Plastic

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Plastic (disambiguation).

Household items made of various

types of plastics
Plastics are a wide range of synthetic or semi-synthetic materials that
use polymers as a main ingredient. Their plasticity makes it possible for
plastics to be molded, extruded or pressed into solid objects of various
shapes. This adaptability, plus a wide range of other properties, such as
being lightweight, durable, flexible, and inexpensive to produce, has led to
their widespread use. Plastics typically are made through human industrial
systems. Most modern plastics are derived from fossil fuel-based
chemicals like natural gas or petroleum; however, recent industrial methods
use variants made from renewable materials, such
as corn or cotton derivatives.[1]

9.2 billion metric tons of plastic are estimated to have been made between
1950 and 2017, more than half of which has been produced since 2004. In
2020, 400 million tons of plastic were produced.[2] If global trends on plastic
demand continue, it is estimated that by 2050 annual global plastic
production will reach over 1.1 billion tons.

The success and dominance of plastics starting in the early 20th century
has caused widespread environmental problems,[3] due to their slow
decomposition rate in natural ecosystems. Most plastic produced has not
been reused, or is incapable of reuse, either being captured in landfills or
persisting in the environment as plastic pollution and microplastics. Plastic
pollution can be found in all the world's major water bodies, for example,
creating garbage patches in all of the world's oceans and contaminating
terrestrial ecosystems. Of all the plastic discarded so far, some 14% has
been incinerated and less than 10% has been recycled.[2]

In developed economies, about a third of plastic is used in packaging and

roughly the same in buildings in applications such
as piping, plumbing or vinyl siding.[4] Other uses include automobiles (up to
20% plastic[4]), furniture, and toys.[4] In the developing world, the applications
of plastic may differ; 42% of India's consumption is used in packaging.[4] In
the medical field, polymer implants and other medical devices are derived
at least partially from plastic. Worldwide, about 50 kg of plastic is produced
annually per person, with production doubling every ten years.

The world's first fully synthetic plastic was Bakelite, invented in New York in
1907, by Leo Baekeland,[5] who coined the term "plastics".[6] Dozens of
different types of plastics are produced today, such as polyethylene, which
is widely used in product packaging, and polyvinyl chloride (PVC), used in
construction and pipes because of its strength and durability. Many
chemists have contributed to the materials science of plastics,
including Nobel laureate Hermann Staudinger, who has been called "the
father of polymer chemistry," and Herman Mark, known as "the father
of polymer physics".[7]

Etymology
The word plastic derives from the Greek πλαστικός (plastikos) meaning
"capable of being shaped or molded," and in turn from πλαστός (plastos)
meaning "molded."[8] As a noun the word most commonly refers to the solid
products of petrochemical-derived manufacturing.[9]

The noun plasticity refers specifically here to the deformability of the

materials used in the manufacture of plastics. Plasticity
allows molding, extrusion or compression into a variety of shapes: films,
fibers, plates, tubes, bottles and boxes, among many others. Plasticity also
has a technical definition in materials science outside the scope of this
article referring to the non-reversible change in form of solid substances.

Structure
See also: Polymer
Most plastics contain organic polymers.[10] The vast majority of these
polymers are formed from chains of carbon atoms, with or without the
attachment of oxygen, nitrogen or sulfur atoms. These chains comprise
many repeating units formed from monomers. Each polymer chain consists
of several thousand repeating units. The backbone is the part of the chain
that is on the main path, linking together a large number of repeat units. To
customize the properties of a plastic, different molecular groups called side
chains hang from this backbone; they are usually hung from the monomers
before the monomers themselves are linked together to form the polymer
chain. The structure of these side chains influences the properties of the
polymer.

Properties and classifications

Plastics are usually classified by the chemical structure of the polymer's
backbone and side chains. Important groups classified in this way include
the acrylics, polyesters, silicones, polyurethanes, and halogenated plastics.
Plastics can be classified by the chemical process used in their synthesis,
such as condensation, polyaddition, and cross-linking.[11] They can also be
classified by their physical properties, including hardness, density, tensile
strength, thermal resistance, and glass transition temperature. Plastics can
additionally be classified by their resistance and reactions to various
substances and processes, such as exposure to organic
solvents, oxidation, and ionizing radiation.[12] Other classifications of plastics
are based on qualities relevant to manufacturing or product design for a
particular purpose. Examples
include thermoplastics, thermosets, conductive polymers, biodegradable
plastics, engineering plastics and elastomers.
Thermoplastics and thermosetting polymers
 A plastic handle from a kitchen utensil, deformed by
heat and partially melted
One important classification of plastics is the degree to which the chemical
processes used to make them are reversible or not.

Thermoplastics do not undergo chemical change in their composition when

heated and thus can be molded repeatedly. Examples include polyethylene
(PE), polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS), and polyvinyl chloride (PVC).[13]

