclosed in a case similar to an AC plug. Other common names include plug
pack, plug-in adapter, adapter block, domestic mains adapter, line power adapter, wall
wart, power brick, and power adapter. Adapters for battery-powered equipment may be
described as chargers or rechargers (see also battery charger). AC adapters are used with
electrical devices that require power but do not contain internal components to derive the
required voltage and power from mains power. The internal circuitry of an external power
supply is very similar to the design that would be used for a built-in or internal supply.
External power supplies are used both with equipment with no other source of power
and with battery-powered equipment, where the supply, when plugged in, can sometimes
charge the battery in addition to powering the equipment.

Fig:10- Adapter

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Use of an external power supply allows portability of equipment powered either by


mains or battery without the added bulk of internal power components, and makes it
unnecessary to produce equipment for use only with a specified power source; the same device
can be powered from 120 VAC or 230 VAC mains, vehicle or aircraft battery by using a
different adapter. Another advantage of these designs can be increased safety; since the
hazardous 120 or 240 volt mains power is transformed to a lower, safer voltage at the wall
outlet and the appliance that is handled by the user is powered by this lower voltage.

Modes of operation:

Fig:11- Modes of Operation

An AC adapter disassembled to reveal a simple, unregulated linear DC supply circuit:


a transformer, four diodes in a bridge rectifier, and an electrolytic capacitor to smooth the
waveform
Originally, most AC/DC adapters were linear power supplies, containing
a transformer to convert the mains electricity voltage to a lower voltage, a rectifier to convert
it to pulsating DC, and a filter to smooth the pulsating waveform to DC, with
residual ripple variations small enough to leave the powered device unaffected. Size and
weight of the device was largely determined by the transformer, which in turn was determined
by the power output and mains frequency. Ratings over a few watts made the devices too large
and heavy to be physically supported by a wall outlet. The output voltage of these adapters
varied with load; for equipment requiring a more stable voltage, linear voltage
regulator circuitry was added. Losses in the transformer and the linear regulator were
considerable; efficiency was relatively low, and significant power dissipated as heat even when
not driving a load.
Early in the twenty-first century, switched-mode power supplies (SMPSs) became
almost ubiquitous for this purpose. Main’s voltage is rectified to a high direct voltage driving
a switching circuit, which contains a transformer operating at a high frequency and outputs
direct current at the desired voltage. The high-frequency ripple is more easily filtered out than
mains-frequency. The high frequency allows the transformer to be small, which reduces its
losses; and the switching regulator can be much more efficient than a linear regulator. The
result is a much more efficient, smaller, and lighter device. Safety is ensured, as in the older
linear circuit, because a transformer still provides galvanic isolation.
A linear circuit must be designed for a specific, narrow range of input voltages (e.g.,
220–240 VAC) and must use a transformer appropriate for the frequency (usually 50 or 60 Hz),

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but a switched-mode supply can work efficiently over a very wide range of voltages and
frequencies; a single 100–240 VAC unit will handle almost any mains supply in the world.
However, unless very carefully designed and using suitable components, switching
adapters are more likely to fail than the older type, due in part to complex circuitry and the use
of semiconductors. Unless designed well, these adapters may be easily damaged by overloads,
even transient ones, which can come from lightning, brief mains overvoltage (sometimes
caused by an incandescent light on the same power circuit failing), component degradation,
etc. A very common mode of failure is due to the use of electrolytic
capacitors whose equivalent series resistance (ESR) increases with age; switching regulators
are very sensitive to high ESR (the older linear circuit also used electrolytic capacitors, but the
effect of degradation is much less dramatic). Well-designed circuits pay attention to the ESR,
ripple current rating, pulse operation, and temperature rating of capacitors.
Many inexpensive switched-mode AC adapters do not implement adequate filtering
and/or shielding for electromagnetic interference that they generate. The nature of these high
speed, high-energy switching designs is such that when these preventative measures are not
implemented, relatively high energy harmonics can be generated, and radiated, well into the
radio portion of the spectrum. The amount of RF energy typically decreases with frequency;
so, for instance, interference in the medium wave (US AM) broadcast band in the one-
megahertz region may be strong, while interference with the FM broadcast band around 100
megahertz may be considerably less. Distance is a factor; the closer the interference is to a
radio receiver, the more intense it will be. Even WiFi reception in the gigahertz range can be
degraded if the receiving antennae are very close to a radiating AC adapter. A determination
of if interference is coming from a specific AC adaptor can be made simply by unplugging the
suspect adapter while observing the amount of interference received in the problem radio band.
In a modern household or business environment, there may be multiple AC adapters in use; in
such a case, unplug them all, then plug them back in one by one until the culprit or culprits is
found.
GSM MODULE:
The Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) is a standard developed by
the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) to describe the protocols for
second-generation (2G) digital cellular networks used by mobile devices such as mobile
phones and tablets. It was first deployed in Finland in December 1991.[2] By the mid-2010s, it
became a global standard for mobile communications achieving over 90% market share, and
operating in over 193 countries and territories.
2G networks developed as a replacement for first generation (1G) analog cellular
networks. The GSM standard originally described a digital, circuit-switched network optimized
for full duplex voice telephony. This expanded over time to include data communications, first
by circuit-switched transport, then by packet data transport via General Packet Radio
Service (GPRS), and Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE).
Subsequently, the 3GPP developed third-generation (3G) UMTS standards, followed
by the fourth-generation (4G) LTE Advanced and the fifth-generation 5G standards, which do
not form part of the ETSI GSM standard.
"GSM" is a trade mark owned by the GSM Association. It may also refer to the
(initially) most common voice codec used, Full Rate.

