Peoples’ Democratic Republic of Algeria

Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research

University of Mohamed Boudiaf - M’sila
Faculty of Letters and Languages
Department of English

PRFU (H02L01UN280120230001)

Handouts in
Didactics of English
For First Year Doctorate
semester One
Classroom Practice
Specialty: Didactics

By

Dr. Bouazid Tayeb

2022-2023

1
 Foreword

This is the handout that doctorate first year students aspire to see. It embraces five chapters related

to the most important elements in didactics-

1.Didactics and Language Teaching

2.Second Language Acquisition

3.Language Teaching Methods

4.Curriculum Design

5.Language Assessment

The five chapters are theoretically treated followed by a series of activities and exercises.

The aim behind is to equip learners with the crucial elements that help them delve deep into the

teaching realm. The activities catered will offer a wide chance to learners to practice individually

and in pairs. The first two chapters tend to give a more theoretical view about the domain of

teaching. However, the last three chapters are designed to offer a chance for learners to self-study,

self-research and self-discovery. Students are supposed to design their own lessons, select their

proper methods, devise their units and lesson plans and evaluate their students’ work .

Wish you the best

Dr Tayeb Bouazid

I
 Aim of the course

The Aims of the module are:

1. To develop a deep and advanced understanding of the theoretical foundations and practical

applications of didactics and teaching methodologies in the context of English language

education.

2. To foster the ability to critically analyze and evaluate various approaches, methods, and

materials used in English language teaching, considering their effectiveness, cultural

relevance, and alignment with contemporary educational trends.

3. To equip students with advanced research skills, enabling them to explore and contribute

to the existing body of knowledge in the field of English language teaching, pedagogy, and

curriculum development.

4. To encourage the development of innovative teaching practices, strategies, and techniques

that cater to diverse learners' needs and leverage emerging technologies for effective

language instruction.

5. To cultivate a habit of reflective teaching, where students can thoughtfully analyze their

teaching practices, identify areas for improvement, and implement adjustments based on

research and pedagogical theories.

Objectives: By the end of the course, students should be able to:

1. Demonstrate Theoretical Proficiency:

2. Analyze and explain key theories and models of language acquisition and learning in

relation to teaching English.

3. Describe the role of sociocultural, cognitive, and linguistic factors in language learning.

4. Evaluate Teaching Approaches and Materials:

II
5. Critically assess various teaching approaches (e.g., communicative, task-based, content-

based) and evaluate their suitability for different learner contexts.

6. Analyze and critique language teaching materials, textbooks, and resources based on

language learning theories.

7. Conduct Educational Research:

8. Formulate research questions related to English language teaching, didactics, and

pedagogy.

9. Design and conduct small-scale research projects, employing appropriate research methods

and data analysis techniques.

10. Design Effective Curriculum and Assessments:

11. Design learner-centered curricula that align with educational standards and address diverse

learners' needs.

12. Develop a range of formative and summative assessment strategies that measure language

proficiency and learning outcomes.

13. Integrate Technology and Multimodal Resources:

14. Integrate technology tools and digital resources to enhance language learning experiences.

15. Evaluate the benefits and challenges of incorporating multimedia, online platforms, and

digital tools into language instruction.

16. Promote Inclusive Teaching:

17. Develop strategies to create an inclusive and culturally sensitive learning environment for

English language learners from diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds.

18. Address challenges related to language diversity and adapt teaching methods accordingly.

19. Engage in Reflective Practice:

III
 20. Reflect on their own teaching practices through regular self-assessment and peer feedback.

21. Adjust teaching strategies based on reflection and evidence from educational research.

22. Synthesize and present their insights, findings, and innovations in English language

teaching through academic writing, presentations, and discussions.

Time Allocation : 2hrs per week

14 weeks in the semester

Materials Needed: Videos PPT Handouts----

IV
 Acknowledgements

The author of this booklet acknowledges having completed this work with the cooperation of

Doctorate students who contributed in thriving the contents through their constant work in the

activities assigned and in their oral participation through the lessons delivered.

My deepest acknowledgements go to all the teachers of English at Mohamed Boudiaf Msila

University for their constant hard work, perseverance and support

Great Thanks for all their deeds.

The author

Dr. Bouazid

V
 Outline

Table of Contents Page

Foreword..................................................................................................................i

Aim of the Course.................................................................................................. ii

Acknowledgements................................................................................................iii

Chapter One: Didactics and Language Teaching..........................1

Introduction..............................................................................................................1

1.Definition of Didactics of English Teaching and Learning:.................................1

2.Principles of Didactics..........................................................................................2

3.Didactics versus Pedagogy...................................................................................2

4.Importance of Didactics of English Teaching and Learning:................................3

4.1.Enhancing Language Proficiency........................................................................3

4.2.Definition of Language Proficiency....................................................................3.

4.3.Promoting communicative competence..............................................................4.

4.3.1.Meaning of competency...................................................................................4

4.3.2.Definition of communicative competence.......................................................5.

4.3.3.Elements of communicative Competence-Hybrid Learning............................6

4.3.4.Facilitating Language acquisition....................................................................8

4.3.4.1.Definition of Language Acquisition.............................................................8

4.3.4.2.Definition of Language Learning..................................................................9

4.3.5.Defining and Adapting to Diverse learner’s needs...........................................9

VI
4.3.6.Embracing Technological Advancements...................................9

Conclusion................................................................................................9

Practical Activities.......................................................................................................11..

References...................................................................................................................14...

Chapter II. Second Language Acquisition............................................18

2.1. Definition of Second Language Acquisition.......................................................18

2.2.Theories of Second Language Acquisition:..................................19

a) Behaviorist Theory .......................................................................................19

b) Innatist Theory ............................................................................................... 20

c) Cognitive Theory ............................................................................................20

d) Sociocultural Theory........................................................................................21.

2.3.The importance of Motivation in Second Language Acquisition..22

2.3.1.. Definition of Motivation.....................................................................................22

2.3.2. Types of Motivation.............................................................................................23

a) Intrinsic Motivation ...........................................................................................23

b) Extrinsic Motivation (Gardner, 1985):...............................................................23
c) Amotivation..................................................................................................... 24

2.4.Interlanguage and Fossilization-definition.......................................24

2.5.The Role and definition of Culture in Second Language Acquisition.25

Activities..........................................................................................................................27..

References .....................................................................................................................31..

VII
Chapter III. Language Teaching Methods..............................................34

Introduction................................................................................................34.

3.1. Grammar-translation method................................................................................36.

Activities...........................................................................................................................38

3.2. The Direct method....................................................................................................39.

Activities............................................................................................................................40

3.3. The Audio-lingual method.......................................................................................41

Activities...........................................................................................................................43

3.4. Communicative language teaching.........................................................................47

Activities............................................................................................................................49

3.5. Task-based language teaching.................................................................................52

3.5.1.Introduction...............................................................................................................52

3.5.2.Definition of a task....................................................................................................53

3.5.3.Task Types................................................................................................................53

Activities............................................................................................................................ 56

3.6. Content-based instruction........................................................................................60

Introduction........................................................................................................................60

3.6.1.Definition..................................................................................................................61

3.6.2.Characteristics...........................................................................................................61

3.6.3. Models of CBI...........................................................................................................62

Activities..............................................................................................................................64

References...........................................................................................................................69

VIII
Chapter IV. Curriculum Design.................................................................75

4.1.Definition of curriculum...............................................................................................75

4.2. Principles of curriculum design...................................................................................75

4.3. Approaches to curriculum design................................................................................76

4.4..Definition of Syllabus..................................................................................................77

4.5. Types of Syllabi...........................................................................................................78

4.5.1.Product Oriented Syllabi............................................................................................78

4.5.1.1.Structural Syllabi............................................................................................... 78

4.5.1.2.Lexical syllabus............................................................................................. .. 80

4.6.Process-oriented syllabus..................................................................................... .. 78

4.6.1.Task-based Syllabus................................................................................................ 81

4.6.2.Three types of task Based syllabus..............................................................................81

4.6.2.1.Procedural Syllabus...................................................................................................81

4.6.2.2.Process Syllabus........................................................................................................81

4.6.2.3.Skill -based syllabus..................................................................................................81

4.7.The Content based syllabus..............................................................................................81

4.8.The Relational Syllabus....................................................................................................82

4.9.The Communicative Syllabus............................................................................................82

4.10.Syllabus Design: Materials Development and Adaption.................................................82

4.10.1.Definition of Material Adaptation.................................................................................82

4.10.2.What is Material Development?....................................................................................83

4.10.3.The Purpose of Adaptation............................................................................................83

IX
4.10.4.The Rationale behind the Adaptation of Material....................................................84

4.10.5.experst and adaptation...............................................................................................85

4.10.6.critics towards the used materials..............................................................................85

4.11.Questions on Material Adaptation.................................................................................85

4.11.1.Is Achieving Adaptation too demanding?..................................................................85

4.11.2.Why do we adapt material?........................................................................................86

4.11.3.What material should be adapted?..............................................................................87

4.11.4.How should material be adapted?...............................................................................87

4.12.Principles of Adaptation............................................................................................... 88
4.13.Process Material Adaptation..........................................................................................88

4.14.Techniques of Adaptation..............................................................................................89

4.15.Authentic versus non-authentic material...................................................................... 90

Activities.................................................................................................................................91.

References..............................................................................................................................94

Chapter V. Language Assessment...................................................................98

5.1.Definition of Assessment ..................................................................................................98

5.2. The Role of Assessment....................................................................................................99

5.3. Types of Assessment..........................................................................................................99

5.3.1.Informal Assessment.........................................................................................................99.

5.3.2.Formal assessment...........................................................................................................100

5.3.3.Summative Assessment....................................................................................................100

5.3.4.Formative Assessment.............................................................................................. .......100

5.3.5.Traditional assessment......................................................................................................100.

X
5.3.5.1.Definition of Traditional Assessment..........................................................................100
5.3.5.2.Types of Traditional Assessment.................................................................................101.

5.3.6.Alternative Assessment...................................................................................................101

5.3.6.1.Definition of Alternative Assessment...........................................................................101

5.3.6.2. Types of Alternative Assessment...................................................................... ..........102

Activities....................................................................................................................................103
References............................................................................................................................. ...108.

XI
 Chapter One: Didactics and Language Teaching

Introduction

The field of language teaching and learning is constantly evolving, and one important aspect

within this domain is the didactics of English teaching and learning. Didactics refers to the science

and art of teaching, focusing on the principles, methods, and techniques employed to facilitate

effective learning. In the context of English language education, didactics of English teaching and

learning involves the study of how English is taught, the strategies used to impart language skills,

and the principles guiding effective language learning.

1.Definition of Didactics of English Teaching and Learning:

Didactics refers to the principles, phenomena, forms, precepts, and law of teaching with no

subject in particular (Stoker, 1964; in Navarro and Pinero, 2012). The concept of didactics has

been defined in varying ways as reported by Harjanne and Tella (2007). According to (Dolch,

1965) didactics is the science and study of teaching and learning. Jank and Meyer (1991) expanded

this definition to cover teaching content and methods.

Gundem (1998) defines didactics as a science and a theory of teaching and learning

under any circumstances and in any form. All these definitions emphasize the importance

of teaching and learning. Lund (2003) teaching subjects are important because through

them, knowledge construction is made visible. Uljens (1997) enlarges the definition of didactics.

He states that didactics is the science of the teaching-studying-learning process.

The didactics of English teaching and learning encompasses the theories, approaches, and

practices related to teaching English as a second or foreign language. It involves understanding the

linguistic, cognitive, social, and cultural aspects of language acquisition and developing

1
pedagogical techniques to facilitate effective English language instruction. This field explores

various elements such as curriculum design, instructional materials, teaching methods, assessment

strategies, and the role of technology in language learning.

The Didactics of English Teaching and Learning refers to the study and practice of teaching

and learning the English language as a second or foreign language. It is a specialized field within

the broader discipline of language education and focuses specifically on the methods, strategies,

and principles used in the teaching of English to non-native speakers.

2.Principles of Didactics

Comenius (1640) set a series of classical principles among which we may account:

‘– Didactics is both art and science.

– Teaching should have as its main aim the learning of everything by everyone.

– Teaching and learning should be characterized by speed and effectiveness, prioritizing the

key role that language and images play in each of the two processes.’ (Maggioli, nd: 8)

3.Didactics versus Pedagogy

Pedagogy comes from Latin and Greek, in which a pedagogue refers to a servant or a man who

guards and supervises a child (Watkins & Mortimore, 1999; in Harjanne & Tella, 2007). The

meaning of the concept of pedagogy has changed over the times. Kroksmark (1995) sees that

the concept of pedagogy is significantly very similar to the concept of teaching, and therefore

not far from the concept of didactics. Pedagogy is concerned with teaching young learners.

However, Andragogy is related to teaching Adults. “Andragogy is the theory and practice of

2
education of adults. It arose from the practice to pedagogy to address the specific needs in the

education of children.” (Hodgson, 2017: 204)

4.Importance of Didactics of English Teaching and Learning:

4.1.Enhancing Language Proficiency:

Since English is the primary language of instruction and communication, and has become a

Lingua Franca in all aspects of life, one must demonstrate an adequate level of proficiency in

English, regardless the kind of citizenship status or country of origin he/she belongs to. This

language requirement ensures that all students will have the opportunity for success in their chosen

program.

4.2.Definition of Language Proficiency

The 2013 third edition of English Proficiency Index, reports that 60 countries and territories

around the world claim:

“Today, English proficiency can hardly be thought of as an economic advantage at all. It

is certainly no longer a marker of the elite. Instead, it is increasingly becoming a basic

skill needed for the entire workforce, in the same way, that literacy has been transformed

in the last two centuries from an elite privilege into a basic requirement for informed

citizenship.”

Rao (2016) emphasized in her study that proficiency equates with fluency, but there is a

distinction between both of them. Proficiency is regarded as a continuum (James, 1985, p.2.) which

means proficiency can be considered as a scale of related skills of language slightly and

continuously changing at each level.

