48 en

RUSSIAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
FERSMAN MINERALOGICAL MUSEUM
VOLUME 48
New Data
оn Minerals
FOUNDED IN 1907
MOSCOW
2013
ISSN 5-900395-62-6
New Data on Minerals. 2013. Volume 48. 162 pages, 128 photos, drawings and schemes.
Publication of Institution of Russian Academy of Sciences, Fersman Mineralogical Museum RAS.
This volume contains description of laptevite-(Ce), a new vicanite group mineral found in the Darai-Pioz alkaline
massif, rare minerals of the baratovite-katayamalite solid solution from the Khodzha-Achkan alkaline massif in
Kirgizia, listvenite-like phlogopite-magnesite gumbeites of the Berezovsky gold deposit in the Urals, polycrys-
talline diamond aggregates from the Lomonosov deposit in the Arkhangelsk diamond province, and gypsum seg-
regations from the bottom of the Okhotsk and Japan Seas. The results of fine investigation of trace elements in
the crystal structure of molybdenite and experimental modeling of Pt and Pd sulfide crystallization during cooling
in the central part of the Cu-Fe-S system are given.
Separate section is devoted to 150th anniversary of the birth of V.I. Vernadsky. It contains papers about geo-
chemical mineralogy of V.I. Vernadsky, his activity in nuclear power, and mineralogical taxonomies suggested by
V.I. Vernadsky, J.D. Dana, A.G. Betekhtin, I.N. Kostov, G.P. Barsanov, and A.A. Godovikov.
In the section Mineralogical Museums and Collections, the first information on products of Chinese stone-cut art
in the collection of the Fersman Mineralogical Museum, Russian Academy of Sciences, brief historical review of the
collection of diamond crystals of the same museum, and detail information on the new acquisitions in the muse-
um in 2011–2012 are given.
Mineralogical Notes are represented by brief paper about findings of giant minerals in the South Urals.
This journal is of interest for mineralogists, geochemists, geologists, staff of natural history museums, collectors,
and amateurs of stones.
Editor in Chief Victor K. Garanin, Doctor in Science, Professor

Executive Editor Elena A. Borisova, Ph.D.
Editorial Board Margarita I. Novgorodova, Doctor in Science, Professor,

Boris Ye. Borutzky, Doctor in Science,
Eugeny I. Semenov, Doctor in Science,
Svetlana N. Nenasheva, Ph.D.,
Marianna B. Chistyakova, Ph.D.,
Elena N. Matvienko, Ph.D.,
Mikhail E. Generalov, Ph.D.,
Elena S. Sorokina, Ph.D.,
Leonid A. Pautov
Photo Michael B. Leybov

Leader of Publishing group Michael B. Leybov
Managing Editor Ludmila A. Cheshko
Editor Andrey L. Cheshko
Design and Layout Ivan A. Glazov
Translators Maria S. Alferova, Il’ya Anisimov, Ivan A. Baksheev, Mark Fed’kin,
Vladimir Karpenko, Eugene B. Kurdukov, Alexander S. Yakubchuk
Editors (English Style) Dr. Peter Modreski and Dr. Edward Rosenzweig
Authorized for printing by Institution of Russian Academy of Sciences, Fersman Mineralogical Museum RAS
У Text, photo, drawings and schemes, Institution of Russian Academy of Sciences, Fersman Mineralogical Museum RAS, 2013
У Design BRITAN Ltd, 2013
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СОNTENT
New Minerals and Their Varieties, New Finds of Rare Minerals, Mineral Paragenesis
Agakhanov A.A., Pautov L.A., Uvarova Yu.А., Sokolova E.V., Hawthorne F.C., Karpenko V.Yu.
Laptevite-(Ce) NaFe+ 2 (REE7Ca5Y3)(SiO4)4(Si3B2PO18)(BO3)F11 –
new mineral of the vicanite group from the Darai-Pioz alkaline massif, Tajikistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
Pautov L.A., Karpenko V.Yu., Agakhanov A.A.
Baratovite-katayamalite minerals from the Hodzha-Achkan alcaline massif (Kirgizia) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
Spiridonov E.M., Kulikova I.M., Nurmukhametov F.M.,
Sidorova N.V., Korotaeva N.N., Polenov Y.A., Troshkina A.N.
Cogenetic zircon, monazite, xenotime, and fluorapatite
from apopicritic phlogopite-magnesite gumbeites at the Berezovsky gold deposit, Urals, Russia . . . . . . . . . .37
Bazarova Y.М., Kryulina G.Y., Garanin V.K.
Polycrystalline clusters of diamond from the Lomonosov deposit, Russia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56
Terekhov E.P., Mozherovsky A.V., Vashchenkova N.G., Barinov N.N.
Authigenic gypsum in rocks at the bottom of Japan and Okhotsk seas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60
Crystal Chemistry, Minerals as Prototypes

of New Materials, Physical and Chemical Properties of Minerals
Kulikova I.M., Maximyuk I.E.
Morphological study of the means of accommodation
of admixture atoms in the crystal structure of molybdenite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69
Kravchenko T.A.
Platinum and palladium sulfides in the crystallization products of melts in the Cu-Fe-S system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80
On the 150th anniversary of the birth of V.I. Vernadsky

Nenasheva S.N.
Mineral systematics from V.I. Vernadsky till 21 century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87
Borutzky B.Ye.
Geochemical mineralogy by Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky and the present times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98
Kuzmin V.I.
Vladimir I. Vernadsky and his role in resolution of challenges of nuclear energy utilization in Russia . . . . . . . . .113
Mineralogical Museums and Collections

Korenyako V.A., Chistyakova M.B.
Works of Chinese stone-cutting art at
Fersman Mineralogical Museum of Russian Academy of Sciences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .118
Pustovojtova V.A., Pavlova T.M.
Diamond collection in the Fersman Mineralogical Museum
of the Russian Academy of Sciences: short historical review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .135
Belakovskiy D.I.
New acquisitions to Fersman Mineralogical Museum in 2011–2012 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .141
Mineralogical Notes
Kolisnichenko S.V.
Minerals-Giants of the South Urals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .157
New Minerals
and Their Varieties,
New Finds
of Rare Minerals,
Mineral Paragenesis
New Data on Minerals. 2013. Vol. 48 5
LAPTEVITE-(Се) NaFe2+(REE7Ca5Y3)(SiO4)4(Si3B2PO18)(BO3)F11 –
NEW MINERAL1 OF THE VICANITE GROUP
FROM THE DARAI-PIOZ ALKALINE MASSIF, TAJIKISTAN
Atali A. Agakhanov
Fersman Mineralogical Museum, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia,
atali99@mai.ru
Leonid A. Pautov
pla58@mail.ru
Yulia А. Uvarova
CSIRO Earth Science and Engineering, Kensingtone, Australia, yulia.uvarova@csiro.au
Elena V. Sokolova
Department of Geological Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba , Canada,
Elena.Sokolova@umanitoba.ca
Frank C. Hawthorne
Department of Geological Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba , Canada,
Frank.Hawthorne@umanitoba.ca
Vladimir Yu. Karpenko
mineralab@mail.ru
Laptevite-(Ce) is a new mineral of the vicanite group. It was found in a calcite-bafertisite-aegirine-microcline rock in
association with stillwellite-(Ce), calcibeborosilite-(Y), fluorite, polylithionite and other minerals at the Darai-Pioz
glacier moraine (Tajikistan). Color is dark-brown, in thin plates is transparent. Vitreous luster. It occurs as poorly
formed crystals up to 1 cm in size. Mohs’ hardness 4.5–5. Dmeas.= 4.61(2) g/cm3, Dcalc. = 4.619 g/cm3. Optically
uniaxial negative, no = 1.741(3), ne= 1.720(3). It is partially metamict. Crystal structure has been refined with R =
3.61%. Hexagonal symmetry, space group R3m, a = 10.804(2)Å; b = 10.804(2)Å; c = 27.726(6)Å; V = 2802.7(2)Å3,
Z = 3. Most intense X-ray powder data lines are as follows [d, (I), (hkl)]: 7.70 (19) (012); 4.41 (29) (202); 3.13 (26) (214);
3.03 (100) (027); 2.982 (85) (125); 2.954 (60) (033); 2.689 (40) (-240); 1.979 (31) (330); 1.770 (21) (-555). IR spectrum
(strongest absorption bands, cm–1) 1623, 1437, 1300, 945, 930, 877, 758, 637, 570, 531. Chemical composition
(microprobe analysis, wt.%): SiO2 – 15.67, TiO2 – 0.28, ZrO2 – 0.01, ThO2 – 0.38, UO2 – 0.65, FeO – 1.48, CaO –
11.64, MnO – 1.02, SrO – 0.95, Y2O3 – 11.30, La2O3 – 14.51, Ce2O3 – 16.93, Pr2O3 – 2.76, Nd2O3 – 5.16, Sm2O3
– 0.98, Eu2O3 – 0.10, Gd2O3 – 1.56, Tb2O3 – 0.29, Dy2O3 – 1.37, Tm2O3 – 0.17, Yb2O3, – 0.28, B2O3 – 4.98,
P2O5 – 1.51, Na2O – 1.05, F – 8.53, –O=F2 – 3.59, total – 100.46. The simplified formula is NaFe2+(REE7Ca5Y3)
(SiO4)4(Si3B2PO18)(BO3)F11. The mineral is named in honor of Tatyana Mikhaylovna Lapteva (1928–2011),
the Soviet geologist, petrographer, who made a major contribution to geological study of Central Asia.
3 table, 4 figures, 13 references.
Keywords: laptevite-(Ce), vicanite group, Darai-Pioz alkaline massif.
Laptevite-(Ce) was found in a fenitized are devoted to geology and mineralogy of this
rock 1 × 0.8 × 0.4 meter in size, from the Upper alkaline massif (Moskvin, 1937; Dusmatov et
Darai-Pioz alkaline massif, which occurs in al., 1963; Dusmatov, 1968; 1971; Semenov et al.,
moraine deposits of the same name glacier 1963; Belakowski, 1991; etc.). The mineralogy
(Tajikistan). The Darai-Pioz massif has an of the Upper Darai-Pioz alkaline massif, as well
isomeric form; it is located on a joint of the as the majority of alkaline massifs, is extremely
Zeravshansky, Alaisky and Turkestansky rid variable and unique in many respects. As a rule,
ges in the upper part of the Darai-Pioz river. A almost all alkaline massifs have characteristic
considerable part of the massif is overlain by geochemically distinct features. One feature
a glacier, and primary rock exposures on the of the Upper Darai-Pioz alkaline massif is the
massif are hardly accessible. In this regard, large variety of B and REE minerals: stillwellite-
mineralogy and petrography of the Upper Da (Ce), tadzhikite-(Ce), tadzhikite-(Y), kapitsaite-
rai-Pioz alkaline massif are done on material (Y), calcibeborosilite-(Y), byzantievite. Almost
from moraine deposits. Many publications all these minerals, except stillwellite-(Ce), were
1
– It is considered and recommended for publication by the Commission on New Minerals and Names of Minerals of RMO
and approved by the Commission on New Minerals, the Nomenclature and Classification of the International Mineralogical
Association (CNMNC IMA) on December 2, 2011.
6 New Data on Minerals. 2013. Vol. 48
discovered and described from rocks of this 4.619 g/cm3. Refractive indices of laptevite-(Ce)
massif. measured by the immersion method (at 589 nm)
The leucocratic rock in which laptevite- are as follows: no = 1.741(3), ne = 1.720(3), mi
(Ce) was found, consists of calcite, bafertisite, neral is optically negative, uniaxial. Laptevite-
aegirine and microcline, has uneven granular (Ce) is water-insoluble, dissolves poorly in
texture, from fine- to coarse-grained, often HCl (1:1) at room temperature. The infrared
with a spotty texture. This texture is caused by spectrum was measured on an Avatar IR-Fourier
the uneven distribution of accu-mulations of spectrometer of Thermo Nicolet with a KBr
microcline, aegirine, calcite, bafertisite, quartz, microtablet (Fig. 2). The strongest absorption
calcibeborosilite-(Y), stillwellite-(Ce) and lap bands of laptevite-(Ce) are as follows (cm-1):
tevite-(Ce). Microcline consists of coarse idio 1623, 1437, 1300, 945, 930, 877sh, 758, 637, 570,
morphic grains 1–6 cm in size; the color is grayish 531.
to yellow-white. Aegirine forms prismatic, often
deformed, black crystals up to 3 cm long. Quartz Chemical composition
forms icy, translucent, light gray, coarse-grained
agregates, 2–3 cm in size. One characteristic The chemical composition of laptevite-(Ce)
feature of this association is the presence of was determined in two laboratories: at Fersman
relatively large plates of brown-red bafertisi Mineralogical Museum RAS, Moscow and at the
te; tetragonal, poorly formed calcibeborosili Geological Sciences Department, University of
te-(Y) crystals to 2 cm of a dark gray color and Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada, by EMPA with
aquant grains of light pink stillwellite-(Ce), to both wave dispersive and energy dispersive
3 cm, without visible faces. Minor minerals are spectrometers (WDS and EDS). Eight grains of
fluorite, polylithionite and albite. Most often, a laptevite-(Ce) were studied and 42 analyses
laptevite-(Ce) grows together with bafertisite, were determined for them. In A.E. Fersman
calcibeborosilite-(Y) and stillwellite-(Ce). Mineralogical Museum analyses were obtained
with a JCXA-733 of JEOL electron microprobe
Physical properties using (Si-Li) EDS and INCA analysis system
at 20 kV accelerating voltage, 2 nA probe
Laptevite-(Ce) occurs as poorly formed current and 1 µm probe diameter. The following
crystals to 1 cm (Fig. 1), commonly with meta standards were used: microcline USNM143966
mict cores. It is brown, with yellowy-brown (Si), anorthite USNM 137041 (Ca), ilmenite
cores. In thin splinters, it is transparent. The USMN 96189 (Ti, Fe), Mn (Mn), SrTiO3 (Sr),
luster is vitreous, often greasy, fracture is un YPO4 (Y), LaPO4 (La, P), CePO4 (Ce), PrPO4 (Pr),
even, cleavage is absent. The Mohs hardness NdPO4 (Nd), SmPO4 (Sm), EuPO4 (Eu), GdPO4
is 4–4.5. Microhardness VHN = 453 (ave. (Gd), TbPO4 (Tb), DyPO4 (Dy), TmPO4 (Tm),
on 15 measurements, the range is VHN = YbPO4 (Yb), omphacite USNM 110607 (Na),
443 to 485); measurements were made at the MgF2 (F). At the University of Manitoba, ana
PMT-3, calibrated on NaCl at loading of 50 g. lyses were done using a Cameca SX-100 elec
The measured density is 4.61(2) g/cm3, it was tron microprobe, equipped with WDS at 15 kV
determined by equilibration in aqueous solution accelerating voltage, 20 nA probe current and
of Clerici liquid. The calculated density is 5 µm probe diameter. The following standards
Fig. 1. A brown crystal of laptevite-(Ce) with bafertisite in calcite Fig. 2. IR spectrum of a laptevite-(Ce), obtained at the Avatar IR-
with microcline. Slanting light. Width of a view field is 5 cm. Fourier spectrometer of Thermo Nicolet from a tablet with KBr.
pl
Laptevite-(Се) NaFe2+(REE7Ca5Y3)(SiO4)4(Si3B2PO18)(BO3)F11 –
new mineral of the vicanite group from the Darai-Pioz alkaline massif, Tajikistan 7
Fig. 3. Accretion of
zoned laptevite-(Ce)
crystals with albite
and calcite:
a – the transparent
polished section in
transmitted light (ni-
cols are crossed);
b – the same frag-
ment in the back-
scattered electrons
contrast mode on
average atomic num-
ber (BSE). Width of a
vision field is 2.6 mm.
Table 1. Chemical composition of laptevite-(Ce) (wt.%) were used: titanite (Ti), zircon (Zr), ThO2 (Th),
1 UO2 (U), pyrope (Fe), spessartine (Mn), stron
Component 2 tianite (Sr), YPO4 (Y), LaPO4 (La, P), CePO4
Average Range
(Ce), PrPO4 (Pr), NdPO4 (Nd), SmPO4 (Sm),
SiO2 15.67 14.54–15.98 15.58
EuPO4 (Eu), GdPO4 (Gd), TbPO4 (Tb), DyPO4
TiO2 0.28 0.18–0.53 0.30
(Dy), TmPO4 (Tm), YbPO4 (Yb), datolite (B),
ZrO2 0.01 0.00–0.05 0.10 jadeite (Na), fluorite (F), diopside (Si, Ca).
ThO2 0.38 0.17–0.56 0.43 For the determination of Li, Be, B and
UO2 0.65 0.44–0.71 0.70 REE, three analyses by ICP-OES were made.
FeO 1.48 1.31–1.66 1.59 In order to do this, a grain of laptevite-(Ce),
CaO 11.64 11.12–12.01 11.83 previously checked by EDS, was digested in
MnO 1.02 0.82–1.07 0.84 polypropylene bottles in 40% HF with addition
SrO 0.95 0.81–1.60 1.46 of HNO3 and were evaporated to wet salts.
Y2O3 11.30 11.07–11.73 11.21
After which, HNO 3 was repeatedly added
to sample and evaporated to a solid residue
La2O3 14.51 13.20–15.01 13.86
for full removal of all fluorides. Further, the
Ce2O3 16.93 16.20–17.92 17.58
residue was dissolved in HNO 3, and then
Pr2O3 2.76 2.43–3.97 2.90 diluted to 2% HNO3. The resultind solution
Nd2O3 5.16 4.37–5.58 5.10 was analyzed with a VISTA Pro instrument of
Sm2O3 0.98 0.77–1.26 1.03 Varian. Concentrations of Be and Li, measured
Eu3O3 0.10 0.04–0.34 0.16 by the ICP-OES method in the new mineral
Gd2O3 1.56 1.19–1.69 1.40 does not exceed trace amounts. The data for B
Tb2O3 0.29 0.16–0.25 0.21 and REE by ICP-OES method are correlate well
Dy2O3 1.37 1.24–1.67 1.47 with those, obtained by EPMA.
Tm2O3 0.17 0.09–0.26 0.13
Crystals of laptevite-(Ce) are often cracked
and include intergrowths of other phases
Yb2O3 0.28 0.20–0.39 0.35
(Figs. 3, 4). They also show zonality, generally
B2O3 4.98 3.79–5.40 4.71
connected with isomorphous substitutions of La,
P2O5 1.51 1.35–1.58 1.47
Ce and Y (Fig. 4).
Na2O 1.05 0.86–1.26 0.98 The average composition from electron
F 8.53 8.05–9.47 8.44 microprobe and ICP-OES methods (Table 1,
Total 103.56 103.83 an. 1) was recalculated (on a base of total anions
–O=F2 –3.59 –3.55 (О + F) = 48 apfu), giving the empirical formula
Total 99.97 100.28 (Na0.88REE0.12)Σ1.00(Fe0.54Mn0.37 Ti0.09)Σ1.00(REE6.79
Ca 5.40 Y 2.60 Sr 0.24 U 0.06 Th 0.04 ) Σ15.13 (SiO 4 ) 4 (Si 2.78
Note. 1 – the average and variation limits of 42 microprobe
analyses for 8 grains are executed by means of JCXA- B2.68P0.55O17.33F0.67(B1.05O3)F11, at this REE = Ce2.68
733 equipped with INCA EDS (U = 20 kV, I = 2 nA, probe La 2.32 Nd 0.80 Pr 0.44Gd 0.22Dy 0.19Sm 0.15Yb 0.04Tb 0.04
diameter at 1 µm), 10 analyses has performed with Cameca Tm0.02Eu0.01.
SX-100 equipped with WD (U = 15 kV, I = 20 nA, 5 µm probe
diameter), B2O3 determined by the ICP OES method (3 analyses);
The simplified formula of laptevite-(Ce) is
analysts A.A. Agakhanov, L.A. Pautov, Panseok Yang. NaFe2+(REE7Ca5Y3)(SiO4)4(Si3B2PO18)(BO3)F11.
2 – the analysis of grain, on which crystal structure of a mineral The analysis of a grain fragment, from which
was solved (from the same sample); performed with Cameca SX- crystal structure of a mineral was studied, is also
100 equipped with WD (U = 15 kV, I = 20 on, probe diameter at
5 µm), (Uvarova et al., 2013). given in table 1 (an. 2). The compatibility in-
Fig. 4. A fragment of laptevite-(Ce) crystal (Lap); intergrowth with albite (Alb). BSE image mode and X-ray maps of distribution of
the specified elements.
dex (1–Kp/Kc) = 0.004, that corresponds to its into a white porcellanous X-ray-amorphous
highest degree (superior). substance, and the external rim of the crystals
remained without visible changes and gave
X-ray powder data identical to those obtained
X-ray data
at the beginning of the investigation for non-
At the initial stage of this investigation, heated material. All further measurements
X-ray powder data of this phase were measured. were obtained on the heated material.
After this, grains for single crystal work were X-ray powder data of a laptevite-(Ce)
(Table 2) were recorded on the DRON-2 in
selected, but they appeared metamict. Further
strument with a graphite monochromator
fractions of the mineral were extracted from five
(CuKα radiation). Quartz was used as the
samples and attempts to measure X-ray powder internal standard. The powder data are well
data were made, but those fractions also were indexed in hexagonal cell, space group R3m:
metamict. This problem was solved by heating a = 10.779(2), c = 27.864(4)Å, V = 2803.6(3)Å3,
the mineral. The fragments of crystals, selected Z = 3. Unit cell parameters and powder data
for tempering contained yellow-brown, more of laptevite-(Ce) are very close to those of
transparent cores and dark cracked rims. The the vicanite group minerals (Table 3). The
compositions of both zones in the extracted structure of laptevite-(Ce) was refined on 924
crystal fragments were checked using EDS. independent reflections to an R-factor = 3.87%.
Tempering was done in a tubular furnace A mineral hexagonal, space group R3m, Z = 3.
at 800°С in a stream of argon. The central Cell dimensions are as follows: а = 10.804(2),
parts of the laptevite-(Ce) crystals turned с = 27.726(6)Ǻ, V = 2802.6(2)Ǻ 3 (Bruker P4
Table 2. X-ray powder diffraction data for laptevite-(Ce)
observed calculated observed calculated