Thermosets, or thermosetting polymers, can melt and take shape only

once: after they have solidified, they stay solid.[14] If reheated, thermosets
decompose rather than melt. In the thermosetting process, an irreversible
chemical reaction occurs. The vulcanization of rubber is an example of this
process. Before heating in the presence of sulfur, natural rubber
(polyisoprene) is a sticky, slightly runny material; after vulcanization, the
product is dry and rigid.
Amorphous plastics and crystalline plastics
Many plastics are completely amorphous (without a highly ordered
molecular structure),[15] including thermosets, polystyrene, and methyl
methacrylate (PMMA). Crystalline plastics exhibit a pattern of more
regularly spaced atoms, such as high-density polyethylene (HDPE),
polybutylene terephthalate (PBT), and polyether ether ketone (PEEK).
However, some plastics are partially amorphous and partially crystalline in
molecular structure, giving them both a melting point and one or more glass
transitions (the temperature above which the extent of localized molecular
flexibility is substantially increased). These so-called semi-
crystalline plastics include polyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride,
polyamides (nylons), polyesters and some polyurethanes.
Conductive polymers
Main article: Conductive polymer
Intrinsically Conducting Polymers (ICP) are organic polymers that conduct
electricity. While a conductivity of up to 80 kS/cm in stretch-
oriented polyacetylene,[16] has been achieved, it does not approach that of
most metals. For example, copper has a conductivity of several hundred
kS/cm.[17]
Biodegradable plastics and bioplastics
Biodegradable plastics
Main article: Biodegradable plastic
Biodegradable plastics are plastics that degrade (break down) upon
exposure to sunlight or ultra-violet radiation; water or dampness; bacteria;
enzymes; or wind abrasion. Attack by insects, such as waxworms and
mealworms, can also be considered as forms of
biodegradation. Aerobic degradation requires that the plastic be exposed at
the surface, whereas anaerobic degradation would be effective in landfill or
composting systems. Some companies produce biodegradable additives to
enhance biodegradation. Although starch powder can be added as a filler
to allow some plastics to degrade more easily, such treatment does not
lead to complete breakdown. Some researchers have genetically
engineered bacteria to synthesize completely biodegradable plastics, such
as polyhydroxy butyrate (PHB); however, these were still relatively costly
as of 2021.[18]
Bioplastics
Main article: Bioplastic
While most plastics are produced from petrochemicals, bioplastics are
made substantially from renewable plant materials like cellulose and starch.
[19]
Due both to the finite limits of fossil fuel reserves and to rising levels of
greenhouse gases caused primarily by the burning of those fuels, the
development of bioplastics is a growing field.[20][21] Global production
capacity for bio-based plastics is estimated at 327,000 tonnes per year. In
contrast, global production of polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP),
the world's leading petrochemical-derived polyolefins, was estimated at
over 150 million tonnes in 2015.[22]
Plastic industry
The plastic industry includes the global
production, compounding, conversion and sale of plastic products.
Although the Middle East and Russia produce most of the
required petrochemical raw materials, the production of plastic is
concentrated in the global East and West. The plastic industry comprises a
huge number of companies and can be divided into several sectors:
Production
Between 1950 and 2017, 9.2 billion tonnes of plastic are estimated to have
been made, with more than half this having been produced since 2004.
Since the birth of the plastic industry in the 1950s, global production has
increased enormously, reaching 400 million tonnes a year in 2021; this is
up from 381 million metric tonnes in 2015 (excluding additives).[2][23] From
the 1950s, rapid growth occurred in the use of plastics for packaging, in
building and construction, and in other sectors.[2] If global trends on plastic
demand continue, it is estimated that by 2050 annual global plastic
production will exceed 1.1 billion tonnes annually.[2]

 Polypropylene plants


A Slovnaft facility in Bratislava, Slovakia

 A SOCAR Polymer polypropylene plant in Sumgayit, Azerbaijan

Graphs are unavailable due to technical issues. There is more info
on Phabricator and on MediaWiki.org.
Annual global plastic production 1950–2015.[23] Vertical lines denote the 1973–1975
recession and the financial crisis of 2007–2008 which caused brief lowering of
plastic production.
Plastics are produced in chemical plants by the polymerization of their
starting materials (monomers); which are almost always petrochemical in
nature. Such facilities are normally large and are visually similar to oil
refineries, with sprawling pipework running throughout. The large size of
these plants allows them to exploit economies of scale. Despite this, plastic
production is not particularly monopolized, with about 100 companies
accounting for 90% of global production.[24] This includes a mixture of
private and state-owned enterprises. Roughly half of all production takes
place in East Asia, with China being the largest single producer. Major
international producers include:

Global plastic production (2020)[25]

Region Global production
China 31%
Japan 3%
Rest of Asia 17%
NAFTA 19%
Latin America 4%
Europe 16%
CIS 3%
Middle East & Africa 7%

 Dow Chemical
 LyondellBasell
 Exxonmobil
 SABIC
 BASF
 Sibur
 Shin-Etsu Chemical
 Indorama Ventures
 Sinopec
 Braskem
Historically, Europe and North America have dominated global plastics
production. However, since 2010 Asia has emerged as a significant
producer, with China accounting for 31% of total plastic resin production in
2020.[25] Regional differences in the volume of plastics production are driven
by user demand, the price of fossil fuel feedstocks, and investments made
in the petrochemical industry. For example, since 2010 over US$200 billion
has been invested in the United States in new plastic and chemical plants,
stimulated by the low cost of raw materials. In the European Union (EU),
too, heavy investments have been made in the plastics industry, which
employs over 1.6 million people with a turnover of more than 360 billion
euros per year. In China in 2016 there were over 15,000 plastic
manufacturing companies, generating more than US$366 billion in
revenue.[2]

In 2017, the global plastics market was dominated by thermoplastics–

polymers that can be melted and recast. Thermoplastics
include polyethylene (PE), polyethylene
terephthalate (PET), polypropylene (PP), polyvinyl
chloride (PVC), polystyrene (PS) and synthetic fibers, which together
represent 86% of all plastics.[2]
Compounding

Plastic compounding
scheme for a thermosoftening material
Plastic is not sold as a pure unadulterated substance, but is instead mixed
with various chemicals and other materials, which are collectively known as
additives. These are added during the compounding stage and include
substances such as stabilizers, plasticizers and dyes, which are intended to
improve the lifespan, workability or appearance of the final item. In some
cases, this can involve mixing different types of plastic together to form
a polymer blend, such as high impact polystyrene. Large companies may
do their own compounding prior to production, but some producers have it
done by a third party. Companies that specialize in this work are known as
Compounders.

The compounding of thermosetting plastic is relatively straightforward; as it

remains liquid until it is cured into its final form. For thermosoftening
materials, which are used to make the majority of products, it is necessary
to melt the plastic in order to mix-in the additives. This involves heating it to
anywhere between 150–320 °C (300–610 °F). Molten plastic is viscous and
exhibits laminar flow, leading to poor mixing. Compounding is therefore
done using extrusion equipment, which is able to supply the necessary
heat and mixing to give a properly dispersed product.