3
 For the use of language “function, context/content, and accuracy” are accepted as the

three criteria. The function represents the individuals’ ability to complete a task linguistically,

like asking questions, or describing; context/content refers to the setting of the functions; and

accuracy means the level of correctness of an individual’s language use and each factor extends in

breadth as the level of proficiency increases (Bragger, 1985, p. 80).

According to O’Sullivan (2012), it is difficult to define the limits of the language that is used

in a context, although identification of the specific aspects of language use, like vocabulary or

syntax, can be described in a given context to attain information about the needs analysis of the

language use given in a specific context (O’Sullivan, 2006).

The didactics of English teaching and learning plays a crucial role in enhancing language

proficiency among learners. By employing effective teaching methods and instructional

techniques, educators can help students develop their listening, speaking, reading, and writing

skills in English. Learning about how to write Poetry can be a creative way of exposing English

language learners to quality literature. Students can use these short, fun, non-threatening pieces

of text to begin to learn how to apply reading strategies to increase their comprehension (Norris,

2011). Because it is so accessible to students, it is a genre that can easily be used to help

students begin to increase their awareness of reading comprehension strategies (Hadaway,

Vardell, & Young, 2001)

4.3.Promoting Communicative Competence:

4.3.1.Meaning of Competency:

Many educators and academics have defined competency as follows:

4
 David McClelland (1993) [2], American scholar has said that competency is a personality

hidden within a person that can drive that person to be responsible and have excellent

performance to meet the specified standard. The competency in McClelland’s perspective

consists of five components:

1) Skills are something a person can do well along with regular practice until he becomes

skillful such as a dentist who has the skill to fill a tooth without any pain at all.

2) Knowledge is the knowledge that each person possesses, which is specific to each

individual.

3) Self-Concept in values and attitudes related to the image of a person or what a person

believes that it is his unique such as a confident person having the belief that he or she can

solve problems by himself or herself ( Self-Confidence).

4) Trait is the thing that describes a person who may be a leader or a reliable and trustworthy

person and so on.

5) Motive is a drive making a person act or lead himself to a goal such as a person aiming to

succeed in his life (having Achievement Orientation); implying that he likes to set his goals and

makes it successful including always trying to improve his working methods.

Scott (1988) [1] has stated that competency is a kind of knowledge, skills and attributes

related to each other, affecting a job where they play the role in

4.3.2.Definition of Communicative Competence

Thitiya (2017) [19] has talked about English communicative competence that it is the

students’ ability regarding knowledge, skills and attributes when they use English for

5
communication, which is composed of speaking, listening, reading and writing skills, and the

ability to use the language in all 4 areas in the communication: 1) Sociolinguistics competence

2) Grammatical competence 3) Strategic competence and 4) Discourse competence which are the

students’ skills to communicate and interact with others in the context or content that teachers have

planned with the emphasis on thought processing and initiatives in order for students to be able to

put the activities into practice and state a conversation, which is successful in accordance with the

objectives where the students can survey themselves and reflect diverse forms of language

practice with the values, beliefs and behaviors.

Kohn (2009) [8] has claimed that competence in English communication highlights the ability

to use the language for communication and cultural exchange to communicate with others by using

their native mother tongue. Byram (2012) [11] has given a definition of English

communicative competence in relation to 21 st century education management as thinking,

creating activities or language projects, supporting and empowering the learners to choose

appropriate approach to improve the social worlds to keep up with the world in 21 st century.

4.3.3.Elements of Communicative Competence Hybrid Learning

Canale & Swain (1980) [9] have distinguished 4 components of communicative ability:

1) Grammatical competence: The mastery of the linguistic code (verbal or non-verbal) which

includes vocabulary knowledge as well as knowledge of morphological, syntactic, semantic,

phonetic and orthographic rules. This competence enables the speaker to use knowledge and

skills needed for understanding and expressing the literal meaning of utterances.

6
 2) Sociolinguistic competence: The knowledge of rules and conventions which underlie the

appropriate comprehension and language use in different sociolinguistic and sociocultural

contexts.

3) Discourse competence: The mastery of rules that determine ways in which forms and

meanings are combined to achieve a meaningful unity of spoken or written texts.

4) Strategic competence: It is composed of knowledge of verbal and non-verbal communication

strategies that are recalled to compensate for breakdowns in communication due to insufficient

competence in one or more components of communicative competence.

Communicative competence refers to the ability to use language appropriately and effectively in

different contexts. Didactics of English teaching and learning emphasizes the development of

communicative competence, enabling learners to express themselves fluently, understand others,

and engage in meaningful communication.

Carman (2005) [7] has said that Hybrid Learning is the integration of online learning through

a network and traditional classroom, learning face-to-face on site, both of which use facilities

such as the internet as medium and other tools in the teaching surrounding to promote the lessons.

The teachers focus on interactions from online teaching and participation in traditional

teaching to develop challenging learning and respond to the individual needs of the learners to

improve themselves for better competence.

Saliba, Rankine, and Cortez (2013) [4] has stated that Hybrid Learning is a systematic

approach to teaching strategies or methods that combines time and teaching methods together,

and it is also an integration between on-site classroom, online interaction and the use of

technological information applied in the class.

7
 Yaso (2017) [13] has discussed that Hybrid Learning is an educational innovation merging

multiple learning modules together, such as using an online self-learning system or e-learning

which emphasizes interaction and the ability to meet the objectives for the increasing potential

in students and effective teaching methods.

4.3.4.Facilitating Language Acquisition:

4.3.4.1.Definition of Language Acquisition

Language acquisition is based on the neuro-psychological processes (Maslo, 2007: 41).

Language acquisition is opposed to learning and is a subconscious process similar to that by which

children acquire their first language (Kramina, 2000: 27). Hence, language acquisition is an

integral part of the unity of all language (Robbins, 2007: 49).

Language acquisition is a complex process that involves exposure to comprehensible input,

interaction, and practice. Didactics provides educators with the necessary tools and strategies to

create language-rich environments, design communicative activities, and provide meaningful

language input, thereby facilitating language acquisition among learners. Language acquisition

is a complicated process, because it involves a wide range of social, psychological, cognitive,

linguistic, physiological factors.

According to Chomsky (1965), he claimed the existence of innate properties of language to

explain the child’s mastery of a native language. Chomsky believed that people have inner

knowledge about language learning. More recently, constructivism brings a new school of thought

in language learning. Vygotsky (1978) proposed a new theory called ZPD (Zone of Proximal

Development) which means that it is a distance between a child’s actual cognitive capacity and the

level of potential development

8
4.3.4.2.Definition of Language Learning

Language learning is a conscious process, is the product of either formal learning situation or a

self-study programme (Kramina, 2000: 27). Hence, language learning is an integral part of the

unity of all language (Robbins, 2007: 49).

4.3.5.Defining and Adapting to Diverse Learner’s Needs:

Every learner is unique, with different learning styles, backgrounds, and abilities. The

didactics of English teaching and learning acknowledges the importance of catering to diverse

learner needs. It offers insights into differentiated instruction, instructional adaptations, and

inclusive practices to ensure that all learners can engage with the language effectively. Nation and

Macalister (2010)stated that needs analysis illustrates the obtained knowledge and what should

be taught. The purpose of conducting needs analysis is to identify a learner’s needs evidently and

design an appropriate lesson plan accordingly

4.3.6.Embracing Technological Advancements:

Technology has significantly influenced language teaching and learning. The didactics of

English teaching and learning explores the integration of technology tools, such as multimedia

resources, online platforms, and language learning apps, to enhance engagement, provide authentic

language input, and promote autonomous learning.

Conclusion:

In conclusion, the didactics of English teaching and learning provides educators with a

theoretical foundation and practical guidelines to create effective learning environments, design

meaningful language instruction, and facilitate language acquisition among learners. By

9
understanding and applying the principles of didactics, language teachers can contribute to the

development of proficient English speakers who are equipped with the necessary skills to

communicate confidently in a globalized world.

10
 Practice: Activities Questions for self-study

Activity One: Questions for self-study

1. Match the following terms to their definitions:

1. target language a. has no immediate or necessary practical application,

might be used later for travel or be required for school

2. second language b. the aim or goal of language learning

3. first language c. an officially or societally dominant language (not

speakers’ L1) needed for education, employment or other basic

4. foreign language d. acquired during childhood

2. The underlying knowledge of language is called __________.

3. Actual production of language is called __________.

Active learning

Activity Two:

1. List all of the languages that you can use. First classify them as L1(s) and L2(s), and then further

classify the L2(s) as “second,” “foreign,” “library, ”“auxiliary,” or “for specific purposes.” Finally,

distinguish between the ways you learned each of the languages: through informal exposure,

formal instruction, or some combination of these.

2. Do you think that you are (or would be) a “good” or a “poor” L2 learner? Why do you think so?

Consider whether you believe that your own relative level of success as a language learner is due

11
primarily to linguistic, psychological, or social factors (social may include type of instruction,

contexts of learning, or attitudes toward the L1 and L2).

3. Do you know people who don’t feel like native speakers of their first language acquired? Or

people who feel like native speakers of a language acquired later in life? What do you attribute

this feeling to?

Adapted from: http://www.cambridge.org/cill © Muriel Saville-Troike 2006

Activity Three: Concept Mapping

Here is a list of key concepts related to didactics and language teaching, such as

"learner-centered approach," "communicative competence," "scaffolding," "authentic materials,"

etc. Read them then try to create concept maps that show the relationships between these concepts

and how they interconnect.

Activity Four: Peer Teaching Observation:

Form two groups then Work in pairs .Take turns in teaching a short language

lesson to the rest of the class. After each presentation, trigger a discussion where

you as students try to provide feedback on the teaching methods used, their

effectiveness, and how they align with didactic principles.

Activity Five: Designing a Lesson Plan:

Work individually and try to design a detailed lesson plan for teaching a specific

language skill or grammar point in the form of a mini-lesson demonstration of 15

to 20 mns duration. In your plans, they should incorporate various didactic

12
 strategies, such as setting clear objectives, selecting appropriate materials,

incorporating interactive activities, and considering learners' needs.

Activity Six: Video Analysis:

After watching videos of language teaching sessions delivered by teachers or

classroom interactions of students/ Teachers, try to critically analyze the videos,

identifying instances where effective didactic strategies were employed and

suggesting improvements where necessary.

Activity Seven: Debate:

1. Sit into two different groups with two opposing viewpoints related to language

teaching methods, such as traditional vs. communicative approaches. Prepare

arguments and counterarguments to hold a debate where you can articulate your

positions and engage in constructive discourse.

Activity Eight: Reflection Journals:

2. Throughout the course, try to maintain reflection journals where you write about

your experiences, observations, and thoughts on various didactic strategies you

encounter.

13
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December 2019.

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M. Yaso, “21st Century Learning”. Retrieved 2021, May 15, from http://www.gotoknow

.org/posts/542974/, 2017.

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Maggioly, G.D (nd) Introducing Didactics. Self-Access Booklets. Uruguay. Programa de

Politicas Linguisticas

Maslo, E. (2007) Transformative Learning Space for Life-Long Foreign Languages Learning.

International Nordic-Baltic Region Conference of FIPLV Innovations in Language

Teaching and Learning in the Multicultural Context 15- 16th June, 2007, Riga, Latvia.

Nation, I.S.P. and Macalister, J. (2010). Language Curriculum Design. Rout ledge: New York

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Journal, 96(11), 71-88. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.2012.01298.x

O’Sullivan, B. (Ed.) (2006) Issues in Testing Business English: the revision of the Cambridge

Business English Certificates (Studies in Language Testing, volume 17), Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press.

Piaget, J. (1954). The construction of reality in the child. Basic Books.

Rao, C.S.V. (2016). A Brief Study of English Language Proficiency: Employability. English for

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W. A. Almurashi, “The effective use of YouTube videos for teaching English language in

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17
 Chapter Two: Second Language Acquisition

Second Language Acquisition:

2.1.Definition

Second Language Acquisition (SLA) is a dynamic and complex process through which

individuals learn a language other than their native tongue. Whether acquired through formal

instruction, immersion, or a combination of both, the acquisition of a second language has garnered

significant interest among linguists, educators, and researchers alike. This phenomenon is

characterized by its intricate interplay of cognitive, social, psychological, and environmental

factors that shape the development of linguistic competence in a new language.

Gardner (2001) and Dörnyei (2003) mention that learning another language is different from

much another learning that takes place in school. Other school subjects such as mathematics,

history, and geography are generally all part of the student’s local or national culture but

“learning another language involves making something foreign a part of one’s self” (Gardner,

2001, p.3).

Researchers have delved into various aspects of SLA, seeking to understand the mechanisms

underlying this process and the factors that influence its success. As such, SLA has been a subject

of extensive investigation across disciplines such as linguistics, psychology, education, and

sociology. Insights from these fields contribute to our understanding of how individuals navigate

the challenges and opportunities presented by SLA.

18
2.2.Theories of Second Language Acquisition:

Larsen-Freeman and Long [1] state that “at least forty‘ of SLA have been proposed” (p. 227)

and it is my contention that none of these attempts to explain SLA present a thorough explanation

for the phenomenon. Like any other type of learning, language learning is not a linear process, and

therefore cannot be deemed as predictable as many models of SLA have hypothesized it to be.

Countless theories have been developed to explain SLA, but most such theories focus merely on

the acquisition of syntactic structures and ignore other important aspects

a) Behaviorist Theory

This theory suggests that language learning occurs through a process of habit formation,

reinforcement, and conditioning. According to behaviorists, learners acquire language by

imitating and repeating correct models, and they receive positive reinforcement when their

language use is reinforced. Skinner's version of behaviorism continues to exert a significant

influence on psychology and the culture at large. Reviewers who have conducted quantitative

(Wyatt, Hawkins,& Davis, 1986) and qualitative assessments (Leahey, 1987) agree that Skinner's

psychology is alive and well.

