AS Biology Nucleic Acids June 2024

All cells contain 2 types of nucleic acids

• Deoxyribonucleic acids ( DNA ) which are the genetic material of the cell
• Ribonucleic acids ( RNA ) which contributes in the protein synthesis
Both are macromolecules since they are polymers of nucleotide monomers.

Structure of A Nucleotide

1) Pentose sugar which is a 5 carbon sugar

• if carbon 2’ has a hydroxyl group then the sugar is ribose and its present in RNA.
• if it has no hydroxyl group then its deoxyribose and its present in DNA.
2) Phosphate group which is -ve charged attached to carbon 5’ of the sugar.
3) Nitrogenous base attached to carbon 1’ of the sugar
• Purines having 2 rings as Adenine ( A ) & Guanine ( G )
• Pyrimidines having only 1 ring as Cytosine ( C ), Thymine ( T ), Uracil ( U )

The base thymine is found only in DNA and the base uracil is found only in RNA.

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Nucleotides polymerize by forming phosphodiester bonds between carbon 3’ of the sugar and an
oxygen atom of the phosphate group, this is a condensation reaction.
The term diester is used because the phosphate group involved now has two ester bonds, one to
each of the sugars it is connected to.

The bases do not take part in

the polymerization reaction so there is a sugar phosphate backbone with the bases extending off it.
A polynucleotide has a free phosphate group at one end called the 5’ end and a free hydroxyl group
at the other end called 3’ end
The term 3’ & 5’ are often used to denote the different ends of the DNA molecule.

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DNA Structure
DNA contains deoxyribose sugar and ( A ) ( G ) ( C ) ( T ) bases only.
The DNA is a double stranded structure made of 2 polynucleotide chains that run in opposite
direction ( Antiparallel ).
The 2 strands are joined together by hydrogen bonds between the nitrogenous bases forming base
pairs according to the complementary base pairing rule.

Adenine & Thymine join by 2 hydrogen bonds

Guanine & Cytosine join by 3 hydrogen bonds

Complementary base pairing leads to one of the purines to bind to one of the pyrimidines
• Number of purines is equal to number of pyrimidines.
• Number of ( A ) = ( T ) & ( G ) = ( C )
• The distance between the sugar phosphate backbones is constant.

The double polynucleotide strands twist around each other forming a double helix
A complete turn of the double helix takes place every 10 base pairs.

DNA is a very stable molecule capable of carrying information and capable of undergoing replication
which is important in passing that information to daughter cells.

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DNA Replication
DNA replication occurs in the S phase of interphase of a cell cycle to ensure that each of the
daughter cells receive a copy of the DNA of the parent cell.

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1. In the nucleoplasm there are free nucleotides to which 2 phosphate groups have been attached
thus activating the nucleotides.
2. The DNA unwinds & unzips as hydrogen bonds between bases are broken down by helicase.
3. Each DNA strand acts as a template to which the free nucleotides are added according to the
complementary base pairing rule ( A – T & G – C ).

DNA Polymerase reads DNA from the 3’ to 5’ direction thus synthesizing a strand in the 5’-3’
Since the DNA has 2 antiparallel strands
4. The strand running in the 3’-5’ will be replicated continuously forming the leading strand
5. The strand running in the 5’-3’ will be replicated in segments called Okazaki fragments that will
be joined together by DNA Ligase sealing the nicks between the nucleotides by forming a
phosphodiester bond, the newly formed strand is called the lagging strand
6. DNA polymerase enzyme links the sugar and the innermost phosphate to the new strand, the 2
extra phosphates are broken off and released into the nucleus.
7. Replication is a semiconservative process because it is the synthesis of 2 DNA molecules from an
old DNA, where each new DNA molecule has one old strand conserved from the parent cell and a
new strand, where the conserved strand acted as a template to form the new strand.

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Proof of Semiconservative Replication

There are only 3 possibilities by which the DNA replicates

E.coli bacteria were grown for many generations in a medium containing heavy nitrogen isotope N15
to make sure that their entire DNA contained N15.
Then the bacteria is transferred into a medium containing light nitrogen isotope N14 .
Some were left there just long enough for their DNA to replicate once, Others were left long enough
for their DNA to replicate two, three or more times.
DNA was then extracted from each group of bacteria.

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DNA Vs RNA
DNA RNA
Double stranded Single stranded
Thymine base Uracil base
Deoxyribose sugar Ribose sugar
Larger molecule Smaller molecule
Very stable Less stable
(A)/(T)=1,(G)/(C)=1 Varies

Types of RNA

1) Messenger RNA

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It carries the message from the DNA in the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm where
protein synthesis takes place, the message is in the form of base sequence called codons that
are complementary to the code sequence in the DNA.

2) Ribosomal RNA
Made by the nucleoli, it combines with proteins to form the ribosome.
They have binding sites for mRNA & tRNA.

3) Transfer RNA
It’s a single stranded RNA folded into a clover shape having 2 ends, one end has a specific
base sequence called anticodon which determines which amino acid binds to the other end
of the tRNA.
It transfers amino acids to the ribosomes for protein synthesis.