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As a result of the network's widespread use across Europe, the acronym "GSM" was
briefly used a generic term for phones in France, the Netherlands and in Wallonia, Belgium.

SIM800L is a miniature cellular module which allows for GPRS transmission, sending
and receiving SMS and making and receiving voice calls. Low cost and small footprint and
quad band frequency support make this module perfect solution for any project that require
long range connectivity. After connecting power module boots up, searches for cellular
network and login automatically. On board LED displays connection state (no network
coverage - fast blinking, logged in - slow blinking).

NOTICE: Be prepared to handle huge power consumption with peek up to 2A.


Maximum voltage on UART in this module is 2.8V. Higher voltage will kill the module. Two
antennas!

This module have two antennas included. First is made of wire (which solders directly
to NET pin on PCB) - very useful in narrow places. Second - PCB antenna - with double sided
tape and attached pigtail cable with IPX connector. This one have better performance and
allows to put your module inside a metal case - as long the antenna is outside.

Fig:12-GSM Module

Specifications:

Supply voltage: 3.8V - 4.2V

Recommended supply voltage: 4V

Power consumption:

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sleep mode < 2.0mA

idle mode < 7.0mA

GSM transmission (avg): 350 mA

GSM transmission (peek): 2000mA

Module size: 25 x 23 mm

Interface: UART (max. 2.8V) and AT commands

SIM card socket: microSIM (bottom side)

Supported frequencies: Quad Band (850 / 950 / 1800 /1900 MHz)

Antenna connector: IPX

Status signaling: LED

Working temperature range: -40 do + 85 ° C

Set includes:

• SIM800L module
• goldpin headers
• wire antenna

GPS MODULE:
The Global Positioning System (GPS), originally Navistar GPS, is a satellite-based
radionavigation system owned by the United States government and operated by the United
States Space Force. It is one of the global navigation satellite systems (GNSS) that
provides geolocation and time information to a GPS receiver anywhere on or near the Earth
where there is an unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS satellites. Obstacles such as
mountains and buildings block the relatively weak GPS signals.
The GPS does not require the user to transmit any data, and it operates independently
of any telephonic or internet reception, though these technologies can enhance the usefulness
of the GPS positioning information. The GPS provides critical positioning capabilities to
military, civil, and commercial users around the world. The United States government created
the system, maintains it, and makes it freely accessible to anyone with a GPS receiver.[4]
The GPS project was started by the U.S. Department of Defense in 1973, with the first
prototype spacecraft launched in 1978 and the full constellation of 24 satellites operational in
1993. Originally limited to use by the United States military, civilian use was allowed from the
1980s following an executive order from President Ronald Reagan after the Korean Air Lines
Flight 007 incident. Advances in technology and new demands on the existing system have
now led to efforts to modernize the GPS and implement the next generation of GPS Block

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IIIA satellites and Next Generation Operational Control System (OCX).[6] Announcements
from Vice President Al Gore and the Clinton Administration in 1998 initiated these changes,
which were authorized by the U.S. Congress in 2000.
During the 1990s, GPS quality was degraded by the United States government in a
program called "Selective Availability"; this was discontinued on May 1, 2000 by a law signed
by President Bill Clinton.[7]
The GPS service is provided by the United States government, which can selectively
deny access to the system, as happened to the Indian military in 1999 during the Kargil War,
or degrade the service at any time.[8] As a result, several countries have developed or are in the
process of setting up other global or regional satellite navigation systems. The Russian Global
Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS) was developed contemporaneously with GPS, but
suffered from incomplete coverage of the globe until the mid-2000s.[9] GLONASS can be
added to GPS devices, making more satellites available and enabling positions to be fixed more
quickly and accurately, to within two meters (6.6 ft).[10] China's BeiDou Navigation Satellite
System began global services in 2018, and finished its full deployment in 2020.[11] There are
also the European Union Galileo positioning system, and India's NavIC. Japan's Quasi-Zenith
Satellite System (QZSS) is a GPS satellite-based augmentation system to enhance GPS's
accuracy in Asia-Oceania, with satellite navigation independent of GPS scheduled for 2023.[12]
When selective availability was lifted in 2000, GPS had about a five-meter (16 ft)
accuracy. The latest stage of accuracy enhancement uses the L5 band and is now fully
deployed. GPS receivers released in 2018 that use the L5 band can have much higher accuracy,
pinpointing to within 30 centimetres (11.8 in).