According to the Behaviorist Theory, Skinner (1985) equated learning a language to verbal

behavior. Therefore, he believes that language acquisition like any other behavior can be

observed, rather than trying to explain the mental systems underlying these types of behaviors.

To him, children are born with a blank state of mind or tabula rasa. Children acquire L1 through

stimuli given to them and the responses of children are conditioned through reinforcement. A

positive response will be conditioned through positive reinforcement like reward or praise and

vice versa for a negative response which is conditioned with punishment

19
b) Innatist Theory (Chomsky, 1959):

This theory posits that humans have an innate language acquisition device (LAD) that allows

them to acquire language naturally. It emphasizes the role of universal grammar and internal

language structures in language acquisition. Chomsky (1959) believed that children are equipped

with an innate template or blueprint for language, which is called the Language Acquisition Device

(LAD) which accounts for the swift mastery of language among children despite the extremely

abstract nature of language. It is believed that children do not start from scratch when it comes to

language learning as they can acquire complex grammar quickly and without any particular help

beyond the exposure to L1.

c) Cognitive Theory (Piaget, 1954):

Cognitive theorists argue that language development is closely intertwined with cognitive

development. They emphasize the role of cognitive processes such as attention, memory, and

problem-solving in language acquisition. Jean Piaget (1986-1980) spent around five decades

determining the cognitive development of children (Passer & Smith, 2009). During his studies, he

attempted to obtain the answer to some key questions such as: “Why does a child talk, and who is

she talking to?” and “Why does she ask so many questions?” “Why children in the same age

commit the same error?” (Passer & Smith, 2009; Butler-Bowdon, 2007).

Piaget applied structured observation (Shaughnessy, Zechmeister, &Zechmeister, 2012).

During the observations, he wrote down everything about the participant’s actions (Butler-

Bowdon, 2007). After many years of hard work, he finally publicised his ideas and proposed four

global cognitive developmental stages for children, including sensorimotor, preoperational,

concrete operational, formal operational stage (Bernstein, Clarke-stewart, & Roy, 2008; Martin,

20
Carlson, & Buskist, 2010).Although Piaget’s contributions have had a great influence to progress

developmental psychology (Oates &Grayson, 2004), his works have not fully accepted due to

several methodological issues (Lourenço & Machado,1996).

d) Sociocultural Theory (Vygotsky, 1978):

This theory emphasizes the importance of social interactions and cultural contexts in language

learning. According to Vygotsky, learning is mediated through social interactions, and language

development is influenced by the cultural environment. Vygotsky (1978) also supports this view

by stating that the conversations that children have with adults and other children are important as

these conversations constitute the origins of both language and thought, where thought is

essentially internalized speech and speech emerges in social interaction.

The concept of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 86), which is

defined as: “the distance between the actual developmental levels as determined by independent

problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving

under adult guidance, or in collaboration with more capable peers”. Based on the definition of

ZPD, it is clear that Vygotsky (1978) views language acquisition and learning occur from the

interactions with other people, especially the more capable others, such as teachers or friends who

are more fluent in the language.

As Windschitl (1999) notes, constructivism is based on the belief that learners work to create,

interpret, and reorganize knowledge in individual ways: “These fluid intellectual transformations

occur when students reconcile formal instructional experiences with their existing knowledge, with

the cultural and social contexts in which ideas occur, and with a host of other influences that

mediate understanding” (Windschitl, 1999, p. 752).

21
2.3.The importance of Motivation in Second Language Acquisition:

Ellis (2008) states “no single individual differences factor in language learning has

received as much attention as MOTIVATION” (p. 677). Dörnyei (2005) claims that there were

almost 100 studies published in 1990s. Masgoret and Gardner (2003) cited 75 independent

studies involving more than 10,000 participants. Gardner (1985) identifies motivation as the

single most influential factor in learning a new language.

Pulvermuller and Schumann (1994) argue that full knowledge of a language can only be

achieved if two conditions are met-the learner is motivated to learn the language, and the

learner possesses the ability to acquire grammatical knowledge. In his final comment on

motivation, Ellis (2008) considers these two constructs as ‘two big’ (i.e. language aptitude and

motivation) and suggests that they have been confirmed as the main psychological factors

contributing to individual differences in learning a second language

2.3.1.Definition of Motivation

Dörnyei (1998) argues on the exact definition of ‘motivation’. He comments, “Although

‘motivation’ is a term frequently used in both educational and research contexts, it is rather

surprising how li Motivation in cognitive development theory developed by Piaget is perceived

as “ a built-in unconscious striving towards more complex and differential development of

individual’s mental structure (Oxford & Shearin, 1994, p.23).

Gardner’s (1985) statement about the concept of motivation is related to effort, want, desire,

reason of behaviors and the affectivity that associated with learning a second language and has a

close link with language learning. That is; motivation in SLA refers to the extent to which the

language learner strives to achieve a particular goal (instrumental motivation) or to become

22
an indistinguishable member of the target community (integrative motivation). Motivation plays

a vital role in second language acquisition, as it affects learners' engagement, effort, and

perseverance. Various theories highlight the importance of motivation:

2.3.2.Types of Motivation

Self-determination Theory distinguishes two types of motivation: intrinsic and extrinsic.

a) Intrinsic Motivation

This theory suggests that individuals are intrinsically motivated when they engage in activities

for their inherent satisfaction and enjoyment. Intrinsic motivation can foster long-term

commitment to language learning. According to Noels et.al. (2000) Intrinsic motivation as a sub-

scale of the self-determination theory, is of three kinds: a) intrinsic motivation knowledge (i.e.

the pleasure of knowing new things), intrinsic motivation accomplishment (the pleasure of

accomplishing goals), and intrinsic motivation stimulation (the pleasure in doing the task).

Ehrman, Leaver, and Oxford (2003) state that intrinsically motivated learners find the reward

in the enjoyment of learning activity itself and achieve a feeling of competence in doing the task.

In other words, intrinsically motivated individuals are mostly internally driven rather than

externally driven. Extrinsic

b) Extrinsic Motivation

Extrinsic motivation refers to external factors such as rewards, grades, or social approval that

drive language learning. Gardner's socio-educational model posits that motivation is influenced by

factors like integrativeness (desire to integrate into the target language community) and

instrumental orientation (desire to achieve practical goals through language learning). Extrinsic

23
motivation refers to “actions carried out to achieve some instrumental end such as earning

reward or avoiding a punishment” (Deci & Ryan, 1985, p.39).

c) Amotivation

Amotivation in the self-determination theory refers to “lack of motivation resulting from

realizing that there is no point” (Dörnyei 2001a, p. 143). Deci and Ryan (1985) define amotivation

as “the relative absence of motivation that is not caused by a lack of initial interest but rather by

the individual’s experiencing feelings of incompetence and helplessness when faced with the

activity” ( cited in Dornyei, 2001a, p. 144). Vallerand (1997) mentions four major types of

amotivation. First, amotivation can result from a capacity-ability belief, i.e. an individual

may have amotivation because of lack of self-confidence; the second type is strategy beliefs, i.e.,

amotivation i.e. an individual may think that the undesired outcome may result from strategy

misuse. The third type of amotivation, capacity-effort belief, results from this perception that

the task is too demanding to do. The fourth type of amotivation, a helplessness belief, result from

this perception that effort is inconsequential, and it cannot be of any help.

2.4.Interlanguage and Fossilization: definition of Fossilization

Interlanguage is a language system between the mother language and the target language

(WU Ding’e.(2001)

Interlanguage fossilization is caused by many factors, and can come into shape as a result of a

small deviation in the foreign language learning process LI XIaolan, XIAO Xi (2012) , WANG

Sumin(2013) Interlanguage refers to the intermediate language system that learners develop as

they progress towards target language proficiency. It is influenced by learners' first language, their

exposure to the target language, and their individual learning strategies. Fossilization occurs when

24
certain errors or non-target-like features become permanent in a learner's interlanguage, despite

extended exposure to the target language.

There are various definitions of fossilization. Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching

and Applied Linguistics puts it this way: fossilization (in second or foreign language

learning) a process which sometimes occurs in which incorrect linguistic features become a

permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes a language.

Larry Selinker, a famous American linguist, was the first to put forward the interlanguage

fossilization theory. Fossilizable linguistic phenomena are linguistic items, rules and

subsystems which speakers of a particular native language will tend to keep in their interlanguage

relative to a particular target language, no matter what the age of the learner or the amount of

explanations he receives in the target language.(Selinker, 1972)

According to the same author, Fossilization can also be classified into temporary

fossilization and permanent fossilization, which is of great value in foreign language teaching.

As their names show, the former is instable and changeable while the latter has been stabilized.

Non-English major learners mostly belong to temporary fossilization, which can be improved

when learners accept optimal input. In this paper, we mainly concentrate on this classification.

2.5..The Role and definition of Culture in Second Language Acquisition:

According to Scollon and Scollon, “culture” has two normal uses in English, i.e. high culture

and anthropological culture. High culture, as Scollon and Scollon defined, “focuses on intellectual

and artistic achievements. “It may refer to the intellectual refinement and artistic endeavor, or the

appreciation of music, literature, the art, and so on.” (Wang Lifei, 2000:p193).

25
 “When culture is referred to in its anthropological sense, it means that culture is any of the

customs, worldview, language, kinship system, social organization, and other taken-for-granted

day-to-day practices of a people which set that group apart as a distinctive group.” (Scollon &

Scollon, 2000:p126).

Culture plays a significant role in language learning and shapes the way learners perceive,

interpret, and use the target language. It affects communication patterns, social norms, and cultural

conventions. Learners need to develop intercultural competence to navigate cultural differences

and communicate effectively in the target language (Byram, 1997).

26
 Activities

1. Language Learning Timeline/ Table completion

Have a look at the timeline of key milestones in the history of SLA theories, such as

Behaviorism, Innatism, and Connectionism. Try to read and research to fill the table with

data about each important learning theory and theorists, and the concepts, and

developments associated with each theory.

2. Theoretical Debate:

Sit in Pairs and think of one SLA SLA theory (e.g., Behaviorism, Cognitive Approach,

Sociocultural Theory). Try to prepare a presentation that explains the theory's main

principles, how this explains language acquisition, and its implications for teaching. After

presentations, hold a class debate on which theory is most valid.

Language Diary:

Try to document instances of language learning and use them in your daily lives. Reflect

on how your experiences align with different SLA theories and discuss your observations

in class.

Error Analysis Task:

Sit into two different groups. Each group prepares a set of sentences containing various

language errors. Exchange them with your mates and try to identify the errors and then

discuss why these errors might occur from the perspective of different SLA theories.

Reading Material: Principles and Characteristics of Second Language Acquisition

27
Read to reinforce your Knowledge

Second Language Acquisition (SLA) refers to the process through which individuals learn a new

language after acquiring their first language (L1). SLA is influenced by various factors and is

marked by several key principles and characteristics.

Principles of SLA: Input Hypothesis: This principle, proposed by Stephen Krashen, states that

language learners acquire language most effectively when they are exposed to comprehensible

input that is slightly above their current proficiency level.

Affective Filter Hypothesis: Also proposed by Krashen, this theory suggests that learners'

emotions, motivation, and self-confidence play a crucial role in language acquisition. Positive

affective factors facilitate learning, while negative emotions can create a "filter" that impedes

language acquisition.

Monitor Model: This theory, also developed by Krashen, introduces the concept of the "monitor,"

which represents the conscious language processing system. Learners can use the monitor to self-

correct and edit language, but overreliance on it can hinder spontaneous communication.

Characteristics of SLA:

Interlanguage: Learners develop an intermediate linguistic system called "interlanguage" as they

progress towards fluency. This system may contain elements from both the target language and

the native language.

Fossilization: Some learners reach a plateau in their language development where certain errors

become ingrained despite other aspects of their language improving. This is known as fossilization.

28
Silent Period: Many language learners, particularly children, go through a "silent period" during

which they actively listen and absorb the language before actively speaking.

Assets of SLA in Relation to L1:

Transfer: Positive transfer occurs when the knowledge of the first language helps learners

understand or produce structures in the second language. Negative transfer (interference) involves

the incorrect application of L1 patterns to the second language.

Cognitive Benefits: Bilingual individuals often exhibit enhanced cognitive abilities, such as

problem-solving, multitasking, and creativity. This is referred to as the "bilingual advantage."

Metalinguistic Awareness: Learning a second language can lead to increased metalinguistic

awareness – the ability to think about and manipulate language structures – which can improve

overall language skills.

Matching Activity: Match the Term with Its Definition

• Affective Filter Hypothesis

• Input Hypothesis

• Fossilization

• Interlanguage

• Monitor Model

Definitions:

a. A theory suggesting that emotions and motivation affect language acquisition.

b. The idea that learners acquire language effectively when exposed to understandable input

slightly beyond their current level.

29
c. The process where certain errors become ingrained despite progress in other areas of language.

d. An intermediate linguistic system that learners develop as they progress towards fluency.

e. A theory introducing the concept of a "monitor" for conscious language processing.

Questions:

1. How does the Input Hypothesis explain effective language learning?

2. What is the role of the "affective filter" in Second Language Acquisition?

3. Describe the concept of "interlanguage" and its significance.

4. How does the Monitor Model explain the role of conscious language processing?

List three cognitive benefits associated with learning a second language.

30
References

Bernstein, D. A., Clarke-stewart, A., & Roy, E. J. (2008). Psychology. USA: Houghton Mifflin

Butler-Bowdon, T. (2007). 50 Psychology Classics. London: Nicholas Breale

Capability of Second Language. Journal of Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics [J].

2013.04:66-70

D. Larsen-Freeman and M. H. Long, “An Introduction toSecond Language Acquisition Research,”

Longman, NewYork, 1991

Dörnyei, Z. (2003). Attitudes, orientation, and motivation in language learning: advances in

theory, research, and application. Language Learning, 53, 3-32.

