Addis Ababa Institute of Technology

Department of civil and Environmental

Engineering

Hydraulics-II (CENG-2162)

By Selam Belay

2020 A.C.
Open Channel flow
 Main Topics

 General Characteristics of Open-Channel Flow

 Energy Considerations
 Uniform Depth Channel Flow
 Gradually Varies Flow
 Rapidly Varies Flow
 Introduction
 Open channel flow involves the flows of a liquid in a channel or
conduit that is not completely filled.
 There exists a free surface between the flowing fluid (usually water)
and fluid above it (usually the atmosphere).
 The main deriving force is the fluid weight-gravity forces the fluid
to flow downhill.
 Under steady, fully developed flow conditions, the component if the
weight force in the direction of flow is balanced by equal and
opposite shear force between the fluid and the channel surface.
 Open Channel Flow vs. Pipe Flow

 There can be no pressure force driving the fluid through the channel
or conduit.
 For steady, fully developed channel flow, the pressure distribution
within the fluid is merely hydrostatic.
 The Hydraulic grade line of open channel flow is exactly conceding
with the water surface

HGL and EGL in open

channel flow
 Examples of Open Channel Flow

 The natural drainage of water through the numerous creek and river
systems.
 The flow of rainwater in the gutters of our houses.
 The flow in canals, drainage ditches, sewers, and gutters along
roads.
 The flow of small rivulets, and sheets of water across fields or
parking lots.
 The flow in the chutes of water rides.
 Variables in Open-Channel Flow
 Cross-sectional shape.
 Bends.
 Bottom slope variation.
 Character of its bounding surface.

Most open-channel flow results are based on correlation

obtained from model and full-scale experiments.
Additional information can be gained from various
analytical and numerical efforts.
General Characteristics of
Open-Channel Flow
 Classification of Open-Channel Flow

 For open-channel flow, the existence of a free surface allows

additional types of flow.
 The extra freedom that allows the fluid to select its free-surface
location and configuration allows important phenomena in open
channel flow that cannot occur in pipe flow.
 The fluid depth, y, varies with time, t, and distance along the
channel, x, are used to classify open-channel flow:
 Classification - Type I
 Uniform flow (UF): The depth of flow does not vary along the
channel (dy/dx=0).
 Non uniform flows:
►Rapidly varying flows (RVF):
The flow depth changes considerably
over a relatively short distance dy/dx~1.
►Gradually varying flows (GVF):
The flow depth changes slowly with
distance dy/dx <<1.
Classification - Type II
 Classification - Type III

 Critical Flow: Froude number Fr =1.

 Subcritical Flow: Froude number Fr <1.
 Supercritical Flow: Froude number Fr >1
Uniform Depth Channel Flow
 Uniform Depth Channel Flow

 Many channels are designed to carry fluid at a uniform depth all

along their length.
Irrigation canals.
Nature channels such as rivers and creeks.
 Uniform depth flow (dy/dx=0) can be accomplished by adjusting
the bottom slope, S0, so that it precisely equal the slope of the
energy line, Sf.
 A balance between the potential energy lost by the fluid as it coasts
downhill and the energy that is dissipated by viscous effects (head
loss) associated with shear stress throughout the fluid.
 Contd…

Uniform flow in an open channel.

 Contd…

 Typical velocity and shear stress distributions in an open channel:

 (a) velocity distribution throughout the cross section. (b) shear
 stress distribution on the wetted perimeter.
 The Chezy & Manning Equation

Control volume for uniform flow in an open channel

 Contd…
 Under the assumption of steady uniform flow, the x component of
the momentum equation

where F1 and F2 are the hydrostatic pressure forces across either end
of the control volume.
P is wetted perimeter.
Contd…
Contd…
 Contd…

 In 1889, R. manning (1816-1897), an Irish engineer, developed the

following somewhat modified equation for open-channel flow to
more accurately describe the Rh dependence:
Contd…
Values of the manning Coefficient, n
 Uniform Flow, Variable Roughness

Example 2
 Water flows along the drainage canal having the properties shown
in the Fig below, If the bottom slope is S0 = 1 ft/500 ft=0.002,
estimate the flow rate when the depth is y = 0.8 ft + 0.6 ft = 1.4 ft.
 Uniform Flow, Determine Flow Rate

Example 1
 Water flows in the canal of trapezoidal cross section
shown in the Fig below. The bottom drops 1.4 ft per 1000
ft of length. Determine the flowrate if the canal is lined
with new smooth concrete. Determine the Froude number
for this flow.
 Uniform Flow, Maximum Flow Rate
Example 3
 Water flows in a round pipe of diameter D at a depth of 0 ≤ y ≤ D,as
shown in the Fig below. The pipe is laid on a constant slope of
S0,and the Manning coefficient is n. At what depth does the
maximum flow rate occur? Show that for certain flow rate there are
two depths possible with the same flow rate. Explain this behavior.
 Optimum Hydraulic Cross-sections
From Manning equation,