Fig:13- GPS Module


The NEO-6M GPS module is a well-performing complete GPS receiver with a built-in
25 x 25 x 4mm ceramic antenna, which provides a strong satellite search capability. With the

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power and signal indicators, you can monitor the status of the module. Thanks to the data
backup battery, the module can save the data when the main power is shut down accidentally.
Its 3mm mounting holes can ensure easy assembly on your aircraft, which thus can fly steadily
at a fixed position, return to Home automatically, and automatic waypoint flying, etc. Or you
can apply it on your smart robot car for automatic returning or heading to a certain destination,
making it a real "smart" bot.

Features:
1) A complete GPS module with an active antenna integrated, and a built-in EEPROM to save
configuration parameter data.
2) Built-in 25 x 25 x 4mm ceramic active antenna provides strong satellite search capability.
3) Equipped with power and signal indicator lights and data backup battery.
4) Power supply: 3-5V; Default baud rate: 9600bps.
5) Interface: RS232 TTL.

ARDUINO IDE (INTEGRATED DEVELOPMENT ENVIRONMENT):


Arduino Compiler : The Arduino IDE is a cross-platform application written in Java,
and is derived from the IDE for the Processing programming language and the Wiring project.
It is designed to introduce programming to artists and other newcomers unfamiliar with
software development. It includes a code editor with features such as syntax highlighting, brace
matching, and automatic indentation, and is also capable of compiling and uploading programs
to the board with a single click. There is typically no need to edit make files or run programs
on a command-line interface. Although building on command-line is possible if required with
some third-party tools such a Ino. The Arduino IDE comes with a C/C++ library called
"Wiring" (from the project of the same name), which makes many common input/output
operations much easier. Arduino programs are written in C/C++.

Fig:14-Arduino IDE

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CHAPTER-2
LITERATURE SURVEY
2.1 Literature Review:
Several approaches have been proposed related to this issue in many papers. Of these,
some specific papers have been analysed in the following paragraphs.
Vijay Savania proposed a system using an alcohol sensor placed in the vehicle along
with the ultrasonic sensor used for car accident prevention. The resulting information is
transmitted via SMS to the close by acquaintance through the GSM module.MS Malathi
proposed a software environment indicating the alcohol sensor placed on the steering wheel
detects the alcohol level and also a seat-belt detector is introduced for the safety of the driver
during accidents by locking the seat-belt slot due to which the ignition can never be started.
Dada Emmanuel Gbenga el al [6] proposed a prototype to detect alcohol and an engine locking
mechanism by using an Arduino-Uno microcontroller interfaced with an alcohol sensor along
with an LCD screen and a DC motor. In case alcohol is detected the engine is stopped, hence
needs to be parked instantly
Aryan Mathur proposed a system imbedded on the steering wheel of the four wheeler
to detect the alcohol level of the driver, the respective output is sent via signal to piezoelectric
shaft and key casting is locked/unlocked. RF receiver receives the signals from the transmitters
placed on the accident prone sites and the driver is alerted regarding the respective zones. Prof.
Dr. D.G.Jha, proposed a model which aims at preventing the user from driving when drunk and
reduces the number of accidents occurring due to drunken driving. In case, if the driver is
intoxicated before but consumes the alcohol in motion, the sensor continues measuring and
when the level crosses the limit, the vehicle starts slowing down and is stationed.
GPS based vehicle tracking and monitoring system- A solution for public
transportationThe author of the paper provides a solution for tracking and monitoring the public
transportation vehicles using devices such as Raspberry Pi and GPS Antenna. Raspberry Pi
processing board can be used to receiving values and gives the result. This method can find a
way to monitor the transportation vehicle from the location source to destination. In this paper,
there is a use of GPS receiver module for receiving the latitude and longitude values of the
present location of the vehicle continuously. A passenger of the vehicle will give different
locations to the system between the source and destination locations. These values will be
stored in the Raspberry Pi database and Raspberry Pi processor will compare the passenger
specified values with the current vehicle location values and if the result is not the same then
the passenger will be informed with warning message via display system that driver is driving
in the wrong direction. Real-time GPS vehicle tracking system In this paper implementation
and designing of a real-time GPS tracker system via Arduino was applied. This method was
applicable for salesman tracking, private driver and for vehicle safety. The author of the paper
also tried to solve the problem of owners who have expensive cars to observe and track the
vehicle and find out vehicle movement and its past activities of vehicle. The system has
GPS/GSM modules controlled by Arduino MEGA placed inside the vehicle. The vehicle
position will be updated every time as the vehicle moves. Then User will send SMS on
registered number and they will receives the coordinate location. At the same time the data will
get stored on SD card continuously. The location will be accessible to users by system via
website over the internet. Android app based vehicle tracking using GPS and GSM The author
of this paper has explains an embedded system, used to know the location of the vehicle using