Dörnyei, Z. (2005). The Psychology of the Language Learner: Individual Differences in

Second Language Acquisition. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

Dörnyei, Z. (1998). Motivation in second and foreign language learning. Language Teaching, 31(3),

117-135.

Dörnyei, Z. (2001a). Teaching and researching motivation. Harlow, England: Longman.

Ehrman, M., Leaver, B. L., & Oxford, R. L. (2003). A brief overview of individual differences in

second language learning. System, 31, 313-330.

Ellis, R. (2008). The Study of second language acquisition. New York: Oxford University

Press.English [J]. 2012.02:7-8

Gardner, R. C. (2001). Integrative motivation: Past, present and future. Retrieved January, 2012.

from publish.uwo.ca/~gardner/docs.

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L. Selinker, “Interlanguage,” International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching,

no. 10, pp. 209-231, 1972.Language Teaching [J]. 2001.02:17-22

Leahey, T. H. (1987). A history of psychology: Main currents in psycho-logical thought (2nd ed.).

Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall

LI XIaolan, XIAO Xi. Causes of Fossilization in the Acquisition of Second Language. Overseas

Lourenço, O., & Machado, A. (1996). In defense of Piaget’s theory: A reply to 10 common

criticisms

Martin, G. N., Carlson, N. R., & Buskist, W. (2010). Psychology. Great Britain: Pearson

Masgoret, A. M., & Gardner, R. C. (2003). Attitudes, motivation and second language learning: A

meta-analysis of studies conducted by Gardner and associates. Language Learning, 53,167-

210.

Noels, K. A., Pelletier, L. G., Clement, R., & Vallerand, R. J. (2000). Why are you learning a second

language? Motivational orientations and self-determination theory. Language Learning,

50, 57-85.

Oates, J., & Grayson, A. (2004). Cognitive and Language Development in Children. Malden: MA:

Blackwell

Oxford, R., & Shearin, J. (1994). Language learning motivation: Expanding the theoretical

framework. Modern Language Journal, 78, 12-28.

Pulvermuller, F., & Schumann, J. (1994). Neurobiological mechanisms of language

acquisition. Language Learning, 44(681-734).

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Shaughnessy, J. J., Zechmeister, E. B., & Zechmeister, J. S. (2012). Research Methods in

Psychology. USA:McGraw-Hill.

Vallerand, R. J. (Ed.). (1997). Toward a hierarchical model of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.

New York: Academic Press.

WANG Sumin. On the Influence of Prominence, Feedback and Attention on the Output

Windschitl, M. (1999). The challenges of sustaining a constructivist classroom culture. Phi Delta

Kappan, 80, 751-757.

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Wyatt, W. J., Hawkins, R. P., & Davis, P. (1986). Behaviorism: Are reports of its death

exaggerated? The Behavior Analyst, 9, 101-105.

33
 Chapter Three: Language Teaching Methods

Introduction

Language teaching methods play a pivotal role in shaping how languages are effectively

imparted to learners. These methods encompass a diverse range of strategies, techniques, and

approaches that educators employ to facilitate the acquisition of a new language. Over the years,

language teaching methods have evolved in response to advancements in linguistics, cognitive

psychology, and pedagogical research. The choice of a particular method often depends on factors

such as the goals of language learning, the characteristics of the learners, the context of instruction,

and prevailing educational philosophies.

Effective language teaching methods go beyond simple transmission of vocabulary and

grammar rules; they strive to create engaging and immersive learning experiences that foster

linguistic competence and communicative proficiency. While traditional methods, such as

Grammar-Translation and Direct Method, once dominated language classrooms, contemporary

approaches like Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), Task-Based Language Teaching

(TBLT), and the use of technology have gained prominence. These modern methods prioritize

meaningful communication, real-life language use, and cultural understanding, aligning with the

needs of learners in today's interconnected world.

As the field of language teaching continues to evolve, educators often blend different methods

to create a balanced and adaptable teaching environment. The understanding that no single

approach suits every learner has led to the emergence of a "eclectic" or "integrated" approach,

which draws upon the strengths of various methods to cater to the diverse learning styles and goals

of students.

34
 In this exploration of language teaching methods, we will delve into the key characteristics,

principles, and practical applications of both traditional and contemporary methodologies. By

understanding the underlying philosophies and techniques of these methods, educators can make

informed decisions that contribute to the enhancement of language learning experiences and

outcomes.

35
 1.Grammar-translation method

Brown (2001:18-19) explained , class is taught in the mother tongue, with little active use of

the target language. The teacher uses the native language to help student to understand the material

given in grammar lessons. According to Larsen (2000) "Translation consists of translating the

meaning of the source language to a target language." The Indonesian Journal of English Language

Teaching and Applied Linguistics, 4(1), 2019 :Grammar Translation Method: Current Practice

In EFL Context position of mother tongue is as same as the first language. Thus, by using grammar

translation method teachers apply her or his first language as a media of instruction in teaching. It

is related to the statement of Richards et al (2002:4) that "The students' native language is the

medium of instruction."

Second is vocabulary, is taught in the form of lists of isolated words. To achieve the kinds of

learning targets, vocabulary learning is needed to be learned by students (Thornbury, 2002:32).

Without a vocabulary, it is hard to develop teaching approaches or pedagogies that are effective

(Moseley, 2005:1).

In consequence, grammar is too important to be ignored because, with grammar, learners'

language development will be controlled (Richards et al, 2002:145).

Grammar Translation Method is also becoming a preferable method for EFL to enhance

students' competence and performance effectively, especially EFL students' in a basic level (Al

Refaai, 2013). Some studies also prefer to combine between Grammar translation method and

Communicative approach to improve the students' accuracy and fluency in acquiring their

competence and performance in EFL classroom (Chang, 2011; Mondal, 2012).

Austin (2003) in his paper "The Grammar Translation Method of Language Teaching" states

36
 "As a teacher, I liked using the grammar translation method because I could assume the

intelligence of my students; I could talk to them like the intelligent people that they are,

and we I could talk about the grammar and vocabulary that I was teaching. In another

method, I would have had to use simple language and familiar phrases to communicate

in the target language, and even then, I could not be sure that my students knew and

understood what it was that they were saying."

Brown (1994) attempts to explain why the Grammar Translation Method is still „alive and

kicking‟ in many countries worldwide by stating three main reasons: 1. This method requires few

specialized skills on the part of the learner. 2. Grammar rules and translation tests are easy to

construct and can be objectively scored. 3. Many standardized tests of foreign languages still do

not attempt to test communicative abilities, so students have little motivation to go beyond

grammar analogies, translations and other written exercises.

Alexander (1967) draws an analogy between a language learner and a pianist, he notes and

concludes that, Learning a language has much in common with learning a musical instrument. The

drills and exercises a student does have one end in sight: to enable him to become a skilled

performer. A student who has learnt a lot of grammar but who cannot use a language is in the

position of a pianist who has learnt a lot about harmony but cannot play the piano. The students

command of a language will therefore be judged not by how much he knows but how well he can

perform in public. (Alexander, 1967, p. vii)

37
 Practical Activities

The Grammar-Translation Method:

1. What is the primary goal of the Grammar-Translation Method in language instruction?

2. Describe the role of the native language in the Grammar-Translation Method.

3. What is the emphasis on language skills like speaking and listening in this method?

4. How does the Grammar-Translation Method typically approach vocabulary acquisition?

5. Discuss the type of texts and materials commonly used in this teaching approach.

6. Explain the role of grammar in the Grammar-Translation Method. How is it taught and

practiced?

7. What are the advantages and disadvantages of the Grammar-Translation Method in

language learning?

38
 2.The Direct method

The Direct Method is a result of the grammar translation method, and it shifts from literary

language to spoken language [5] and it gives more emphasis to teaching aural-oral skills [6]. One

of the advantages of this method is that learners practice the target language to enhance

their aural-oral skills while they are comfortable with their mother tongue language [7]. This is

the natural method and anti-grammatical method developed as a response to the method of

translation of the grammar [8].

The basic purpose of this method is concerned the meaning of word, expression gestures and

language achievement which directly related the picture something in your mind you think of it

and have such a clear memory or idea of it that you seem to be able to see it (Larson-Freeman

1986). “It is successful in releasing students from the inhibitions all too often associated with

speaking a foreign tongue, particularly at the early stages” (Rivers).

The direct method is one of the teaching methods that teachers use to teach a non-native

language. Hence, if some students do not understand some of the spoken words by the teacher, it

is not permissible for the teacher to translate, but he can display clear visual means (based on the

direct method) for these words, which help students to learn English oral communication

in a fun way.[11]

39
 Practical activities

The Direct Method:

1. What is the main principle behind the Direct Method in language teaching?

2. How is the native language used in the Direct Method? What is its role?

3. Describe the importance of oral communication in the Direct Method.

4. What kinds of materials and activities are used to promote speaking and listening skills in

the Direct Method?

5. Explain how grammar is approached in the Direct Method compared to traditional

grammar-focused methods.

6. What are the challenges that teachers might face when implementing the Direct Method in

a classroom?

7. Compare the Direct Method with the Grammar-Translation Method in terms of their goals

and approaches.

40
 3. The Audio-lingual method

This method was used by the United States Army; to teach soldiers foreign languages used in

the case of directing instructions during the war or the occurrence of certain incidents, and

that was during the Second World War, and because of poor performance and scientific

output for this method, it is rarely the main means of teaching the second language, but it is

used as an aid to education and for training on exam patterns in international language

exams (Anabokay

According to [15], there are some principles related to this method.

- English language skills are presented gradually.

- The best teacher of the language is the native speaker.

- The texts are presented in the form of dialogues.

- It relies on the principle of commonality in providing vocabulary and structures.

- Vocabulary is offered in a limited number.

- Learning vocabulary is from context.

- Learning Aids are used a lot.

- It is interested in practicing the language.

- It cares about correct linguistic and pronunciation of sounds.

Teachers remain the guides for students in training them in English oral communication skills

by repeating those sentences many times (Khan and Radzuan (2019). The Audio Lingual

41
Method helps learners to be highly efficient and courteous in communication with others, as

well as quick reaction in talking to others (Brown 2001).

Zuhroton and Saifieddin study that states the positive effect of using the audio-lingual method

in teaching speaking skills, Amelia (2012) study that showed the importance of using audio-

lingual method to improve the students’ listening skill through phonetic symbols, (Freeman

2000) that proved the benefits of using Audio-Lingual method in teaching speaking skills,

Eda,Yulius et al (2017) who declared that the audiolingual method focuses on repetition some

words to memorize which helps students to build their oral communication.

Their study proved that the audio-lingual method can enhance speaking skills like the

topics that need comprehending being communicated fluently; selecting the suitable

vocabularies for the blanks in the conversations; pronouncing the vocabularies and expressing

sentences in good intonation and pronunciation; and using the correct structures during

applying the audio-lingual method; Richards and Rodgers (1999) study that stated that this

method is a perfect method to be used in teaching foreign or second language as it gives the

priority to listening and speaking before reading and writing in teaching language skills.

42
 Activities

The Audio-Lingual Method

Questions on the Characteristics of the Audio-Lingual Method:

a. What is the primary focus of the Audio-Lingual Method?

b. How does the method view language learning?

c. What role does repetition play in this method?

d. What type of drills are commonly used in this approach?

e. How are errors treated in the Audio-Lingual Method?

Questions on the Principles of the Audio-Lingual Method:

a. Explain the importance of mimicry and imitation in this method.

b. How does the Audio-Lingual Method promote habit formation?

43
 c. Describe the structural view of language that this method follows.

d. What is the significance of the "overlearning" principle in this approach?

e. How does the method encourage learners to respond to stimuli?

Questions on the Advantages of the Audio-Lingual Method:

a. Discuss how the Audio-Lingual Method promotes accurate pronunciation.

b. How does the focus on listening comprehension benefit language learners?

c. Explain the effectiveness of the method in teaching specific language structures.

d. How can the intensive drilling help learners gain confidence in using the language?

e. What role does the avoidance of native language interference play in this method's advantages?

44
Questions on the Disadvantages of the Audio-Lingual Method:

a. Describe the potential limitations of using excessive drilling in the classroom.

b. How might the exclusive use of pattern drills hinder learners' ability to communicate

spontaneously?

c. Discuss the criticism of not providing explicit explanations of grammar rules in this method.

d. Explain the challenges that learners might face when transitioning from controlled exercises to

real-life communication.

e. How might the lack of focus on cultural context be a disadvantage of this approach?

Exercises on the Audio -Lingual Method

1.Matching Exercise:

Match the following principles to their descriptions.

Principles:

1. Habit formation

2. Repetition and mimicry

3. Structural view of language

4. Overlearning

5. Focus on listening and speaking

45
Descriptions:

a. Emphasizes learning through extensive exposure to language input.

b. Aids in automating correct language responses through repetition.

c. Considers language as a system of rules and patterns.

d. Reinforces learning beyond the point of mastery to ensure retention.

e. Promotes language learning through imitation and echoing.

2. Discussion Exercise:

In pairs, discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the Audio-Lingual Method in comparison to

other language teaching approaches. Share your insights and experiences, and come up with

suggestions to address the method's limitations.

3.Application Exercise:

Design a 30-minute lesson plan for teaching a specific grammar point using the Audio-Lingual

Method. Include various types of drills (e.g., substitution, transformation, repetition) and

activities to engage learners in active participation.