hkl hkl
I d, Å I d, Å I d, Å I d, Å
0 -1 13
5 9.24 7 9.216 003
2 2.079 4 2.080 1 0 13
012
-1 1 13
19 7.70 17 7.755 1 -1 2
324
-1 0 2
11 2.049 11 2.050 -2 -3 4
110
2 5.38 3 5.394 2 -5 4
-2 1 0
-2 -2 9
015
6 4.73 4 4.767 13 2.030 12 2.031 229
1 -1 5
-2 4 9
202
407
29 4.41 38 4.428 -2 2 2
10 2.012 6 2.012 -4 4 7
0 -2 2
0 -4 7
107
4 3.62 7 3.650 235
-1 1 7
8 2.003 17 2.002 3 -5 5
205
-5 2 5
13 3.59 5 3.579 025
413
-2 2 5 1.994
14 1.990 16 -1 5 3
7 3.53 7 3.513 -1 -1 6
5 -1 3
4 3.48 2 3.508 211
-4 0 8
6 3.41 3 3.427 -1 3 2
3 1.942 6 1.940 048
5 3.20 3 3.249 018
4 -4 8
214
-5 3 7
26 3.13 37 3.149 3 -1 4
4 1.885 5 1.887 -3 5 7
-2 3 4
327
-3 3 0
146
19 3.11 14 3.123 030 8 1.869 6 1.868
416
300
18 1.845 23 1.855 0 3 12
4 3.08 11 3.081 009
-5 2 8
027
13 1.822 16 1.824 3 -5 8
100 3.03 100 3.023 -2 0 7
238
2 -2 7
330
125
31 1.797 19 1.801 -3 6 0
85 2.982 41 2.980 -1 3 5
-6 3 0
3 -2 5
-5 5 5
033
21 1.770 15 1.773 505
60 2.954 51 2.955 303
0 -5 5
-3 3 3
5 1.700 8 1.698 3 2 10
10 2.750 15 2.782 208
-6 4 5
-2 4 0 7 1.683 3 1.685
425
40 2.689 38 2.701 -4 2 0
3 1.622 3 1.624 0 2 16
220
8 1.598 4 1.590 0 3 15
10 2.638 217
13 2.610h 5 1.548 4 1.548 517
2 2.593 223
2 0 17
6 2.553 8 2.550 312 8 1.540 5 1.539
0 0 18
3 2.430 4 2.431 3 -4 4
6 1.529 6 1.529 1 4 12
404
5 2.216 3 2 13
8 2.202h 039 1.513
13 2.191 7 1.514 4 158
309
0 4 14
3 -4 7
2 1.500 3 1.501 -7 4 4
11 2.171 9 2.172 -4 1 7
5 1.491 2 1.491 2 4 10
-3 -1 7
-7 5 3
4 -4 5
14 1.477 9 1.479 523
15 2.154 9 2.155 045
2 -7 3
-4 0 5
2 1.424 2 1.425 7 -5 6
3 2.142 2 2.140 321
232 Note. DRON-2 diffractometer; Cu anode, graphite mono
13 2.117 10 2.121 -2 5 2 chromator, counter speed is 1°/min, quartz used as internal
5 -3 2 standard. Analyst A.A. Agakhanov.
diffractometer with the CCD detector, MoKα follows: layers A (z ~ 0), B (z ~ 0.13) and C (z ~
radiation) (Uvarova et al., 2013). 0.23), linked into a complex heteropolyhedral
The structure of the new mineral has framework. There are four tetrahedral sites
the main features of minerals of the vicanite (T1-T4) occupied by Si, B, P and coordinated
group (Ballirano et al., 2002; Bioiocchi et al., by O, a triangular T5 position occupied by B
2004; Raade et al., 2007; 2008; Uvarova et al., and coordinated by O and F, an octahedral M6
2013). Basic elements of the structure are as position = (Fe2+, Mn, Ti), coordinated by O
Table 3. Comparative characteristic of minerals: laptevite-(Ce), vicanite-(Ce), okanoganite-(Y), hundholmenite-

(Y) and proshchenkoite-(Y)
Mineral
laptevite-(Се) vicanite-(Ce) okanoganite-(Y) hundholmenite-(Y) proshchenkoite-(Y)
characteristics
Na(Fe2+,Mn2+) (Ca,REE,Th)15Fe3+ (Na,Ca)3(Y,Ce)12 (Y,REE,Ca,Na)15 (Y,REE,Ca,Na,Mn)15
(REE7Ca5 Y3)15 [SiO4]3 [Si3B3O18] B2Si6O27F14 (Al,Fe3+)CaxAs3+1-x (Fe2+,Mn)Ca(P,Si)
Formula (SiO4)4(Si3B2РO18) [BO3](As5+O4) (Si,As5+)Si6B3 Si6B3O34F14
(BO3)F11 (As3+O3)x(NaF3)1-xF7 (O,F)48
(H2O)0.2, x=0.4
Space group R3m R3m R3m R3m R3m
a, Å 10.804(2) 10.8112(2) 10.7108(5) 10.675(6) 10.7527(7)
c 27.726(6) 27.3296(12) 27.0398(11) 27.02(2) 27.4002(18)
Z 3 3 3 3 3
7.70 (19) 7.70 (50)
4.41 (29) 4.42 (50) 4.38(41) 4.38 (33) 4.441 (36)
3.13 (26) 3.13 (50) 3.11(48) 3.114 (43) 3.144 (77)
3.03 (100) 2.993 (100) 2.970(100) 2.972 (100) 3.028 (45)
X-ray powder 2.982 (85) 2.950 (70) 2.939(95) 2.947 (76) 2.968 (100)
intensive lines, 2.954 (60) 2.698 (50) 2.926(50) 2.924 (66)
Dmeas.(I) 2.689 (40) 1.839 (50) 2.676(32) 2.681 (36)
1.979 (31) 1.802(50) 1.978(35) 1.978 (37)
1.770 (21) 1.822(32)
1.784(43) 1.782 (32)
1.713 (32)
brown, reddish-brown, pale grayish-brown
Color flavovirent
yellowy-brown light pink to the grayish-brown
Luster vitreous vitreous vitreous, diamond
Dmeas., g/cm3 4.61(2) > 4.2 4.35(4) > 4.2 4.72
Dcalc., g/cm3 4.619 4.73 4.96 5.206 4.955
Mohs hardness 4.5–5 5–6 4 5–6 near 5
Optical
uniaxial (–) uniaxial (–) uniaxial (–) uniaxial (–) uniaxial (–)
properties (sign)
no 1.741(3) 1.757(2) 1.753(2) 1.7578(5) 1.734(2)
ne 1.720(3) 1.722(2) 1.740(2) 1.7487(5) 1.728(2)
Maras et al., 1995;
Our data Boggs, 1980 Raade et al., 2008 Raade et al., 2008
Ballirano et al., 1991
atoms, and six positions with coordination from group – vicanite-(Ce). In other minerals, this
7 to 10: M1-M5 positions occupied by Са and position is vacant.
REE, and M7 occupied by Na and REE. M1-M6 The C layer is formed by M3 polyhedra = (Ca,
positions are coordinated generally by oxygen, Sr, REE), M5 = (Y, REE) and М7 = (Na,
to a lesser extent by F. REE). Tetrahedra and polyhedral of all lay
In the A layer, T1 and T4 tetrahedra are ers, connect with each other and create a
linked into a complex anion, which is cha single frame work. The formula of laptevite-
racteristical for vicanite minerals group; it’s (Ce) is (recalculation on O + F = 48 apfu):
composition is (Si3B2PO18)-17 in laptevite-(Ce), (Fe 0.58Mn 0.31Ti 0.10Zr 0.02) Σ1.01[(Ce 2.80La 2.22Nd 0.79
unlike other minerals of group where the com P r 0.46D y 0.21G d 0.20S m 0.15Y b 0.05T b 0.03E u 0.02
position of this anion is (Si3B3O18)-15. Other Tm0.02)Σ6.95Ca5.52Y2.60Na0.83Sr0.37U0.07Th0.04]Σ16.38
units of the A layer are M6 clusters, formed Si6.78B3.54P0.54O36.39F11.61, and the ideal formula is
by octahedra, which are connected with SiO- NaFe2+(REE7Ca5Y3)(SiO4)4(Si3B2PO18)(BO3)F11.
tetrahedra (T1, T2) and the polyhedron The populations of the majority of the 14
[9]
M(1) = (REE, Ca). sites in the structures of laptevite-(Ce) and
The B layer in laptevite-(Ce) consists of the other minerals of the vicanite group are
isolated Si-O T3 tetrahedra (B0.84□0.16), triangles identical. Therefore it is hard to say, which
and also [10]М2 = (REE, Ca) and [8]М4 = (Ca, of a minerals of the group has the greatest
REE, U, Th) polyhedrons. The BO3-triangular similarity to laptevite-(Ce) (Uvarova et al.,
groups are present only in one mineral of the 2013). Structurally laptevite-(Ce) is closest to
vicanite-(Ce), due to presence of BO3-triangles, zakhstan. Frunze: Ilym. 1968. P. 134–135 (in
which are absent in other minerals of the group, Russian).
although between vicanite-(Ce) and laptevite- Dusmatov V.D. Mineralogy of the Darai-Pioz
(Ce), the major differences in composition are alkaline massif (Southern Tien Shan). Can
as follows in vicanite-(Ce): the M5 polyhedron didate’s dissertation. M.: IMGRE. 1971. 171 p.
is occupied by thorium, theT3 tetrahedron by (in Russian).
arsenic, and the anion position, occupied in Dusmatov V.D., Efimov A.F., Semenov E.I. The
laptevite-(Ce) by fluorine, in general is vacant first finds of a stillwellite in the USSR // Dokl.
(Ballirano et al., 2002). AN USSR. 1963. Vol. 153. No. 4. P. 913–915
The holotype sample of laptevite-(Ce) is (in Russian).
stored in the Fersman Mineralogical Museum Maras A., Parodi G.G., della Ventura G., Ohnen-
(Moscow, Russian Federation), registration stetter D. Vicanite-(Ce): A new Ca-Th-REE
number 4195/1. borosilicate from the Vico volcanic district
(Latium, Italy) // Eur. J. of Mineral. 1995.
Acknowledgments No. 7. P. 439–446.
Authors thanks A.R. Faiziev and R.U. Sa Moskvin A.V. Geography and geology of East
birova for the help in field work on the Darai- Karategin // Tadjik-Pamir expe-dition of
Pioz massif; also I.V. Pekov and D. I. Belakovsky 1935. М.-L.: AN SSSR. 1937. P. 682–739 (in
for a valuable advice and for help in writing the Russian).
article. Raade G., Grice J.D., Erambert M., Kristians
son P., Witzke T. Proshchenkioite-(Y) from
Russia – a new mineral species in the vi
References canite group: descriptive data and crystal
Ballirano P., Callegari A., Caucia F., Maras A., structure // Mineral. Mag. 2008. Vol. 72.
Mazzi F., Ungaretti L. The crystal structure P. 1071–1082.
of vicanite-(Ce), a borosilicate showing an Raade G., Johnsen O., Erambert M., Petersen O.V.
unusual (Si3B3O18)15 polyanion // Amer. Mi Hundholmenite-(Y) from Norway – a new
neral. 2002. Vol. 87. No. 8–9. P. 1139–1143. mineral species in the vicanite group: descrip
Belakowski D.I. Die seltenen Mineralien von tive data and crystal structure // Mineral.
Darai-Pioz im Hochgebirge Tadshikistans // Mag. 2007. Vol. 71. P. 179–192.
Lapis. 1991. Jg. 16. No. 12. P. 42–48. Semenov E.I., Dusmatov V.D., Samsonova N.S.
Boggs R. Okanoganite, a new rare-earth boro- Yttrium-beryllium minerals of datolite group
fluorosilicate from the Golden Horn batholith, // Kristallographia (Crystallography). 1963.
Okanogan County, Washington // Amer. Mi Т. 7. No. 4. С. 677–679 (in Russian).
neral. 1980. Vol. 65. No. 11–12. P. 1138–1142. Uvarova Y.A., Sokolova E.V., Hawthorne F.С.,
Boiocchi M., Callegari A., Ottolini L., Maras A. Agakhanov A.A., Karpenko V.Y., Pautov L.A.
The chemistry and crystal structure of okan- The crystal structure of laptevite-(Ce),
oganite-(Y) and comparison with vicanite- NaFe2+(REE7Ca5Y3)(SiO4)4(Si3B2PO18)(BO3)
(Ce) // Amer. Mineral. 2004. Vol. 89. No. 10. F11, a new mineral species from the Darai-
P. 1540–1545. Pioz alkaline massif, Northern Tajikistan
Dusmatov V.D. On mineralogy of one alkaline // Zeitschrift für Kristallographie. 2013.
massif // Alcaline rocks of Kirgizia and Ka B. 228 (10).
BARATOVITE-KATAYAMALITE MINERALS
FROM THE HODZHA-ACHKAN ALCALINE MASSIF (KIRGIZIA)
Leonid A. Pautov, Vladimir Yu. Karpenko, Atali A. Agakhanov
Fersman Mineralogical Museum, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia, pla58@mail.ru
The baratovite KLi3Ca7Ti2[Si6O18]2F2 – katayamalite KLi3Ca7Ti2[Si6O18]2(ОH)2 mineral series is found in

pyroxene-feldspar fenites at the northern contact of the Hodzha-Achkan alkaline massif in Taldy-Bulak valley
(a northern slope of the Alaysky ridge, Batkensky Region, Kyrgyzstan). The baratovite-containing rocks have a
spotty, striate texture, consertal structure, and a changeable color index that is caused by uneven distribution
of the main and minor minerals: hedenbergite – aegirine pyroxenes, microcline, albite, wollastonite, miserite
(REE2O3 to 5.5 wt.%), calcite (SrO to 1.1 wt.%), quartz. Accessory minerals are: titanite, fluorite, andradite,
zircon, turkestanite, ekanite, thorite, tadzhikite-(Ce), britholite group minerals, stillwellite-(Ce), datolite,
bazzirite, gittinsite, fluorapatite, barite, galena, molybdenite, pyrite, and pyrrhotite. Baratovite-katayamalite
forms lamellar individes to 3 cm with a pinkish color. In short-wave UV-radiation the color is bluish-white.
VHN microhardness = 670 (5–6 on the Mohs scale). Dmeas. = 2.92(2), Dcalc. = 2.91 g/cm3. Biaxial, optically
positive, 2V from 70º to 90º, dispersion strong, r > v; ng = 1.674(2), nm = 1.671(3), np = 1.666(3). IR spectrum
(intensive bands, cm-1): 1082, 972, 695, 598, 570, 541, 521, 478, 448, 412. The X-ray powder data obtained
by photomethod (Guinier camera), and diffractometry are given. Parameters of a cell (photomethod):
a = 16.93(1), b = 9.742(5), c = 20.92(2)Å, β = 112.51(5)○, V = 3187(5)A3. Chemical composition of baratovite/
katayamalite (wt.%): SiO2 51.29/51.01; Al2O3 0.20/0.06; TiO2 8.87/7.97; ZrO2 2.22/3.71; Nb2O5 0.00/0.23; SnO2
1.01/1.87; Fe2O3 0.60/0.44; CaO 26.72/26.72; Li2O* 3.20/3.17; K2O 3.17/3.07; Na2O 0.15/0.23; F 1.75/0.94;
H2O* 046/0.84; -O=F2 –0.73/–0.39; total 98.91/98.87 (* – calculated). Most analyses belong to the
middle of series between baratovite and katayamalite (F 0.70–1.30 apfu, electron microprobe analysis). The
described rocks are close to quartz-albite-aegirine with baratovite-miserite from the Darai-Pioz (Tajikistan),
where there is a similar list of accessory minerals (tadzhikite-(Ce), turkestanite, stillwellite-(Ce), bazirite), but
there are also some differences: at Hodzha-Achkan, andradite, ekanite, minerals of britholite group are found;
pyroxenes are slightly less alkaline, and there are albite pertites in large microcline grains. This occurrence
of baratovite is the second in the world¸ and katayamalite the third.
8 tables, 11 figures, 76 references.
Keywords: baratovite, katayamalite, Hodzha-Achkan, Darai-Pioz, Matchaisky intrusive complex.
Introduction feldspar rocks, in pyroxene-quartz-feldspar