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technologies like GSM and GPS. System needs closely linked GPS and GSM module with a
microcontroller. Initially, the GPS installed in the device will receive the vehicle location from
satellite and store it in a microcontroller‘s buffer. In order to track location the registered mobile
number has to send request, once authentication of number get completed, the location will be
sent to mobile number in the form of SMS. Then GSM get deactivated and GPS get activated
again. The SMS consist of latitude and longitude value of vehicle. This value received in the
SMS can be viewed via android app and this coordinate will be plotted in the app automatically
Survey paper on vehicle tracking system using GPS and android This paper propose a GPS
based vehicle tracking system to help organization for finding addresses of their vehicles and
locate their positions on mobile devices. The author states system will give the exact location
of vehicle along with distance between user and vehicle. The system will have single android
mobile, GPS and GSM modems along with processor that is installed in vehicle. When vehicle
get activated and starts moving, the location of the vehicle will be updated continuously to a
server using GPRS service. Monitoring unit will access the database from server to check the
vehicle location. The location information present on database will be plotted using Google
maps on monitoring device. Monitoring unit can be a Web application or Android application
or a through which user will get to know the actual position of the proposed vehicle. Review
of Accident Alert and Vehicle Tracking System In this paper, the author has described the
system that can track the vehicle and detect an accident. There will be automatic detection of
traffic accidents using vibration sensors or a piezoelectric sensor. This sensor will first sense
the occurrence of an accident and give its output to the microcontroller. As soon as vehicle
meets accident the GPS module will detect the latitude and longitudinal position of a vehicle.
Then the GSM module sends latitude and longitude position of the vehicle to the ambulance
which is near to that location. This message sending operation will be automatically done and
an alert message may send to the central emergency dispatch server. This system is familiar
with vibration sensor, Raspberry Pi, GPS and GSM modules to detect traffic accidents.

2.2 Conclusions on Review:


We conclude that achieving the goal of this project might bring some peace to the
human mankind. It also saves so called challan to the people. Our project might be extended
and future generation students can also take our project As earlier mentioned before small
components liked led and lcd can be added to bring the project to a new extent. Advanced
mechanical technology might also bring a major change in the braking and vehicle control
system too
The aim of the paper is to give an overview of detecting. This system used to track the
vehicle by using GPS which is one of the biggest technological advancements to track the
activities of the vehicle. This system can be used in both cases of personal as well as business
purpose to improve safety and security. This technology can also help to advance the system
of transportation and can be used in many organizations for security purpose and tracking
purpose. This system allows organizations to track their vehicles and to get the exact location
of the vehicle.
Many processes and techniques are being used for overcoming the accidents that causes
due to the over drinking of alcohol by the drivers. There are usually more than one method and
technique; some adopt different technique like locking of steering, ignition interlock, vehicle
interlock system and many more. The technique includes many considerations; some of these

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considerations include cost, appearance, application of technique and many more. In this
project, we have tried our best to find out the golden mean through which we can restrict the
driver, if he/she is not in his conscious mind due to the over concentration of alcohol. Through
this way we can prevent the road accidents on daily basis. An effective solution is provided to
develop the intelligent system for vehicles which will monitor various parameters of vehicle
in-between constant time period and will send this data to the base unit as explained in this
paper, by using hardware platform whose Core is Arduino, Alcohol sensor mq3, GPS & GSM
module. The designed system would finish the function of communicating with the base station
via GPS, GSM and control of various parameters. The whole Control system has the advantage
of small volume and high reliability. Future scope of this system is to control the accidents and
providing useful details about the accidental vehicle, thereby reducing the rate of accidents
taking place due to drunken driving. This system brings innovation to the existing technology
in the vehicles and also improves the safety features, hence proving to be an effective
development in the automobile industry.

