The biological levels of

organization
The biological levels of organization
of living things arranged from the
simplest to most complex are: atom,
molecules, macromolecules,
organelles, cells, tissues, organs,
organ systems, organisms,
populations, communities,
ecosystem, and biosphere.
Living things are highly organized and
structured, following a hierarchy that
can be examined on a scale from
small to large.
Based on the number
of cells the organisms
possess, they can be
classified into
Unicellular Organisms
and Multicellular
Organisms.
Based on the ultrastructure of cell, the organisms can be classified into Prokaryotic
Organisms and Eukaryotic Organisms.
Prokaryotic cells are single-celled
microorganisms known to be the earliest on
earth. Prokaryotes include Bacteria and
Archaea. The photosynthetic prokaryotes
include cyanobacteria that perform
photosynthesis.

Prokaryotic Cell Structure

A prokaryotic cell does not have a nuclear
membrane. However, the genetic material is
present in a region in the cytoplasm known as
the nucleoid. A prokaryotic cell lacks
membrane bound cell-organelles like
mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, and
Golgi bodies.
They may be spherical, rod-shaped, or spiral. A
prokaryotic cell structure is as follows:
• Capsule– It is an outer protective covering found in the bacterial cells, in addition to the cell wall.
It helps in moisture retention, protects the cell when engulfed, and helps in the attachment of
cells to nutrients and surfaces.
• Cell Wall– It is the outermost layer of the cell which gives shape to the cell.
• Cytoplasm– The cytoplasm is mainly composed of enzymes, salts, cell organelles and is a gel-like
component.
• Cell Membrane– This layer surrounds the cytoplasm and regulates the entry and exit of
substances in the cells.
• Pili– These are hair-like outgrowths that attach to the surface of other bacterial cells.
• Flagella– These are long structures in the form of a whip, that help in the locomotion of a cell.
• Ribosomes– These are involved in protein synthesis.
• Plasmids– Plasmids are non-chromosomal DNA structures. These are not involved in
reproduction.
• Nucleoid Region– It is the region in the cytoplasm where the genetic material is present.
 Reproduction in
Prokaryotes
Prokaryotes reproduce
asexually by binary
fission; they can also
exchange genetic
material by
transformation,
transduction, and
conjugation.
Conjugation
Transformation
Transduction
 Structure Of Eukaryotic Cell
The eukaryotic cell structure comprises the following:

Plasma Membrane
• The plasma membrane separates the cell from the outside environment.
• It comprises specific embedded proteins, which help in the exchange of substances in and out of the
cell.

Cell Wall
• A cell wall is a rigid structure present outside the plant cell. It is, however, absent in animal cells.
• It provides shape to the cell and helps in cell-to-cell interaction.
• It is a protective layer that protects the cell from any injury or pathogen attacks.
• It is composed of cellulose, hemicellulose, pectins, proteins, etc.

Cytoplasm
The cytoplasm is the gel-like fluid inside the cell. It is the medium for chemical reaction. It provides a
platform upon which other organelles can operate within the cell. All of the functions of cell are carried
out in the cytoplasm.
Endoplasmic Reticulum
It is a network of small, tubular structures that divides the cell surface into two parts: luminal and
extraluminal.
Endoplasmic Reticulum are of two types:
• Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum contains ribosomes.
• Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum that lacks ribosomes and is therefore smooth.

Nucleus
• The nucleoplasm enclosed within the nucleus contains DNA and proteins.
• The nuclear envelop consists of two layers- the outer membrane and the inner membrane. Both the
membranes are permeable to ions, molecules, and RNA material.
• Ribosome production also takes place inside the nucleus.

Golgi Apparatus
• It is made up of flat disc-shaped structures called cisternae.
• It is absent in red blood cells of humans and sieve cells of plants.
• They are arranged parallel and concentrically near the nucleus.
• It is an important site for the formation of glycoproteins and glycolipids.
Ribosomes
These are the main site for protein synthesis and are composed of proteins and ribonucleic acids.

