PRE – CALCULUS

CONIC SECTION - Particular class of curves which often times appear in nature and which have applications
in other fields. The conic sections are the nondegenerate curves generated by the intersections of a plane with
one or two nappes of a cone.

1. CIRCLE - When a plane that is parallel to the base of the cone intersect it, a circle will be generated.
2. ELLIPSE - When a plane intersects the cone at an angle to form a bounded curve, an ellipse will be
generated.
3. PARABOLA - When a plane intersects the cone at an angle to form an unbounded curve, a parabola
will be generated.
4. HYPERBOLA - When a plane intersects both cones to form two unbounded curves, a hyperbola will be
generated.

DEGENERATE CONIC SECTION - A degenerate conic is generated when a plane intersects the vertex of the
cone. There are three types of degenerate conics:

• The degenerate form of a circle or an ellipse is a singular point.

• The degenerate form of a parabola is a line.
• The degenerate form of a hyperbola is two intersecting lines.

EQUATION OF CIRCLE:

The definition of a circle is the set of all points in a plane such that each point in the set is equidistant from a
fixed point called the center. The distance from the center is called the radius. The distance around the circle
is called the circumference.

• The Standard Equation of Circle with C(0,0) is 𝐱𝟐 + 𝐲𝟐 = 𝐫𝟐 and C(h,k) is (𝐱 − 𝐡)𝟐 + (𝐲 − 𝐤)𝟐 =
𝐫𝟐.

Example:
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 49
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 102
(𝑥 − 3)2 + (𝑦 + 4)2 = 100
(𝑥 + 10)2 + (𝑦 − 2)2 = 252
(𝑥 − 9)2 + (𝑦 − 1)2 = 15

EQUATION OF PARABOLA

A parabola is mathematically defined as follows:

“A locus of any point which is equidistant from a given point (focus) and a given line (directrix) is called a
parabola.”

PARTS OF A PARABOLA

 Vertex(V) – The Minimum Point (Lowest Point) of the Parabola if the Parabola opens to the Right
or Upwards. The Maximum Point (Highest Point) of the Parabola if the Parabola opens to the Left
or Downwards.
  Focus(F) - The focus is a unit leftward or rightward, below or above the vertex. A point inside of the
vertex.
 Directrix(d) - The directrix is a unit leftward or rightward, below or above the vertex opposite of the
Focus.

Any point on the parabola has the same distance from the focus as it has from the directrix.

 Axis of Symmetry - This line divides the parabola into two parts which are mirror images of each
other.
 Latus Rectum - The latus rectum of a parabola is the chord that is passing through the focus of the
parabola and is perpendicular to the axis of symmetry of the parabola. The Length of the Latus Rectum
is 𝐋𝐋’ = 𝟒𝐚

• A Parabola has 4 Orientation (Parabola opening to the Right, Parabola opening to the Left, Parabola
opening Upwards, Parabola opening Downwards). Each orientation has its own standard equation:

Standard Equation of Parabola with V(0,0) and Formula

Equation 𝑦2 = 4𝑎𝑥 𝑦2 = −4𝑎𝑥 𝑥2 = 4𝑎𝑦 𝑥2 = −4𝑎𝑦
Vertex 𝑉(0,0) 𝑉(0,0) 𝑉(0,0) 𝑉(0,0)
Focus F(a, 0) F(−a,0) F(0, a) F(0, −a)
Directrix x = −a x=a y = −a y=a
Axis of y=0 y=0 x=0 x=0
Symmetry (x – axis) (x – axis) (y – axis) (y – axis)
Endpoints
of LR1(a, 2a) LR1(−a,2a) LR1(−2a,a) LR1(−2a, −a)
Latus LR2(a, −2a) LR2(−a,−2a) LR2(2a,a) LR2(2a,−a)
Rectum
Length of
LR1 = 2a LR2 LR1 = 2a LR2 LR1 = 2a LR2 LR1 = 2a LR2
Latus
= 2a = 2a = 2a = 2a
Rectum
Opening To the Right To the Left Upwards Downwards