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CHAPTER-3
PROJECT DESIGN
3.1 Overview of the Design:

Fig:15- Circuit Diagram


Arduino is used for controlling whole the process with a GPS Receiver and GSM
module. GPS Receiver is used for detecting coordinates of the vehicle, GSM module is used
for sending the coordinates to user by SMS. And an optional 16x2 LCD is also used for
displaying status messages or coordinates and the amount of alcohol consumed by the person.
We have used GPS Module NEO-6M and GSM Module SIM800L.

When we ready with our hardware after programming, we can install it in our vehicle
and power it up.

Sent message is received by GSM module which is connected to the system and sends
message data to Arduino. Arduino reads it and extract main message from the whole message.
And then compare it with predefined message in Arduino. If any match occurs then Arduino
reads coordinates by extracting $GPGGA String from GPS module data (GPS working
explained above) and send it to user by using GSM module. This message contains the
coordinates of vehicle location.

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3.2 Equipment Analysis:

• In the first stage of the project the basic components used are sensor, Arduino and
buzzer. But in extension of the first stage we can also use two more components based
on the requirement and the price that are willing to support by the customer
• LED light will be the first extension to the buzzer. Even when the frequency of buzzer
gets any disturbances an led is placed parallel to the buzzer glowing alongside the
ringing of the buzzer.
• Coming to the other extension of the first stage we can also use LCD (16x2) to display
the amount of alcohol consumed by the person. But the initialization of some
commands may be seen to the person drunk and may damage the total kit.

Fig:16- Additional components


• Originally three stages would be done but due to this pandemic only two stages can be
done
• Elements involved are Arduino uno, MQ3 sensors, GSM & GPS Modules
• The program used to make this project is c language.
• Work completed till stage two
• The cost we estimated was around 4,000 but due to some changes our expenses went
till 6,000
• The problem already told and mentioned is that the dot at the end of the google maps
link.
• Project can be extended at any means necessary. For example, many extensions can be
made to this project but those extensions will be coming up with a certain cost. So if
the buyer or the consumer is ready to take the burden of the cost and feels safety is more
important than he can go with it

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3.3 Module Definition:

Arduino Uno Module:


Arduino Uno is a microcontroller board developed by Arduino.cc which is an open-source
electronics platform mainly based on AVR microcontroller Atmega328. The first Arduino
project was started in Interaction Design Institute Ivrea in 2003 by David Cuartielles and
Massimo Banzi with the intention of providing a cheap and flexible way for students and
professionals for controlling a number of devices in the real world.

Fig:17- Pins of Arduino Uno

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GPS Module:
A GSM module or a GPRS module is a chip or circuit that will be used to establish
communication between a mobile device or a computing machine and a GSM or GPRS system.

Fig:18 Pins of GPS Module


GSM Module:
A GSM module or a GPRS module is a chip or circuit that will be used to establish
communication between a mobile device or a computing machine and a GSM or GPRS system.
The modem (modulator-demodulator) is a critical part here.

Fig:19- dismantled GSM Module

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3.4 Module Functionalities:

Arduino Uno:

Pin Pin Name Details


Category
Power Vin, 3.3V, 5V, GND Vin: Input voltage to Arduino when using an external
power source.
5V: Regulated power supply used to power
microcontroller and other components on the board.
3.3V: 3.3V supply generated by on-board voltage
regulator. Maximum current draw is 50mA.
GND: ground pins.
Reset Reset Resets the microcontroller.
Analog Pins A0 – A5 Used to provide analog input in the range of 0-5V
Input/Output Digital Pins 0 - 13 Can be used as input or output pins.
Pins
Serial 0(Rx), 1(Tx) Used to receive and transmit TTL serial data.
External 2, 3 To trigger an interrupt.
Interrupts
PWM 3, 5, 6, 9, 11 Provides 8-bit PWM output.
SPI 10 (SS), 11 (MOSI), 12 Used for SPI communication.
(MISO) and 13 (SCK)
Inbuilt LED 13 To turn on the inbuilt LED.
TWI A4 (SDA), A5 (SCA) Used for TWI communication.
AREF AREF To provide reference voltage for input voltage.

Operating Voltage 5V
Recommended Input Voltage 7-12V
Input Voltage Limits 6-20V
Analog Input Pins 6 (A0 – A5)

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Digital I/O Pins 14 (Out of which 6 provide PWM output)


DC Current on I/O Pins 40 mA
DC Current on 3.3V Pin 50 mA
Flash Memory 32 KB (0.5 KB is used for Bootloader)
SRAM 2 KB
EEPROM 1 KB
Frequency (Clock Speed) 16 MHz
Table:2-pins of Arduino Uno

• Serial Pins 0 (Rx) and 1 (Tx): Rx and Tx pins are used to receive and transmit TTL
serial data. They are connected with the corresponding ATmega328P USB to TTL
serial chip.
• External Interrupt Pins 2 and 3: These pins can be configured to trigger an interrupt
on a low value, a rising or falling edge, or a change in value.
• PWM Pins 3, 5, 6, 9 and 11: These pins provide an 8-bit PWM output by using
analogWrite() function.
• SPI Pins 10 (SS), 11 (MOSI), 12 (MISO) and 13 (SCK): These pins are used for SPI
communication.
• In-built LED Pin 13: This pin is connected with an built-in LED, when pin 13 is HIGH
– LED is on and when pin 13 is LOW, its off.