Mitochondria
• These are also known as “powerhouse of cells” because they produce energy.
• It consists of an outer membrane and an inner membrane. The inner membrane is divided into folds
called cristae.
• They help in the regulation of cell metabolism.

Lysosomes
They are known as “suicidal bags” because they possess hydrolytic enzymes to digest protein, lipids,
carbohydrates, and nucleic acids.

Plastids
These are double-membraned structures and are found only in plant cell. These are of three types:
• Chloroplast that contains chlorophyll and is involved in photosynthesis.
• Chromoplast that contains a pigment called carotene that provides the plants yellow, red, or orange
colours.
• Leucoplasts that are colourless and store oil, fats, carbohydrates, or proteins.
Food is the only source of energy for all living organisms on this planet. This food is available from
different sources. Organisms are characterized into two broad categories based upon how they obtain
their energy and nutrients:
• Autotrophs
• Heterotrophs
• Lithotrophs

Autotrophs: Autotrophs are organisms who utilise sun's energy and simple compounds like carbon
dioxide and water to store energy in food (glucose and starch). They are not dependent on other
organisms for energy and instead directly obtain it from sunlight. Because of their ability to make their
own food, autotrophs are also commonly referred to as primary producers and thus occupy the base
of the food chain. They vary widely from those found on land (soil) to those that live in aquatic
environments.
Example: Most of the plants, Cyanobacteria, Seaweed, Phytoplankton etc.
Heterotrophs: Heterotrophs are those organisms that cannot prepare their own food and depend on
other organisms (plants or animals) for food. They are directly or indirectly dependent on these
producers for food. Heterotrophs occupy the second and third levels in a food chain, a sequence of
organisms that provide energy and nutrients for other organisms.
Example: All animals, human beings, fungi etc.

Lithotrophs: Lithotrophs are microorganisms that use inorganic substrates as a source of electron
donors to drive energy acquisition, using either organic carbon or carbon dioxide as a source of carbon
for constructing cellular materials. Lithotrophs are found in soil and aquatic environments wherever
their energy source is present. Most lithotrophs are autotrophs so they can grow in the absence of any
organic material.
Example: nitrifying bacteria that use ammonia and convert it into nitrite or use nitrite to produce
nitrate, hydrogen bacteria that oxidize hydrogen to water etc
Metabolism produces different types of waste products. Digestion and catabolism of proteins and nucleic acids mainly result in
nitrogenous waste. According to the type of nitrogenous waste animals excrete, there are three groups of animals as
Ammonotelic, ureotelic, uricotelic and Aminotelic.
Ammonotelic organism:
• An ammonotelic organism generally excretes nitrogenous waste as soluble ammonia.
• Ammonia, the product or waste formed is highly toxic and requires a large amount of water for its excretion.
• Most aquatic animals including protozoans, crustaceans, Platyhelminthes, cnidarians, poriferans, echinoderms, fishes,
larvae/tadpoles of amphibians are ammonotelic.
Ureotelic organism:
• A ureotelic organism generally excretes excess nitrogen as urea. Urea is less toxic and needs less water for excretion.
• Ureotelic organisms include cartilaginous fish, a few bony fishes, adult amphibians, and also mammals including humans.
Uricotelic organism:
• A uricotelic organism generally excretes excess nitrogen as uric acid.
• The excreta of the uricotelic organisms are insoluble solids or semi-solid and requires less water.
• For example: Terrestrial arthropods (including insects), lizards, snakes, birds, etc.
Aminotelic organism:
• The organisms which excrete nitrogenous waste as amino acids are called as aminotelic animals.
• Aminotelic animals include some invertebrates like some molluscs (Unio, Limnaea, etc.) and some echinoderms (e.g., Asterias)
excrete excess amino acids.
Natural environments or habitat can be categorized as aquatic (water) or terrestrial (land). Depending on
the habitat they live in, organisms can be categorised into aquatic or terrestrial organisms.
Aquatic animals:
Animals who live in water for entire lifetime or most of their lifetime are called aquatic animals. Both
aquatic invertebrates and vertebrates developed entirely different adaptions to live in water unlike the
animals that live on land. Aquatic animals can be divided into two broad groups depending on their
aquatic habitat, namely; marine animals and freshwater animals. Some examples for aquatic
invertebrates include jellyfish, corals, sea anemones, hydras, etc. These invertebrates are adapted to
acquire dissolved oxygen directly from water. Aquatic vertebrates include bony fishes, cartilaginous
fishes, whales, turtles, dolphins, sea lions, etc. Unlike the land animals, aquatic animals like fish, aquatic
mammals have fins and streamline bodies that enable them to move fast in the water.
Terrestrial animals:
Terrestrial animals are the animals who live on land for most or all of their life span. Terrestrial organisms
take up oxygen from the atmosphere whereas aquatic animals obtain oxygen dissolved in water. Air
contains more O2 as compared to water. Since the content of O2 in the air is high, the terrestrial animals
do not have to breathe faster to get more oxygen. Therefore, unlike aquatic
animals, terrestrial animals do not need adaptations for gaseous exchange and can adapt to a relaxed
mode of breathing.
Definition of Model Organism
A model organism is a non-human species that has been extensively studied and is
easy to maintain and reproduce in a laboratory setting, as well as having specific
experimental benefits.