Standard Equation of Parabola with V(h,k) and Formula

(𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = (𝑥 − ℎ)2 (𝑥 − ℎ)2
Equation
4𝑎(𝑥 − ℎ) −4𝑎(𝑥 − ℎ) = 4𝑎(𝑦 − 𝑘) = −4𝑎(𝑦 − 𝑘)
Vertex 𝑉(ℎ, 𝑘) 𝑉(ℎ, 𝑘) 𝑉(ℎ, 𝑘) 𝑉(ℎ, 𝑘)
Focus F(h + a, k) F(h − a, 0) F(h,k + a) F(h,k − a)
Directrix x=h−a x=h+a y=k−a y=k+a
Axis of
y=k y=k x=h x=h
Symmetry
Endpoint
LR1(h + a, k + 2a) LR1(h − a,k + 2a) LR1(h − 2a, k + a) LR1(h − 2a, k − a)
of Latus
LR2(h + a, k − 2a) LR2(h − a,k − 2a) LR2(h + 2a, k + a) LR2(h + 2a, k − a)
Rectum
 Length of
LR1 = 2a LR2 LR1 = 2a LR2 LR1 = 2a LR2 LR1 = 2a LR2
Latus
= 2a = 2a = 2a = 2a
Rectum
Opening To the Right To the Left Upwards Downwards

Example:
𝑥2 = 12𝑦
𝑦2 = −20𝑥
(𝑥 − 10)2 = 20(𝑦 + 4)
(𝑦 − 3)2 = 8(𝑥 − 5)
(𝑥 − 16)2 = −4(𝑦 − 12)

EQUATION OF ELLIPSE

The definition of an ellipse is the set of all points in a plane, the sum of whose distances from two fixed points,
called foci, is a constant.
A circle is a special case of an ellipse in which a = b

PARTS OF AN ELLIPSE

 Major Axis(a) – The major axis is the longest diameter of the ellipse, going through the center from
one end to the other, at the broad part of the ellipse. Half of the major axis is called semi-major axis.
 Minor Axis(b) – the minor axis is the shortest diameter of the ellipse, crossing through the center at
the narrowest part of the ellipse, Half of the minor axis is called semi-minor axis.
 Center(C) – This is the intersection of the two axes of symmetry. This is the midpoint of the foci, and
also the midpoint between the vertices and co-vertices.
 Vertices(V) – This is the end points of the major axis.
 Co-Vertices(B) – This is the end points of the minor axis.
 Foci(F) – The foci are always inside the ellipse and are contained by the major axis.
 Latera Recta(LR) – (Plural word of Latus Rectum) A chord passing through a focus of an ellipse
which is perpendicular to its major axis.

a – the distance between the Vertices and the Center. b

– the distance between the Co-Vertices and the Center.
c – the distance between the Foci and the Center.
𝐛𝟐
– the distance between the Latera Recta and the Center.
𝐚

Standard Equation of Ellipse with C(0,0) and Formulas

x2 y2 x2 y2
Equation + = 1, a > b + = 1, a > b
a2 b2 b2 a2
Major Axis x – axis y – axis
Minor Axis y – axis x – axis
Center C(0,0) C(0,0)
Vertices V1(−a,0), V2(a,0) V1(0, a), V2(0,−a)
Co-Vertices B1(0,b) B2(0, −b) B1(−b, 0) B2(b,0)
 Foci F1(−c,0)F2(c,0) F1(0, c)F2(0,−c)
b2 b2 b2 b2
LR1(−c, )LR3(c, )a LR1(−, c)LR2( , c)
a a a
Endpoints of Latera Recta b2 b2 b2 b2
LR2(−c,− )LR4(c,− ) a LR3(−, −c)LR4( , −c) a
a a