46
 4.Communicative language teaching

Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) is an approach to teaching language which is

defined many writers (Cannale, 1983; Cook, 1991; Littlewood, 1981; O’Malley and Chamot,

1990; Richards and Rodgers 2001; Rivers, 1987). According to Richards, et al. in the Dictionary

of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics defined CLT as “an approach to foreign or second

language teaching which emphasises that the goal of language learning is communicative

competence” (1992: 65). Other authors in the field have defined and characterized CLT in various

ways ( Littlewood, 1981 ). Littlewood explains that “one of the most characteristic features of

communicative language teaching is that it pays systematic attention to functional as well as

structural aspects of language, combining these into a more fully communicative view” (1981:1)

Richards and Rodgers (1986), on the other hand, claim that the origins of communicative

language teaching are to be found in the changes of situational language teaching approaches,

which influenced the British language teaching tradition till the late 1960s. Meanwhile, Savignon

(1991) asserts that the emergence of CLT can be traced to concurrent developments on both sides

of the Atlantic, i.e. in Europe and the United States. Educators and linguistics such as Candlin

(1981) and Widdowson (1978) saw the need to focus in language teaching on communicative

proficiency rather than on mere mastery of structures.

They felt that students were not learning enough realistic, whole language in those methods,

i.e., Situational Language Teaching, Audio-lingual or Grammar Translation method (Richards and

Rodgers 1986; Savignon 1987, 1991; Galloway 1993). Students did not know how to communicate

in the cultures of the language studies. In respect of this point (Widdowson, 1972).Communicative

Language Teaching is a “hybrid approach to language teaching, essentially ‘progressive’ rather

47
than ‘traditional’…” (Wright, 2000). CLT can be seen to derive from a multidisciplinary

perspective that includes, at least, linguistics, psychology, philosophy, sociology and educational

research (Savignon, 1991).

It is generally accepted that proponents of CLT see it as an approach, not a method (Richards

and Rodgers 1986). For Brown, for instance, “Communicative Language Teaching is a unified but

broadly – based theoretical position about the nature of language and language learning and

teaching” (1994: 244-245). Students regularly work in groups or pairs to transfer (and if necessary

to negotiate) meaning in situations where one person has information that others lack (Celce -

Murcia 1991).

A teacher may use formal evaluation i.e., he/she is likely to use a communicative test, which is

an integrative and has a real communicative function (e.g., Madsen 1983; Hughes 1989). The

students’ native language has no role to play (Larsen Freeman1986).

"the teacher should be able to use the target language fluently and appropriately" (Celce-

Murcia1991:8). However, for others (e.g., Finocchiaro and Brumfit 1983) judicious use of native

language is accepted where feasible. Teachers may provide directions of homework, class work

and test directions by using the native language.

48
 Activities

Communicative Language Teaching

Questions:

1. What is the main focus of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)?

2. How does CLT differ from traditional grammar-based approaches to language teaching?

3. What are the key principles of CLT?

4. Explain the role of authentic communication in CLT.

5. How does CLT promote learner-centeredness in the language classroom?

6. What are some potential challenges or limitations of implementing CLT?

7. Give an example of a communicative activity that encourages pair or group interaction.

8. How does CLT address the development of both linguistic and pragmatic competence?

9. What is the role of error correction in CLT?

10. How can technology be integrated into CLT-based language instruction?

49
 Activities:

1.Role-Play Scenarios:

Think of situations where you must interact using the target language in a specific context, such

as booking a hotel room or ordering food at a restaurant.

2.Story Building:

Listen and follow the teacher telling a story then try to take turns adding sentences to continue

the narrative using the target language.

3.Problem-Solving Discussions:

Teacher Presents a real-life problem or dilemma and have students discuss and come up with

solutions in the target language.

4.Interview a Partner:

Students take turns interviewing each other using a list of questions to gather information and

then share what they've learned with the class.

5.Opinion Exchange:

teacher Provides a topic and have students express their opinions, discussing and justifying their

viewpoints in pairs or small groups.

Consolidate what you know and sit in pairs to add other information if you want

CLT Principles:

50
CLT emphasizes the importance of meaningful communication, interactive activities, and the use

of language in real-life contexts. It aims to develop both fluency and accuracy in

language learners.

Authentic Communication:

CLT emphasizes using the language for real communication purposes, rather than focusing solely

on grammar drills and vocabulary memorization.

Learner-Centeredness:

CLT places learners at the center of the language learning process, encouraging them to take an

active role in their own learning and providing opportunities for self-expression.

Add to your Knowledge

Famous Figures:

Michael Canale and Merrill Swain developed the concept of communicative competence.

Stephen Krashen introduced the theory of input hypothesis.

Diane Larsen-Freeman emphasized the importance of learner-centeredness and interaction.

Assets of CLT:

CLT encourages active participation, enhances communication skills, prepares learners for real-

world language use, promotes cultural awareness, and creates a dynamic and engaging classroom

environment.

51
 5.Task-based language teaching

Introduction

Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) is an innovative approach to language education that

places emphasis on practical communication skills and real-world language use. Unlike traditional

methods that focus primarily on grammar and vocabulary drills, TBLT centers around the

completion of meaningful tasks as the driving force for language acquisition. These tasks can range

from problem-solving activities to role plays, debates, and simulations that mirror real-life

situations where language is actually used.

TBLT is built upon the idea that language is best learned when it serves a purpose, and learners

are engaged in authentic communication rather than just memorizing isolated language

components. This approach encourages learners to use the language creatively, fostering their

ability to comprehend and produce meaningful speech in various contexts. By working through

tasks that require negotiation of meaning, collaboration, and interaction, learners develop not only

linguistic skills but also critical thinking, problem-solving, and social skills.

In a TBLT classroom, the teacher assumes the role of a facilitator, guiding students through the

tasks while providing necessary language support. The focus shifts from explicit instruction of

grammar rules to more implicit acquisition through exposure and practice. Assessment in TBLT

is often based on how well learners accomplish the given tasks, evaluating their ability to

communicate effectively rather than simply testing their knowledge of grammar rules and

vocabulary.

52
 Task-Based Language Teaching represents a learner-centered approach that promotes the

integration of language skills in a meaningful context, preparing learners for authentic language

use in the real world.

5.1.Definition of Task

An early definition of task comes from Old North French tasque, which meant a duty,a tax, or

a piece of work imposed as a duty. Tasque originated from the Latin taxāre,to evaluate, estimate,

or assess (Barnhart 1988, p. 1117)

Long (1985) defined a task as “... a piece of work undertaken for oneself or for others,freely or

for some reward . . . [B]y ‘task’ is meant the hundred and one things people do in everyday life,

at work, at play, and in between” (p. 89)

Breen (1987) defined a language task as a structured language endeavor which has a specific

objective, appropriate content, a particular working procedure, and a range of possible outcomes

for those who undertake it. Breen suggested that language tasks can be viewed as arrange of work

plans, from simple to complex, with the overall purpose of learning. In fact, he asserted, “All

materials for language teaching . . . can be seen as compendia of tasks” (Breen, 1987, p. 26).

Drawing on Activity Theory, Coughlin and Duff (1994, p.175) distinguished between an L2

task and an L2 activity. In their view, task refers to the “behavioral blueprint provided to students

in order to elicit data” for research or assessment. Coughlin and Duff defined activity as “the

behavior that is actually produced when an individual (or group) performs a task” (1994, p. 175)

5.2.Task Types

Many types of L2 tasks exist, particularly in the realm of communicative instruction. Here is a

listing of some key task types found in the literature: problem-solving(Nunan, 1989; Pica et al.,

53
1993; Willis, 1996a); decision-making (Foster & Skehan,1996; Nunan, 1989; Pica et al., 1993);

opinion-gap or opinion exchange (Nunan,1989; Pica et al., 1993); information-gap (Doughty &

Pica,1986; Nunan, 1989;Oxford, 1990; Pica et al., 1993); comprehension-based (Ikeda &

Takeuchi, 2000;Scarcella & Oxford, 1992; Tierney et al., 1995); sharing personal experiences,

attitudes, and feelings (Foster & Skehan, 1996; Oxford, 1990; Willis, 1996a, 1996b);basic

cognitive processes, such as comparing or matching (Nunan, 1989; Willis,1998), listing (Willis,

1998), and ordering/sorting (Willis, 1998); language analysis(Willis, 1996a, 1996b, 1998);

narrative (Foster & Skehan, 1996); reasoning- gap(Nunan, 1989); question-and-answer (Nunan

1989); structured and semi-structured dialogues (Nunan, 1989); and role-plays and simulations

(Crookall & Oxford, 1990;Richards & Rodgers, (2001).

In addition, task types include picture stories (Nunan, 1989); puzzles and games(Nunan, 1989);

interviews, discussions, and debates (Nunan, 1989; Oxford, 1990;Richards & Rodgers, 2001); and

everyday functions, such as telephone conversations and service encounters (Richards & Rodgers,

2001).

Richards and Rodgers (2001) cited a range of input materials for L2 tasks, including books,

newspaper, video, TV, and so on. Interest level of the learners in the material is particularly crucial.

If materials are perceived as boring or as too easy or too difficult, learners will be unmotivated to

do the task (Scarcella & Oxford, 1992).

(Ellis, 2003a) presented a sequence of tasks for helping learners become more grammatical,

rather than for attaining the elusive goal of mastery. The sequence includes:• Listening task, in

which students listen to a text that they process for meaning).• "Noticing" task, in which students

listen to the same text, which is now gapped, and fill in the missing words.• Consciousness-raising

task, in which students discover how the target grammar structure works by analyzing the "data"

54
provided by the listening text.• Checking task, in which students complete an activity to check if

they have understood how the target structure works.• Production task, in which students have the

chance to try out or experiment with the target structure by producing their own sentences

55
 Activities

Task-based language Teaching

Add to your Information:

Principles of TBLT:

Focus on Meaningful Tasks:

TBLT centers on real-world tasks that learners might encounter outside the classroom, such as

solving a problem, making a plan, or completing a project.

Communication as the Goal:

The main objective is effective communication. Learners engage in tasks that require them to use

language to accomplish a goal rather than just practicing language forms.

Language Use Emerges:

Language is acquired through the process of completing tasks. Grammar and vocabulary naturally

emerge as learners try to express themselves in order to complete the task successfully.

Collaborative Learning:

TBLT often involves collaboration among learners. They work together to complete tasks, share

ideas, negotiate meaning, and learn from each other.

Error Tolerance:

Errors are seen as a natural part of the learning process. While accuracy is important, the primary

focus is on meaningful communication.

56
Characteristics of TBLT:

Task Complexity:

Tasks should be appropriately challenging, encouraging learners to use a range of language forms

and skills.

Authenticity:

Tasks should reflect real-world language use, allowing learners to practice language in context.

Feedback:

Immediate feedback helps learners improve their language use during and after completing tasks.

Learner Autonomy:

Learners take an active role in selecting, planning, and executing tasks, fostering autonomy in

their learning process.

Classroom Tasks:

Problem-Solving Task:

Provide a scenario or situation where learners must work together to solve a problem using the

target language.

Information-Gap Task:

Design a task where learners have different pieces of information and need to communicate to

complete a task, such as planning a vacation.

57
Opinion Exchange Task:

Have learners discuss a controversial topic, express their opinions, and support their viewpoints

using the target language.

Role-Play Task:

Assign roles to learners and have them engage in a simulated conversation, such as a job interview

or a customer-service interaction.

Project-Based Task:

Assign a project that requires research, planning, and presentation, allowing learners to use

language for a purpose.

Teachers’ Activities

1.Prepare a list of questions related to a specific task or topic. Ask students to interact with their

peers to find someone who can answer each question.

Descriptive Drawing: Provide students with a picture and have them describe it in detail to a

partner. The partner then recreates the image based on the description.

Spot the Differences: Give students two similar pictures with slight differences. They need to

communicate to identify and describe the differences.

Map Route Planning: Provide a map with different locations. Students work in pairs to plan a

route from one location to another, using directions and landmarks in the target language.

Restaurant Menu Creation: Students work in groups to create a restaurant menu in the target

language, including descriptions of dishes and prices.

58
Questions:

1. What is the main focus of Task-Based Language Teaching?

2. How does TBLT differ from traditional language teaching approaches?

3. What are the key principles of TBLT?

4. How does TBLT encourage the development of communicative competence?

5. What role does collaboration play in TBLT?

6. How does TBLT handle errors in language learning?

7. Describe an example of an authentic task in a language classroom.

8. How does TBLT promote learner autonomy?

9. What is the relationship between task complexity and language development?

10. Explain the idea of language emergence in TBLT.

Gap-Filling Exercises:

1. TBLT focuses on _______ tasks that learners might encounter in real life.

2. In TBLT, the main goal is to promote _______ rather than focusing solely on linguistic

accuracy.

3. TBLT emphasizes collaboration among learners, encouraging them to work together to

complete _______.

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 6.Content-based instruction

Introduction

Content-Based Instruction (CBI) is an innovative and immersive approach to language learning

that places a strong emphasis on integrating language acquisition with the exploration and

understanding of meaningful subject matter. Unlike traditional language teaching methods that

often focus only on isolated language skills, CBI interelates language learning and the study of

diverse content areas, fostering both language proficiency and subject knowledge simultaneously.

This approach recognizes that language is not merely a set of grammar rules and vocabulary, but

a tool for meaningful communication and engagement with real-world concepts.

CBI shifts the classroom dynamic from being solely teacher-centered to a more student-

centered approach, where learners actively participate in the exploration of engaging topics such

as science, history, literature, and more. Through this integration of content, language learners not

only acquire essential language skills but also develop critical thinking, problem-solving abilities,

and a deeper understanding of the subject matter itself. This approach aligns with the belief that

language learning is most effective when it occurs within a context that holds personal relevance

and interest for the learners.

In a Content-Based Instruction setting, educators carefully select subject matter that is relevant

to the students' academic, professional, or personal interests. The goal is to create a rich and

authentic environment where language is used purposefully to access, understand, and

communicate complex ideas. This approach often utilizes a variety of materials such as textbooks,

articles, videos, and other resources related to the chosen content area. Additionally, instructors

60
incorporate language-focused activities that support vocabulary acquisition, grammatical

comprehension, and communication skills, all within the context of the chosen content.

Content-Based Instruction is not only beneficial for language learners, but it also promotes a

holistic approach to education.. This integration enhances both linguistic and cognitive abilities,

preparing students to effectively communicate and engage in diverse academic, professional, and

social settings.