rocks with polylithionite (the largest forms
During field work on the Hodzha-Achkan of baratovite, up to 7 cm in size, are found
massif (Kyrgyzstan) in 1993, we found samples there), and in silexytes with leucosphenite,
containing the baratovite-katayamalite mi sogdianite, pectolite, polylithionite and reed
neral series. In 2011, additional material was mergnerite. Katayamalite was described by
collected on the same massif, which allowed Nobihude Murakami and coauthors as a new
us to characterize in more detail the minerals mineral from Ivagi island, Ekhime Pref., in
of this series, as well as rocks bearing this the southwest of Japan, in aegirine syenite, in
mineralization. which it consists of 0.3–0.5 vol.% of the rock.
Baratovite KLi 3Ca 7Ti 2[Si 6O 18] 2F 2 and its It forms fine tabular grains of white color to
hydroxyl analogue – katayamalite KLi3Ca7Ti2 0.5 mm in association with albite, pectolite,
[Si6O18]2(ОH)2 – are very rare layered titano wollastonite and sugilite (Murakami et al.,
silicates with six-membered isolated rings of 1983). Comparison of associations of the ba
SiO-tetrahedrons, known earlier only from ratovite group minerals from the Darai-Pioz,
the type localities. Baratovite was firstly dis Ivagi and Hodzha-Achkan are shown in table 1.
covered by V.D. Dusmatov and colleagues
on the Darai-Pioz (Tajikistan) alkaline massif
in the form of nacreous-white lamellar forms Methods of investigation
to 5 × 2 × 0.5 cm in quartz-albite-aegirine The mineralogical composition of the
pegm atite streaks connected with quartz- baratovite-containing rocks was studied in
containing aegirine syenites, and in albitites polished and transparent-polished sections and
of these syenites (Dusmatov et al., 1975). Later in crushed samples. Indices of refraction were
the mineral was found in the same massif in measured by theodolitic-immersion method
other associations: in agrellite-wollastonite- with V.G. Feklichev’s PPM-1 stage. Both De
Baratovite-katayamalite minerals from the Hodzha-Achkan alcaline massif (Kirgizia) 13
Kazakhstan Fig. 1. The geographic location (a) and the geological map (b) of the Turkestano-
Kyrgyzstan Alay alkaline massifs (drawn using the Geological map of Tajik SSR and adjacent
territories (1984), the Geological map of Kirgiz SSR (1980), and field materials of
Tashkent
A.V. Berezansky and V.M. Nenakhov. The rectangle in figure (a) shows the area
Uzbekistan
of the geological map. Digits in circles are the designated massifs, as follows:
Fergana
Osh
1 – Dzhilisu;
2 – Hodzha-Achkan;
3 – Kulpsky;
4 – Utrensky;
China
5 – Matchinsky;
Tajikistan 6 – Upper Darai-Pioz (Darai-Pioz itself);
Dushanbe
7 – Middle Dara-Pioz;
8 – Tutek.
The names of intrusive complexes are shown in the map legend according to
V.M. Nenakhov et al. (1987).
Afghanistan 100 km
Zardaly
Symbols in the geological map:

Sediment formations: Intrusive formations:
Lower – Upper Cretaceous. Speckled sandstones, ^ Matchaisky complex. Phase 2. Alkaline and
K1-2 ^ P1-2 m2
conglomerates, clays, marls, limestones, gypsums nepheline syenites, syenites, their dikes
Lower – Middle Jurassic. Speckled sandstones, + Matchaisky complex. Phase 2. Alkaline and
J1-2 + P1-2 m1
conglomerates, coals, clays nepheline syenites, syenites, their dikes
Lower Permian, kumbel series. Red sandstones, + Karakyzsky complex. Granodiorites,
P1km × P1k
conglomerates, rarely – schists quartz diorites
Lower – Upper Carbon. conglomerates Sandstones,
C1-3 +
+ P1ak Achikalminsky complex. Granites
gravelites, aluerolites, soapstones
Lower Carbon. Tournai – Vise. Conglomerates, Karavshinsky complex. Leucogranites , adamellites
+ С3-P1k
+
C1t-v
sandstones, limestones, schists and their pegmatites
Lower Devonian – Lower Carbon (Tournai). × Archabashinsky complex. Granodiorites,
D1-C1t + С3-P1a
Limestones, dolomites. quartz monzonites
Lower – Middle Devonian, agbalyiskaya series. Tuffs,
D1-2ag
aluerolites, sandstones, limestones
Upper Silurian – Devonian. Schists, sandstones,
S2-D Glaciers
limestones, flintstones, porphyrites, tuffs
Lower—Silurian, zeravshan series. Sandstones, coal-
S1-2 zr
silicious schists, chlorite schists
▲ Mountains
Baratovite mineral group locations:

V? Vendian(?) Greenschists metamorphites 1. 2.
1 – Darai-Pioz; 2 – Hodzha-Achkan
bye-Scherrer and Guinier photomethods (with 20 sec at background; counting time for FKα,
RKD-57.3, DKS-60 and Huber 621 cameras), BKα is 200 sec at the peaks and 100 sec at
and diffractometry (DRON-2) were used for background. Standards used are as follows:
X-ray powder data. SiKα, CaKα – NMNH 164905 Cr-augite; TiKα,
The chemical composition of baratovite MnKα – MnTiO3; ZrLα – USNM 117288-3
and of minerals from the baratovite-containing zircon; SnLα – SnO2; FeKα – Fe2O3; ZnKα –
rocks was studied both by electron probe ZnO; MgKα – USNM 143968 pyrope; SrLα –
analysis (using wave-dispersive [WDS] and SrSO4; CsLα – Cs2Nb4O11; RbLα – Rb2Nb4O11;
energy-dispersive [EDS] spectrometers) and by KKα, AlKα – STD 107 microcline; NaKα –
wet chemistry. EDS analyses were performed jadeite; FKα – fluor-phlogopite; BKα –
with the CamScan-4D scanning electron danburite and stillwellite-(Ce). Calculation
micr oscope, equipped with an EDS (Si-Li) of concentrations was carried out by means of
detector (U = 20 kV, I = 4 nA for metallic Co; ZAF correction, for F and B – with full PAP
ISIS Oxford analysis system) and with a JCXA- correction.
733 Superprobe JEOL electron microanalyzer, Li and Rb were measured by a flame
equipped with an EDS (Si-Li) detector with a photometry method (FMD-4 spectrometer of
thin ATW-2 window (U = 20 kV, I = 2 nA; Opton) and optical-emission spectrometry with
INCA Energy Oxford analysis system). WDS the inductive coupled plasma method (ICP-
analyses were performed with a JCXA-733 OES MPX of Varian). For flame-photometric
JEOL Superprobe electron microanalyzer with determination of rare alkalis an acid digestion
five spectrometers and a Camebax-microbeam (HF+H2SO4) of mineral weights, solubilized at
with four spectrometers. Measurement con a nitric acid solution has performed. Cs with
ditions on the Camebax-microbeam are as 1000 ppm of final concentration in solutions
follows: an accelerating voltage of 15 kV; pro was used as the ionization buffer.
be current of 20 nA; counting time for main F was determined by potentiometer met
elements is 10 sec at peak, 5 sec at background; hod with an ion-selective electrode. For ope
counting time for RbLα, SrLα, FKα is 40 sec ning of weights of samples fusion with NaOH
at peak, 20 sec at background. Calculation in nickel crucibles was used. Water amount
of concentrations was carried out by means was determined from micro-weights by the
of the of PAP correction program from the method of elemental analysis with chroma
device software. The analysis on WDS of tographic completion (Carlo-Erba 1106 CHN
JCXA-733 Superprobe JEOL was carried out analyzer, carrier gas – helium for chroma
at an accelerating voltage of 15 kV and 20 kV tography, reactor temperature – 1030°С, a
and probe current of 20 nA. The analysis on filler of a chromatographic column is Porapak
fluorine (TAP crystal) and boron (STE crystal) QS). In order to study accessory minerals from
were carried out at an accelerating voltage of crushed samples of rock, the fraction – 100 µm
10 kV and probe current of a 30 nA with the was separated in formyl tribromide (D =
beam defocused to 20 microns. The counting 2.89 g/cm3), and then exposed to magnetic
time of main elements is 20 sec at the peaks separation. Both EDS qualitative analysis
and 10 sec at background; counting time for method and powder X-ray methods were used
RbLα, SrLα, SnLα, HfMα is 50 sec at peak and for mineral diagnostics.
Fig. 2. Hodzha-Achkansky massif: a – a general view of the massif from the lower reaches of the Gaumysh river; in the foreground the
south-east part of the Dzhilisu massif is visible; b – Taldy-Bulak valley, cutting a contact of syenites with slates in the northern part of
the Hodzha-Achkan; the baratovite group minerals are found in its debris cones. Photo: L.A. Pautov.
Mode of occurence distributed throughout the area (up to 75%).

Biotite varieties which contact with country
The Hodzha-Achkan massif is at the rocks are prevalent and pass into aegirine-
near-watershed part of the northern slope augite nepheline syenites.
of the Alaisky ridge at elevations from 2900 Rocks of the third intrusive phase are
to 5100 m (Batken oblast, Kyrgyzstan). The composed of leucocratic biotite granites and
massif is exposed on the left bank of the make up the small dykes in the host rocks
Hodzha-Achkan River at the headwaters and syenites of the central part of the massif
(Fig. 1, 2) between its two left branches (Loisu (The stratified..., 1982; Nenakhov et al., 1987).
and Tilbe). It is possible to reach the bottom of According to V.M. Nenakhov and coauthors
the massif by foot from Aidarken (Khaidarkan) (1987), the Hodzha-Achkan massif belongs to
settlement through the Gaumysh pass and the matchaisky Permian intrusive complex,
further down the valley of the Gaumysh river to which includes also the Darai-Pioz massif,the
its confluence with the Hodzha-Achkan river, type location of baratovite (Dusmatov et al.,
or from Zardaly (Korgon) kishlak (village), 1975), as well as the Dzhilisuisky, Kulpsky,
located on confluence of the Ak-Terek and Matchasuisky, Gerezsuisky, Utrensky, and
Hodzha-Achkan Rivers. Because of the rugged Tuteksky alkaline massifs (see the map in fig.1).
terrain, the massif is difficult to access (Fig. 2). All the massifs mentioned are characterized
The first data on the massif were published by a three-phase structure, with the following
by V.N. Weber based on the results of field sequence of rocks: leucocratic granites
work in 1910 (Weber, 1934). A detailed des (frequently tourmalinized), syenites and quartz
cription of the Hodzha-Achkan massif was syenites (nepheline and alkaline syenites), and,
written by A.V. Moskvin and A.A. Saukov last, quartz-bearing syenites and granites. The
based on studies from 1928 as a part of the increased amounts of Li, Ta, Nb, Zr, Be, Sn, Mo,
Pamir expedition of the Academy of Sciences Th and U in comparison with clarks (Dusmatov,
of the USSR (Moskvin, Saukov, 1931; Moskvin, 1971; Nenakhov et al., 1987) is a characteristic
1932). Subsequently, numerous researchers feature of the matchaisky intrusive complex
have been engaged in studying the massif massifs. The origin of massifs was followed
(Dorfman, Timofeev, 1939; Omelyanenko, by development of altered rock haloes with
1960; Perchuk, Omelyanenko, Shinkarev, 1961; infiltration-metasomatic zonality; this was
Perchuk, 1964; Shinkarev, 1966; Ilyinsky, 1970; studied at the Hodzha-Achkan and Dzhilisu
Ifantopulo, 1975; et al.), as well as crews from massifs by L.L. Perchuk, B.I. Omelyanenko and
the Southern-Kyrgyz Geological Prospecting other researchers (Omelyanenko, 1958; 1960;
Expedition. 1961; Perchuk et al., 1961; Perchuk, 1964).
The Hodzha-Achkan massif is located Processes of K-Na metasomatism led to the
in the area of a joining of the Zeravshansky origin of fenitized rocks, with various mineral
anticlinorium with the Surmetash folded compositions and textural – structural features
zone which are separated by the Turkestan (pyroxenes – feldspar, albite – microcline,
regional break of deep underlay (Ilyinsky, wollastonite – feldspar).
1970; Nenakhov et al., 1987). In the plan the
massif is close to isomeric, with abruptly falling Description
contacts. In the north the massif breaks through of the baratovite-bearing rocks
limestone-slate thickness of upper Carbonian,
in the east, poorly metamorphized upper Baratovite-bearing rocks were found in
Carbonian – lower Permian conglomerates the debris cone of the Taldy-Bulak valley,
with lenses of sandstones and limestones; cutting the northern contact of syenites
in the west, Silurian sand-slate thickness, with slates (Fig. 2). The external appearance
metamorphized in amphibolite facies; in the and mineral composition of these rocks
south the massif is limited to tectonic contact at Hodzha-Achkan is quite close to those
with Silurian amphibolites (Ilyinsky, 1970). baratovite- and miserite-containing quartz-
The Hodzha-Achkan massif is formed albite-aegirine rocks, most widespread on
by rocks of three phases of implementation. the Darai-Pioz, in which baratovite was dis
Rocks of the first phase are widespread covered (Fig. 3) and described later in detail
mainly in the southwest part of the massif. (Dusmatov et al., 1975; Reguir et al., 1999),
They are composed of leucocratic granites and to baratovite-containing agrellite-
(often tourmalinized) and quartz syenites. wollastonite-pectolite-microcline rocks from
Alkaline syenites and nepheline syenites of the the same massif (Semenov, Dusmatov, 1989).
second intrusive phase are predominant and As shown below, despite the similarities, there
Fig. 3. Baratovite-katayama
lite containing rocks: a–d –
Hodzha-Achkan (Kyrgyzstan);
e–h – Darai-Pioz (Tajikistan)
(e, f – baratovite from miserite-
pyroxene-feldspar rocks;
g, h – baratovite in a silexyte
with leucosphenite (green),
pectolite agregate (brown).
A sample from FMM’s funds
No. 80873); i – Ivagi (Japan);
sample provided by Kotaro
Watanabe. On the left – a
photo under normal light
(pinkish with pearly luster –
baratovite, red – miserite);
on the right – a photo under
short-UV (bluish-white lumi
nescence indicates baratovite
group minerals); field of view
– 11 cm.
Table 1. The list of the minerals associated with baratovite and katayamalite
Darai-Pioz, Tajikistan
Hodzha-Achkan,
Mineral associations
Ivagi, Japan
Carbonatite
Kyrgyzstan
Sogdianite
List of minerals Formula
Agrellite
- polylit-
mizerite
Silexite
Albite -
hionite
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Zircon ZrSiO4 + +
Thorite ThSiO4 +
Titanite CaTiSiO5 + + + + + + +
Andradite Ca3Fe2(SiO4)3 + +
Epidote Ca2Al2Fe+3(SiO4)3 (OH) +
Allanite-(Ce) Ce2Al3(SiO4)3(OH) +
Aegirine-hedenbergite NaFe3+Si2O6 - CaFeSi2O6 +++ +++ ++ +++ ++ ++ ++
Agrellite NaCa2Si4O10F +++
Wollastonite CaSiO3 +++* + +++
Miserite (K,□)1.5(Ca, REE)6[Si8O22](F,OH)2 ++* ++ ++ ++
•nH2O
Pectolite NaCa2Si3O8(OH) +? ++ ++ ++ ++
Turkestanite Th(Ca,Na)2(K1-,□X) Si8O20•nH2O + + + + +
Ekanite ThCa2Si8O20 +
Datolite CaBSiO4(OH) + + +
Fluorcalciobritholite (Ca, REE)5(SiO4,PO4)3F +
Fluorbritholite-(Ce) (Ce,Ca)5(SiO4,PO4)3F +
Tadzhikite Ca3(REE,Y)2TiB4Si4O16O22(OH)2 + + + +
Eudialyte (group) + ++
Stillwellite-(Ce) CeBSiO5 + + + ++ +
Baratovite KCa7Ti2Li3Si12O36 (F,ОН)2 + + + + + +
Katayamalite KCa7LiTi2(Si6O18)2(OH,F)2 + +? +? +? + +
Aleksandrovite KCa7Sn2Li3Si12O36F2 +
Faizievite K2Na(Ca6Na)Ti4Li6Si24O66F2 +
Bazirite BaZrSi3O9 + + +
Gittinsite CaZrSi2O7 +
Zektzerite NaLiZrSi6O15 + +
Sugilite K Li3Na2Fe3+2Si12O30 + + ++
Sogdianite KLi3Zr2Si12O30 ++ ++ +
Zeravshanite Cs4Na2Zr3(Si18O45)•(H2O)2 +
Leucosphenite BaNa4Ti2B2Si30 ++ ++
Annite KFe3AlSi3O10(ОH)2 +
Polylithionite KLi2AlSi4O10F2 ++ ++
Sokolovaite CsLi2AlSi4O10F2 +
Orlovite KLi2TiSi4O10(ОF) +
Neptunite KNa2Li(Fe,Mn)2Ti2Si8O24 +
Pekovite SrB2Si2O8 +
Fluorapophyllite KCa4Si8O20(F,OH)•8H2O +
Kapitsaite-(Y) (Ba,K)4(Y,Ca)2[Si8(B,Si)4O28]F +
Microcline KAlSi3O8 +++ +++ +++ +++ ++ ++ ++
Albite NaAlSi3O8 +++ ++ ++ ++ + + +++
Reedmergnerite NaBSi3O8 ++ ++
Quartz SiO2 ++ + + +++ +++ + ++
Pyrochlore (Са,Na)2Nb2O6(OH) + + + +
Calcite CaCO3 ++* + + ++ + +++
Fluorapatite Ca5(PO4)3F + + + + + +
Barite BaSO4 +
Fluorite CaF2 + + + ++ + +
Galenite PbS + +
Molybdenite MoS2 +
Pyrite FeS2 +
Pyrrhotite Fe1-xS +
Bismuth Bi +
Sphalerite ZnS +
Löllingite FeAs2 +
Note: +++ – rock forming minerals, ++ – minor, + – accessory; +++* – in different rock types the rock forming mineral can be
the main species, or a minor component; ++* – in different rock types the mineral can be either minor or accessory; ? – additional
diagnostics of the mineral are required.
The chart is based on our data as well as additional references (Ryzhev, Moleva, 1960; Ulyanov, Ilyinsky, 1964; Dusmatov et al., 1975;
Semenov, Dusmatov, 1989; Murakami, 1976; Murakami et al., 1983; Belakowski, 1991; Reguir et al., 1999; Agakhanov et al., 2011).
Fig. 4. Baratovite from the Hodzha-Achkan massif:

a – large lamellar form of baratovite (orange-pink) with miserite (darker, brownish-red) in microcline (light gray) with
clinopyroxene (black), Taldy-Bulak valley, Hodzha-Achkan; field of view – 2.5 cm;
b – feldspar-pyroxene rock (thin section, crossed nicols). Serpiginous borders of clinopyroxene (green) and microcline-perthite
accretion are visible. Grains with indigo-blue interference color are baratovite; field of view – 11 cm.
c – baratovite in feldspar-pyroxene rock (transmitted light, crossed nicols); baratovite is the bluish-grey grain in the center; on
the right – microcline-perthite, dark green – clinopyroxene, with the external rim (the dark zone on the periphery of the grain)
saturated with small isolated areas of garnet and more alkaline (in contrast to the host grain) pyroxene (aegirine); yellowish on
the right – quartz; field of view – 2 mm;
d – the same fragment of a section, turned slightly counterclockwise, BSE mode image; bar – baratovite, pyrx – clinopyroxene;
mic – microcline; alb – albite; qtz – quartz; the white extended form in baratovite – fluorcalciobritholite; light-grey grains on
the left of the baratovite and microcline-perthite boundary – fluorite; light scattering in the rim zones of clinopyroxene grains –
andradite, more dark scattering – aegirine.
are also differences between Hodzha-Achkan leucocratic fine-grained quartz-albite-mic

and Darai-Pioz baratovite-bearing rocks. rocline rock (sometimes with miserite and
Comparison of the mineralogical composition aegirine), of segregations, consisting of mo
of baratovite- and katayamalite-containing re coarse-grained aggregates of the same
rocks of the Hodzha-Achkan, Darai-Pioz and minerals, but often in other ratios (Fig. 3). In
Ivagi are shown in table 1. some varieties of such rocks, miserite is not
The largest and most abundant baratovite an accessory or minor mineral, but the main
aggregates on the Hodzha-Achkan massif are constituent of the rock, giving it a saturated
found in quartz-aegirine-albite-microcline pink color. The leucocratic fine-grained main
rocks, often with miserite and variable amounts skeleton of the rock is composed generally
of calcite, wollastonite, titanite, datolite. The of albite and nonperthitic microcline, ap
color index, texture and structure of such proximately in equal proportions; minor mi
rocks is extremely changeable even within nerals include quartz and calcite. The total
one mass (sample). Spotty texture and, rarely, amount of clinopyroxene and miserite is
striate texture are most typical of these rocks. quite variable samples both enriched and
The textures are caused by the presence in tot ally deprived colored minerals may be
seen. The coarse-grained aggregates form and sizes to 15–20 µm (Table 2, analysis
isomeric, elongated or irregular clusters, 7, 8), and segregations of pyroxene enriched
which are composed of light-gray microcline- with aegirine (Fig. 4, 7) which do not have
perthite tabular grains (albite perthites crystallographic restrictions. Similar zones
occupy 40–50 vol.% of individual K-feldspar in the external rims of pyroxene crystals in
grains) (Fig. 4, 5), dark green grains of alkaline rocks from other regions have been
clinopyroxene (Fig. 4); and variable quantities interpreted in the literature as a product
of calcite, quartz, wollastonite, and miserite. of reactionary substitution of earlier high-
Clinopyroxene forms, as a rule, grains with calcic pyroxene against increased activity of
wavy, rough borders and no evidence of alkalis and fugacity of oxygen (Dawson, Hill,
crystallographic shape (Fig. 4). Pyroxene 1988; Marks et al., 2003). However, this has
compositions (Table 2) are quite close to those never been noted in baratovite-katayamalite
from the Darai-Pioz baratovite-containing bearing rocks of the Darai-Pioz and Ivagi.
fenites and have less aegirine than Ivagi Clinopyroxenes without such rims from fine-
pyroxene, also considerably differing from grained quartz-albite-microcline rock from the
the clinopyroxene composition of the Hodzha- Hodzha-Achkan are more alkaline (average
Achkan syenites (Fig. 6). A characteristic composition Aeg44Hd 36Di 20, fig. 6; table 2,
feature of clinopyroxene (average composi analysis 5). A characteristic mineral of the
tion is Hd 64Aeg 21Di 14) from coarse-grained baratovite-containing rocks both of Hodzha-
aggregations on the contact with perthitic Achkan and Darai-Pioz is miserite (Semenov et
potassium feldspar is a zone, almost non- al., 1973; Dusmatov et al., 1975; Reguir et al.,
transparent in normal thick sections, con 1999); as noted above, its presence is subject
taining numerous small pores, irregular to considerable variation. Miserite at Hodzha-
garnet aggregates of andradite composition Achkan has been described on multiple
(And94Sch3Gros2Spes1) with smooth outlines occasions: in wollastonite-pyroxene-feldspar
Fig. 5. The baratovite grain in microcline

(mic) with albite perthites (alb);
ap – fluorapatite, fl – fluorite.
The image in the BSE mode (upper left
picture) and X-ray distribution maps of
the specified elements.
Table 2. Chemical composition of clinopyroxenes (1–5), wollastonite (6), andradite (7, 8), datolite (9) from the
baratovite – containing rocks, Hodzha-Achkan
Component 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
SiO2 50.32 50.93 52.51 53.14 51.75 51.52 35.76 34.62 36.79
TiO2 0.00 0.15 0.00 0.00 0.11 0.00 0.18 0.00 0.00
Al2O3 0.37 0.26 0.27 0.54 0.35 0.00 2.47 0.95 0.00
Fe2O3 7.85 7.21 18.55 31.81 14.65 0.00 27.53 31.24 0.00
FeO 18.29 18.84 4.03 1.08 9.94 0.74 0.00 0.00 0.36
MnO 0.60 0.60 1.24 0.17 1.38 0.31 0.38 0.11 0.00
MgO 2.45 2.30 4.47 0.00 3.36 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
CaO 18.82 17.64 12.75 0.34 13.25 47.47 33.01 33.38 34.07
Na2O 2.76 3.21 7.16 13.34 5.97 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Total 100.67 100.41 99.12 97.23 99.29 100.04 99.57 99.93 98.06
Calculated on the basis of:
О = 6 apfu О=3 apfu О = 12 apfu
Si+4 1.98 2.01 1.99 2.02 2.00 1.00 3.00 2.93

Al+3 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.00 0.24 0.10
Ti+4 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00
Fe+3 * 0.23 0.21 0.53 0.91 0.43 0.00 1.74 1.99
Fe+2 * 0.60 0.62 0.13 0.03 0.32 0.01 0.00 0.00
Mn+2 0.02 0.02 0.04 0.01 0.05 0.01 0.03 0.01
Mg+2 0.14 0.13 0.25 0.00 0.19 0.00 0.00 0.00
Ca+2 0.79 0.74 0.52 0.01 0.55 0.99 2.96 3.02
Na+ 0.21 0.25 0.53 0.99 0.45 0.00 0.00 0.00
O-2 6.00 6.00 6.00 6.00 6.00 3.00 12.00 12.00
Note: * – Fe+2/Fe+3 calculated.

In the following, if there are no special comments analysis was performed by EPMA EDS.
1 – 4 – clinopyroxene from coarse-grained areas of the rock:
1, 2 – the central part of grains; 3 – aegirine isolates from the external rims; 5 – clinopyroxene from fine-grained sites; 6 – wollastonite
from coarse-grained wollastonite-pyroxene-feldspar rock; 7, 8 – andradite (calculated on O = 12 apfu): 7 – apple-green grains in the
matrix of a rock; analysis sum includes Nb2O5 = 0.24 wt.% (corresponds to Nb = 0.01 apfu); 8 – andradite from garne-aegirine rims
of a coarse-grained clinopyroxene; 9 – datolite (calculated on the basis of total cations = 2 apfu): (Ca0.99Fe0.01)BSiO4(OH), calculated
amounts (wt.%): B2O3 = 21.31, H2O = 5.53.
In the following tables, 0.00 means that the component amount is lower than the limit of detection.
Fig. 6. Chart of clinopyroxene compositions (mol.%) from

the baratovite – containing rocks from Hodzha-Achkan:
 – coarse grains,
 – alkaline pyroxene segregations from the external rim
of those grains,
 – small grains from fine-grained areas of the feldspar rock
(our data);
 – from quartzless syenites (Perchuk, 1964),
 – from quartz syenites (Perchuk, 1964);
Darai-Pioz (miserite – bearing quartz-albite-microcline rocks):

● – our data,
 – (Reguir et al., 1999);
Ivagi (aegirine syenite):

● – our data;
 – Murakami et al., 1983.
Ternary tops correspond to:

Di – diopside, Hd – hedenbergite, Aeg – aegirine.
rocks in the east area (the left bank of the Loisu Table 3. Chemical composition of miserite from
river) (Ryzhev, Moleva, 1960); in the northwest Hodzha-Achkan (1–3) and Darai-Pioz (4, 5)
massifs (wt.%)
part of the massif (the valley of Karagach-
Dzhilga) at the contact of nepheline syenites Compo- Hodzha-Achkan Darai-Pioz
with native slates (Ul’yanov, Ilyinsky, 1964); nent 1 2 3 4 5
and in albite-pyroxene metasomatites from SiO2 50.30 50.26 49.80 49.16 49.93
a talus at the northern contact of the massif TiO2 0.00 0.22 0.12 0.22 0.30
(Enikeeva et al., 1987). Aside from Hodzha- ZrO2 0.00 0.00 0.63 0.38 0.31
Achkan and Darai-Pioz, miserite is known
Nb2O5 0.00 0.00 0.31 0.77 0.54
from other massifs of the matchaisky complex:
Matchinsky, Kulpsky, Dzhilisuisky (Ilyinsky, Al2O3 0.00 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.00
1970; Ifantopulo, 1975). Miserite in other Y2O3 0.00 0.00 0.44 0.59 0.93
regions of the world is also found in alkaline La2O3 1.29 0.33 0.26 1.16 0.32
metasomatites (fenites) with potassium spe Ce2O3 3.06 0.90 0.68 2.25 1.20
cialization, in alkaline intrusions, or in car Pr2O3 0.55 0.23 0.00 0.00 0.00
bonatites. Other occurrences of miserite in Nd2O3 0.59 0.51 0.32 0.45 0.31
clude: the contact of metamorphized slates
MnO 0.00 0.42 0.48 0.15 0.14
and nepheline syenites in Wilson Springs,
FeO 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.20 0.28
Arkansas, USA (Shaller, 1950); aegirine-al
bite-microcline metasomatites at Chergilen, CaO 32.88 35.08 34.13 32.18 33.46
Khabarovsky krai, E. Siberia (Kupriyanova, Na2O 0.00 0.16 0.00 0.00 0.00
Vasilyev, 1961); the contact of dykes of al K2O 5.99 6.43 6.34 5.94 6.19
kaline rocks with limestones at Talassky rid F 2.68 2.48 2.79 2.93 3.15
ge, Kyrgyzstan (Kozlova, 1962); aegirine – –O=F2 –1.12 –1.04 –1.17 –1.23 –1.32
microcline metasomatites in the Yakokutsky Total 97.59 97.32 96.71 96.38 97.06
massif, Yakutia (Kravchenko, Bykova, 1967);
Kipawa carbonatites with wollastonite, ortho Calculated on the basis of
Si + Al = 8 apfu
clase, aegirine, agrellite, Canada (Berry et al.,
1971; Scott, 1976); and fenites of the Murunsky K+ 1.22 1.31 1.30 1.23 1.27
complex, Yakutia (Lazebnik, Lazebnik, 1981; Na+ 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.00
Konev et al., 1996). Miserite at Hodzha-Ach Σ 1.22 1.36 1.30 1.23 1.27
kan forms both separate acicular crystals and Ca+2 5.60 5.98 5.87 5.61 5.74
radial or fanlike aggregates up to 3 cm in size Mn+2 0.00 0.06 0.07 0.02 0.02
in rock. The color of miserite ranges from
Fe+2 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.03 0.04
pink to saturated henna-red, and is related to
the degree of manganese enrichment (MnO Y+3 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.05 0.08
to 1.3 wt.%) (Fig. 3a, c). Miserite is the most La+3 0.08 0.02 0.02 0.07 0.02
important concentrator of REE in baratovite Ce+3 0.18 0.05 0.04 0.13 0.07
– bearing rocks at Hodzha-Achkan. Unlike Pr+3 0.03 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00
miserite at Darai-Pioz, which is characterized
by an increased dominance of yttrium REE, Nd+3 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.02
Hodzha-Achkan miserite is poor in yttrium and Nb+5 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.06 0.04
highly enriched in light lanthanides (Table 3). Ti+4 0.00 0.03 0.01 0.03 0.04
All microprobe analyses of miserite, as a rule,
Zr+4 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.02
has a low totals, connected with the presence
in the mineral of variable amounts of molecular Σ 5.95 6.22 6.14 6.06 6.09
water (Scott, 1976; Rozhdestvenskaya, Evdo Si+4 8.00 8.00 7.99 8.00 8.00
kimov, 2006). Very difficult mechanisms of Al+3 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00
isomorphous substitutions occur in miserite,
ΣT 8.00 8.00 8.00 8.00 8.00
and the idealized formula KCa 5⁪(Si 2O 7)
(Si6O15)(OH)F, proposed by J. Scott (Scott, F– 1.35 1.25 1.42 1.51 1.60
1976), and sometimes seen elsewhere in the O–2 22 22 22 22 22
mineralogical literature, is not electroneutral, (OH)– * 0.17 0.72 0.41 0.42 0.28
and carries a (-3) charge.
Other minerals which in some rock varieties Note: * – values calculated based on compensation of charge.
become rock-forming are wollastonite, calcite, Analysis sum includes:
1 – ThO2 0.69 wt.% (corresponds to Th = 0.02 apfu);
and quartz. Wollastonite consists of less than 3 – MgO 0.11 wt.% (corresponds to Mg = 0.03 apfu).
1 vol.% in one type of rock, while in the others
Fig. 7. Accessory minerals from baratovite-containing rocks of Hodzha-Achkan:

a – andradite – aegirine rim on the fringe of a coarse clinopyroxene grain (pyrx): bar – baratovite; light isolations – andradite;
areas, enriched with aegirine component – darker in comparison with the less alkaline host pyroxene grains; black spots are cavities
in the rock;
b – a zoned titanite crystal with baratovite (bar); pyrx – pyroxene grain near the aegirine – garnet rash; and – andradite; cal –
calcite; dat – datolite;
c – ekanite: a deformed thin prismatic crystals in baratovite;
d – a mineral of hellandite group with Fe>> Ti: a thin – lamellar aggregate in baratovite;
e – stillwellite-(Ce): grains with microcline (mic), albite (alb), fluorite (fl);
f – gittinsite (git): isolated in miserite (mis); qtz – quartz; white grains – Сa-Ce-silicate.
it is a rock-forming mineral. It forms white to The other widespread accessory minerals