Along with 14 Digital pins, there are 6 analog input pins, each of which provide 10 bits
of resolution, i.e. 1024 different values. They measure from 0 to 5 volts but this limit can be
increased by using AREF pin with analog Reference() function.

• Analog pin 4 (SDA) and pin 5 (SCA) also used for TWI communication using Wire
library.

Arduino Uno has a couple of other pins as explained below:

• AREF: Used to provide reference voltage for analog inputs with analogReference()
function.
• Reset Pin: Making this pin LOW, resets the microcontroller.

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GPS Module:

Pin Name Description


VCC Positive power pin
RX UART receive pin
TX UART transmit pin
GND Ground

Table:3- Pins of GPS Module

GSM Module:

The SIM800L module has total 12 pins that interface it to the outside world. The
connections are as follows:

Fig:20-pins of GSM Module


NET is a pin where you can solder Helical Antenna provided along with the module.
VCC supplies power for the module. This can be anywhere from 3.4V to 4.4 volts. Remember
connecting it to 5V pin will likely destroy your module! It doesn’t even run on 3.3 V! An
external power source like Li-Po battery or DC-DC buck converters rated 3.7V 2A would work.
RST (Reset) is a hard reset pin. If you absolutely got the module in a bad space, pull this pin
low for 100ms to perform a hard reset.
RxD (Receiver) pin is used for serial communication.
TxD (Transmitter) pin is used for serial communication.
GND is the Ground Pin and needs to be connected to GND pin on the Arduino.

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RING pin acts as a Ring Indicator. It is basically the ‘interrupt’ out pin from the module. It is
by default high and will pulse low for 120ms when a call is received. It can also be configured
to pulse when an SMS is received.
DTR pin activates/deactivates sleep mode. Pulling it HIGH will put module in sleep mode,
disabling serial communication. Pulling it LOW will wake the module up.
MIC± is a differential microphone input. The two microphone pins can be connected directly
to these pins.
SPK± is a differential speaker interface. The two pins of a speaker can be tied directly to these
two pins.

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CHAPTER-4

PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION
4.1 Implementation Stages

The project has been divided into stages to make the project easier. By this type of
stages, we can make the project interesting and easy to understand.

STAGE:1 – Alcohol Detection:

Fig:21- Circuit Diagram of Stage One


In stage one, components used are MQ3 sensors, buzzer, transistor and some sets of
resistors just to make sure any additional currents might not be passed.

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STAGE 2 – Messaging System:

Fig:22- Circuit of Stage two


In stage two, the components used are only the modules which are GSM Module and
GPS Module and antenna is used additionally for GPS Module.

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4.2 Implementation Results:

Fig:23- Message
The message sent by the GSM Module will be like this and next image shows upon
when the google maps link is clicked.

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This is the image when the google maps link is clicked and this is how it seems when
pinpointing the location

Fig:24- Google maps

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CHAPTER – 5
PROJECT TESTING

5.1 Overview of Testing Methods:

The kit is small and simple and its simplicity depends on how many components you
used in this project
• Connect the components as given in the circuit diagram and make sure you don’t give
any loose connections and ground terminals should be grounded to complete the
connections.
• Now connect the Arduino cable to the Arduino Uno and dump the program given using
the Arduino IDE software
• After uploading the program remove the cable and give the supply to the Arduino via
external power supply (for our prototype we have used an adapter to make it run without
laptop’s supply).
• Now when supply is given you can see that the LEDs on Arduino Uno, MQ3 sensors,
GSM Module and GPS Module will be blinking or will be turned out through out the
time which means every component is working fine
• Coming to GPS Module the LEDs on it only turn ON when it receives the signal of the
position, if the light doesn’t glow then that means its not receiving any signal and
further you have to change the position of the antenna until you get any signal.
• Coming to GPS Module the light will blink in three different ways, which are:
1. Blinks for every 1 second, then it means that the module is getting the power
supply but didn’t connect to any cellular network yet.
2. Blinks for every 2 seconds, then it means that its searching fir the requested
GPRS connection.
3. Blinks for every 3 seconds, which means that the module has made contact with
the cellular network and ready to send the SMS.
• After getting all these conditions satisfied, your project/kit is ready to go and perform
the operation.