6.1.Definition

Richards and Rodgers (2001)say that “Content-Based Instruction refers to an approach to

second language teaching in which teaching is organized around the con-tent or information that

students will acquire, rather than around a linguistic or other type of syllabus” (Richards &

Rodgers, 2001, p. 204)

Content usually refers to the subject matter that people learn or transmit using

language(Richards & Rodgers, 2001). Content-based instruction is “the teaching of language

through exposure to content that is interesting and relevant to learners” (Brinton, 2003, p. 201).

Snow(2001) goes beyond when defining the concept of content. Snow (2001) said: Content... is

the use of subject matter for second/foreign language teaching purposes. Subject matter may

consist of topics or themes based interest or need in an adult EFL setting, or it may be very

specific, such as the subjects that students are currently studying in their elementary school

classes.(Snow, 2001, p. 303

6.2.Characteristics of CBI

According to Richards and Rodgers (2001), CBI is based on two relevant principles: (1)

People learn a second language more successfully when the use the language as a means of

61
acquiring information, rather than as an end in itself. (2) CBI better reflects learners’ needs for

learning a second language

Brinton (2003) points out that CBI“ allows the choice of content to dictate or influence the

selection and sequencing of language items” (Brinton, 2003,p. 206). CBI also claims that

comprehensible input is not enough to acquire the target language successfully unlike other

approaches and theories(Brinton, 2003)

Brinton (2003)provides a list of the most common techniques and activities found in the CBI

classroom. techniques and tasks are similar to the ones used in CLT in the sense that they

involve learners’ active participation. These classroom techniques and tasks are listed here: Pair

and group work, information gap, jigsaw, graphic organizers, discussion and debate, role-plays,

and others. Stryker and Leaver (1997) point out that the philosophy of CBI “aims at empowering

students to become independent learners and continue the learning process beyond the

classroom” (Stryker & Leaver, 1997, p. 3)

6.3.Models of CBI

The first one is theme-based language instruction. In this model the syllabus is arranged

around themes or topics, here are several ways to introduce a theme: Video and audio material,

reading, and/or vocabulary. The materials used to introduce these themes or topics will usually

integrate all skills (Richards & Rodgers, 2001). The second model is called sheltered content

instruction. The main objective is that learners understand the content. The fact that students are

still learning the target language makes the teacher modify the lesson (vocabulary, speed, pace,

and others) in order for grasp the material. The teacher also devotes some class time to explain

linguistic elements related to the content of a specific lesson (Brinton, 2003)

62
 Adjunct language instruction is the third model. Basically, students take two courses, paired

or adjuncted courses. These are linked courses. One is a course based on a specific content, and

the other course is based on specific linguistic features of the target language. Both courses are

complementary (Richards & Rodgers, 2001)

Stryker and Leaver (1997) say that “adjunct courses can enhance students’ self-confidence

with a feeling of using the new language to accomplish real tasks” (Stryker & Leaver, 1997, p.4).

Sustained- content language teaching is a recent and innovative model of CBI. It is indeed very

similar to theme-based instruction. The difference is that theme-based instruction covers several

topics and in SCLT learners work on one topic. The content is “sustained” (Brinton,2003, p. 205

63
 Activities

Content-based Instruction

Reading for Leisure: Add to Your Knowledge

Definition of Content-Based Instruction (CBI):

Content-Based Instruction (CBI) is an approach to language teaching that integrates the learning

of language and subject content. It involves using subject matter from academic disciplines as the

basis for language instruction, allowing learners to simultaneously develop language skills and

acquire knowledge in a particular area.

Characteristics of CBI:

Content-Driven: The primary focus is on teaching subject matter content, which serves as the

context for language learning.

Language as a Tool: Language is not taught in isolation but is used as a tool to access, understand,

and communicate about subject matter content.

Integrated Skills: CBI emphasizes the integration of listening, speaking, reading, and writing

skills in the context of meaningful content.

Authentic Materials: Authentic texts, materials, and resources related to the subject matter are

used to expose learners to real-world language use.

Critical Thinking: CBI encourages learners to engage in higher-order thinking skills by

analyzing, evaluating, and synthesizing information.

64
Cultural Awareness: Learners are exposed to the cultural aspects embedded in the subject matter

content.

Task-Based Activities:

Activities and projects related to the subject matter are used to promote language use and content

understanding.

Principles of CBI:

Language and Content Integration: Language and content are taught simultaneously to enhance

both linguistic and cognitive development.

Meaningful Context: Learning occurs in a meaningful context where language is used to convey

information and ideas.

Language as a Social Process: Language learning is seen as a social and interactive process,

mirroring real-world communication.

Authentic Communication: Emphasis is placed on using language authentically for

communication purposes.

Scaffolded Support: Teachers provide necessary support to help learners understand and engage

with content.

Multidisciplinary Approach: CBI draws on various subject areas to expose learners to a range

of vocabulary and concepts.

65
Advantages of CBI:

Language Proficiency: Learners develop both language skills and content knowledge

simultaneously, leading to more well-rounded proficiency.

Real-World Relevance: CBI connects language to real-life contexts and prepares learners for

authentic language use.

Motivation: The engagement with interesting subject matter can motivate learners to actively

participate and learn.

Cultural Understanding: Learners gain insight into the culture and perspectives associated with

the subject content.

Critical Thinking: CBI promotes critical thinking skills by challenging learners to analyze and

process complex information.

Effective Communication: Learners learn to use language effectively for communication rather

than just memorizing grammar rules.

Matching Table:

Match the following characteristics with their corresponding principles in Content-Based

Instruction (CBI):

Characteristics of CBI Principles of CBI

Language as a Tool Language and Content Integration

Authentic Materials Meaningful Context

Integrated Skills Language as a Social Process

66
Cultural Awareness Authentic Communication

Task-Based Activities Scaffolded Support

Multidisciplinary Approach Multidisciplinary Approach

Teachers’ Activities:

Subject-Related Presentations: Have students research a specific subject matter and then give

presentations in the target language to their peers.

Reading and Analysis: Provide authentic texts related to a subject. Students read, analyze, and

discuss the content using the language.

Content-Based Discussions: Organize class discussions around subject-specific topics,

encouraging students to express their opinions and ideas.

Project-Based Learning: Assign projects that require students to apply both language and content

knowledge to create something meaningful.

Comparative Analysis: Have students compare and contrast content-related concepts or ideas

using language.

Exercises:

Fill in the blanks to complete the sentence about Content-Based Instruction:

Content-Based Instruction (CBI) integrates the learning of ________ and ________ content.

Explain the following characteristics in your own words

(a) Using authentic materials: .........................................................................................

67
(b) Developing integrated skills:.................................................................................

(c) Emphasizing cultural awareness:.............................................................................

True or False:

In CBI, language learning occurs in isolation from subject matter........True False

Complete the principle:

In CBI, teachers provide ________ support to help learners engage with content and language.

List two advantages of Content-Based Instruction for language learners.

1...............................................................................................................

2...............................................................................................................

68
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 Chapter Four: IV. Curriculum Design

4.1.Definition of Curriculum

Curriculum can be defined as a “web of interrelated and aligned activities” working together to

achieve certain learning outcomes. Stenhouse (1975) states that “a curriculum is an attempt to

communicate the essential principles and features of an educational proposal in such a form that it

is open to critical scrutiny and capable of effective translation into practice”. John Kerr defines

curriculum as “all the learning which is planned and guided by the school, whether it is carried on in groups

or individually, inside or outside the school (cited in Kelly,1983:10). ‘A curriculum is an attempt

to communicate the essential principles and features of an educational proposal in such a form that

it is open to critical scrutiny and capable of effective translation into practice’ (Stenhouse, 1975:

p.4). In other words, a curriculum is a proposal for action that is not necessarily right, but

reasonable (Toulmin, 2001).

4.2.Principles of curriculum design

Ralph Tyler proposed that the curriculum should be seen as a means to an end, rather than an

end in itself. He identified ‘four fundamental questions which must be answered in developing any

curriculum and plan of instruction’ (Tyler, 1949: p.1

1. What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?

2. What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these purposes

3. How can these educational experiences be effectively organised?

4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained?

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One of Tyler’s colleagues, Hilda Taba, elaborated Tyler’s model, and in Curriculum development:

theory and practice (Taba, 1962: pp.347-378) she proposed a seven-step model for curriculum

development. The steps were:

• Diagnosing needs

• Formulating specific objectives

• Selecting content

• Organising content

• Selecting learning experiences

• Organising learning experiences

• Evaluating

Sir Richard Livingstone, president of Corpus Christi College at Oxford University, wrote

over 70 years ago: ‘The test of a successful education is not the amount of knowledge that a pupil

takes away from school, but his appetite to know and his capacity to learn. If the school sends out

children with a desire for knowledge and some idea of how to acquire and use it, it will have done

its work. Too many leave school with the appetite killed and the mind loaded with undigested

lumps of information. The good schoolmaster is known by the number of valuable subjects that he

declines to teach.’ (Livingstone, 1941: p.28)

4.3.Approaches to curriculum design

Hilda Taba’s prescription went much further. She suggested that in addition to understanding

what the student already knows, ‘it is necessary to know something about students’ cultural

backgrounds, motivational patterns, and the content of their social learning, such as the particular

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meanings they bring to school, their particular approach to learning tasks, and the expectations

they have of themselves and of others.’ (p.234)

Kerr (1968) suggested that the curriculum was based on four elements: objectives, evaluation,

knowledge, and school learning experiences, with the explicit expectation that the elements

interact with each other, so that a change in one leads to changes in the others.

Kerr proposed that the term curriculum should denote ‘all the learning which is planned or

guided by the school, whether it is carried on in groups or individually inside or outside the school’

(p.16).

4.4.Definition of ‘a syllabus’

There are many definitions of the term “syllabus’ in literature Educationalists differentiate

between two terms, namely “syllabus” and “curriculum”. The curriculum is “all the relevant

decision-making processes of all the participants” the syllabus is its result (Johnson, 1989, p. 33).

According to Brown (1995, p.7) “A syllabus provides a focus for what should be studied, along

with a rationale for how that content should be selected and ordered.” Similarly, Richards (2001)

defines syllabus as “A specification of the content of a course of instruction [which] lists what will

be taught and tested” (p.2). Robertson (as cited in Yalden, 1987) states that: Curriculum includes

the goals, objectives, content, processes, resources, and means of evaluation of all the learning

experiences planned for pupils both in and out of the school and community through classroom

instruction and related programs. (P.18)

Robertson defines syllabus as “A statement of the plan for any part of the curriculum, excluding

the element of curriculum evaluation itself.” (As cited in Yalden 1987, p.18). Robertson concludes

that “Syllabuses should be viewed in the context of an ongoing curriculum development process.”

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(Yalden 1987, p.18). Pienemann (1985, p.23) sees the syllabus as “the selection and grading of

linguistic teaching objectives”, while for Breen (1984, p.47) it “is a plan of what is to be achieved

through our teaching and our students’ learning”.

Candlin (1984) defines syllabuses as: Syllabuses are concerned with the specification and

planning of what is to be learned, frequently set down in some written form as prescriptions for

action by teachers and learners. They have, traditionally, the mark of authority. They are concerned

with achievement of ends, often, though not always, associated with the pursuance of particular

means. (p 30)

Syllabi can be divided into two different types: Product-Oriented Syllabi and Process Oriented

Syllabi. (Long & Crookes, 1992; Long & Robinson, 1998). Brown (1995) lists seven basic syllabus

types: “structural, situational, topical, functional, notional, skills-based and task-based and these

can be linked to specific teaching approaches and methods.” (p.7)

4.5.Types of Syllabi:

4.5.1.Product-Oriented Syllabi

4.5.1.1.Structural Syllabi (Ellis 1993, p.199)

Structural syllabi are one of the most common types of syllabi and still today we can see the

contents pages of many course books set out according to grammatical items. The grammatical

syllabus has been defined as one which consists of a list of grammatical items selected and graded

in terms of simplicity and complexity (Nunan, 1988). Wilkins (1976) as cited in Baleghizadeh

(2012) defines this kind of approach to syllabus design as synthetic. A synthetic language teaching

strategy is one in which the different parts of language are taught separately and step-by-step so

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that acquisition is a process of gradual accumulation of the parts until the whole structure of the

language has been built up. (p.2)

Structural syllabus is based on the assumption that language rules are learned in a linear fashion

and learners should demonstrate complete mastery of one rule before moving on to the next

(Nunan, 2001). Nunan (1899) states “In the process-oriented syllabuses, however, the focus shifts

from the 'outcomes of instruction, i.e., the knowledge and skills to be gained by the learner, to the

processes through which knowledge and skills might be gained” (p.40)

Ellis (2003) points out “If learners know about a particular feature they are better equipped to

detect the difference between what they themselves are saying and how the feature is used in the

input they are exposed to.” p.149. Similarly, Cullen (2008) states that “without any grammar, the

learner is forced to rely exclusively on lexis and the other prosodic and non-verbal features, to

communicate his/her intended meaning.” (p.221). Two terms, grading and sequencing, are related

to structural Nunan (1988) pinpoints that “it could be argued that any proposal failing to offer

criteria for grading and sequencing can hardly claim to be a syllabus at all.” (p. 47)

Situational Syllabus Both Situational Syllabus and Notional Syllabus are types of semantic

syllabus. Linguistic underpinning of this syllabus is that language is always used in context, never

in isolation. (Yalden, 1983, p.35). Ur (2000) defines a situational syllabus as “A syllabus in which

the contents are organized according to situations in which certain language is likely to be

employed.” (p.178) According to Yalden (1987) The situational model will comprise units

indicating specific situations, such as 'At the Post Office', 'Buying an Airline Ticket', or 'The Job

Interview'. The topical or thematic syllabus is similar, but generally employs the procedure of

grouping modules or lessons around a topic, something like barnacles clinging to the hull. (p. 35)

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4.5.1.2..Lexical Syllabus Design (Willis, 1990) and (Nunan, 1988)

The Notional Syllabus One of the pioneers in writing about notional syllabus was Wilkins.