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Genetic Code
All chemical reactions & activities in cells are controlled by enzymes which are proteins.
Protein molecules are made up of strings of amino acids. The shape & function of a protein molecule
depends on the exact sequence of these amino acids ( Primary structure )
DNA controls protein structure by determining the exact order in which the amino acids join.
DNA is a code for proteins, controlling which proteins are made.
Thus, DNA controls the cell’s activities.
The sequence of nucleotide bases in DNA is a code for the sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide.
1. The code is a triplet code. Each sequence of three bases stands for one amino acid.

CAA codes for the amino acid valine

TTT codes for the amino acid lysine
GAA codes for the amino acid leucine
CCC codes for the amino acid glycine
The sequence is always read in the same direction and from only one of the two strands of the DNA
molecule (the sense strand). The complementary strand is referred to as the anti-sense strand.

2. The code is universal since it’s the same in all living organisms.
3. The code is degenerate or redundante where the same amino acid is coded for by more than 1
triplet sequence

The possible combinations of the 4 bases are equal to 43 = 64 codes, and we need a minimum of 20
codes to code for the 20 different amino acids, thus there are spare codes which will code for the
same amino acids, code for start & stop signals.
The total DNA of a human cell is estimated to be about 3 × 109 base pairs long. However only 3% of
this DNA actually codes for protein. The function of much of the remainder is uncertain.

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Transcription

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1. Part of the DNA unwinds & unzips as hydrogen bonds between the base pairs breakdown by
helicase enzyme.
2. RNA Polymerase binds the template strand at the start triplet where it will pair up free activated
RNA nucleotides present in the nucleoplasm with the exposed bases on the sense strand
according to the Complementary base pairing rule ( A ) – ( U ) , ( T ) – ( A ) , ( G ) – ( C ).
3. RNA polymerase joins the sugar & phosphates groups of these nucleotides by phosphodiester
bonds.
4. Till a stop triplet is reached after which RNA Polymerase will detach & the hydrogen bonds
between the mRNA & DNA break
5. The premature mRNA undergoes post transcriptional modification to form the mature mRNA
which will leave the nucleus through the nuclear pores to reach the cytoplasm.

Post Transcriptional Modification

In eukaryotes, the mRNA is modified before it leaves the nucleus.
The original molecule, before it is modified, is called the primary transcript.
The process of modification is called RNA processing.
One step in this processing is RNA splicing.
Splicing is the removal of sections of the primary transcript by spliceosomes (RNA + Proteins)
• Cuts the RNA removing the non-coding sections which are called the introns.
• Leaving the coding sections of RNA which are called exons which will be joined together after
removal of the introns.

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There is still debate about the functions of introns. Scientists know that introns in the DNA can help
to regulate the activity of genes.
They also know that in some cases a given primary transcript molecule can be spliced in different
ways (‘alternative splicing’).
This results in different mRNAs being made from the original primary transcript.
These different mRNAs will produce different proteins when translated.
It means that one gene can code for several different proteins or different forms of the same
protein.

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Translation
It’s the process by which the mRNA codons are translated into sequence of amino acids in a
polypeptide chain.

In the cytoplasm there are free tRNA where each tRNA molecule has a site to which an amino acid
can bind. At the other end are three unpaired bases called an anticodon.
Free amino acids attach to the tRNA using ATP, each tRNA binds to a specific amino acid according to
the anticodon it presents on the other end.

mRNA binds to the small subunit of the ribosome in the cytoplasm, exposing 6 bases ( 2 codons ) at a
time to the large subunit.
The start codon is always AUG so a tRNA with a complementary anticodon UAC occupies the P site
and hydrogen bonds form between the codon & anticodon( This tRNA carries methionine )
A second tRNA carrying a different amino acid occupies the A site and bonds with the codon.
The 2 amino acids are held close together and a peptide bond form between them catalyzed by
peptidyl transferase enzyme which is present in the small ribosomal subunit.
The ribosome moves along the mRNA
• The first tRNA exits vie the E site
• The second tRNA moves to the P site
• A new mRNA codon is exposed
• A new tRNA occupies the A site

The process continues till a stop codon is reached to which there is no complementary anticodon
thus translation terminates.

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Mutation
A mutation is a change in the nucleotide sequence of DNA which will change the codon sequence in
mRNA during transcription, so a different tRNA with a different amino acid will bind to that codon
during translation thus changing the primary structure of the formed protein.

Sickle Cell Anemia

Its an inherited disease which results from the mutation in the gene coding for the 𝛽 chain of
hemoglobin.
The normal allele of the 𝛽 chain has the base triplet CTT which codes for glutamate whereas the
allele for the abnormal 𝛽 chain has CAT that codes for valine. ( single base substitution )
The hydrophobic valine distorted the tertiary structure of Hb making it water insoluble resulting in
the sickle shape of the RBC which cant transport oxygen.