The concentrations of most additives are usually quite low, however high
levels can be added to create Masterbatch products. The additives in these
are concentrated but still properly dispersed in the host resin. Masterbatch
granules can be mixed with cheaper bulk polymer and will release their
additives during processing to give a homogeneous final product. This can
be cheaper than working with a fully compounded material and is
particularly common for the introduction of color.
Converting
Short video on injection molding (9 min 37 s)

Blow molding a plastic drinks bottle

Companies that produce finished goods are known

as converters (sometimes processors). The vast majority of plastics
produced worldwide are thermosoftening and must be heated until molten
in order to be molded. Various sorts of extrusion equipment exist which can
then form the plastic into almost any shape.

 Film blowing - Plastic films (carrier bags, sheeting)

 Blow molding - Small thin-walled hollow objects in large quantities
(drinks bottles, toys)
 Rotational molding - Large thick-walled hollow objects (IBC tanks)
 Injection molding - Solid objects (phone cases, keyboards)
 Spinning - Produces fibers (nylon, spandex etc.)
For thermosetting materials the process is slightly different, as the plastics
are liquid to begin with and but must be cured to give solid products, but
much of the equipment is broadly similar.

The most commonly produced plastic consumer products include

packaging made from LDPE (e.g. bags, containers, food packaging film),
containers made from HDPE (e.g. milk bottles, shampoo bottles, ice cream
tubs), and PET (e.g. bottles for water and other drinks). Together these
products account for around 36% of plastics use in the world. Most of them
(e.g. disposable cups, plates, cutlery, takeaway containers, carrier bags)
are used for only a short period, many for less than a day. The use of
plastics in building and construction, textiles, transportation and electrical
equipment also accounts for a substantial share of the plastics market.
Plastic items used for such purposes generally have longer life spans. They
may be in use for periods ranging from around five years (e.g. textiles and
electrical equipment) to more than 20 years (e.g. construction materials,
industrial machinery).[2]

Plastic consumption differs among countries and communities, with some

form of plastic having made its way into most people's lives. North America
(i.e. the North American Free Trade Agreement or NAFTA region) accounts
for 21% of global plastic consumption, closely followed by China (20%) and
Western Europe (18%). In North America and Europe there is high per
capita plastic consumption (94 kg and 85 kg/capita/year, respectively). In
China there is lower per capita consumption (58 kg/capita/year), but high
consumption nationally because of its large population.[2]

Types of plastics
Commodity plastics
 Chemical structures and uses of some
common plastics
Around 70% of global production is concentrated in six major polymer
types, the so-called commodity plastics. Unlike most other plastics these
can often be identified by their resin identification code (RIC):

Polyethylene terephthalate (PET or PETE)

High-density polyethylene (HDPE or PE-HD)

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC or V)

Low-density polyethylene (LDPE or PE-LD),

Polypropylene (PP)

Polystyrene (PS)
Polyurethanes (PUR) and PP&A fibers[26] are often also
included as major commodity classes, although they
usually lack RICs, as they are chemically quite diverse
groups. These materials are inexpensive, versatile and
easy to work with, making them the preferred choice for
the mass production everyday objects. Their biggest
single application is in packaging, with some 146 million
tonnes being used this way in 2015, equivalent to 36%
of global production. Due to their dominance; many of
the properties and problems commonly associated with
plastics, such as pollution stemming from their
poor biodegradability, are ultimately attributable to
commodity plastics.

A huge number of plastics exist beyond the commodity

plastics, with many having exceptional properties.

Graphs are unavailable due to technical issues. There is more

Global plastic production by polymer type (2015)[23]

Percent
age of Thermal
Producti Polyme
Polymer all characte
on (Mt) r type
plastics r
(%)

Low-
density Thermopla
64 15.7 Polyolefin
polyethylen stic
e (LDPE)

High-
density Thermopla
52 12.8 Polyolefin
polyethylen stic
e (HDPE)

polypropyl Thermopla
68 16.7 Polyolefin
ene (PP) stic

Polystyrene 25 6.1 Unsaturate Thermopla

 Global plastic production by polymer type (2015)[23]

Percent
age of Thermal
Producti Polyme
Polymer all characte
on (Mt) r type
plastics r
(%)

d
(PS) stic
polyolefin

Polyvinyl
Halogenat Thermopla
chloride 38 9.3
ed stic
(PVC)

Polyethyle
ne Condensati Thermopla
33 8.1
terephthalat on stic
e (PET)

Polyuretha Condensati Thermoset[2

27 6.6
ne (PUR) on 7]

PP&A Condensati Thermopla

59 14.5
Fibers[26] on stic

All Others 16 3.9 Various Varies

Additives 25 6.1 - -

Total 407 100 - -

Engineering plastics
Engineering plastics are more robust and are used to
make products such as vehicle parts, building and
construction materials, and some machine parts. In
some cases they are polymer blends formed by mixing
different plastics together (ABS, HIPS etc.). Engineering
plastics can replace metals in vehicles, lowering their
weight and improving fuel efficiency by 6–8%. Roughly
50% of the volume of modern cars is made of plastic, but
this only accounts for 12–17% of the vehicle weight.[28]

 Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS): electronic

equipment cases (e.g. computer monitors, printers,
keyboards) and drainage pipe
 High impact polystyrene (HIPS): refrigerator
liners, food packaging and vending cups
 Polycarbonate (PC): compact discs, eyeglasses, riot
shields, security windows, traffic lights, and lenses
 Polycarbonate + acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (PC +
ABS): a blend of PC and ABS that creates a stronger
plastic used in car interior and exterior parts, and in
mobile phone bodies
 Polyethylene + acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (PE +
ABS): a slippery blend of PE and ABS used in low-
duty dry bearings
 Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) (acrylic): contact
lenses (of the original "hard" variety), glazing (best
known in this form by its various trade names around
the world; e.g. Perspex, Plexiglas, and Oroglas),
fluorescent-light diffusers, and rear light covers for
vehicles. It also forms the basis of artistic and
commercial acrylic paints, when suspended in water
with the use of other agents.
 Silicones (polysiloxanes): heat-resistant resins used
mainly as sealants but also used for high-temperature
cooking utensils and as a base resin for industrial
paints
 Urea-formaldehyde (UF): one of the aminoplasts
used as a multi-colorable alternative to phenolics:
 used as a wood adhesive (for plywood, chipboard,
hardboard) and electrical switch housings
High-performance plastics
High-performance plastics are usually expensive, with
their use limited to specialized applications which make
use of their superior properties.