Thus, most of the information of notional syllabus is based on his book “The Notional Syllabus

Revisited” (1981). Notions are meaning elements that may be expressed through nouns, pronouns,

verbs, prepositions, conjunctions, adjectives or adverbs. Notions are general concepts such as,

“time, space, cause and effect.” Finocchiaro & Brumfit, 1983 (cited in Brown, 2000, p.91). Wilkins

(1981) pinpoints that notional syllabus helps learners to use language communicatively, leading to

better learners’ competence. Functional / Notional Syllabus

Cited in Richards (2001), Wilkins states that: A notional-functional syllabus should comprise

three categories of meaning: semantico -grammatical meaning (including time and quantity),

modal meaning (including an indication of the certainty and attitude of the speaker) and

communicative function (including requests, complaints, and compliments, among a vast array of

others). The major emphasis of the Functional-Notional Approach is on the communicative

purpose(s) of a speech act. This redefined lexicon-structural syllabus is what Wilkins refers to as

the "notional –functional syllabus. (p.37)

Topic-Based Syllabus Based on what (Bourke, 2006); and (Richards & Rodgers, 1994) state,

this syllabus is the third type of Semantic Syllabi besides the Lexical and Situational Syllabi. Often,

this syllabus is built around certain topics and themes, such as: Travel, drugs, religious Persuasion,

advertising, modern architecture, sport as so on.

4.6.Process-oriented syllabuses

4.6.1.Task based Syllabus

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"Task" being "anything the learners are given to do (or choose to do) in the language classroom to

further the process of language learning.” (Williams & Burden, 1997: p.167). Some of task-based

syllabus proponents is Willis 1996. Nunan (1988) suggests that a syllabus might specify two types

of tasks: real-world tasks or communication tasks such as using the telephone and Pedagogical

tasks like information-gap task.

4.6.2.Three Types of Task-Based Syllabus

1. Procedural Syllabus 2. Process syllabus 3. Skill-Based Syllabus

4.6.2.1. Procedural Syllabus

The Procedural syllabus is associated with Prabhu, Ramani and others at the Regional Institute

of English in Bangalore, India. To Prabhu (1992) “Teaching through communication, rather than

for communication is an important aspect of this syllabus.” (p.19). Prabhu (1992) also argues A

task in a procedural syllabus should be intellectually challenging enough to maintain students'

interest, for that is what will sustain learners' efforts at task completion, focus them on meaning

and, as part of that process, engage them in confronting the task's linguistic demands” (p.24).

4.6.2.2. Process Syllabus A Process Syllabus addresses the overall question: 'Who does what with

whom, on what subject- matter, with what resources, when, how, and for what learning

purpose(s)?' (Breen, 1987, p. 56)

4.6.2.3.3. Skill-Based Syllabus

4.7.The Content-Based Syllabus Krashen’s theory, cited in Brown (1995,2000), focuses on the

fact that for learning languages to happen, sufficient opportunity to engage in meaningful use of

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that language should be provided. The content-based syllabus is the teaching of content or

information with little effort to teach the language itself separately from the content being taught

Stoller (2002) states: In a content-based approach, the activities of the language class are specific

to the subject matter being taught, and are geared to stimulate students to think and learn through

the use of the target language.

4.8..The Relational Syllabus As reported in White (1988), relational syllabus is based on items

like "notional relations such as cause-effect; or discourse relations, such as question-reply; or

clause structure...."(p. 78)

4.9..The Communicative Syllabus It is a syllabus which specifies the semantic-grammatical

categories (e.g., frequency, motion, and location) and the categories of communicative function

that learners need to express (Brown, 1995, p. 95).

How to Write a Syllabus? Bill and Gower (cited in Tomlinson 1998, 116-124) suggested some

guidelines of the process of writing syllabuses and materials. In the Pre-Writing Stage, the teaching

situation and the intended learner group should be analyzed. Then, Decisions should be made on

the type of assessment, resources/ staffing available should. Next, the syllabus designer should

have intensive information about the learners’ needs, their age, level, interests, and purpose of their

learning English, their weaknesses and their strengths. This information can be obtained by

administering placement tests and need analysis, and surveying students’ descriptive analysis.

4.10.Syllabus Design: Materials development and adaptation

4.10.1.Definition of Material Adaptation

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 Materials adaptation “a general term for the process that involves making changes to existing

materials to better suit specific learners, teachers and contexts for the purpose of facilitating

effective learning. This may mean reducing mismatches between materials, learners, teachers and

contexts or making fuller use of the potential value of existing materials” (Tomlinson & Misuhara,

2018, p. 82)

4.10.2.What is Material Development?

Materials development is a very complex process consisting of several other noticeable and

important processes. “materials development’ refers to all the processes made use of by

practitioners who produce and/or use materials for language learning, including materials

evaluation, their adaptation, design, production, exploitation and research” (Tomlinson, 2012).

“Materials development and evaluation is a relatively young phenomenon in the field of

language teaching. In the practical sense, it includes the production, evaluation and adaptation of

materials.” (Riazi and Mosallanejad (2010))

McDonough, Shaw, and Masuhara (2013) state, “Adaptation, then, is a process subsequent to,

and dependent on adoption. Furthermore, whereas adoption is concerned with whole coursebooks,

adaptation concerns the parts that make up that whole” (p. 64)

4.10.3.The purpose of adaptation

According to McDonough, Shaw, and Masuhara (2013): “to maximize the appropriacy of

teaching materials in context, by changing some of the internal characteristics of a coursebook to

suit our particular circumstances better.”

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 The Purpose of Adaptation from McGrath’s point of view: “to make the material more suitable

for the circumstances in which it is used; to compensate for any intrinsic deficiencies in the

materials” (McGrath 2002: 62). Tomlinson (2012) also mentions another objective of adaptation:

“to make the materials of more value to the students using them.”

4.10.4.The Rationale behind the adaptation of Material

Adapting materials is an inevitable process as it is always carried out as part of classroom

practice. The simple fact of using a piece of teaching/learning materials inevitably means adapting

it to the particular needs of a specific teaching and learning scenario. In the practice of language

teaching, this has been accepted for quite a long time now. (Madsen and Bowen, 1978). There is

no textbook or set of materials which is likely to be perfect. This is inevitable ‘as the needs,

objectives, backgrounds and preferred styles of the participants differ from context to context’

(Tomlinson, 2003c: 15).

McGrath (2002) points out that non-compatibility is inherent when the materials are not written

for particular teaching and learning context. He also argues for the benefits of adaptation:

appropriate and relevant adapted materials are likely to increase learner motivation and therefore

contribute to enhanced learning. “Adaptation of materials is generally acknowledged as important

for meeting learners’ needs” (McGrath, 2002).For Tomlinson, no matter how good the materials

are, they will not by themselves manage to cater to the different needs, wants, learning styles,

attitudes, cultural norms and experiences of individual learners. (Tomlinson, 2006: 1)

“It is more realistic to assume that, however careful the design of the materials and the

evaluation process, some changes will have to be made at some level in most teaching contexts”

(McDonough, Shaw, and Masuhara, 2013, p. 64).

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4.10.5.Experts and adaptation:

➢ Willis (1996), on ways of changing classroom management and sequencing to maximize the

value of task-based materials.

➢ Nunan (1999), on procedures for making materials more interactive.

➢ White (1998), on ways of increasing student participation when using listening materials.

4.10.6.Critics towards the used materials

Many criticized materials for not being communicative. Candlin & Breen (1980) are among

those who made such claims.Tomlinson (2012) states, “Candlin and Breen (1980) criticize

published communicative materials and suggest ways of adapting them so as to offer more

opportunities for communication.” ✓ “Grant (1978) suggests and illustrates ways of making

materials more communicative”(Tomlinson, 2012).

4.11.Questions on Material Adaptation

4.11.1.Is achieving good adaptation too demanding?

The good teacher is constantly striving for congruence among several related variables:

teaching materials, methodology, students, course objectives, the target language and its context,

and the teacher’s own personality and teaching style (Madsen and Bowen, 1978: ix)

As O'Neill (in Rossner and Bolitho 1990:155-6) suggests: Textbooks can at best provide only

a base or a core Of materials. A great deal of the most important work in a class May start with the

textbook but end outside it, an Improvisation and adaptation, in spontaneous Interaction in the

class, and the development of that interaction

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4.11.2.Why do we Adapt Materials?

McDonough, Shaw, and Masuhara (2013) offer this list:

✘ Not enough grammar coverage in general

✘ Not enough practice of grammar points of particular difficulty to these learners

✘ Reading passages contain too much unknown vocabulary

✘ Not enough guidance on pronunciation

✘ Photographs and other illustrative material not culturally acceptable

✘ Dialogues too formal and not representative of everyday speech

Tomlinson and Masuhara (2004: 12) summarize what factors may trigger feelings of

incongruence among teachers and offer the following list to take into account when considering

possible adaptations to materials:

✘ Teaching contexts (e.g. national, regional, institutional, cultural situations)

✘ Course requirements (e.g. objectives, syllabus, methodology, assessment)

✘ Learners (e.g. age, language, level)

✘ Teachers (e.g. teaching style, belief about learning and teaching)

✘ Materials (e.g. texts, tasks, activities)

However, The list of potential reasons for adaptation by Islam and Mares (2003) focuses heavily

on learner factors.

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✘ To add real choice

✘ To cater for all sensory learning styles

✘ To provide more learner autonomy

✘ To encourage higher level cognitive skills

✘ To make language input more accessible

✘ To make language input more engaging

4.11.3.What material should be adapted?

McGrath (2013: 62-3) produces a list of potential elements that could be adapted:

✘ Language (the language of instructions, explanations, examples)

✘ Process (forms of classroom management or interaction)

✘ Content (topics, contexts, cultural references)

✘ Level (Linguistic and cognitive demands on the learner)

4.11.4.How should material should be adapted?

According to McGrath (2013: 62-3) a list of potential elements that could be adapted:

✘ Language (the language of instructions, explanations, examples)

✘ Process (forms of classroom management or interaction)

✘ Content (topics, contexts, cultural references)

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✘ Level (Linguistic and cognitive demands on the learner)

4.12.Principles of Adaptation

There are some principles behind adaptation:

✓ We take ‘Personalizing’ to refer to increasing the relevance of content in relation to learners’

interests and their academic, educational or professional needs.

✓ ‘Individualizing’ will address the learning styles both of individuals and of the members of a

class working closely together.

✓ ‘Localizing’ takes into account the international geography of English language teaching and

recognizes that what may work well in Mexico city may not do so in Edinburgh or in Kuala

Lumpur. (McDonough, Shaw, and Masuhara, 2013, p. 69).

4.13.Process of materials adaptation

1. A teacher-centred approach to adaptation: materials adaptation, in the great majority of cases,

is still left to the teachers’ hands, and it is largely based simply on their intuition and experience.

2. A learner-centred approach to adaptation: Clarke (1989) provides a typical example of a learner-

centered approach to adaptation: he acknowledges the importance of learner involvement in the

adaptation process and he distinguishes what he calls a Negotiated Syllabus, from an Externally

Imposed Syllabus. The former is internally generated and it is a result of the product of negotiation

between teacher and students. The latter is a syllabus imposed by an external body such as the

teacher, the institution or any other administrative authority

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4.14.Techniques of adaptation

According to (McDonough, Shaw, and Masuhara, 2013) the following terms can be used:

Adding

Two types of addition: 1. Extending: supply more of the same material, in the existing framework

2. Expanding: add to the methodology, developing new directions, out of the framework of current

materials

Deleting

Two types of deletion: 1. Subtracting: reducing the length 2. Abridging: has greater change

Modifying

Two types of modifying: 1. Rewriting: when some of the content needs modification 2.

Restructuring: applies to classroom management

Simplifying

and Reordering

could be named as the techniques of adaptation.

Materials should be flexible, in the sense that they should provide learners with the possibility

of choosing different activities, tasks, projects and approaches, thus of adapting the materials to

their own learning needs. (Tomlinson. 2013). So, according to Crawford (1995), “Materials need

to be flexible enough to cater for individual and contextual differences,” he continues, “it is

essential for teachers to recognize the different backgrounds, experiences and learning styles that

students bring to the language classroom.”

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4.15.Authentic VS Non-Authentic Material

Bacon and Finnemann (1990) also state that authentic materials are those texts which are made

by native speakers for non-pedagogical purposes. At the same time, there should also be a

combination of authentic and non-authentic tasks, based on realistic scenarios, in order to expose

the learners to realistic input. In my view a significant role is played by the use of non-authentic

tasks with authentic texts. For example, tasks which aim at drawing the learners’ attention to

certain linguistic features of the input with activities based on texts selected from authentic sources,

can be beneficial for language awareness development.

Akbari and Razavi (2015) carried out a study about the attitudes of teachers toward using

authentic materials and supported the effectiveness of authentic materials in the process of teaching

and learning. 75 “The results revealed that all of the teachers had positive attitudes toward

providing authentic input in their classes….the reason for such an attitude was to improve students’

skills and expose them to the real English language” (Akbari and Razavi, 2015).

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 Activities

Curriculum Design

Curriculum Design:

1. What is curriculum design, and why is it a critical aspect of educational planning?

2. How does the process of curriculum design ensure alignment with learning objectives and

educational standards?

3. How can technology and digital resources be integrated into curriculum design to enhance

learning experiences?

4. Explain the concept of interdisciplinary curriculum design and its benefits for students.

5. How does a student-centered approach influence the decisions made during curriculum

design?

6. Discuss the importance of ongoing assessment and reflection in refining and improving a

curriculum.

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Curriculum Designers:

1. Who are curriculum designers, and what role do they play in shaping educational

programs?