b2 b2
2 2
Length of the Latera Recta
a a

Orientation Horizontal Vertical

Standard Equation of Ellipse with C(h,k) and Formulas

2 2
2 2

Equation
+= 1, a > b += 1, a > b
ab ba
Center C(h,k) C(h,k)
Vertices V1(h − a, k), V2(h + a, k) V1(h,k + a), V2(h,k − a)
Co-Vertices B1(h,k + b) B2(h,k − b) B1(h − b, k) B2(h + b, k)
Foci F1(h − c, k)F2(h + c, k) F1(h,k + c)F2(h,k − c)
b2 b2 b2 b2
LR1(h − c, k + )LR3(h + c,k + ) a LR1(h −, k + c)LR2(h +, k + c) a
Endpoints of a b2 b2 a b2 b2
Latera Recta LR2(h − c, k − )LR4(h + c,k − LR3(h −, k − c)LR4(h +, k − c) a
)a a a
Length of the
2a 2a
Major Axis
Length of the
2b 2b
Minor Axis
Length of the b2 b2
Latera Recta 2 2
a a
Orientation Horizontal Vertical
EQUATION OF HYPERBOLA

Standard Equation Horizontal Transverse Axis Vertical Transverse Axis

x2 y2 y2 x2
Center at C(0,0) − =1 − =1
a2 b2 a2 b2
2 2
2 2
Center at C(h,k) − −
=1 =1
a b a b

TRANSFORMING STANDARD EQUATION INTO GENERAL EQUATION

The General Equation of the Conic Section is Ax2 + By2 + Cx + Dy + E = 0.

Example of General Equation of Conic Section

1. 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 + 16𝑥 + 16𝑦 + 48 = 0 (Equation of Circle)

2. 𝑦2 + 2𝑥 + 10𝑦 + 11 = 0 (Equation of Parabola)
3. 6𝑥2 + 5𝑦2 + 48𝑥 + 50𝑦 + 191 = 0 (Equation of Ellipse)

SYSTEM OF NONLINEAR EQUATION

A system of nonlinear equations is a system of two or more equations in two or more variables containing at
least one equation that is not linear.

Any equation that cannot be formed into equation Ax + By + C = 0 is nonlinear equation.

Methods:

 Substitution
 Elimination
Example: (Substitution Method) Example: (Elimination Method)
1. 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 16 2. 𝑥2 − 𝑦 = −2
𝑥−𝑦=4 𝑥 − 𝑦 = −4

𝑥−𝑦=4
𝑥=𝑦+4 −1[𝑥 − 𝑦 = −4] − 1
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 16 −𝑥 + 𝑦 = 4
(𝑦 + 4)2 + 𝑦2 = 16 𝑥2 − 𝑦 = −2
𝑦2 + 8𝑦 + 16 + 𝑦2 = 16 𝑥2 − 𝑥 = 2
𝑦2 + 8𝑦 + 16 + 𝑦2 − 16 = 0 𝑥2 − 𝑥 − 2 = 0
2𝑦2 + 8𝑦 = 0 (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 1) − 0
2𝑦(𝑦 + 4) = 0 𝑥−2=0 𝑥+1=0
2𝑦 = 0 𝑦+4=0 𝑥=2 𝑥 = −1
𝑦 𝑥 − 𝑦 = −4 𝑥 − 𝑦 = −4
= 𝑦+4=0 2 − 𝑦 = −4 − 1 − 𝑦 = −4
𝑦=0 𝑦 = −4 −𝑦 − −4 − 2 − 𝑦 = −4 + 1
−𝑦 = −6 − 𝑦 = −3
𝑦=0 𝑦 = −4 𝑦𝑦
𝑥−𝑦=4 𝑥−𝑦=4 = =
𝑥−0=4 𝑥 − (−4) = 4 𝑦=6 𝑦=3
𝑥=4 𝑥 + 4 = 4 𝑥 = 2, 𝑦 = 6 𝑥 = −1,𝑦 = 3
𝑥 = 4 − 4 (2,6) Ordered Pair (−1,3) Ordered Pair
𝑥=0

𝑥 = 4, 𝑦 = 0 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = −4
(4,0) Ordered Pair (0,-4) (Ordered Pair)