light gray board-like crystals up to 4 cm long. in the rocks described are fluorbritholite-(Ce)
Its composition is close to stoichiometrical and the recently described fluorcalciobritholite
(Table 2, an. 6). Calcite in described rocks (Pekov et al., 2007) (Fig. 4d, table 4, an. 2).
from Hodzha-Achkan, as well as in baratovite- Their forms (to 300 microns) are often met in
containing quartz-albite-aegirine rocks from baratovite, miserite. Minerals of the britholite
the Darai-Pioz (Reguir et al., 1999), is enriched group are very rare at Darai-Pioz and were
in strontium (SrO to 1.1 wt.%), similar to cal not seen in the baratovite rocks. Garnets
cite in intrusive carbonatites. The accessory (mainly of andradite composition) are another
minerals (table 1) of the described rocks are characteristic accessory mineral group in the
similar to those in baratovite-containing Hodzha-Achkan rocks which were not found
quartz-albite-aegirine rocks from Darai-Pioz in baratovite-bearing rocks at Darai-Pioz. Ex
(Dusmatov et al., 1975; Reguir et al., 1999), al cept for isolated andradite in clinopyroxene
though there are some differences. One of the external rims, as noted above, garnet forms
most widespread accessory minerals not only isomeric apple-green grains (0.1–4 mm) in
at Hodzha-Achkan, but also in other alkaline leucocratic varieties of rock (Table 2, an. 7).
massifs of a matchaisky complex, including the Sulfides often associated with garnet include
Darai-Pioz massif, is titanite (Omelyanenko, molybdenite, galena, and pyrite.
Sirotinina, 1959; Ilyinsky, 1970; Ifantopulo, Other accessory minerals at Hodzha-
1975; Reguir et al., 1999). The mineral forms Achkan are ekanite (frequently seen) and tur
wedge-shaped crystals to 5 mm in yellow- kestanite (more rare), the structures of which
brown “flowers”; some segments demonstrate are similar (Fig. 7c, table 4, an. 4, 5). They
zonality and sectoriality and some of the zones form thin-prismatic (up to 0.2 mm long), often
are enriched in Sn, Nb, or REE (Fig. 7b, table deformed, bent crystals and are intergrown with
4, analysis 7). miserite and baratovite. Turkestanite, unlike
Table 4. Chemical composition (wt.%) of the accessory minerals from baratovite – containing rocks of Hodzha-
Achkan: stillwellite-(Ce) (1), fluorcalciobritholite (2), fluorapatite (3), turkestanite (4), ekanite (5),
tadzhikite-(Ce) (6), titanite (7), gittinsite (8), bazirite (9)
Component 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
SiO2 21.63 19.06 0.75 54.63 53.85 24.86 29.94 39.49 37.45
TiO2 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 3.86 33.24 0.39 0.35
ZrO2 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 25.64
SnO2 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.45 0.00 0.31
ThO2 2.44 5.25 0.00 0.00 20.16 5.07 0.00 0.00 0.00
UO2 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 10.08 0.99 0.00 0.00 0.00
P2O5 0.00 5.23 39.88 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Nb2O5 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.68 2.07 0.00
B2O3 13.11* n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. 14.31** n.d. n.d. n.d.
Al2O3 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.22 0.12 0.44 1.48 0.00 0.00
Fe2O3 0.09 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.60 4.52 0.00 0.00
Y2O3 0.20 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.45 0.00 0.00 0.00
La2O3 23.35 14.62 0.69 0.00 0.00 6.25 0.65 0.00 0.00
Ce2O3 27.22 22.14 0.77 0.68 0.00 11.75 0.77 0.00 0.00
Pr2O3 1.16 1.84 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.85 0.00 0.00 0.00
Nd2O3 4.63 6.12 0.00 0.00 0.00 3.44 0.61 0.00 0.00
Sm2O3 0.19 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.16 0.00 0.00 0.00
Gd2O3 0.44 0.81 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.11 0.00 0.00 0.00
Tb2O3 0.50 0.71 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
SrO 0.38 0.48 0.90 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
CaO 1.66 19.29 53.41 9.18 12.48 20.78 27.51 18.71 0.23
MnO 0.10 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.49 0.00
BaO 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 33.22
PbO 0.19 0.00 0.00 0.59 0.74 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.00
K2O 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.73 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Na2O 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.81 0.09 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
F 0.00 2.22 4.18 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.24 0.00 0.00
–O=F2 0.00 0.00 –1.75 0.00 0.00 0.00 –0.58 0.00 0.00
Total 98.67 99.58 100.58 99.00 95.45 96.16 101.74 99.99 97.20
Note: "n.d." means that the component was not detected. 1 – stillwellite-(Ce) (Ce0.44La0.38Ca0.08Mg0.07Nd0.07Th0.02Pr0.02 Gd0.01
Tb0.01Sr0.01)3.11B0.99Si0.95O5, formula calculated on the basis of O = 5 apfu, analysis sum includes (wt.%): MgO 1.12, Tm2O3
0.24; * – B2O3 is measured using WDS with STE crystal, U = 10 кV, I = 70 nA; 2 – fluorcalciobritholite (Ca2.64Sr0.04Ce1.04
La0.69Nd0.28Pr0.09Gd0.03Tb0.03Dy0.02Th0.15U0.05)5.02 (SiO4)2.43(PO4)0.57(F0.89OH0.38), formula calculated on the basis of Si + P = 3 apfu,
analysis sum includes (wt.%): Dy2O3 0.24; H2O 0.45 (calculated); 3 – fluorapatite-(CaF) (Ca4.97Sr0.05Cе0.02La0.02)5.06(PO4)2.93
(SiO4)0.07F1.15, formula calculated on the basis of Si + P = 3 apfu; 4 – turkestanite (Th0.92U0.04Ce0.04)1.00(Ca1.43Na0.51)1.94(K0.51
Pb0.02)0.53(Si7.96Al0.04)8.00O19.93, formula calculated on the basis of Si+Al = 8 apfu; 5 – ekanite (Th0.68U0.33)1.01(Ca1.98Pb0.03Na0.03)2.04
(Si7.96Al0.02)O20, formula calculated on the basis of O = 20 apfu; 6 – tadzhikite-(Ce) Ca2(Ca1.58Y0.04K0.04)1.66(Ti0.47Fe0.32Al0.08)0.87(Ce0.69Pr0.05
La0.37Nd0.20Sm0.01Gd0.01 Th0.19U0.03)1.55B4Si4O21.31, average of 3 analyses, formula calculated on the basis of Si = 4 apfu; ** B2O3 –
calculated; 7 – titanite (Ca0.96Na0.01)0.97(Ti0.82Fe0.11Al0.06Nb0.02Sn0.01La0.01Сe0.01Nd0.01)1.05Si0.98O4.87F0.13, formula calculated on the basis
of cations sum = 3 apfu; 8 – gittinsite (Ca1.00Mn0.02)1.02(Zr0.95 Nb0.05Ti0.01)1.01Si1.97O7.00, formula calculated on the basis of О = 7 apfu;
9 – bazirite (Ba1.03 Ca0.02)1.05(Zr0.99Sn0.01Ti0.02)1.01Si2.96O, formula calculated on the basis of О = 9 apfu.
ekanite, is widespread at Darai-Pioz, where it is 1993), it also occurs pseudomorphing mi

seen in many associations. In the Dzhilisuisky nerals of the eudialyte group. Bazirite is a
massif, neighboring Hodzha-Achkan, it is the very rare mineral in baratovite-containing
main thorium concentrator (Ginzburg et al., rocks of Hodzha-Achkan. It is found as single
1965; Pautov et al., 1997; Reguir et al., 1999). grains with hexagonal outlines to 50 µm (Tab
Among additional accessory minerals of the le 4, an. 9). At Darai-Pioz, bazirite is seen
Hodzha-Achkan baratovite-bearing rocks are with baratovite in association with titanite,
rare borosilicates of the hellandite group, filling in cracks in baratovite and aegirine
including tadzhikite-(Ce) (Table 4, an. 6) and (Reguir et al., 1999), in pegmatites as a part
a poorly studied mineral, whose composition of polymineral pseudomorphosis of eudialyte
and X-ray powder data are close to those of (Pautov, Khvorov, 1998), and in carbonatites
tadzhikite, but with Fe>> Ti (Fig. 7d). These with baratovite and aleksandrovite (Pautov
minerals are found as single grains, and as et al., 2010). Zircon is not a characteristic
groups of flattened prismatic crystals up accessory mineral in baratovite-containing
to 500 µm long as well as spherolites; their rocks of Hodzha-Achkan and Darai-Pioz; it
color is different shades of brown. It should is found in rare single grains. Molybdenite is
be noted that at Darai-Pioz (which is the type the most typical sulfide mineral in the rocks
locality for tadzhikite) (Efimov et al., 1970), of Hodzha-Achkan, with lamellar grains to
the mineral is a widespread accessory mineral, 1.5 mm in diameter.
including an association with baratovite
(Reguir et al., 1999). Darai-Pioz’s tadzhikite Baratovite description.
is not selective in REE, and two species of the Physical properties
tadzhikite subgroup – tadzhikite-(Y), and
tadzhikite-(Ce) – are found there. Problems Minerals of the baratovite-katayamalite
with crystal chemistry, rare earth distribution series forms grains flattened on (001), thin
in the crystal structure of these minerals, and lamellar grains, as a rule, without signs of
their nomenclature are discussed in a number crystallographic faces, sometimes forming fan-
of works (Chernitsova et al., 1982; Hawthorne like aggregates, and more often random. The
et al., 1998; Reguir et al., 1999; Oberti et al., size of individual grains ranges from 0.02 mm
1999; 2002). Unlike Darai-Pioz, at Hodzha- to 2–3 cm, and the thickness of plates from
Achkan only cerium-dominant members of 0.01 mm up to 1.0–1.5 mm (Fig. 4). The largest
hellandite group are found. One additional forms of baratovite are found in aegirine-
accessory rare-earth borosilicate found in feldspar rocks with miserite; baratovite in
pyroxene-feldspar fenites with baratovite at wollastonite rocks usually forms fine single
Hodzha-Achkan is stillwellite-(Ce), which grains (1–2 mm). Thin lamellar grains are
is found in the form of separate irregular transparent and colorless, while in larger
grains (Fig. 7e; table 4, an. 1) up to 150 µm in grains pink coloring is observed. The luster is
size. Stillwellite-(Ce) is a very characteristic generally vitreous, although pearly on perfect
mineral of some Darai-Pioz rocks (Dusmatov et cleavage planes. The mineral is very brittle,
al., 1963; Dusmatov 1964; 1971). On occasion with perfect cleavage on (001). Two directions
it forms sharp crystals to several centimeters of cleavage are found, crossing the basal
in diameter (Belakowski, 1991). In baratovite- plane. In transparent sections in transmitted
containing quartz-albite-aegirine rocks at light baratovite is colorless, although cuts
Darai-Pioz, stillwellite-(Ce) is described parallel to (001) have dark gray interference
as crystals less than 50 µm in size, filling colors, and in slanted cuts abnormal indigo-
cracks and blebs in earlier formed minerals blue interference colors are observed. The
(Reguir et al., 1999). Zirconium minerals in mineral is biaxial, optically positive, with 2V
the baratovite rocks from the Hodzha-Achkan changeable from 70º to 90º, dispersion strong,
massif include gittinsite, bazirite, and zircon. r > v. The indices of refraction measured on the
Gittinsite is one of the late minerals; it is found rotating spindle are as follows: ng = 1.674(2),
in gap cracks in miserite crystals together nm = 1.671(3), np = 1.666(3).
with quartz (Fig. 7f, table 4, an. 1). At Darai- The microhardness of baratovite was
Pioz we found gittinsite only as a constituent measured in two sections (PMT-3 micro
part of eudialyte pseudomorphoses. At other durometer, calibrated on NaCl, loading
locations where this mineral is found (the 100 g): in the basal plane and perpendicular
Kipava agpaitic complex in Canada (Ansell to it. Microhardness in the basal plane is VHN
et al., 1980) and the Khan-Bogdo rare-me (kg/cm2) = 615 (average of 10 measurements,
tal pegmatites in Mongolia (Tsareva et al., dispersion 490–710). For cuts perpendicular
Table 5. Cell dimensions of baratovite minerals group
Name a, Å b, Å c, Å β, ○ V, A3 Location Reference
Hodzha-Achkan, Our data

Baratovite 16.93(1) 9.742(5) 20.92(2) 112.51(5) 3187(5)
Kyrgyzstan (photomethod)
Hodzha-Achkan, Our data
Baratovite 16.93(2) 9.733(5) 20.94(2) 112.49(7) 3187(7)
Kyrgyzstan (diffractogramm)
Darai-Pioz,
Baratovite 16.90(2) 9.73(1) 20.91(2) 112.30 3179 Dusmatov et al., 1975
Tajikistan
Darai-Pioz, Sandomirsky et al.,
Baratovite 16.953(5) 9.752(3) 20.916(6) 112.46(2) 3195.8
Tajikistan 1976
Darai-Pioz, Menchetti, Sabelli,
Baratovite 16.941(3) 9.746(2) 20.907(3) 112.50(10) 3189.1
Tajikistan 1979
Katayamalite* 16.923(3) 9.721(2) 20.909(3) 112.40(10) 3180 Ivagi, Japan Baur, Kassner, 1992
Darai-Pioz,
Aleksandrovite 17.01 (2) 9.751(6) 21.00(2) 112.45(8) 3219(7) Pautov et al., 2010
Tajikistan
Note. * – α = 89.98(10); γ = 89.94(10) (Baur, Kassner, 1992)
to the basal plane poor 1 st sort hardness and katayamalite from Ivagi was studied by
anisotropy was observed (average of 17 me A. Sidike and coauthors (Sidike et al., 2010),
asurements): across cleavage cracks VHN = who related it to Ti–O6 centers.
725 (dispersion 500–835); along cleavage The IR spectrums of baratovite both from
cracks VHN = 620 (dispersion 495–700). Darai-Pioz and Hodzha-Achkan are similar
The microhardness of baratovite from Darai- (Fig. 9), and have a strong double absorption
Pioz measured in similar conditions (on band in the range of 900–1100 cm-1, which
10 measurements) is VHN = 615 both for is characteristic of ring silicates with sextuple
sections (001) and cross-sections. The values rings of Si–O4 – tetrahedrons, less strong
found for microhardness of baratovite in both bands in the range of 520–540 and 470–
the Hodzha-Achkan samples and those from 480 cm-1, connected to ν4 oscillation of Si–
Darai-Pioz correspond to 5–6 on Moh’s scale, O4, and an absorption band of 685–695 cm-1,
which is higher than the original value of 31/2 connected with ν3 oscillation of Ti–O6 (Pova-
noted in the original description of the mineral rennykh, 1979).
(Dusmatov et al., 1975).
The mineral density measured in Clerichi The chemical composition of baratovite
solution by the equitation method for separate
grains is Dmeas. = 2.92(2) g/cm3. The calculated Only a few number of chemical analyses
density based on the cell parameters, obtained of baratovite and katayamalite have been
from the X-ray space dimensions (Table 5) and published (Dusmatov et al., 1975; Murakami et
average composition (Table 6, an. 1), is Dcalc. = al., 1983; Reguir et al., 1999; Sidike et al., 2010;
2.91 g/cm3. Pautov et al., 2010). Of these, the most complete
The baratovite-group minerals from Hodzha- is the analysis of katayamalite published by
Achkan, as well as baratovite from Darai-Pioz Nobihude Murakami with colleagues (1983).
and katayamalite from Ivagi (Fig. 3), have a Other analyses do not provide data for all
bright white-bluish fluorescence in short-wave possible elemental components (i.e., there
UV-radiation. Heterogeneity of fluorescence are no data for one or several of the following
intensity is observed among individual gra components: Li, F, OH). The most complete
ins of baratovite. This effect is seen more analysis of baratovite is found in the original
intensely in the cathodoluminescence mo description (Dusmatov et al., 1975); it is
de after excitation by an electron probe calculated on the formula KLi2Ca8Ti2Si12O37F,
(Fig. 8). According to B.S. Gorobets and in contrast to KLi3Ca7Ti2[Si6O18]2F2, as obtained
A.A. Rog ozhin (2001), phot oluminescence from the structural analysis (Sandomirsky et
of Darai-Pioz baratovite is related to O*- and al., 1976; Menchetti, Sabelli, 1979). However,
Fe +3-luminescence centers. Subsequently, because data on water content are not shown
luminescence of baratovite from Darai-Pioz in the first baratovite analysis (Dusmatov et
Fig. 8. Baratovite grain

in titanite from miserite-
aegirine-microcline rock,
Hodzha-Achkan:
a – BSE mode: grey – bara
tovite, light grey – titanite;
b – cathodoluminescence
mode; c, d – the X-ray ima
ge shows characteristic
emission of TiKα (c) and
ZrLα (d). The BSE image
(fig. 8a) shows that there is
complex inhomogeneity of
the baratovite grain within
the average atomic number;
correlation with zirconium
distribution (fig. 8d) is
easily visible. The image
in cathodoluminescence
mode (fig. 8b) is much
more complex: the general
motif mirrors both the BSE
image and the X-ray map
of Zr distribution, but it
is complicated by presen
ce of areas, linear zones
with a more intensive lumi
nescence, possibly caused
by deformations and an
increased number of defects.
Images are obtained by
Camebax-microbeam with
operating conditions: U =
15 kV, I = 20 nA.
al., 1975), and the fluorine content (Table 6, hydroxyl dominant species. Since we were
an. 5), after recalculation from the structural unable to find in the literature any analysis
formula, is F = 0.79 apfu (which is less than of baratovite in which fluorine and water
half the number of additional anions in the were determined at the same time, except
formula), the legitimacy of katayamalite as an electron probe analysis of the mineral
a distinct mineral species has been ques (in which, along with other components,
tioned. Werner H. Baur and Dethard Kassner fluorine was defined), we attempted to obtain
(1992), having reviewed the results of in analytical data on the composition of the
terpretation of the katayamalite structure baratovite group minerals both from Hodzha-
KLi 3Ca 7Ti 2[Si 6O 18] 2(OH) 2, showed that this Achkan and from Darai-Pioz, including direct
mineral, previously described as triclinic determination of F, OH, and Li.
(Kato, Murakami, 1985), within experimental Two samples of baratovite with large plates
error can be well described by a monoclinic (one sample from Hodzha-Achkan and the
cell with space group С2/с. This is the same other from Darai-Pioz, from miserite-bearing
as baratovite, and baratovite’s formula, quartz-albite-aegirine rocks) were chosen
considering the insufficient amount of fluorine for study. Pure material, free from visible
according to the first analysis, should be written inclusions, was separated under a binocular
down as KLi 3 Ca 7 (Ti,Zr) 2 [Si 6 O 18 ] 2 (OН,F) 2 microscope in short-wave ultraviolet light. The
(Baur, Kassner, 1992). Both the formulas weights of samples for determination of Li and
KLi3Ca7Ti2[Si6O18]2F2 (Clark, 1993; Anthony Rb by ICP-OES method were 40–50 mg and by
et al., 1995; Minerals, 1996; Krivovichev, flame photometry 20 mg, for F determination
2008), and KLi3Ca7Ti2[Si6O18]2(OH,F)2 (Back, by potentiometer method 20–30 mg, and
Mandarino, 2008) are published for baratovite for water determination by element analysis
in different handbooks. Based on our work, with chromatographic completion 2–7 mg
we consider that baratovite is the fluorine (Table 6, analyses 1, 4). In the analyses of the
dominant mineral, while katayamalite is the mineral from Hodzha-Achkan, F (apfu) is
Table 6. Chemical composition (wt.%) of baratovite and katayamalite from Hodzha-Achkan, Darai-Pioz and
Ivagi
Hodzha-Achkan Darai-Pioz Ivagi
Compo-
baratovite katayamalite baratovite katayamalite katayamalite
nent
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
SiO2 51.15 51.29 51.01 51.44 50.46 51.57 49.63 51.84 52.31 51.75
TiO2 9.76 8.87 7.97 9.89 9.51 10.55 6.01 10.70 10.99 11.13
ZrO2 1.74 2.22 3.71 1.18 2.28 0.90** 6.08 0.76 – 0.15**
SnO2 0.46 1.01 0.87 0.87 – >0.13** 2.04 0.17 0.00 0.06**
Nb2O5 0.04 0.00 0.23 0.18 0.72 >0.14** 0.00 0.04 – 0.07**
Al2O3 0.06 0.20 0.06 0.00 – 0.02 0.07 0.04 0.00 0.00
Fe2O3 0.39 0.60 0.44 0.46 0.50 0.31 0.29 0.23 0.29 0.26
CaO 27.48 26.72 26.72 27.12 30.36 27.36 26.67 27.00 28.25 28.58
MgO 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.03 – 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.01
MnO 0.11 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.50 0.34 0.15 0.20 0.22 0.07
K2O 3.03 3.17 3.07 3.01 2.96 2.89 3.03 3.09 2.89 2.85
Na2O 0.20 0.15 0.23 0.29 0.70 0.36 0.15 0.23 0.22 0.36
Li2O 3.14 3.20* 3.17* 3.15 2.05 – 3.10* 3.22* 3.25 –
Rb2O 0.12 n.d. n.d. – – 0.075** 0.00 n.d. – 0.023**
F 1.51 1.75 0.94 1.45 1.05 2.51 1.02 0.25 0.34 0.53
H2O 0.61 0.46* 0.84* 0.68 – – 0.76* 1.12* 1.21 –
–O=F2 –0.63 –0.73 –0.39 –0.61 –0.44 – –0.43 –0.11 –0.14 –
Total 99.18 98.91 98.87 99.24 100.31 – 98.58 98.67 99.83 –
Calculated on the basis of Si + Al = 12 apfu

K+ 0.91 0.94 0.92 0.90 0.90 0.86 0.93 0.91 0.85 0.84
Na+ 0.09 0.07 0.10 0.13 0.32 0.16 0.07 0.10 0.10 0.16
Rb+ 0.02 – – – – – – – – –
Li+ 2.96 3.00 3.00 2.96 1.96 – 3.00 3.00 3.00 –