2. Describe the key skills and qualities that effective curriculum designers should possess.

3. How do curriculum designers collaborate with educators, subject matter experts, and other

stakeholders to create comprehensive curricula?

4. Provide examples of how curriculum designers incorporate pedagogical research and

educational theories into their work.

5. What ethical considerations might curriculum designers face while making decisions about

content, resources, and assessments?

6. Explain the challenges and opportunities associated with designing curricula for online or

blended learning environments.

Types of Curricula:

7. Define and differentiate between the hidden, formal, and enacted curricula.

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8. Explain the concept of a "spiral curriculum" and how it contrasts with a "linear curriculum."

9. Describe the characteristics of a subject-centered curriculum and discuss its advantages

and limitations.

10. What is a problem-based curriculum, and how does it encourage critical thinking and

problem-solving skills?

11. Provide examples of interdisciplinary and integrated curricula, highlighting how they

connect various subjects.

12. How does a competency-based curriculum differ from a content-centered curriculum?

13. Discuss the importance of cultural responsiveness when designing curricula for diverse

student populations.

93
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Akbari, O. & Razavi, A. (2015). Using Authentic Materials in the Foreign Language Classrooms:

Teachers’ Perspectives in EFL Classes. (2016, 5.2)

Baleghizadeh, S. (2012). Grammatical syllabus and EFL textbooks: the need for consciousness

raising activities. Per-Linguam28(1):111-116 http://dx.doi.org/10.5785/28-1-123. Bourke,

J. (2006). Designing a topic-based syllabus for young learners. ELT Journal 60 (3) July

2006

Brown, D. (1995). Teaching by Principles-An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy.

Prentice Hall.

Candlin, C. (1984): “Syllabus Design as a Critical Process.” in Brumfit, C. J. (Ed): General

English Syllabus Design, ELT Documents 118. London, Pergamon Press/British Council.

29 -46. Cullen, R. (2008). Teaching grammar as a liberating force. ELT Journal. 62:221-

230.

Clarke, D. F. (1989), ‘Materials adaptation: why leave it all to the teacher?’, ELT Journal, 43 (2),

133–41

Crawford, J. (1995). The Role of Materials in the Language Classroom: Finding the Balance.

TESOL in Context 5.1

Crawford, J. (1995). The Role of Materials in the Language Classroom: Finding the Balance.

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Ellis, R. (1993). The Structural Syllabus and Second Language Acquisition. TESOL Quarterly, 27

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Materials for Language Teaching. London: Continuum, 86-100.

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(pp. 13-38). London, UK: University of London Press.

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Materials and methods in ELT: a teacher’s guide/ Jo McDonough, Christopher Shaw, and Hitomi

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McGrath, I. (2002).Materials evaluation and design for language teaching. Edinburgh, UK:

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Tyler, R. W. (1949), Basic principles of curriculum and instruction. Chicago, IL: University of

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 Chapter Five: Assessment

5.1. Definition of Assessment

(O‟Farrel, 2009, p. 23) explains that assessment can be defined as the systematic and ongoing

method of gathering, analyzing and using information from measured outcomes to improve student

learning in terms of knowledge acquired, understanding developed, and skills and competencies

gained. According to (Nasab, 2015, p.166), assessment is an informal gathering of information

about the students' state-of-the-art knowledge through various ways of collecting information at

various times and in different contexts

By using assessment, teachers can monitor and help students‟ learning progress. It also

provides students with evidence of their progress and improves motivation, monitors teacher‟s

performance and plan next work and enables to provide information for parents, colleges, school

authorities (Georgiou & Pavlou, 2003 p.5-6)

Assessment is an integral part of the teaching and learning process. Didactics of English

teaching and learning emphasizes the importance of using various assessment methods and

techniques to evaluate learners' progress, provide constructive feedback, and inform instructional

decisions. This helps teachers monitor individual and group performance, identify areas for

improvement, and design appropriate interventions.

According to Collins and O‟Brien (2003), assessment in the broad sense means any methods

used to better understand the current knowledge that a student possesses. In addition, Crooks 2

(2001) stated that assessment is any process that provides information about the thinking,

achievement or progress of students. Davidge-Johnston (2007) observes, however, that using

traditional assessment models can be problematic because it is difficult to measure validly learning

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model as tools designed for a completely different model. Hodges (2008) states „these aspects of

learning do not fit neatly into proscribed and specific learning outcomes‛

5.2.The Role of Assessment

Assessment plays a crucial role in the education process it determines much of the work

students undertake, affects their approach to learning and, it can be argued, is an indication of

which aspects of the course are valued most highly (Rust, 2002, p. 2). Frank (2012, p. 32) holds

that “it should be seen as a means to help them guide students on their road to learning”

(O‟Farrel, p. 3) states that the role of assessment are as follows:

1) To determine that the intended learning outcomes of the course are being achieved.

2) To provide feedback to students on their learning, enabling them to improve their performance.

) To motivate students to undertake appropriate work.

4) To support and guide learning.

5) To describe student attainment, informing decisions on progression and awards.

6) To demonstrate that appropriate standards are being maintained.

7) To evaluate the effectiveness of teaching

5.3.Types of Assessment : In general, there are several types of assessment, they are:

5.3.1.Informal assessment

Brown stated that Informal assessment can take a number of form, starting with incidental,

unplanned comments and responses, along with coaching and other impromptu feedback to the

student (Brown,2003)

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 5.3.2.Formal assessment

They are systematic, planned sampling techniques constructed to give teacher and student an

appraisal of students achievement.

5.3.3.Summative Assessment

Summative assessment is kind of assignment or task that conducted at the end of learning process.

Summative assessment is used for grading. Some functions of summative assessment include

grading or ranking students, passing or failing students and telling students what they have

achieved, (McAlpine & Higgison, 2001, as cited in Iahad, et al., 2004)

5.3.4.Formative Assessment

As mention in May (2000), McAlpine & Higgison (2001) and Brown et al. (1997) as cited in

Iahad et al. (2004), they argued that formative assessment is sets at first or during learning process;

on the other hand, formative assessment is assessment that promotes learning. It is designed to

assist the learning process by providing feedback to the learner, which can be used to highlight

areas for further study and performance improvement.

5.3.5.Traditional Assessment

5.3.5.1. Definition of Traditional Assessment

The term of Traditional assessment is pencil-and-paper based test. Traditional assessment can

be defined as evaluations that include standardized and classroom achievement tests with mostly

closed-ended items, such as true/false, multiple choice, and fill-in-the blanks (Belle, 1999).

Generally, Frank (2012, p. 3) traditional assessment is “the most common way to measure

achievement and proficiency in language learning”

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5.3.5.2. Types of Traditional Assessment

a. Multiple-choices

Davis (2009) describes multiple-choice items can be used to measure both simple knowledge and

complex concepts. Since multiple choice questions can be answered quickly, you can assess

students' mastery of many topics on an hour exam

b. Essay

The essay is most common in writing class.(Rust 2002, p.3) claims that two dangers with

essays are easy to plagiarize, and that undue weight is often given to factors such as style,

handwriting and especially in language class that also focus on grammar of target language.

c. True-false Tests

d. Matching Tests

e. Short-answer question

5. 3.6.Alternative Assessment

5.3.6.1.1. Definition of Alternative Assessment

According to Janisch et al. (2002, p.221) that Alternative assessment is situated in the

classroom with teachers making choices in the measures used and also based on a constructivist

view of learning whereby the student, the text, and the context impact learning outcomes. The term

alternative assessment also refers to “almost” any type of assessment other than standardized tests

(Brawley, 2009, p. 1)

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 Alternative assessment came into vogue as the effect of testing on curriculum and instruction

was visualized (Dietel, et al., 1991 as cited in Nasab, 2015) Furthermore, Nasab (2015) cited Lew

& Eckes (1995) reveals that alternative assessment presents new ways of motivating and inspiring

learners to explore and exploit dimensions of themselves as well as the world around them.

5.3.6.2.Types of Alternative Assessment

a. Computer-Based test

b. Portfolio

Depending on the educational context and task requirements, portfolios can take the form of an

electronic 21 text, a digital recording, an artistic production, a clinical journal, or any number of

other appropriate media formats (Lombardi, 2008). This kind of assessment calls for more

responsibility on the part of the students and more commitment on the part of the teachers (Bailey,

1998, as cited in Nasab, 2015).

C. Project

Dikli (2003) point out that project can be created individually or as a group. They can possess

authenticity and real life related concepts as well as prior experience of the learners. Any type of

method that display what student know about a specific topic, i.e. development of plans, art work,

research proposals, multimedia presentations, is considered as project. They present with various

forms, such as multimedia presentation, role-play, and written report.

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 Activities

Assessment:

Formative Assessment Activities:

Act One: Think-Pair-Share: Try to focus on the lesson of today, prepare a question , think about

it individually, then discuss your thoughts with a partner, and finally share your ideas with the

whole class.

Act Two: At the end of a lesson, try to write down one thing you learned or one question you can

formulate on the lesson

Act Three: Concept Mapping: create a concept map that illustrates the relationships between

key concepts in the lesson you have been taught.

Act. Four: Peer Teaching: Prepare a part of a lesson that you will teach to your peers.

Act Five: Formative Assessment Comprehension Questions:

1. What are the main points you've learned from today's lesson?

2. Can you explain some of the concepts you learnt in your own words?

3. How could you apply what you've learned in a real-life situation?

Act Six: Summative Assessment Activities:

2. Multiple-Choice Test:

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Create a test with multiple-choice questions that cover the key concepts of the entire Lesson.

3. Project Presentation:

Work in Pairs and try to create a presentation that showcases your understanding of the subject

matter. This could include visuals, explanations, and real-world examples.

4. Portfolio Submission:

Compile a portfolio mirroring your individual work throughout the lesson, demonstrating your

progress and understanding of the presented material.

Performance Task: Assign a task that requires students to apply their knowledge and skills

in a practical, hands-on way.

Summative Assessment Questions:

1. Explain the main concepts covered in this unit.

2. Compare and contrast two key theories or approaches related to this topic.

3. Analyze the significance of [specific event or concept] in the context of the material we've

covered.

4. Apply the theories we've learned to a real-world scenario and describe the potential

outcomes.

5. Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of [specific concept, theory, or approach].

Questions on Syllabus and Syllabus Design

1. What is the purpose of a syllabus, and why is it important for both teachers and students?

104
 2. How does a well-structured syllabus contribute to effective classroom management and

student learning?

3. What key components should be included in a syllabus to provide students with a clear

understanding of the course?

4. How can a syllabus be designed to align with learning objectives and instructional

methods?

5. Why is it important to communicate grading policies, assessment methods, and

expectations in the syllabus?

6. How might you adapt a syllabus to accommodate diverse learning needs and different

student backgrounds?

7. In what ways can a syllabus foster a positive classroom environment and encourage student

engagement?

Activities on Evaluation vs. Assessment:

1. Explain the difference between assessment and evaluation in an educational context.

105
 2. How do formative and summative assessments differ in terms of purpose, timing, and

impact on learning?

3. Describe how assessment can be used to guide instruction and improve learning outcomes.

4. What role does feedback play in both evaluation and assessment processes?

5. How might evaluation focus more on assigning grades, while assessment focuses on

understanding students' progress and learning?

6. Provide examples of how assessment can inform instructional decisions to meet students'

individual needs.

7. Discuss the ethical considerations and potential challenges associated with high-stakes

evaluations.

Questions/Activities on the Curriculum:

1. What is the significance of a well-designed curriculum in an educational setting?

2. How does curriculum development relate to learning objectives and educational standards?

106
3. Explain the difference between a traditional, skills-based, and competency-based

curriculum.

4. How can a curriculum be adapted to address the needs of diverse learners, including those

with different abilities and backgrounds?

5. Why is it important for a curriculum to evolve and adapt over time?

6. Provide examples of how real-world issues and current events can be integrated into a

curriculum to enhance relevance and engagement.

107
 References

Belle, D. (1995). Traditional Assessment Versus Alternative Assessment. Journal of Education.

Retrieved from http://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED431012.

Brown H. Douglas. (2003). Language Assessment Principles and Classroom Practice. White

Plains, NY:Pearson Education.

Brawley, N. (2009). Authentic Assessment Vs. Traditional Assessment: a Comparative Study.

Journal of Education. Retrieved from https://www.coastal.edu/media

Dikli, S. (2003). Assessment at Adistance: Traditional Vs Alternative Assessment. Journal of

Educational Technology, 2(3) 13-19. Retrieved from http://www.tojet.net/articles/232.pdf.

Davis, B., G. (2009). Types of Tests. Retrieved from: http://www.trincoll.edu

Davidge-Johnston, N. L. (2007). Conceptions of curriculum in co-operative education: A

framework for analysis of the co-op preparatory curriculum (Doctoral dissertation, Faculty

of Education-Simon Fraser University).

Frank, J. (2012). The Roles of Assessment in Language Teaching. Retrieved from:

http://files.eric.ed.gov/

Iahad, N (2004, May). Evaluation of online assessment: the role of feedback in learner-centered e-

learning. Proceedings of the 37th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences,

Hawaii.

Lombardi, M. M (2008). Making the grade: the role of assessment in authentic learning. Educause

Learning Initiative, 1, 1-16.

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Nasab. G., F. (2015). Alternative Versus Traditional Assessment. Journal of Applied Linguistics

and Language Research. 2(6) 165-178. Retrieved from http://www.jallr.ir.

O‟farrel, C. (2002). Enhancing student learning through assessment. Dublin: Irlandia, Dublin

Institute of Technology.

Rust, C. (2002). Purposes and Principles of Assessment. Retrieved from:

https://www.brookes.ac.uk/services/.../p_p_assessment.pdf

Card, N. A., & Hodges, E. V. (2008). Peer victimization among schoolchildren: Correlations,

causes, consequences, and considerations in assessment and intervention. School

psychology quarterly, 23(4), 451

Georgiou-Loannou, S., & Pavlou, P. (2003). Assessing Young Learners.

109