 Aramids: best known for their use in making body

armor, this class of heat-resistant and strong
synthetic fibers are also used in aerospace and
military applications, includes Kevlar and Nomex,
and Twaron.
 Ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylenes
 Polyetheretherketone (PEEK): strong, chemical- and
heat-resistant thermoplastic;
its biocompatibility allows for use in medical implant
applications and aerospace moldings. It is one of the
most expensive commercial polymers.
 Polyetherimide (PEI) (Ultem): a high-temperature,
chemically stable polymer that does not crystallize
 Polyimide: a high-temperature plastic used in
materials such as Kapton tape
 Polysulfone: high-temperature melt-processable resin
used in membranes, filtration media, water heater dip
tubes and other high-temperature applications
 Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), or Teflon: heat-
resistant, low-friction coatings used in non-stick
surfaces for frying pans, plumber's tape and water
slides
 Polyamide-imide (PAI): High-performance
engineering plastic extensively used in high
performance gears, switches, transmission and other
automotive components, and aerospace parts.[29]
Gallery
 

Water bottles made of PET

High density polythene (HDPE) is used for making sturdy

containers; transparent containers may be made of PET.

Disposable suits can be made from non-woven HDPE

fabric.

Plastic mailing envelopes made of HDPE

 

Clear plastic bags (shown) are made of low density

polythene (LDPE); blown-film shopping bags with handles
are now made of HDPE.

A Ziploc bag made of LDPE

Food wrap made of LDPE

Metalized polypropylene film is a commonly used snack

[30]
pack material.
 

Kinder Joy shell made of polypropylene

A polypropylene chair

Stools made of HDPE

Expanded polystyrene foam ("Thermocol")

 

Extruded polystyrene foam ("Styrofoam")

Thermocol take-away food container

Egg tray made of PETE

A piece of packaging foam made of LDPE

 

A kitchen sponge made of polyurethane foam

Non-stick cookware with Teflon coating

iPhone 5c, a smartphone with a polycarbonate "unibody"

shell

To withstand the extreme water pressure, this 10-

meter deep Monterey Bay Aquarium tank has windows
made of acrylic glass up to 33 cm thick.
 

PVC pipes

PVC blister pack

Applications
The largest application for plastics is as packaging
materials, but they are used in a wide range of other
sectors, including: construction (pipes, gutters, door and
windows), textiles (stretchable fabrics, fleece), consumer
goods (toys, tableware, toothbrushes), transportation
(headlights, bumpers, body panels, wing mirrors),
electronics (phones, computers, televisions) and as
machine parts.[23]

Graphs are unavailable due to technical issues. There is more

Graphs are unavailable due to technical issues. There is more

Additives
Additives are chemicals blended into plastics to change
their performance or appearance, making it possible to
alter the properties of plastics to better suit their intended
applications.[31][32] Additives are therefore one of the
reasons why plastic is used so widely.[33] Plastics are
composed of chains of polymers. Many different
chemicals are used as plastic additives. A randomly
chosen plastic product generally contains around 20
additives. The identities and concentrations of additives
are generally not listed on products.[2]

In the EU, over 400 additives are used in high volumes.

[34][2]
5500 additives were found in a global market
analysis.[35] At a minimum, all plastic contains
some polymer stabilizers which permit them to be melt-
processed (molded) without suffering polymer
degradation. Other additives are optional and can be
added as required, with loadings varying significantly
between applications. The amount of additives contained
in plastics varies depending on the additives' function.
For example, additives in polyvinyl chloride (PVC) can
constitute up to 80% of the total volume.[2] Pure
unadulterated plastic (barefoot resin) is never sold, even
by the primary producers.
Leaching
Additives may be weakly bound to the polymers or react
in the polymer matrix. Although additives are blended
into plastic they remain chemically distinct from it, and
can gradually leach back out during normal use, when in
landfills, or following improper disposal in the
environment.[36] Additives may also degrade to form other
toxic molecules. Plastic fragmentation into microplastics
and nanoplastics can allow chemical additives to move
in the environment far from the point of use. Once
released, some additives and derivatives may persist in
the environment and bioaccumulate in organisms. They
can have adverse effects on human health and biota. A
recent review by the United States Environmental
Protection Agency (US EPA) revealed that out of 3,377
chemicals potentially associated with plastic packaging
and 906 likely associated with it, 68 were ranked by
ECHA as "highest for human health hazards" and 68 as
"highest for environmental hazards".[2]
Recycling
Main article: Plastic recycling
As additives change the properties of plastics they have
to be considered during recycling. Presently, almost all
recycling is performed by simply remelting and reforming
used plastic into new items. Additives present risks in
recycled products, as they are difficult to remove. When
plastic products are recycled, it is highly likely that the
additives will be integrated into the new products. Waste
plastic, even if it is all of the same polymer type, will
contain varying types and amounts of additives. Mixing
these together can give a material with inconsistent
properties, which can be unappealing to industry. For
example, mixing different colored plastics with
different plastic colorants together can produce a
discolored or brown material and for this reason plastic
is usually sorted by both polymer type and color before
recycling.[2]