Non-human species are kept in laboratories as model creatures to study and

experiment with biological processes. Model organisms are used to learn more about
other, more difficult-to-understand species.
Types of Model Organisms
The famous model organisms are given below.

Characteristics of E.coli as model organisms:

Escherichia coli is a rod-shaped (bacillus) Gram-negative bacterium that is frequently
used as a model organism. Factors such as its ability to grow fast using cheap media and
availability of molecular tools to perform genetic manipulations are favourable for
using E. coli as a model organism in molecular genetics.
Characteristics of S. cerevisiae as model organisms:
Saccharomyces cerevisiae (commonly known as baker's yeast) is a single-celled eukaryote that is frequently
used in scientific research. S. cerevisiae is an attractive model organism due to the fact that its genome has
been sequenced, its genetics are easily manipulated, and it is very easy to maintain in the lab.
Characteristics of D. melanogaster. as model organisms:

Melanogaster are very small and thus, very easy to maintain. Due to their small size and minimal
requirements, many Drosophila can be raised and tested within a small laboratory which does not have
access time, space or funding. Genetic factors also make this fly an ideal model organism. D.
melanogaster only has four pairs of chromosomes compared to 23 pairs in humans. This simplicity was one
of the reasons why they were first used in genetic studies; Drosophila genes could be mapped easily to
investigate genetic transmission.

Characteristics of C. elegance as model organisms:

Caenorhabditis elegans or C. elegance is a worm, has been extensively used as the model organism since
the 1970s. These C. elegans are transparent, small worms with a rapid life cycle and large brood sizes. The
majority of C. elegans are self-fertile hermaphrodites making it easy to conduct extensive experiments over
multiple generations. Likewise to other model organisms, the C. elegans genome is also wholly sequenced,
and about 60% of the human genes in C. elegans have an ortholog, making it ideal for studying the
processes of basic molecular biology.
Characteristics of A. thaliana as model organisms:
Arabidopsis thaliana or A. thaliana is a small dicotyledonous species. It is originally adopted as a
model organism because of its usefulness for genetic experiments. Important features included a
short generation time, small size that limited the requirement for growth facilities, and prolific seed
production through self-pollination.
Characteristics of M. musculus as model organisms:
The house mouse or Mus musculus is often used as a preferred model organism as mice and humans
share on average 85 percent of similarly coded genes, mice can be used as a model to study how
genetic mutations impact brain development. Changes in mouse DNA mimic changes in human DNA
and vice-versa. In addition, mice exhibit behaviours that can be used as models for exploring human
behaviour. They are also considered to be useful model organisms for understanding and studying
human disease as they develop diseases that naturally affect immune, endocrine, nervous, skeletal,
digestive, and cardiovascular systems.