Hence, Q will be maximum when P is a minimum

 For a given cross-sectional area, A of an open channel, the
discharge, Q is maximum when the wetted perimeter, P is
minimum. Hence if the
 wetted perimeter, P for a given flow area is minimised, the area, A
will give the least expensive channel to be construct.
 This corresponding cross-section is the optimum hydraulic section
or the best hydraulic section.
 Contd…
Find optimum cross section for Rectangular, Trapezoidal,
Triangular and circular cross sectional channels

The best hydraulic cross section for different shapes of cross

sections
Energy Considerations
Energy considerations
Contd…
Contd…
Specific Energy
Contd…
Contd…
Contd…
 Determine Emin

Apply critical flow computations for different cross

sections of an open channel
 Frictionless Flow over a Bump

 When fluid is flowing over a bump, the behavior of the free

surface is sharply different according to whether the approach
flow is subcritical or supercritical.
 The height of the bump can change the character of the results.
 Applying Continuity and Bernoulli’s equations to sections 1 and 2
 Contd…
 Eliminating v2 between these two gives a cubic polynomial
equation for the water depth y2 over the bump,

 This equation has one negative and two positive solutions if Δh is

not too large.
 The free surface’s behavior depends upon whether condition 1 is
in subcritical or supercritical flow.
Contd…
Channel Depth Variations
Contd…
Contd…
 Gradually Varied Flow
 Open channel flows are classified as uniform depth, gradually
varying or rapidly varying.
 If the channel bottom slope is equal to the slope of the energy
line, So=Sf, the flow depth is constant, dy/dx=0.
The loss in potential energy of the fluid as it flows downhill
is exactly balanced by the dissipation of energy through
viscous effects.
 If the bottom slope and the energy line slope are not equal, the
flow depth will vary along the channel.
 Classification of Surface Shapes
 The character of a gradually varying flow is often classified in
terms of the actual channel slope, So, compared with the slope
required to produce uniform critical flow, Soc.
 The character of a gradually varying flow depends on whether the
fluid depth is less than or greater than the uniform normal depth,
yn.

12 possible surface configurations

Classification of Surface Shapes

Fr<1 : y>yc
Fr>1 : y<yc
Examples of Gradually Varied Flows
Contd…
Contd…
Contd…
Contd…
 Classification of Surface Shapes

 The free surface is relatively free to conform to the shape that

satisfies the governing mass, momentum, and energy equations.
 The actual shape of the surface is often very important in the
design of open-channel devices or in the prediction of flood
levels in natural channels.
 ☯The surface shape, y=y(x), can be calculated by solving the
governing differential equation obtained from a combination
of the Manning equation (20) and the energy equation (14).

Numerical techniques have been developed and used to

predict open-channel surface shapes.
 Rapidly Varied Flow
 Rapidly varied flow: flow depth changes occur over a relatively
short distance.
Quite complex and difficult to analyze in a precise fashion.
Many approximate results can be obtained by using a simple
one-dimensional model along with appropriate
experimentally determined coefficients when necessary.
 Occurrence of Rapidly Varied Flow
 Flow depth changes significantly un a short distance: The flow
changes from a relatively shallow, high speed condition into a
relatively deep, low speed condition within a horizontal distance
of just a few channel depths.
 Contd…
 Sudden change in the channel geometry such as the flow in an
expansion or contraction section of a channel.

Rapidly varied flow may occur

in a channel transition section.
Example of Rapidly Varied Flow
 Contd…

 Many open-channel flow-measuring devices are based on

principles associated with rapidly varied flows.
Broad-crested weirs.
Sharp-crested weirs.
Critical flow flumes.
Sluice gates.
Hydraulic Jump
 Hydraulic Jump

 Under certain conditions it is possible that the fluid depth will

change very rapidly over a short length of the channel without
any change in the channel configuration.
Such changes in depth can be approximated as a discontinuity
in the free surface elevation (dy/dx=∞).
This near discontinuity is called a hydraulic jump.
Contd…
Contd…
Contd…
Contd…
Contd…
 Classification of Hydraulic Jump

 The actual structure of a hydraulic jump is a complex function of

Fr1, even though the depth ratio and head loss are given quite
accurately by a simple one-dimensional flow analysis.
 A detailed investigation of the flow indicates that there are
essentially five type of surface and jump conditions.
Contd…
 Hydraulic Jump Variations

 Hydraulic jumps can occur in a variety o channel flow

configurations, not just in horizontal, rectangular channels as
discussed above.
 Other common types of hydraulic jumps include those that occur
in sloping channels and the submerged hydraulic jumps that can
occur just downstream of a sluice gate.
 Example
Example
 Water on the horizontal apron of the 100-ft-wide spillway shown
as in the Fig below has a depth o 0.60 ft and a velocity of 18 ft/s.
Determine the depth, y2, after the jump, the Froude numbers
before and after the jump, Fr1 and Fr2, and the power dissipated,
Pd, with the jump.