Absence of transparency and reporting across the value

chain often results in lack of knowledge concerning the
chemical profile of the final products. For example,
products containing brominated flame retardants have
been incorporated into new plastic products. Flame
retardants are a group of chemicals used in electronic
and electrical equipment, textiles, furniture and
construction materials which should not be present in
food packaging or child care products. A recent study
found brominated dioxins as unintentional contaminants
in toys made from recycled plastic electronic waste that
contained brominated flame retardants. Brominated
dioxins have been found to exhibit toxicity similar to that
of chlorinated dioxins. They can have negative
developmental effects and negative effects on the
nervous system and interfere with mechanisms of the
endocrine system.[2]
Health effects
Many of the controversies associated with plastics
actually relate to their additives, as some compounds
can be persistent, bioaccumulating and potentially
harmful.[37][38][31] The now banned flame
retardants OctaBDE and PentaBDE are an example of
this, while the health effects of phthalates are an
ongoing area of public concern. Additives can also be
problematic if waste is burned, especially when burning
is uncontrolled or takes place in low- technology
incinerators, as is common in many developing
countries. Incomplete combustion can cause emissions
of hazardous substances such as acid gases and ash
which can contain persistent organic pollutants (POPs)
such as dioxins.[2]

A number of additives identified as hazardous to humans

and/or the environment are regulated internationally.
The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic
Pollutants (POPs) is a global treaty to protect human
health and the environment from chemicals that remain
intact in the environment for long periods, become
widely distributed geographically, accumulate in the fatty
tissue of humans and wildlife, and have harmful impacts
on human health or on the environment.[2]

Other additives proven to be harmful such

as cadmium, chromium, lead and mercury (regulated
under the Minamata Convention on Mercury), which
have previously been used in plastic production, are
banned in many jurisdictions. However they are still
routinely found in some plastic packaging including food
packaging. The use of the additive bisphenol A (BPA) in
plastic baby bottles is banned in many parts of the world,
but is not restricted in some low-income countries.[2]

In 2023, plasticosis, a new disease caused solely by

plastics, was discovered in seabirds. The birds identified
as having the disease have scarred digestive tracts from
ingesting plastic waste.[39] "When birds ingest small
pieces of plastic, they found, it inflames the digestive
tract. Over time, the persistent inflammation causes
tissues to become scarred and disfigured, affecting
digestion, growth and survival."[40]
Types of additive

Sha
re of
Typic
glob
al
al
conce
addi
Addi ntrati
Descri Example tive
tive on Comment
ption compounds pro
type when
duct
prese
ion
nt
(by
(%)[31]
weig
ht)[23]

Plastic
s can
be 80–90% of
brittle, world
adding Phthalates are production is
some the dominant used in PVC,
plastici class, safer much of the
zer alternatives rest is used
Plasti makes include adipate in cellulose
cizer 10–70 them esters acetate. For 34%
s more (DEHA, DOA) most products
durabl and citrate este loadings are
e, rs between 10
adding (ATBC and TE and 35%, high
lots C) loadings are
makes used
them for plastisols
flexibl
e
 Being
petroc
hemica
Non-
ls,
chlorinated or
most Brominated
Flam ganophosphat
plastic flame
e es are
1–30 s burn retardants, chlo 13%
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Toxicity
Pure plastics have low toxicity due to their insolubility in
water, and because they have a large molecular weight,
they are biochemically inert. Plastic products contain a
variety of additives, however, some of which can be
toxic.[42] For example, plasticizers
like adipates and phthalates are often added to brittle
plastics like PVC to make them pliable enough for use in
food packaging, toys, and many other items. Traces of
these compounds can leach out of the product. Owing to
concerns over the effects of such leachates, the EU has
restricted the use of DEHP (di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate)
and other phthalates in some applications, and the US
has limited the use of DEHP, DPB, BBP, DINP, DIDP,
and DnOP in children's toys and child-care articles
through the Consumer Product Safety Improvement Act.
Some compounds leaching from polystyrene food
containers have been proposed to interfere with
hormone functions and are suspected human
carcinogens (cancer-causing substances).[43] Other
chemicals of potential concern include alkylphenols.[38]

While a finished plastic may be non-toxic, the monomers

used in the manufacture of its parent polymers may be
toxic. In some cases, small amounts of those chemicals
can remain trapped in the product unless suitable
processing is employed. For example, the World Health
Organization's International Agency for Research on
Cancer (IARC) has recognized vinyl chloride, the
precursor to PVC, as a human carcinogen.[43]
Bisphenol A (BPA)
See also: Health effects of Bisphenol A
Some plastic products degrade to chemicals
with estrogenic activity.[44] The primary building block of
polycarbonates, bisphenol A (BPA), is an estrogen-
like endocrine disruptor that may leach into food.
[43]
Research in Environmental Health Perspectives finds
that BPA leached from the lining of tin cans, dental
sealants and polycarbonate bottles can increase the
body weight of lab animals' offspring.[45] A more recent
animal study suggests that even low-level exposure to
BPA results in insulin resistance, which can lead to
inflammation and heart disease.[46] As of January 2010,
the Los Angeles Times reported that the US Food and
Drug Administration (FDA) is spending $30 million to
investigate indications of BPA's link to cancer.[47] Bis(2-
ethylhexyl) adipate, present in plastic wrap based on
PVC, is also of concern, as are the volatile organic
compounds present in new car smell. The EU has a
permanent ban on the use of phthalates in toys. In 2009,
the US government banned certain types of phthalates
commonly used in plastic.[48]

Environmental effects

A communication campaign
infographic showing that there will be more plastic in the
oceans than fish by 2050
See also: Plastic pollution, Marine debris, and Great
Pacific garbage patch
Because the chemical structure of most plastics renders
them durable, they are resistant to many natural
degradation processes. Much of this material may
persist for centuries or longer, given the demonstrated
persistence of structurally similar natural materials such
as amber.