Ca+2 6.90 6.67 6.73 6.78 7.74 6.82 6.90 6.69 6.94 7.10
Mg+2 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Mn+2 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.02 0.07 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.01
Ti+4 1.72 1.55 1.41 1.73 1.71 1.85 1.09 1.86 1.90 1.94
Zr+4 0.20 0.25 0.42 0.13 0.26 – 0.72 0.09 – –
Sn+4 0.04 0.09 0.08 0.08 – – 0.20 0.02 – –
Nb+5 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.02 0.08 – 0.00 0 – –
Fe+3 0.07 0.11 0.08 0.08 0.09 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.05 0.05
+3
Al 0.02 0.05 0.02 – – 0.00 0.02 0.01 – 0.00
Si+4 11.98 11.95 11.98 12.00 12.00 12.00 11.98 11.99 12.00 12.00
F- 1.12 1.29 0.70 1.07 0.79 1.84 0.77 0.18 0.25 0.39
OH- 0.95 0.71 1.30 1.06 – – 1.23 1.72 1.85 –
O-2 35.92 35.64 35.72 35.79 37.23 – 36.02 35.78 35.78 –
Note: «–» means, that data for a component are not provided.
* – H2O and Li2O calculated on basis of (F + OH) = 2.00 apfu, Li = 3.00 apfu. 1 – average of 47 electron-microprobe analyses,
instead: Li2O (average from two analyses obtained both by ICP OES and flame photometry methods); Rb2O (flame photometry);
F (potentiometry); H2O (CHN-analysis with chromatographic completion, average of 3 determinations); 2 – electron-microprobe
analysis (with maximum F amount); 3 – electron-microprobe analysis (with maximum H2Ocalc. amount); 4 – average of 11 electron-
microprobe analyses (3 analyses – WDS JCXA 733, 8 analyses – EDS ISIS, CamScan-4D) instead: Li2O (average from two analyses
obtained both by ICP OES and flame photometry methods); F (potentiometry); H2O (CHN-analysis with chromatographical
completion, average of 2 determinations); 5 – «wet chemistry», analyst A.V. Bykova (Dusmatov et al., 1975); 6 – electron-microprobe
analyses, ** – calculated on oxides from ICP-MS data. Besides, (ppm): Zn 240, Sr 903, Cs 168, Ba 4410, Hf 294 (data with amounts
>100 ppm are given) (Sidike et al., 2010); 7 – electron-microprobe analyses (Pautov et al., 2010); 8 – electron-microprobe analyses
(WDS); 9 – electron-microprobe analyses, Li2O – flame photometry; H2O – gravimetry; F – potentiometry) (Murakami et al., 1983);
10 – electron-microprobe analyses, ** – calculated on oxides from ICP-MS data. Besides, (ppm): Zn 340, Sr 754, Ba 2570, Ta 187
(data with amounts >100 ppm are given)(Sidike et al., 2010).
Table 7. Representative electron probe analyses (wt.%) data sampling for baratovite and katayamalite from the
Hodzha-Achkan massif
Compo- Baratovite Katayamalite

nent 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
SiO2 51.75 52.08 50.85 50.72 50.93 52.00 50.83 51.48 51.80 51.47 51.77 51.32 51.79 51.48 51.76
TiO2 8.71 10.13 9.62 9.93 10.14 10.01 9.87 9.77 9.96 9.56 10.27 10.14 9.88 7.83 9.43
ZrO2 2.25 1.12 1.38 1.27 1.28 1.61 1.97 1.65 1.22 1.44 1.50 1.80 1.22 3.68 1.78
SnO2 1.01 0.00 0.64 0.85 0.71 0.72 0.00 0.13 0.74 0.13 0.67 0.74 0.76 0.87 1.29
Nb2O5 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.08 0.44 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Al2O3 0.18 0.19 0.00 0.11 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.07 0.00 0.07 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.10
Fe2O3 0.60 0.44 0.36 0.22 0.23 0.60 0.39 0.43 0.39 0.43 0.76 0.73 0.35 0.44 0.41
CaO 26.73 28.54 27.86 27.78 27.58 28.09 27.73 27.15 28.13 27.16 28.25 27.91 28.12 26.73 26.85
MgO 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.11 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
MnO 0.00 0.27 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.22 0.15 0.00 0.20 0.19 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
K2O 3.17 2.83 3.20 2.90 2.85 2.95 2.95 3.03 3.14 3.06 2.96 3.13 3.14 3.07 3.03
Na2O 0.15 0.38 0.23 0.26 0.27 0.33 0.31 0.21 0.19 0.19 0.21 0.29 0.20 0.23 0.14
Li2O* 3.17 3.10 3.12 3.13 3.14 3.08 3.13 3.18 3.09 3.20 3.01 3.02 3.08 3.16 3.16
F 1.76 1.64 1.56 1.53 1.41 1.47 1.36 1.25 1.25 1.24 1.22 1.06 1.07 0.98 0.97
H2O * 0.47 0.53 0.54 0.55 0.61 0.61 0.63 0.70 0.70 0.71 0.72 0.79 0.79 0.82 0.83
-O=F2 -0.74 -0.69 -0.66 -0.64 -0.59 -0.62 -0.57 -0.53 -0.53 -0.52 -0.51 -0.44 -0.45 -0.41 -0.41
Total 99.21 100.56 98.70 98.71 98.67 100.85 98.82 98.75 100.08 98.44 101.46 100.49 99.95 98.88 99.34
Calculated on the basis of Si + Al = 12 apfu
K+1 0.93 0.83 0.96 0.87 0.86 0.87 0.89 0.90 0.93 0.92 0.88 0.93 0.93 0.91 0.89
+1
Na 0.07 0.17 0.11 0.12 0.12 0.15 0.14 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.13 0.09 0.10 0.06
+1
Li 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00
Ca+2 6.61 7.02 7.04 7.02 6.96 6.95 7.01 6.77 6.98 6.77 7.02 6.99 6.98 6.68 6.65
+2
Mg 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
+2
Mn 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.03 0.00 0.04 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Ti+4 1.51 1.75 1.71 1.76 1.80 1.74 1.75 1.71 1.74 1.67 1.79 1.78 1.72 1.37 1.64
Zr+4 0.25 0.13 0.16 0.15 0.15 0.18 0.23 0.19 0.14 0.16 0.17 0.21 0.14 0.42 0.20
Sn+4 0.09 0.00 0.06 0.08 0.07 0.07 0.00 0.01 0.07 0.01 0.06 0.07 0.07 0.08 0.12
Nb+5 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Fe+3 0.10 0.08 0.06 0.04 0.04 0.10 0.07 0.08 0.07 0.08 0.13 0.13 0.06 0.08 0.07
+3
Al 0.05 0.05 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03
Si+4 11.95 11.95 12.00 11.97 12.00 12.00 12.00 11.98 12.00 11.98 12.00 12.00 12.00 12.00 11.97
F-1 1.29 1.19 1.16 1.14 1.05 1.07 1.02 0.92 0.92 0.91 0.89 1.22 1.22 0.72 0.71
-1
OH 0.71 0.81 0.84 0.86 0.95 0.93 0.98 1.08 1.08 1.09 1.11 0.78 0.78 1.28 1.29
O-2 35.43 35.92 36.02 36.08 36.09 36.04 36.13 35.75 35.99 35.64 36.4 36.4 36.02 35.54 35.63
Notes: * – H2O and Li2O are calculated on the basis of (F + OH) = 2.00 apfu, Li = 3.00 apfu.
Fig. 9. Baratovite IR spectra:

katayamalite baratovite
1 – Hodzha-Achkan (opera
ting conditions – microtablet
with KBr, Specord-75IR);
2 – Darai-Pioz (operating
conditions – tablet with KBr,
Avatar 370 FT-IR Fourier
number analyses in classes

spectrometer).
Fig. 10. A histogram of fluorine

transmission
distribution in the baratovite-

katayamalite mineral series
from the Hodzha-Achkan
massif ( based on 40 analyses).
classes fluorine contents, apfu
Fig. 11. Compositions (mol.%) of the baratovite mineral group

on the ternary chart of end members:
Ti – baratovite and katayamalite;
Sn – aleksandrovite;
Zr – zirconium analog of baratovite:
 – Hodzha-Achkan (by results of 48 electron probe analyses);
+ – Darai-Pioz (Dusmatov et al., 1975; Reguir et al., 1999 and
our data);
 – Ivagi (Murakami et al., 1983; our data).
slightly more prevalent than OH, while this that most of the analyses are approximately
ratio is close to 1:1 for the mineral from Darai- in the middle of the baratovite-katayamalite
Pioz. Because different parts of crystals, which series.
can differ in F/OH ratio, are mixed in these The baratovite from Hodzha-Achkan,
samples, these analyses represent an average unlike katayamalite from Ivagi, is slightly
of the material from each locality. Localized enriched in tin and zirconium, making it
electron probe analyses show that F amounts similar to baratovite from Darai-Pioz, where
in the baratovite group minerals of Hodzha- tin and zirconium are concentrated up to a
Achkan and Darai-Pioz massifs are changeable tin baratovite analog (aleksandrovite) and
and correspond to both hydroxyl- and flu an unnamed Zr-analog of baratovite (Fig. 11;
orine-dominant phases. A histogram of F dis tables 6, 7). Occupation of the M2 octahedral
tribution, based on electron probe analysis, position of baratovite with zirconium is
for minerals of baratovite group from Hodzha- probably the result of crystallization of the
Achkan is shown in figure 10, which also shows mineral from high-alkaline conditions. As
Table 8. X-ray powder diffraction data on baratovite from the Hodzha-Achkan massif
Photo- Diffrac Photo- Diffrac

Calculated data Calculated data
method togram method togram
I d, Å I d, Å I d, Å h k l I d, Å I d, Å I d, Å h k l
1 9.70 3 9.663 0 0 2 20 2.106 2 2.108 10 2.107 4 2 5

20 8.34 1 8.31 6 8.269 1 1 0 2 2.095 4 2.101 -2 4 5
2 7.70 6 7.686 -2 0 2 10 2.091 2 2.083 6 2 2
30 7.04 2 7.03 13 7.024 -1 1 2 20 2.082 10 2.079 7 1 1
10 5.74 4 5.74 12 5.735 1 1 2 10 2.078 4 2.077 3 1 7
2 5.19 3 5.185 2 0 2 10 2.070 3 2.071 -4 2 9
1 5.08 4 5.069 -2 0 4 20 2.043 5 2.043 -5 3 7
2 4.83 2 4.832 0 0 4 < 10 2.027 4 2.029 5 1 5
14 2.009 1 3 7
20 4.606 4 4.599 8 4.597 3 1 0 40 2.006
6 2.008 2 4 4
20 4.354 3 4.352 8 4.350 0 2 2 10w 1.997 4 2.000 -1 3 8
10 4.266 32 4.231 -4 0 2 20 1.981 14 1.985 -5 1 10
12 1.944 4 2 6
100 4.229 23 4.234 38 4.222 -2 2 1 10 1.943
3 1.943 -7 3 3
10 4.169 8 4.166 3 1 1 10w 1.932 3 1.932 11 1.933 0 0 10
10 4.138 7 4.139 16 4.135 2 2 0 10w 1.911 2 1.911 -4 2 8
3 4.120 14 4.114 -2 2 2 20 1.883 4 1.888 -2 4 7
90 4.088 13 4.092 43 4.090 -3 1 4 30w 1.872 6 1.863 7 1 3
80 3.889 16 3.889 43 3.885 0 2 3 20w 1.855 7 1.853 1 3 8
1 3.852 -2 2 3
30 3.852 7 3.849 10 1.849 2 1.848 6 2 4
9 3.846 1 1 4
1 3.810 1 3.810 -1 1 5 30 1.845 26 1.846 -9 1 4
15 1.842 -9 1 5
100 3.696 29 3.697 81 3.695 3 1 2 40 1.842 8 1.841
26 1.840 -3 5 1
26 1.839 -3 5 2
40 3.620 8 3.621 22 3.621 -3 1 5 10 1.838
24 1.838 -6 4 2
15 1.834 -9 1 3
10 3.555 4 3.552 2 3.550 2 2 2 10 1.832
20 1.832 -6 4 4
11 1.825 3 5 0
10 3.513 3 3.519 4 3.512 -2 2 4 30w 1.823 4 1.822 -9 1 6
5 1.822 -7 1 10
20 3.482 4 3.486 6 3.485 -2 0 6 < 10 1.795 5 1.797 4 2 7
30 3.433 19 3.432 43 3.430 0 2 4 < 10 1.789 4 1.791 2 4 6
10 3.359 3 3.391 20 1.776 8 1.779 3 3 7
30 3.260 9 3.263 18 3.258 3 1 3 10w 1.762 2 1.763 -1 5 5
2 1.749 8 2 1
40 3.224 12 3.221 4 0 2 10 1.748
1 1.749 -2 2 11
100 3.222 100 3.223 100 3.221 0 0 6 20 1.742 5 1.743 -3 5 5
7 1.739 -9 1 8
10 3.209 26 3.198 2 2 3 20 1.737 2 1.736
8 1.735 6 2 5
90 3.193 47 3.194 94 3.192 -3 1 6 10 1.731 9 1.731 6 4 1
20 3.167 6 3.167 8 3.161 -4 2 1 10 1.716 12 1.714 -6 4 7
40 3.156 14 3.161 -2 2 5 40 1.712 2 1.713 11 1.711 9 1 0
20 3.147 11 3.149 23 3.147 -4 0 6 40 1.697 8 1.697 3 5 3
10 3.139 2 3.143 -4 2 3 20 1.687 6 1.686 -3 5 6
< 10 3.125 1 3.120 7 3.120 -5 1 1 10 1.683 4 1.682 -9 1 9
30w 3.098 25 3.095 35 3.099 1 3 1 10 1.679 1 1.676 -2 4 9
30w 3.088 48 3.087 -5 1 4 10w 1.672 2 1.674 6 4 2
30 3.051 43 3.044 75 3.049 4 2 0 10w 1.665 5 1.667 4 2 8
30 3.030 2 2.999 57 3.028 0 2 5 10 1.636 11 1.640 -3 3 11
10 2.980 5 2.978 5 1 0 20 1.629 8 1.629 6 2 6
90 2.953 11 2.953 99 2.953 1 3 2 20w 1.608 1 1.615 15 1.611 0 4 9
Table 8. Continue
Photo- Diffrac Photo- Diffrac