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CHAPTER – 6
CONCUSION AND FUTURE ENHANCEMENT

In this project work, we have implemented a complete working model using an Arduino
Uno. The programming and interfacing have been mastered during the implementation.
This work includes the study of GSM modem using sensors. The biggest advantage of
using this project is, whenever the sensor is activated, we will be getting the information from
GSM modem to our mobile numbers which are stored in GSM network operators have roaming
facilities, user can often continue to use their mobile phones when they travel to other countries
etc... And also, instant defending system will be monitored by using defending protection motor
which is operated by the relay signals.
Whenever the sensor is activated, buzzer alarm is activated and simultaneously the SMS
will be sent to the registered number within 30 seconds.
We can implement up to any number of sensors integrated with same instant protection
and also, we can add few more mobile numbers by upgrading the GSM mode.
We conclude that achieving the goal of this project might bring some peace to the
human mankind.
It also saves so called challan to the people.
Our project might be extended and future generation students can also take our project
As earlier mentioned before small components liked led and lcd can be added to bring
the project to a new extent.
Advanced mechanical technology might also bring a major change in the braking and
vehicle control system too.

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CAPTURING PUBLICATIONS

CONFERENCE:

Publishing in the conference of


INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON “RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN POWER
ENGINNERING (ICRDPE - 21)”
Organized by the department of electrical and electronics engineering on 9th and 10th of July
2021.

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ALCOHOL DETECTION WITH MESSAGING SYSTEM AND VEHICLE CONTROL

REFERENCES:
1. Wen HL. Acupuncture and electrical stimulation (AES) outpatient
detoxification. Modern Medicine.2019
2. Wen HL, Cheung SY. Treatment of drug addiction by acupuncture and electrical
stimulation. Asian Journal of Medicine.2019
3. Rampes H, Pereira S, Mortimer A, et al. Does electroacupuncture reduce craving for
alcohol? A randomized controlled study. Complementary Therapies in Medicine. 2019
4. Glasner-Edwards S, Tate SR, McQuaid JR, et al. Mechanisms of action 2019
5. Hoffman PL, Tabakoff B. Alcohol dependence: a commentary on
mechanisms. Alcohol & Alcoholism.2019
6. Kalant H. Current state of knowledge about the mechanisms of alcohol tolerance.2019
7. Morgenstern J, Bux DA, Labouvie E, et al. Examining mechanisms of action .2019
8. Adamson SJ, Sellman JD. Five-year outcomes of enhancement. Journal of Studies on
Alcohol and Drugs. 2019
9. Addolorato G, Leggio L, Ferrulli A, et al. Effectiveness and safety for maintenance of
alcohol abstinence in alcohol-2019
10. Addolorato G, Leggio L, Ojetti V, et al. Effects of short-term moderate alcohol
administration on oxidative stress.2019
11. Behavioral therapy in outpatient treatment of alcohol dependence. Alcoholism.2020
12. A review of the alcohol-disulfiram reaction in practice. The British Journal of
Psychiatry.,2020
13. Curtis JR, Geller G, Stokes EJ, et al. Characteristics, diagnosis and treatment of
alcoholism .,2020
14. Disulfiram in the treatment of alcohol dependence. Alcohol and Alcoholism., 2020
15. Fleming MF, Barry KL, MacDonald R. The Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test
(AUDIT) in a college sample. International Journal of the Addictions.,2020

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ALCOHOL DETECTION WITH MESSAGING SYSTEM AND VEHICLE CONTROL

BIBILOGRAPHY
Alcohol Alert. (1996) Drink and drugs fuel increase in violent crime. [Suggests that the
strong links between violence and the use of alcohol are confirmed by the data from the 1996
British crime survey.]

Alcohol Alert. (1998) Accident and Emergency. Issue 3. [The document suggests that
the mixture of young people and alcohol is putting a huge strain on the NHS and urges
imminent action. Despite noting that 'few departments routinely enquire about and record
alcohol consumption' high figures are quoted to illustrate their concerns.]

All Party Parliamentary Beer Group (1999) Licensing law reform panel report. [The
report of the All-Parliamentary Beer Group on licensing reform. Published in October 1999
has heavily influenced legislative proposals and initiated wide debate.]

Andreasson, S. et al. (2000) Over-serving patrons in licensed premises in Stockholm.


Addiction.95(3):359-363. [Research designed to study the frequency of alcohol service to
intoxicated patrons in licensed premises. Results showed the actors who were hired to simulate
severe intoxication were served in 95% of licensed premises.]