There are differing estimates of how much plastic

waste has been produced in the last century. By one
estimate, one billion tons of plastic waste have been
discarded since the 1950s.[49] Others estimate a
cumulative human production of 8.3 billion tons of
plastic, of which 6.3 billion tons is waste, with only 9%
getting recycled.[50]

It is estimated that this waste is made up of 81%

polymer resin, 13% polymer fibers and 32% additives. In
2018 more than 343 million tons of plastic waste were
generated, 90% of which was composed of post-
consumer plastic waste (industrial, agricultural,
commercial and municipal plastic waste). The rest was
pre-consumer waste from resin production and
manufacturing of plastic products (e.g. materials rejected
due to unsuitable color, hardness, or processing
characteristics).[2]

The Ocean Conservancy reported that China, Indonesia,

Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam dump more plastic
into the sea than all other countries combined.[51] The
rivers Yangtze, Indus, Yellow, Hai, Nile, Ganges, Pearl,
Amur, Niger, and Mekong "transport 88% to 95% of the
global [plastics] load into the sea."[52][53][verify quote punctuation]

The presence of plastics, particularly microplastics,

within the food chain is increasing. In the 1960s
microplastics were observed in the guts of seabirds, and
since then have been found in increasing
concentrations.[54] The long-term effects of plastics in the
food chain are poorly understood. In 2009 it was
estimated that 10% of modern waste was plastic,
[55]
although estimates vary according to region.
[54]
Meanwhile, 50% to 80% of debris in marine areas is
plastic.[54] Plastic is often used in agriculture. There is
more plastic in the soil than in the oceans. The presence
of plastic in the environment hurts ecosystems and
human health.[56]

Research on the environmental impacts has typically

focused on the disposal phase. However, the production
of plastics is also responsible for substantial
environmental, health and socioeconomic impacts.[57]

Prior to the Montreal Protocol, CFCs had been

commonly used in the manufacture of the plastic
polystyrene, the production of which had contributed to
depletion of the ozone layer.

Efforts to minimize environmental impact of plastics may

include lowering of plastics production and use, waste-
and recycling-policies, and the proactive development
and deployment of alternatives to plastics such as
for sustainable packaging.
Microplastics
This section is an excerpt from Microplastics.[edit]

Microplastics in
sediments from four rivers in Germany. Note the diverse
shapes indicated by white arrowheads. (The white bars
represent 1 mm for scale.)Duration: 13
seconds.0:13Photodegraded Plastic Straw. A light
touch breaks larger straw into microplastics.
Microplastics are fragments of any type of plastic less
than 5 mm (0.20 in) in length,[58] according to the
U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA)[59][60] and the European Chemicals
Agency.[61] They cause pollution by
entering natural ecosystems from a variety of sources,
including cosmetics, clothing, food packaging, and
industrial processes.[58][62]

The term macroplastics is used to differentiate

microplastics from larger plastic waste, such as plastic
bottles or bigger pieces of plastics. Two classifications of
microplastics are currently recognized. Primary
microplastics include any plastic fragments
or particles that are already 5.0 mm in size or less before
entering the environment.[62] These
include microfibers from clothing, microbeads,
plastic glitter[63] and plastic pellets (also known as
nurdles).[64][65][66] Secondary microplastics arise from
the degradation (breakdown) of larger plastic products
through natural weathering processes after entering the
environment.[62] Such sources of secondary microplastics
include water and soda bottles, fishing nets, plastic
bags, microwave containers, tea bags and tire wear.[67][66]
[68][69]
Both types are recognized to persist in the
environment at high levels, particularly
in aquatic and marine ecosystems, where they
cause water pollution.[70] 35% of all ocean microplastics
come from textiles/clothing, primarily due to the erosion
of polyester, acrylic, or nylon-based clothing, often
during the washing process.[71] However, microplastics
also accumulate in the air and terrestrial ecosystems.

Because plastics degrade slowly (often over hundreds to

thousands of years),[72][73] microplastics have a high
probability of ingestion, incorporation into,
and accumulation in the bodies and tissues of many
organisms.[58] The toxic chemicals that come from both
the ocean and runoff can also biomagnify up the food
chain.[74][75] In terrestrial ecosystems, microplastics have
been demonstrated to reduce the viability
of soil ecosystems and reduce weight of earthworms.[76]
[77]
The cycle and movement of microplastics in the
environment are not fully known, but research is
currently underway to investigate the phenomenon.
[62]
Deep layer ocean sediment surveys in China (2020)
show the presence of plastics in deposition layers far
older than the invention of plastics, leading to suspected
underestimation of microplastics in surface sample
ocean surveys.[78] Likewise, they have been found in high
mountains, at great distances from their source.[79]

A study in 2024 found microplastics in every semen

sample tested.[80] Microplastics have also been found in
human blood, though their effects are largely unknown.[81]

A literature study made in 2022 by geologist student

Björn Lycke shows that the amount of microplastics in
sediment is increasing worldwide, especially in ports and
tourist beaches.[82]
Decomposition of plastics
Main article: Polymer degradation
Plastics degrade by a variety of processes, the most
significant of which is usually photo-oxidation. Their
chemical structure determines their fate.
Polymers' marine degradation takes much longer as a
result of the saline environment and cooling effect of the
sea, contributing to the persistence of plastic debris in
certain environments.[54] Recent studies have shown,
however, that plastics in the ocean decompose faster
than had been previously thought, due to exposure to
the sun, rain, and other environmental conditions,
resulting in the release of toxic chemicals such
as bisphenol A. However, due to the increased volume
of plastics in the ocean, decomposition has slowed
down.[83] The Marine Conservancy has predicted the
decomposition rates of several plastic products: It is
estimated that a foam plastic cup will take 50 years, a
plastic beverage holder will take 400 years, a disposable
diaper will take 450 years, and fishing line will take 600
years to degrade.[84]

Microbial species capable of degrading plastics are

known to science, some of which are potentially useful
for disposal of certain classes of plastic waste.