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AS Biology Nucleic Acids June 2024

Cambridge International AS & A Level Biology 9700 syllabus for 2022, 2023 and 2024. Subject content

Syllabus

6 Nucleic acids and protein synthesis

Nucleic acids have roles in the storage and retrieval of genetic information and in the use of this information
to synthesise polypeptides. DNA is the molecule of heredity and is an extremely stable molecule that cells
replicate with great accuracy. The genetic code explains how the sequence of nucleotides in DNA and
messenger RNA (mRNA) determines the sequence of amino acids that make up a polypeptide. In eukaryotes
this involves the processes of transcription in the nucleus to produce mRNA, followed by translation in the
cytoplasm to produce polypeptides.
6.1 Structure of nucleic acids and Learning outcomes
replication of DNA Candidates should be able to:
1 describe the structure of nucleotides, including the
phosphorylated nucleotide ATP (structural formulae are not
expected)
2 state that the bases adenine and guanine are purines with a
double ring structure, and that the bases cytosine, thymine and
uracil are pyrimidines with a single ring structure (structural
formulae for bases are not expected)
3 describe the structure of a DNA molecule as a double helix,
including:
• the importance of complementary base pairing between the
5′ to 3′ strand and the 3′ to 5′ strand (antiparallel strands)
• differences in hydrogen bonding between C–G and A–T base
pairs
• linking of nucleotides by phosphodiester bonds
4 describe the semi-conservative replication of DNA during the
S phase of the cell cycle, including:
• the roles of DNA polymerase and DNA ligase (knowledge
of other enzymes in DNA replication in cells and different
types of DNA polymerase is not expected)
• the differences between leading strand and lagging strand
replication as a consequence of DNA polymerase adding
nucleotides only in a 5′ to 3′ direction
5 describe the structure of an RNA molecule, using the example
of messenger RNA (mRNA)
6.2 Protein synthesis Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
1 state that a polypeptide is coded for by a gene and that a gene
is a sequence of nucleotides that forms part of a DNA molecule
2 describe the principle of the universal genetic code in which
different triplets of DNA bases either code for specific amino
acids or correspond to start and stop codons
continued

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Cambridge International AS & A Level Biology 9700 syllabus for 2022, 2023 and 2024. Subject content

AS Biology Nucleic Acids June 2024

6.2 Protein synthesis continued Learning outcomes

Candidates should be able to:
3 describe how the information in DNA is used during
transcription and translation to construct polypeptides,
including the roles of:
• RNA polymerase
• messenger RNA (mRNA)
• codons
• transfer RNA (tRNA)
• anticodons
• ribosomes
4 state that the strand of a DNA molecule that is used in
transcription is called the transcribed or template strand and
that the other strand is called the non-transcribed strand
5 explain that, in eukaryotes, the RNA molecule formed following
transcription (primary transcript) is modified by the removal
of non-coding sequences (introns) and the joining together of
coding sequences (exons) to form mRNA
6 state that a gene mutation is a change in the sequence of
base pairs in a DNA molecule that may result in an altered
polypeptide
7 explain that a gene mutation is a result of substitution or
deletion or insertion of nucleotides in DNA and outline how
each of these types of mutation may affect the polypeptide
produced

22 Back to contents page

Drwww.cambridgeinternational.org/alevel
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AS Biology Nucleic Acids June 2024

AS Biology Classified
Nucleic Acids

Paper 1

Exam year Variant Question Number

11 22, 23, 24
June 2013 12 22, 23, 24
13 22, 23, 24
11 19, 20, 21
Nov 2013 12 19, 20, 21
13 19, 20, 21
11 21, 22, 23
June 2014 12 20, 21, 22
13 22, 23, 24
11 18, 19, 20
Nov 2014 12 21, 22, 23
13 19, 20, 21
11 20, 21, 22
June 2015 12 20, 21,22
13 20, 21, 22
11 20, 21, 22
Nov 2015 12 20, 21, 22
13 20, 21, 22
11 20, 21, 22
June 2016 12 19, 20, 21, 22
13 19, 20, 21, 22
11 19, 20, 21, 22
Nov 2016 12 22, 23
13 20, 21, 22
11 24, 25, 26, 27
June 2017 12 18, 19, 20, 21
13 19, 20, 21
11 18, 19, 20, 21
Nov 2017 12 23, 24, 25
13 23, 24, 25

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Paper 2

Exam year Variant Question Number

21 4(a)
June 2013 22 5 ( a, b )
23 2
21 5
Nov 2013 22
23 2 ( b, c, d )
21
June 2014 22 3(e)
23 5(c)
21 3(c)
Nov 2014 22
23
21 6
June 2015 22
23 2
21 3(d)
Nov 2015 22
23 1 ( a, b, c )
21
June 2016 22 6(b)
23
21
Nov 2016 22 3(d)
23 4
21 4
June 2017 22 4 ( a ), 6 ( b )
23 5
21 4(a)
Nov 2017 22 3(e)
23 6

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