Calculated data Calculated data
method togram method togram
I d, Å I d, Å I d, Å h k l I d, Å I d, Å I d, Å h k l
1.604 8 2 3
20 2.942 3 2.944 -1 3 3 10 1.603 2
1.601 0 6 2
80 2.932 9 2.932 92 2.932 -5 1 5 10 1.593 9 1.595 -6 2 12
1.589 -8 4 5
78 2.882 4 2 1 2
80 2.882 14 2.883 10w 1.588 1.589 -2 6 2
51 2.880 3 1 4 3
1.588 -1 3 11
< 10 2.863 11 2.868 2 2 4 10w 1.579 3 1.580 -5 1 13
2 1.572 -2 6 3
10 2.837 3 2.833 7 2.834 -2 2 6 10 1.572 2 1.571 -8 4 6
1 1.571 3 5 5
10 2.807 2 2.807 10 2.809 -3 3 1 10 1.569 4 1.570 -9 3 1
3 1.560 -3 5 8
2 2.800 4 2.801 -6 0 2 10 1.558
3 1.560 -10 2 2
3 1.551 4 2 9
20 2.795 13 2.794 5 1 1 10 1.551
1 1.550 1 5 7
6 1.544 6 4 4
60 2.767 4 2.766 37 2.767 1 3 3 20 1.543
5 1.544 -8 4 7
20 2.757 18 2.756 -1 3 4 10 1.538 7 1.539 0 6 4
50 2.740 3 2.742 31 2.741 -5 1 6 10 1.531 8 1.531 6 2 7
4 1.524 -5 3 12
40 2.686 3 2.688 19 2.687 4 2 2 30 1.523
5 1.522 -6 4 10
10 2.655 3 2.655 3 3 1 10 1.515 9 1.518 9 1 3
5 1.512 -2 6 5
20 2.641 3 2.643 13 2.643 -4 2 6 30 1.510
8 1.512 -9 3 9
10 2.618 2 2.607 6 0 0 20 1.496 3 1.495 0 6 5
30 2.592 4 2.593 4 0 4 10 1.487 7 1.488 9 3 1
20 2.567 8 2.566 1 3 4 10 1.482 6 1.484 -1 3 12
4 1.473 -4 6 5
10 2.552 7 2.555 -1 3 5 10 1.471
1 1.472 -2 6 6
20 2.535 8 2.538 -5 1 7 10 1.463 4 1.465 7 1 7
20 2.495 2 2.496 -3 3 5 20 1.419 4 1.421 -8 4 10
7 1.381 3 1 12
10 2.485 10 2.484 4 2 3 10 1.378 6 1.380 0 0 14
3 1.378 6 6 0
30 2.441 6 2.441 -4 2 7 10 1.370 3 1.371 -6 6 6
6 1.354 -12 2 5
< 10 2.431 5 2.428 -6 2 2 10 1.353 2 1.353 -9 5 4
2 1.353 -5 3 14
4 -6 2 4 6 1.351 -3 7 1
40 2.412 5 2.416 13 2.416 0 4 1 10 1.349 6 1.350 -3 7 2
17 0 0 8 6 1.348 -9 5 3
5 1.343 -9 5
10 2.398 7 2.392 5 1 3 10 1.342 6
3 1.343 -3 7
5 3 3 3
30 2.366 2.367 20 1.336 5 1.338 -12 2 8
14 1 3 5
4 1.332 3 7 1
10 2.354 5 2.353 -1 3 6 10 1.331
2 1.332 -12 2 3
30 2.340 4 2.339 -7 1 4 20 1.326 4 1.327 6 6 2
40 2.339 3 2.339 12 2.339 -5 1 8 10 1.315 5 1.318 5 1 11
30w 2.285 2 2.287 9 2.289 4 2 4 20w 1.275 2 1.277 -2 6 10
3 7 7 0
20w 2.181 2 2.182 9 2.184 -3 3 7 10w 1.181 1.181
1 0 8 4
3 1.169 -2 8 5
< 10 2.153 9 2.154 -5 1 9 10w 1.168
4 1.166 6 4 10
< 10 2.141 2 2.145 -5 3 6 10w 1.143 6 1.145 7 7 2
Note. Photomethod: Huber 621 Guinier camera with a quartz monochromator; CuKα1 radiation; quartz as the internal standard.
Diffractogram: DRON-2.0, CuKα radiation, Ni – filter, quartz as the internal standard. Indexes and intensities for calculated data
column are taken from www.rruff.info. Lines used for calculation of cell dimensions (tab. 5) are highlighted in bold type, w – widened
line.
experimental work shows, in this case (3) Baratovite and katayamalite, both at
introducing zirconium into structures with Darai-Pioz, and Hodzha-Achkan, has been
coordination [6] (for example, in pyroxene, found in pyroxene-feldspar fenites (according
or amphibole structures), is preferable to to fenite’s classification of (Bardina, Popov,
formation of phases with a higher coordination 1993)). In these rocks the minerals miserite
of [7] or [8] (Jones, Peckett, 1980; Linthout, (to 5.5 wt.% REE2O3), turkestanite, bazirite,
1984; Duggan, 1988, Farges et al., 1994; and the rare boronsilicates-tadzhikite and
Piilonen et al., 1998). This may explain stillwellite-(Ce) occur. However there are also
the extreme rarity of zircon in these rocks. differences between the fenites of Hodzha-
The problems of zirconium genetic crystal Achkan and Darai-Pioz. First, the former is a
chemistry have been considered in a number little less alkaline, and, perhaps, of higher-
of publications in detail (Pyatenko et al., 1999; temperature origin, than similar rocks at
Pekov, 2005). The entry of tin into minerals Darai-Pioz. Clinopyroxene from the Hodzha-
of the baratovite, titanite, milarite and Achkan massif fenites is poorer in aegirine in
astrophyllite groups shows that tin behavior contrast to Darai-Pioz, and, especially, to Ivagi
in high-alkaline systems in many respects is syenites. Unlike Darai-Pioz, in the Hodzha-
similar to that of titanium and zirconium. Achkan fenites a garnet (andradite) occurs.
If we compare thorium silicates, at Hodzha-
X-ray powder diffraction data Achkan ekanite, which is non-alkaline, is
typical, whereas at Darai-Pioz its place is taken
Since X-ray powder data published in by alkaline turkestanite. The most important
literature for baratovite (Dusmatov et al., REE mineral is britholite, absent in Darai-Pioz’s
1975) and katayamalite (Murakami et al., fenites. We have not excluded the possibility
1983) are much poorer in reflections than that katayamalite-containing rocks of Ivagi
calculated data, we have obtained not only (Murakami et al., 1983) are not syenites, but
the diffractogram (which can be complicated that they are high-alkaline fenites; yet we
by almost inevitable texturing of material), do not have enough of the actual material to
but also powder data by photomethod in the confirm this.
Guinier camera (table 8). The X-ray powder (4) Baratovite and katayamalite in miserite-
diffraction data were obtained from Hodzha- containing fenites of Darai-Pioz and of
Achkan samples from which material for wet Hodzha-Achkan are the only lithium minerals,
chemistry determination of fluorine, water and are important concentrators of zirconium
and rare alkalis was extracted. Material for and tin.
powder data by Guinier method was extracted (5) We believe, in contrast to Reguir and
from the sample of baratovite in miserite- coauthors (Reguir et al., 1999), that the origin
feldspar-aegirine rock (operating number of the baratovite-containing rocks of Hodzha-
11HA_58). The parameters of cells calculated Achkan and Darai-Pioz is not a unique com
for both powder data, and also for baratovite, bination of several processes occurring at
katayamalite and aleksandrovite taken from different times with different sources of
references, are shown in table 5. substrate, but is a single complex process, with
a common source of fenitization solutions. It is
Conclusions possible that carbonatites (Mayorov, Gavrilin,
1971), or syenite-carbonatites (Fayziyev et al.,
(1) Very rare minerals of the baratovite- 2010) were such sources.
katayamalite series are found in fenite rocks (6) The Darai-Pioz mineralization, which
of the Hodzha-Achkan massif (Kyrgyzstan). has been represented in the past as unique,
The find of baratovite is most likely the is duplicated to some extent in massifs of a
second, and that of katayamalite the third in matchaisky complex (and may be duplicated
the world. again in other occurrences). Our work on
(2) A complete wet chemical analysis of the baratovite-containing fenite rocks of the
baratovite, including determination of Li2O, Hodzha-Achkan massif shows this clearly.
H2O, and F was performed for the first time.
New data for minerals of the baratovite group Acknowledgements
were obtained, including more complete
powder data and the mineral microhardness, The authors are grateful for the help in the
which corresponds to 5–6 on the Moh’s scale, organization or for participation in field work
a value higher than recorded in the previous on the Hodzha-Achkan and Darai-Pioz massifs
literature. to P.V. Khvorov, V.A. Muftakhov, T.K. Ber
kelyev, A.R. Faiziev, V.S. Gursky, V.V. Smirnov, sif // Trudy Petrogr. Inst. 1939. Vol. 14.
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Yu.D. Gritsenko, P. M. Kartashov; to Kota gle Volcano, Central New South Wales,
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COGENETIC ZIRCON, MONAZITE, XENOTIME, AND FLUORAPATITE

FROM APOPICRITIC PHLOGOPITE-MAGNESITE GUMBEITES
AT THE BEREZOVSKY GOLD DEPOSIT, URALS, RUSSIA
Ernst M. Spiridonov
Faculty of Geology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia, ernstspiridon@gmail.com
Inna M. Kulikova
Institute of Mineralogy, Geochemistry, and Crystal Chemistry of Rare Elements, Moscow, Russia, kulikova@imgre.ru
Firat M. Nurmukhametov
Ural Geological Museum, Yekaterinburg, Russia, museum@usmga.ru
Nina V. Sidorova
Faculty of Geology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
Natalya N. Korotaeva
Faculty of Geology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
Yurii A. Polenov
Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Ural State Mining University, Yekaterinburg, Russia, igggl@ursmu.ru
Alevtina N. Troshkina
Berezovsky Mine, Berezovsky, Sverdlovsk region, info@ooobru.ru
Listvenite-like phlogopite-magnesite gumbeites, a new type of gumbeites at the Berezovsky gold deposit,
Urals replaced deformed zinc chromite- and ilmenite-bearing variolitic picrite enriched in Ti, P, Ce, La,
Nd, Y, U, Th, and Nb. This metasomatic rock is composed of Mn- and Ca-poor magnesite (Mg 83–91Fe9–17),
quartz, fluorphlogopite, potassium feldspar (K94–97Na3–6), albite (Na98.5Ca1K0.5), muscovite enriched in
F, rutile, chlorite ± dravite, dolomite, fluorapatite, monazite, zircon, xenotime, gersdorffite, siegenite,
millerite, Co-bearing pyrite, and galena. Talc-magnesite altered rock of the outer zone contains hematite,
hydroxylphlogopite, hydroxylapatite, and violarite. Clusters of fluorapatite, monazite, zircon and xenotime
are intergrown with aggregates of rutile replacing deformed plates of ilmenite; the crystals of these minerals
have compromise growth surface with quartz and magnesite. Dominant zones of zircon crystals contain 1.4–
1.9 wt.% Hf and traces of U, Th, Y; zones enriched in U contain up to, wt.%: 3.8 U, 2.4 Hf, 1.4 Y, 0.8 Th, U/Th is
3–9. The composition of U-free and Th-poor (0.8–2.2 wt.% Th) monazite corresponds to the formula (Ce0.40–
0.43La0.25–0.28Nd0.16–0.18Y0.02-0.05Pr0.03Sm0.02 Gd0.01Eu0.01Th0.01–0.02Са0.02)(P0.97–0.98Si0.01–0.03)O4. Cores of crystals
of monazite are enriched in Y; the temperature of their crystallization estimated from the Gratz-Heinrich
equation (Gratz and Heinrich, 1997) is ca. 450оC, while that of rims is ca. 300оC. The composition of Th-free
U-poor (0.1–0.8 wt.% U) xenotime corresponds to the formula (Y0.71–0.74Dy0.05–0.06Gd0.04Er0.03Nd0.03Yb0.02–0.03
Eu0.01Tb0.01Ho0.01Lu0–0.01Са0–0.01)(P0.99–1 Si0.01)O4.
In the fluorapatite-monazite-zircon-xenotime assemblage, U is concentrated in zircon; Th is concentrated in
monazite and to less extent in zircon; LREE and most Y are concentrated in monazite-(Ce) that is predominant
over xenotime; the latter is a carrier of HREE and partially Y; fluorapatite is nearly REE- and actinide-free.
Thus, the high-temperature gumbeites was found at the northern Berezovsky deposit for the first time.
12 tables, 15 figures, 58 references.
Keywords: apopicritic phlogopite-magnesite gumbeites, zircon, monazite, xenotime, apatite, tourmaline,
Mg-rich muscovite, zincochromite.
Review of gumbeites formation gradually changes downward to gumbeites.

Grabezhev (1981) reported apogranitic gum
Gumbeites as a special type of hydrothermal beites at the Berezovsky deposit for the first time.
metasomatites was reported for the first time by We established that at this deposit gumbeites
Korzhinsky (1953) at the Gumbeika scheelite and beresites occur at the same level without
deposits, South Urals, which were studied in detail gradual transition; mineralogy and isotopic
by Matveev (1928). Like beresites, gumbeites is characteristics of gumbeites and associated
a product of CO2 alteration. Quartz-carbonate- ores differ from those of younger gold-bearing
potassium feldspar assemblage is typical of beresites; gumbeites replaced adamellite-
gumbeites (Korzhinsky, 1953), whereas quartz- porphyry; gumbeites is replaced by beresites and
carbonate-muscovite assemblage is characteristic is cut by gold-bearing quartz veins (Spiridonov et
of beresites and listvenites (Karpinsky, 1887; al., 19981; 2000).
Borodaevsky and Borodaevskaya, 1947; Sazonov, Spiridonov et al. (19981) reported six varieties
1984; Spiridonov and Pletnev, 2002; Spiridonov, of the Ural gumbeites as temperature decreases:
1991). Sazonov (1984) suggested that beresites (1) biotite-calcite gumbeites accompanied
with potassium feldspar-calcite-quartz veins This early orogenic, more exactly inversion
and bodies with molybdoscheelite, apatite, assemblage, accompanies and terminates the
pyrite, W-rich rutile, and monazite (ca. 450– major inversion of folded area that is transition
400о), (2) biotite-calcite-dolomite gumbeites from downwarping to upwarping, termination
accompanied with potassium feldspar-dolomite- of arc stage, and transition to orogenic stage.
quartz veins with Mo-rich scheelite, pyrite, Geochemical and lithological zoning is typical
apatite, W-bearing rutile (ca. 400–370о), (3) of the granodiorite assemblage of folded areas
biotite-dolomite gumbeites accompanied (Spiridonov, 1995): in troughs (sinclinorium
with potassium feldspar-dolomite-quartz and related structures, at the upper structural
veins with scheelite, pyrite, molybdenite-3R, level of which, folding basis is usually steep to
apatite, and chalcopyrite (ca. 370–330о), (4) vertical), there are Na-Ca tonalite-granodiorite-
dolomite gumbeites accompanied by veins with plagiogranite plutons with gold mineralization
scheelite, pyrite, chalcopyrite, galena enriched and negligible Bi content (in the studied area,
in Bi, tennantite-tetrahedrite, and Bi-Pb-Cu- these are the Upper Iset and similar intrusions);
Ag sulfosalts (ca. 350–290о), (5) picrophengite in raises (anticlinorium structures, median
gumbeites accompanied with veins containing masses, microcontinents within folded areas, at
pyrite, galena, sphalerite, tennantite-tetra the upper level of which folding basis is gentle
hedrite, meneghinite, and bournonite (ca. to horizontal), there are K-Na-Ca granodiorite-
310–260о), and (6) ferrophengite gumbeites adamellite plutons with gold mineralization
accompanied with adularia-calcite-quartz veins and high Bi content (in the studied area, these
containing pyrite, galena, cleophane, tennantite- are the Shartash and similar plutons). K-Na-Ca
tetrahedrite, aikinite, altaite, tetradymite, hessite, granitic rocks are noticeably enriched in Rb, Pb,
native gold, andorite, and late barite, strontianite, and Ba, which are elements coherent to K; these
and witherite (< 200о) (Spiridonov et al., 19981). are enriched in F and contain F-rich apatite and
Gumbeitization is expressed as influx of CO2, biotite (Fershtater et al., 1994; Kholodnov and
K, S, and As with SiO2 and Na partially being Bushlyakov, 2002). Formation of the gumbeites
removed. Phosphorous is mobile at the formation is related to the K-Na-Ca plutons (Spiridonov et
of gumbeite. It is removed and input in back al., 19972; 19981).
zones of various alteration columns of gumbeite. The classic Berezovsky deposit of gold-
The mobility of P during gumbeitization is one quartz beresite-listvenite formation is located
of the reasons to form scheelite ore because in the distal over-intrusion zone of the
P strongly stabilizes polytungsten complexes Shartash adamellite pluton (Borodaevsky and
(probable transfer species of W). Borodaevskaya, 1947; Ivanov, 1948; Bellavin
High-temperature gumbeites occurs at the et al., 1970; Laipanov and Mikhailova, 1982;
southwestern Berezovsky deposit at the contact Borodaevsky et al., 1984; Sazonov, 1984). The
with the Shartash pluton. These are quartz pluton intruded Ordovician to Lower Silurian
veins with molybdoscheelite and tourmaline, deformed sedimentary and basaltic sequences
which were studied by Kutyukhin (1948). cut by dolerites, gabbro, and gabbro-pyroxe
Lower-temperature gumbeites 3–6 including nites, and hosting plates of serpentinite (Boro
talc-carbonate altered rock (Spiridonov et al., daevsky et al., 1984; Rapoport et al., 1994).
2000), carbonate-sulfide-quartz veins with Serpentinized harzburgite and other ultramafic
scheelite (Shteinberg, 1939; Kurulenko et al., rocks contain ferrichromite, chrome magnetite,
1984), molybdenite (Kutuykhin, 1937), apatite and zincochromite, which are metamorphic
(Avdonin, 1955), galena, tennantite-tetrahedrite, products of primary aluminum chromite and
and sphalerite (Chesnokov et al., 1975), and magnesiochromite (Spiridonov et al., 19971,
barren hematite-quartz veins (Spiridoniv et al., 19981). Hornfelses of the shallow Shartash
19981) are found in the other parts of the deposit. pluton contain andalusite and sillimanite.
According to N.A. Ershova and R.S. Kurulenko,
Shartash it comprises three phases of adamellite. Ada
granodiorite-adamellite complex mellite is cut by numerous veins and dykes of
aplite, microadamellite, vein granite including
Early to Middle Carboniferous gold-bearing pegmatoids. Adamellite is intruded by dykes
granodiorite complexes are located at the of granite-porphyres, diorite-porphyrites,
eastern slope of the Herzinian Urals (Sobolev, miscrodiorites, and lamprophyres. Dykes of
1966; Bushlyakov and Sobolev, 1976; Ershova granodiorite-, adamellite-, granite- and pla
and Levitan, 1978; Levitan et al., 1979; Fershtater, giogranite-porphyres are predominant. Alla
1992; Fershtater et al., 1994; Puchkov, 2010). nite is typical accessory mineral of these rocks
Usually, this assemblage is regarded to orogenic. (Spiridonov et al., 2013).
from apopicritic phlogopite-magnesite gumbeites at the Berezovsky gold deposit, Urals, Russia 39
K-Ar age of the Shartash granitoids is 315 ± not differ from that of the Shartash adamellite and
15 Ma; K-Ar age of porphyry granite dykes is 316 adamellite-porphyres.
± 12 and 306 ± 18 Ma (Ovchinnikov et al., 1989)
that is close to the boundary between Early and Listvenite-like apopicritic
Middle Carboniferous. Rb/Sr age of the Shartash gumbeites of the Berezovsky deposit
granitoids and granite-porphyres is 328 ± 18 Ma
(Shteinberg et al., 1989); U/Pb age of zircon from Studied material. We have studied listvenite-
the Shartash adamellite and granite-porphyres is like phlogopite-magnesite metasomatites, a
302 ± 3 and 305 ± 7 Ma, respectively (Pribavkin new type of gumbeites developed in the central
et al., 2012). Berezovsky deposit (level -412 m, Central pit).
Pre-gold quartz-tourmaline metasomatites Its precursor is variolitic picrites occurred as
with Li-bearing muscovite and poor Sn mi branched subvolcanic dykes of 0.1 to 1.5 m
neralization, K propilite with Mo-Cu mine thick cutting foliated hurzburgitic serpentinite.
ralization, Na propylite with epidote-quartz veins, Picrites and serpentinites are cut by dykes of
talc-carbonate metasomatites, and gumbeites with adamellite-porphyres. Varioles range from 3 to
scheelite are developed within the Berezovsky 21 mm in size (Fig. 1); chrome spinel is frequent
deposit (Kutyukhin, 1947, 1948; Borodaevsky in the core of variole. Hand specimens up to
and Borodaevskaya, 1947; Grabezhev, 1981; 30 cm across were cut; thin sections, polished
Kurulenko et al., 1984; Spiridonov et al., 19981, sections, and polished samples were prepared.
2000). Quartz-tourmaline metasomatites is According to optical microscopy, gumbeites
related to the Shartash pluton; according to replaced deformed picrites.
Koptev-Dvornikov (1955), it is referred to the Analytical techniques. Routine bulk ana
first-stage process. Propylites, gumbeites, and lyses of altered rocks were performed at
later beresites and listvenites are related to chemical laboratory at the Institute of Geology
dykes of adamellite-porphyres, microadamellite, of Ore Deposits, Petrography, Mineralogy, and
diorite-porphyres, and lamprophyres. These are Geochemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences.
deep-seated dykes or dykes of the second stage Content of trace elements was measured by ICP-
according to Koptev-Dvornikov (1955). These MS at the Institute of Mineralogy, Geochemistry,
dykes terminating the Shartash granodiorite- and Crystal Chemistry of Rare Elements. Most
adamellite complex and altered rocks are BSE images and electron microprobe data
paragenetically related to the Shartash pluton were obtained with a Jeol SM-6480 LV electron
(Ershova and Levitan, 1978; Borodaevsky et al., microscope equipped with EDS (N.N. Korotaeva
1984). According to our data, 40Ar/39Ar age of analyst, Division of Petrology, Geological
muscovite from three samples of the Berezovsky Faculty, Moscow State University). REE- and
gold-bearing beresite is 306.0 ± 3.6, 312.6 ± 3.8, actinide-bearing minerals were examined with
and 323.6 ± 3.7 Ma (Institute of Geology and a Camebax-microbeam electron microprobe
Geophysics, Siberian Branch, Russian Academy (I.M. Kulikova analyst, Institute of Mineralogy,
of Sciences, A.V. Travin analyst). Thus, the Geochemistry, and Crystal Chemistry of Rare
isotopic age of post-granitoid metasomatites does Elements). R.L. Barinsky in 1958 developed
Fig. 1. Fragments of zoned column