 In 1975, a team of Japanese scientists studying

ponds containing waste water from a nylon factory
discovered a strain of Flavobacterium that digests
certain byproducts of nylon 6 manufacture, such as
the linear dimer of 6-aminohexanoate.[85] Nylon 4
(polybutyrolactam) can be degraded by the ND-10
and ND-11 strands of Pseudomonas sp. found in
sludge, resulting in GABA (γ-aminobutyric acid) as a
byproduct.[86]
 Several species of soil fungi can consume
polyurethane,[87] including two species of the
Ecuadorian fungus Pestalotiopsis. They can consume
 polyurethane both aerobically and anaerobically
(such as at the bottom of landfills).[88]
 Methanogenic microbial consortia degrade styrene,
using it as a carbon source.[89] Pseudomonas
putida can convert styrene oil into various
biodegradable plastic|
biodegradable polyhydroxyalkanoates.[90][91]
 Microbial communities isolated from soil samples
mixed with starch have been shown to be capable of
degrading polypropylene.[92]
 The fungus Aspergillus fumigatus effectively
degrades plasticized PVC.[93]: 45–46 Phanerochaete
chrysosporium has been grown on PVC in a mineral
salt agar.[93]: 76 P. chrysosporium, Lentinus tigrinus, A.
niger, and A. sydowii can also effectively degrade
PVC.[93]: 122
 Phenol-formaldehyde, commonly known as Bakelite,
is degraded by the white rot fungus P.
chrysosporium.[94]
 Acinetobacter has been found to partially degrade
low-molecular-weight polyethylene oligomers.
[86]
When used in combination, Pseudomonas
fluorescens and Sphingomonas can degrade over
40% of the weight of plastic bags in less than three
months.[95] The thermophilic bacterium Brevibacillus
borstelensis (strain 707) was isolated from a soil
sample and found capable of using low-
density polyethylene as a sole carbon source when
incubated at 50 °C. Pre-exposure of the plastic to
ultraviolet radiation broke chemical bonds and aided
biodegradation; the longer the period of UV exposure,
the greater the promotion of the degradation.[96]
 Hazardous molds have been found aboard space
stations that degrade rubber into a digestible form.[97]
 Several species of yeasts, bacteria, algae and lichens
have been found growing on synthetic polymer
artifacts in museums and at archaeological sites.[98]
 In the plastic-polluted waters of the Sargasso Sea,
bacteria have been found that consume various types
 of plastic; however, it is unknown to what extent
these bacteria effectively clean up poisons rather
than simply release them into the marine microbial
ecosystem.
 Plastic-eating microbes also have been found in
landfills.[99]
 Nocardia can degrade PET with an esterase enzyme.
[100]

 The fungus Geotrichum candidum, found in Belize,

has been found to consume the polycarbonate plastic
found in CDs.[101][102]
 Futuro houses are made of fiberglass-reinforced
polyesters, polyester-polyurethane, and PMMA. One
such house was found to be harmfully degraded
by Cyanobacteria and Archaea.[103][104]

Manual material triage for

recycling
Recycling
This section is an excerpt from Plastic recycling.[edit]
Plastic recycling
 Clockwise from top left:

 Sorting plastic waste at a single-stream recycling centre

 Baled colour-sorted used bottles
 Recovered HDPE ready for recycling
 A watering can made from recycled bottles

Plastic recycling is the processing of plastic waste into

other products.[105][106][107] Recycling can reduce
dependence on landfill, conserve resources and protect
the environment from plastic pollution and greenhouse
gas emissions.[108][109] Recycling rates lag behind those of
other recoverable materials, such
as aluminium, glass and paper. From the start of plastic
production through to 2015, the world produced around
6.3 billion tonnes of plastic waste, only 9% of which has
been recycled and only ~1% has been recycled more
than once.[110] Of the remaining waste, 12% was
incinerated and 79% was either sent to landfills or lost to
the environment as pollution.[110]
Almost all plastic is non-biodegradable and without
recycling, spreads across the environment[111][112] where it
causes plastic pollution. For example, as of 2015,
approximately 8 million tonnes of waste plastic enters
the oceans annually, damaging oceanic ecosystem and
forming ocean garbage patches.[113]

Almost all recycling is mechanical and involves the

melting and reforming of plastic into other items. This
can cause polymer degradation at the molecular level,
and requires that waste be sorted by colour
and polymer type before processing, which is often
complicated and expensive. Errors can lead to material
with inconsistent properties, rendering it unappealing to
industry.[114] Though filtration in mechanical recycling
reduces microplastic release, even the most efficient
filtration systems cannot prevent the release
of microplastics into wastewater.[115][116]

In feedstock recycling, waste plastic is converted into its

starting chemicals, which can then become fresh plastic.
This involves higher energy and capital costs.
Alternatively, plastic can be burned in place of fossil
fuels in energy recovery facilities, or biochemically
converted into other useful chemicals for industry.[117] In
some countries, burning is the dominant form of plastic
waste disposal, particularly where landfill
diversion policies are in place.

Plastic recycling is low in the waste hierarchy, meaning

that reduction and reuse are more favourable and long-
term solutions for sustainability.

It has been advocated since the early 1970s,[118] but due

to economic and technical challenges, did not impact the
management of plastic waste to any significant extent
until the late 1980s. The plastics industry has been
criticised for lobbying for expansion of recycling
programmes, even while research showed that most
plastic could not be economically recycled.[119][120][121]
[122]
This has resulted in occasions where plastic waste
dropped into recycling bins has not been recycled, and
been treated as general waste.[123]
Pyrolysis
By heating to above 500 °C in the absence of oxygen
(pyrolysis), plastics can be broken down into
simpler hydrocarbons. These can be reused as starting
materials for new plastics.[124] They can also be used as
fuels.[125]
Climate change
See also: Ethylene § Greenhouse_gas_emissions
According to the OECD, plastic contributed greenhouse
gases in the equivalent of 1.8 billion tons of carbon
dioxide (CO2) to the atmosphere in 2019, 3.4% of global
emissions.[126] They say that by 2060, plastic could emit
4.3 billion tons of greenhouse gas emissions a year.