Bailey, D.S. & Taylor, S.P. (1991) Effects of alcohol and aggressive disposition on
human physical aggression. Journal of Research in Personality. 25:334-342. [Experimental
investigation looking at the effect of alcohol on subjects with varying levels of aggressive
dispositions. Found intoxicated subjects gave higher levels of shock than non-intoxicated
subjects under low provocation conditions. Also found the highly intoxicated, high and
moderate aggressors increased their shock settings more rapidly as a function of the opponent's
provocation than highly intoxicated low aggressors.]

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APPENDICES
#include <LiquidCrystal.h>
LiquidCrystal lcd(12,11,5,4,3,2);

#include <SoftwareSerial.h>
SoftwareSerial sim808(7,8);

#define sensor A0
#define led 13
#define buz 9

char phone_no[] = "xxxxxxx";


String data[5];
#define DEBUG true
String state,timegps,latitude,longitude;

void setup()
{
lcd.begin(16,2);
Serial.begin(9600);
sim808.begin(9600);
pinMode(sensor, INPUT);
pinMode(buz, OUTPUT);
pinMode(led, OUTPUT);

lcd.setCursor(0,0);
lcd.print("ALCOHOL DETECTION");
lcd.setCursor(0,1);
lcd.print("WITH VEHICLE ");
delay (5000);
lcd.clear();
lcd.setCursor(0,0);
lcd.print("CONTROL AND ");

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lcd.setCursor(0,1);
lcd.print("ACCIDENT DETECTION");
delay (5000);
lcd.clear();
lcd.clear();
lcd.setCursor(0,0);
lcd.print("MESSAGING");
lcd.setCursor(0,1);
lcd.print("SYSTEM");
delay (5000);
lcd.clear();

lcd.setCursor(0,0);
lcd.print("Waiting For GPS");
lcd.setCursor(0,1);
lcd.print(" Signal ");
get_sim808();
show_coordinate();
delay(3000);
lcd.clear();
lcd.setCursor(0,0);
lcd.print("GPS is OK");
delay(1000);
lcd.clear();
lcd.print("Initializing");
lcd.setCursor(0,1);
lcd.print("GSM MODEM");
delay(1000);
sim808.print("AT+CSMP=17,167,0,0");
delay(100);
sim808.print("AT+CMGF=1\r");
delay(400);

sendData("AT+CGNSPWR=1",1000,DEBUG);

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delay(50);
sendData("AT+CGNSSEQ=RMC",1000,DEBUG);
delay(150);
lcd.clear();
lcd.print("Initialized");
lcd.setCursor(0,1);
lcd.print("Successfully");
delay(2000);
lcd.clear();
}

void loop()
{
float adcValue=0;
for(int i=0;i<10;i++)
{
adcValue+= analogRead(sensor);
delay(10);
}
float v= (adcValue/10) * (5.0/1024.0);
float mgL= 0.67 * v;
Serial.print("BAC:");
Serial.print(mgL);
Serial.print(" mg/L");
lcd.setCursor(0,0);
lcd.print("BAC: ");
lcd.print(mgL,4);
lcd.print(" mg/L ");
lcd.setCursor(0,1);
if(mgL > 0.8)
{
lcd.print("Drunk");
Serial.println("Drunk");
digitalWrite(buz, HIGH);

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digitalWrite(led, HIGH);
}
else
{
lcd.print("Normal");
Serial.println("Normal");
digitalWrite(buz, LOW);
digitalWrite(led, LOW);
}

void loop() {
sendTabData("AT+CGNSINF",1000,DEBUG);
if (state !=0==mgL) {
Serial.println("State :"+state);
Serial.println("Time :"+timegps);
Serial.println("Latitude :"+latitude);
Serial.println("Longitude :"+longitude);

sim808.print("AT+CMGS=\"");
sim808.print(phone_no);
sim808.println("\"");

delay(300);

sim808.print("http://maps.google.com/maps?q=loc:");
sim808.print(latitude);
sim808.print(",");
sim808.print (longitude);
delay(200);
sim808.println((char)26);
delay(200);
sim808.println();
delay(20000);
sim808.flush();

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} else {
Serial.println("GPS Initialising...");
}
}
void sendTabData(String command , const int timeout , boolean debug){

sim808.println(command);
long int time = millis();
int i = 0;

while((time+timeout) > millis()){


while(sim808.available()){
char c = sim808.read();
if (c != ',') {
data[i] +=c;
delay(100);
} else {
i++;
}
if (i == 5) {
delay(100);
goto exitL;
}
}
}exitL:
if (debug) {
state = data[1];
timegps = data[2];
latitude = data[3];
longitude =data[4];
}
}
String sendData (String command , const int timeout ,boolean debug){

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String response = "";


sim808.println(command);
long int time = millis();
int i = 0;

while ( (time+timeout ) > millis()){


while (sim808.available()){
char c = sim808.read();
response +=c;
}
}
if (debug) {
Serial.print(response);
}
return response;
}

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