The effect of plastics on global warming is mixed.

Plastics are generally made from fossil gas or petroleum,
thus the production of plastics creates further fugitive
emissions of methane when the fossil gas or petroleum
is produced. Also much of the energy used in plastic
production is not sustainable energy, for example high
temperature from burning fossil gas. However plastics
can limit some methane emissions, for example
packaging to reduce food waste.[127]
Production of plastics
Production of plastics from crude oil requires 7.9 to 13.7
kWh/lb (taking into account the average efficiency of US
utility stations of 35%). Producing silicon and
semiconductors for modern electronic equipment is even
more energy consuming: 29.2 to 29.8 kWh/lb for silicon,
and about 381 kWh/lb for semiconductors.[128] This is
much higher than the energy needed to produce many
other materials. For example, to produce iron (from iron
ore) requires 2.5-3.2 kWh/lb of energy; glass (from sand,
etc.) 2.3–4.4 kWh/lb; steel (from iron) 2.5–6.4 kWh/lb;
and paper (from timber) 3.2–6.4 kWh/lb.[129]
Incineration of plastics
Quickly burning plastics at very high temperatures
breaks down many toxic components, such
as dioxins and furans. This approach is widely used in
municipal solid waste incineration. Municipal solid waste
incinerators also normally treat the flue gas to decrease
pollutants further, which is needed because uncontrolled
incineration of plastic
produces carcinogenic polychlorinated dibenzo-p-
dioxins.[130] Open-air burning of plastic occurs at lower
temperatures and normally releases such toxic fumes.

In the European Union, municipal waste incineration is

regulated by the Industrial Emissions Directive,[131] which
stipulates a minimum temperature of 850 °C for at least
two seconds.[132]

History
For a chronological guide, see Timeline of plastic
development.
The development of plastics has evolved from the use of
naturally plastic materials (e.g., gums and shellac) to the
use of the chemical modification of those materials (e.g.,
natural rubber, cellulose, collagen, and milk proteins),
and finally to completely synthetic plastics (e.g., bakelite,
epoxy, and PVC). Early plastics were bio-derived
materials such as egg and blood proteins, which
are organic polymers. In around 1600
BC, Mesoamericans used natural rubber for balls,
bands, and figurines.[4] Treated cattle horns were used
as windows for lanterns in the Middle Ages. Materials
that mimicked the properties of horns were developed by
treating milk proteins with lye. In the nineteenth century,
as chemistry developed during the Industrial Revolution,
many materials were reported. The development of
plastics accelerated with Charles Goodyear's 1839
discovery of vulcanization to harden natural rubber.
 Plaque commemorating
Parkes at the Birmingham Science Museum
Parkesine, invented by Alexander Parkes in 1855 and
patented the following year,[133] is considered the first
man-made plastic. It was manufactured from cellulose
(the major component of plant cell walls) treated
with nitric acid as a solvent. The output of the process
(commonly known as cellulose nitrate or pyroxilin) could
be dissolved in alcohol and hardened into a transparent
and elastic material that could be molded when heated.
[134]
By incorporating pigments into the product, it could be
made to resemble ivory. Parkesine was unveiled at
the 1862 International Exhibition in London and garnered
for Parkes the bronze medal.[135]

In 1893, French chemist Auguste Trillat discovered the

means to insolubilize casein (milk proteins) by
immersion in formaldehyde, producing material
marketed as galalith.[136] In 1897, mass-printing press
owner Wilhelm Krische of Hanover, Germany, was
commissioned to develop an alternative to blackboards.
[136]
The resultant horn-like plastic made from casein was
developed in cooperation with the Austrian chemist
(Friedrich) Adolph Spitteler (1846–1940). Although
unsuitable for the intended purpose, other uses would be
discovered.[136]

The world's first fully synthetic plastic was Bakelite,

invented in New York in 1907 by Leo Baekeland,[5] who
coined the term plastics.[6] Many chemists have
contributed to the materials science of plastics, including
Nobel laureate Hermann Staudinger, who has been
called "the father of polymer chemistry," and Herman
Mark, known as "the father of polymer physics."[7]

After World War I, improvements in chemistry led to an

explosion of new forms of plastics, with mass production
beginning in the 1940s and 1950s.[55] Among the earliest
examples in the wave of new polymers were polystyrene
(first produced by BASF in the 1930s)[4] and polyvinyl
chloride (first created in 1872 but commercially produced
in the late 1920s).[4] In 1923, Durite Plastics, Inc., was
the first manufacturer of phenol-furfural resins.[137] In
1933, polyethylene was discovered by Imperial Chemical
Industries (ICI) researchers Reginald Gibson and Eric
Fawcett.[4]

The discovery of polyethylene terephthalate is credited

to employees of the Calico Printers' Association in the
UK in 1941; it was licensed to DuPont for the US and ICI
otherwise, and as one of the few plastics appropriate as
a replacement for glass in many circumstances, resulting
in widespread use for bottles in Europe.[4] In 1954
polypropylene was discovered by Giulio Natta and
began to be manufactured in 1957.[4] Also in 1954
expanded polystyrene (used for building insulation,
packaging, and cups) was invented by Dow Chemical.[4]

Policy
See also: Global plastic pollution treaty
Work is currently underway to develop a global treaty on
plastic pollution. On March 2, 2022, UN Member
States voted at the resumed fifth UN Environment
Assembly (UNEA-5.2) to establish an Intergovernmental
Negotiating Committee (INC) with the mandate of
advancing a legally-binding international agreement on
plastics.[138] The resolution is entitled "End plastic
pollution: Towards an international legally binding
instrument." The mandate specifies that the INC must
begin its work by the end of 2022 with the goal of
"completing a draft global legally binding agreement by
the end of 2024."[139]

See also