of apopicritic gumbeites:
(a) white, gray, yellow, and green
zones, 168 × 117 mm;
(b) – gray, yellow, and green
zones, 114 × 82 mm.
Level 512 m, Severny pit, Bere
zovsky deposit.
Table 1. Chemical composition of apopicritic 0.07 Tm, 0.04 Yb, and 0.08 Lu. Concentrations
gumbeites, Berezovsky deposit (wt.%) of 30 and more elements were calculated with
the Calczaf program; ZAF or PAP correction
White-gray Yellow Green
Component
zone zone zone procedure was used. Interlaboratory control
attested the reliability of used technique to
SiO2 43.25 42.64 41.34 determine REE and actinides.
Metasomatic column. Picrites, precursor
TiO2 1.16 1.07 1.28 rock of gumbeites, contains (n = 8, ppm):
P2O5 0.27 0.22 0.30
1090 Cr, 1480 Ni, 54 Co (Ni/Co = 27), 34 V,
28 Cu, 115 Zn, 8.2 Pb; this rock is enriched in
Cr2O3 0.25 0.26 0.24 Ti, P, and REE (ppm): 29.5 La, 38.5 Ce, 6.2 Pr,
21.9 Nd, 3.1 Sm, 0.6 Eu, 2.2 Gd, 0.26 Tb, 1.2
Al2O3 6.65 7.69 6.26
Dy, 0.23 Ho, 0.70 Er, 0.11 Tm, 0.26 Yb, 0.15
Fe2O3 3.02 3.44 3.31 Lu, 6.5 Y, 178 Zr, 6.8 Hf, 47 Nb, 13.4 U, 11.6
Th, LREE/HREE = 17, Th/U = 0.9 (ISP-MS,
MnO 0.24 0.15 0.32 N.V. Vasil’ev and L.P. Yurchenkova analysts,
Institute of Mineralogy, Geochemistry, and
MgO 21.01 20.16 21.93
Crystal Chemistry of Rare Elements). Content
NiO 0.21 0.17 0.26 of Cr, Ni, Co, V, Cu, and Zn is typical of picrite;
concentration of Zr, Nb, Hf, REE, and actinides
CaO 1.84 2.01 2.34 is typical of alkali picrite.
Na2O 0.30 0.19 0.16
The chemical composition of gumbeites
from various zones of the metasomatites column
K2O 3.64 2.99 2.05 (Fig. 1) is given in Table 1. Chemical variations
are not great. Strong predominance of Mg
CO2 16.29 16.28 16.52
over Fe and Ca characteristic of picrite retains
H2O+ 1.95 2.30 2.10 in altered rocks. Content of Ca decreases to
the inner zone, whereas that of Na, S, and As
S 0.12 0.10 0.02 noticeably increases (Table 1).
Apopicritic gumbeites is composed of Mn-
Total 100.20 99.67 99.43
poor magnesite, F-rich phlogopite, quartz,
As, ppm 970 740 170 potassium feldspar, albite, chlorite, F-rich
muscovite and phengite, tourmaline (dravi
Notes: Analyses were performed at laboratory of Institute of te), rutile (after ilmenite), to less extent dolo
Geology of Ore Deposits, Mineralogy, Geochemistry, and mite, fluorapatite, monazite-(Ce), zircon, xe
Petrography, Russian Academy of Sciences; As (ppm) was
determined by quantitative spectrometry.
notime, gersdorffite, siegenite, millerite, Co-
bearing pyrite, and galena. Talc-magnesite
an X-ray technique to determine all REE metasomatic rock with hematite, and accessory
taking into account interference of analytical hydroxylphlogopite, hydroxylapatite, and
lines, and effect of selective absorption and violarite occurs in the outer zone of the
excitation of other elements. I.M. Kulikova has column.
improved this technique for modern equipment. White inner zone of the apopicritic gum
Operating conditions are: accelerating voltage beites column up to 2 cm in thickness (Fig. 1a)
20 kV, current intensity 30 nA, mode of current contacting with gumbeitized porphyry gra
stabilization. Fourteen REE, Y, Th, U, Ca, P, nodiorite or potassium feldspar-carbonate-
Si, Ti, Al, Fe, Mn, Mg, Sr, Na, Ba, and Ti were quartz vein is composed of varigranular ag
measured. The following standards were used: gregates of magnesite, quartz and F-rich
synthetic phosphates of individual REE and Y, phlogopite (Fig. 2); the proportion of minerals is
dioxides of Th, U, and Ti, barite, celestine, and strongly variable from place to place; structure
other. Counting time is 10 to 60 s. Analytical lines is massive, in some cases, it is directive, where
are measured for two stages: firstly, the relative gumbeites replaced bands of deformed picrite.
intensities of even REE, Si, Y, Th, P, Ca, and Sr Next gray zone up to 2 cm thick is composed
were measured; then the relative intensities of of abundant phlogopite, quartz, and magnesite
other elements were determined at the same (Fig. 3) with inclusions of rare large crystals
points. The detection limits of REE are (wt.%): of albite and clusters of albite and potassium
0.03 La and Ce, 0.06 Pr, 0.04 Nd, 0.07 Sm, 0.08 feldspar (Fig. 1b). Mega- and microscopically,
Eu, 0.07 Gd, 0.05 Tb, 0.04 Dy, 0.10 Ho, 0.04 Er, in white and gray zones, features of primary
Fig. 2. Photomicrographs of white zone of apopicritic gumbeites column. Magnesite-phlogopite-quartz gumbeites. (a) Normal light,
(b) crossed polars.
Fig. 3. Photomicrographs of gray zone of apopicritic gumbeites column. Quartz-magnesite-phlogopite gumbeites. (a) Normal light,
(b) crossed polars.
picrite are absent; chrome spinel and ilmenite are Gumbeites of the yellow, gray, and white
completely dissolved. Next yellow zone ranging zones are enriched in Ba (average 1138 ppm,
from 3 to 11 cm in thickness contains tourmaline occasionally up to 3800 ppm), Rb (average
and dolomite along with magnesite and does not 219 ppm), contains Sr (average 123 ppm), Cs
contain green chlorite and Cr-bearing muscovite. (average 2.99 ppm), Ag (average 437 ppb), and
Next green zone of 15 to 25 cm thick contains Au (7.0 ppb). Thus, gumbeitization resulted in
pods of green chlorite and relict chrome spinel strong accumulation of Ba and Rb coherent to K
in aggregates of Cr-bearing muscovite and and Ag, but not Au.
phengite (Figs. 1, 4). The outer zone comprises Relict minerals. Zincochromite is partially
talc-magnesite metasomatic rock with hematite; retained in the green zone of apopicritic
the structure is massive as usual and foliated gumbeites (Fig. 2). The grain size is up to
with predominant orientation of hematite plates; 2 mm. The Ti-free, Al- and Mg-poor mineral
crystals of dark gray magnesite are not deformed compositionally corresponds to the formula
(pre-gumbeites foliation). Boundaries between (Zn0.7 – 0.8Fe2+0.2 – 0.3)1(Cr1.3 – 1.4Fe3+0.4 – 0.6Al0.1 – 0.2)2O4
zones are clear. The size of crystals of magnesite ((Table 2). Spinels of similar morphology and
ranges from 0.0n to 10–14 mm; that of quartz, composition occur in picrite and peridotitic
potassium feldspar and albite, and phlogopite serpentinite beyond gumbeites aureoles. Both
reaches 3, 4, and 2 mm, respectively. The zinc chromite and other spinels are the products
minerals are irregularly distributed frequently of regional submergence metamorphism with
composing pockets. high-alkali and high-oxidative fluids; when
ultramaphic and mafic rocks are metamorphosed from 0.0n to 14 mm. Aggregates of magnesite
together, Zn from mafic rocks compensates are sufficiently abundant. The core of such
deficiency of Fe2+ in spinels (Spiridonov aggregates is unzoned single rhombohedron
et al., 19971; 19982). Spinel is brecciated and rimmed by small zoned rhombohedra of Fe-rich
significantly replaced by Cr-rich muscovite, magnesite. Magnesite is Mn-poor in all zones
phengite, and phlogopite. of the metasomatic column. The Fe/(Fe+Mg)
Picrite in inter-variole places contained value of the mineral from talc-magnesite rock of
mumerous plates of ilmenite up to 2.5 × 2.5 × the outer zone ranges from 0.06 to 0.12. Magnesite
0.5 mm in size. Pseudomorphs of long-prismatic from the green zone contains traced Ca and Mn,
rutile after deformed, curved, and twisted plates and up to 0.3 wt.% Zn; its Fe/(Fe+Mg) value
of ilmenite are abundant in the green and yellow is 0.13 to 0.16 (Table 3). Magnesite from the
zones of gumbeites column. yellow zone contains traced Ca and Mn; its Fe/
Quartz, one of the major minerals of white (Fe+Mg) value is 0.09 to 0.16 (Table 4).
and gray zones, is abundant in the yellow Small pockets of late dolomite occur in the
and green zones. Its grains range from 0.0n aggregates of magnesite of the yellow zone.
to 3 mm in size. Megascopally, the mineral is In addition, dolomite heals fractures in deformed
light gray, opaque. It contains numerous tiny crystals of tourmaline (Fig. 5). The composi
fluid inclusions with liquid CO2. Quartz is close tion of dolomite corresponds to the formula
intergrown with phlogopite, magnesite, and Ca0.98-1Mg0.83-0.92Fe0.09-0.15Mn0-0.02(СО3)2.
potassium feldspar. Phlogopite, one of the major minerals of white
Carbonates are the major constituents of and gray zones, occurs as lamellar and columnar
apopicritic gumbeites. Magnesite is predominant crystals up to 1 to 2 mm in size. Split fan-shaped
in all zones of the column. Megascopally, mag crystals of phlogopite enclosed in quartz are
nesite is black in talc-magnesite metasomatic frequent in the white zone. Microscopically,
rock of the outer zone; this mineral is white to phlogopite is light brown to brown, unzoned as
light yellow in phlogopite-quartz-magnesite usual (Figs. 3, 4). Phlogopite is F-bearing, Ti-
inner zone. The grains of the mineral ranges poor and contains ca. 0.5 wt.% Cr.
Table 2. Chemical composition (wt.%) of relict zincochromite from apopicritic phlogopite-magnesite gumbeites,
Berezovsky deposit
Component 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
ZnO 27.46 27.01 26.26 26.54 26.68 26.26 26.41 26.04 26.01 25.52
FeO 6.48 6.89 6.68 6.48 7.47 6.98 7.28 7.32 7.00 8.39
MgO 0.30 0.32 0.46 0.62 0.30 0.55 0.28 0.62 0.81 0.56
NiO 0.34 0.19 0.26 0.28 0.22 0.49 0.25 0.19 bdl bdl
MnO bdl bdl bdl bdl bdl bdl 0.43 bdl 0.37 bdl
Cr2O3 43.25 43.10 42.14 41.83 44.12 41.99 43.02 41.44 46.08 46.36
Fe2O3 18.53 18.12 18.33 19.46 19.07 20.65 19.85 20.89 13.31 13.32
Al2O3 3.89 4.15 3.88 3.91 3.34 3.67 3.58 4.02 5.74 5.68
Total 100.34 99.78 98.01 99.12 101.20 100.69 101.10 99.92 99.32 99.83
Atoms per formula unit
Zn 0.77 0.76 0.75 0.75 0.74 0.73 0.73 0.73 0.72 0.71
Fe2+ 0.20 0.22 0.22 0.21 0.24 0.22 0.23 0.23 0.22 0.26
Mg 0.02 0.015 0.02 0.03 0.015 0.03 0.015 0.035 0.05 0.03
Ni 0.01 0.005 0.01 0.01 0.005 0.02 0.01 0.005 − −
Mn − − − − − − 0.015 − 0,01 −
Total 1
Cr 1.29 1.30 1.29 1.26 1.31 1.25 1.28 1.24 1.37 1.37
Fe3+ 0.53 0.52 0.53 0.56 0.54 0.59 0.56 0.58 0.38 0.38
Al 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.15 0.16 0.16 0.18 0.25 0.25
Total 2
Notes. A Jeol SM-6480 LV electron microprobe, N.N. Korotaeva analyst. Content of Ti and Si is below detection limit, FeO and Fe2O3
are calculated by stoichiometry. Here and below bdl is below detection limit.
Table 3. Chemical composition (wt.%) of magnesite from green zone of apopicritic phlogopite-magnesite
gumbeites, Berezovsky deposit
Component 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
MgO 38.65 38.42 37.69 37.32 37.72 37.13 36.76 37.04 36.73 36.25
FeO 10.51 11.19 11.51 11.75 12.42 12.46 12.57 12.61 12.95 13.47
ZnO 0.18 0.17 bdl 0.19 0.24 0.23 0.19 0.25 0.31 0.21
MnO 0.10 0.12 bdl 0.12 0.13 0.13 0.14 0.08 0.11 0.17
CaO 0.10 0.12 bdl 0.10 bdl 0.09 0.15 0.09 0.10 0.14
SrO bdl bdl bdl 0.10 bdl bdl bdl bdl 0.09 bdl
Total 49.54 50.00 49.20 49.57 50.51 50.03 49.80 50.07 50.29 50.25
Mg 0.87 0.86 0.85 0.85 0.84 0.84 0.84 0.84 0.84 0.83
Fe 0.13 0.14 0.15 0.15 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.17
Total 1
Notes. A Jeol SM-6480 LV electron microprobe, N.N. Korotaeva analyst.
Table 4. Chemical composition (wt.%) of magnesite from yellow zone of apopicritic phlogopite-magnesite
Component 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29
MgO 41.51 41.06 38.40 38.86 37.87 38.41 38.40 37.64 37.86
FeO 6.91 8.10 9.99 11.20 11.30 11.34 11.56 12.46 12.70
MnO 0.16 0.13 0.16 0.12 0.12 0.13 0.13 0.28 0.13
CaO bdl bdl 0.17 0.11 bdl 0.08 0.17 0.16 0.15
SrO bdl bdl bdl bdl 0.10 bdl bdl bdl 0.10
Total 48.58 49.28 48.72 50.28 49.39 49.96 50.27 50.55 50.94
Mg 0.91 0.90 0.87 0.86 0.86 0.86 0.86 0.84 0.84
Fe 0.09 0.10 0.13 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.16 0.16
Total 1
Phlogopite is frequently replaced by color 19.60; CaO 0.20; Na2O 11.46; K2O 0.10; total
less Fe-poor chlorite or muscovite. is 99.62 (N.N. Korotaeva analyst); formula is
Potassium feldspar is abundant in gray, (Na0.975Ca0.01K0.005)0.99[Al1.01Si3O8], or Na98.5Ca1K0.5.
yellow, and green zones. Microcline without White micas. Flour-bearing (1–2.5 wt.% F)
grid pattern occurs as separate grains in matrix white micas are abundant in the gray and green
of magnesite and quartz (± micas) and as zones of the apopicritic gumbeites column. The
clusters with albite. Potassium feldspar contains Cr-richest micas occur as replacement rims
traces of Ca, up to 2% Ba, 3–60% of albite around zincochromite (Fig. 2; Table 5, anal.
end-member, and 0–4% of hyalophane end- 39–44); Cr-poor micas (Table 6, anal. 45, 46)
member (Table 5). Positive correlation between are disseminated in quartz-potassium feldspar-
Ba and Na substituting K was established in the phlogopite-magnesite matrix. In these micas,
mineral. Cr for Al chemical substitution is pronounced.
Albite is relatively common in the gumbeites Muscovite and muscovite-phengite enriched
described; it is abundant in the gray zone, in Cr are extremely enriched in Mg. The
where albite and potassium feldspar occur composition of the Mg-richest F-bearing
as occasionally split composite crystals up to muscovite (Table 6, anal. 43) is specific; it is close
3 mm. Crystals display predominantly albite to KAlMg[(OH0.5F0.5)1/AlSi3O10]. Potassium is
twinning. The chemical composition of albite predominant in micas; deficiency at the K site
is as follows (anal. 38, wt.%): SiO2 68.26; Al2O3 is insignificant.
F-bearing muscovite, muscovite-phengite,

and phengite with noticeable content of Ti
with overgrowth rims of muscovite enriched
in Ba and Na are developed in the yellow
zone; their compositions are given in Table 7.
Ti is concentrated in muscovite and phengite,
whereas Ba and Na are concentrated in low-Si
muscovite.
Rutile occurs as aggregate-type pseu
domorphs after plates of ilmenite (Figs. 6, 7).
The composition of rutile is as follows (anal. 54,
wt.%): TiO2 98.52, Fe2O3 0.51, WO3 0.13, ThO2
0.01; total is 99.17 (I.M. Kulikova, analyst); Y, Ce,
La, Nd, U, Ca, and Zr are below detection limits.
Tourmaline (dravite). Short prismatic
metacrystals of tourmaline up to 4 mm in length
(Fig. 5) are common in the yellow zone. The
crystals are poorly zoned. Cores of some crystals
Fig. 4. Photomicrograph of green zone of apopicritic gumbeites
are brownish green in transmit light with the
column. Relict zincochromite (black) in aggregate of Cr-rich Fe/(Fe+Mg) value 0.18–0.20; rims of these
muscovite. Groundmass is composed of Fe-rich magnesite, crystals are greenish and yellowish-greenish
muscovite, phlogopite, quartz, and potassium feldspar. Normal light. with the lower Fe/(Fe+Mg) value 0.10–
0.16. In other crystals the zoning is reversal.
Fig. 5. Photomicrographs of long prismatiс zoned crystal of dravite Tourmaline of picritic gumbeites is Cr-free,
in phlogopite-magnesite matrix. Crystal is deformed; parting and Ti-, Fe2+, and Fe3+-poor dravite (Table 8).
fractures are filled by dolomite. (a) Normal light, (b) crossed polars. The remarkable deficiency of Na (up to 22%)
indicates high acidity of hydrothermal fluid. The
composition of tourmaline corresponds to the
formula (Na0.8-0.9Ca0-0.1□0.1-0.2)1(Mg2.3-2.5Fe2+0.3-0.6
Fe 3+ 0-0.1 Al 0-0.3 ) 3 Al 6 (BO 3 ) 3 [(Si 5.9-6 Al 0-0.1 ) 6 O 18 ]
(OH3.8-4O0-0.2)4, value 0.10-0.20, average 0.16.
Microscopically, dravite with relict lamellae
of ilmenite is green-brown to brown and contains
up to 5 wt.%, up 1.5 wt.% Ti, and inclusions of
acicular rutile.
Fluorapatite is abundant mineral. Clusters
and aggregates of apatite grains are frequen-
tly confined to the aggregate pseudomorphs of
acicular rutile after deformed plates of ilmenite
(Fig. 6, 7). The size of crystals of fluorapatite is
up to 0.5 mm. It forms compromise growth surfa-
ce with rutile, quartz, magnesite, and potassium
feldspar. The chemical composition of fluorapa-
tite is given in Table 9 (anal. 63–71). The sepa-
rate measurement (no. 72) with determination of
REE was performed by I.M. Kulikova; this com-
position is as follows (wt.%): CaO 56.06; SrO 0.24;
Na2O 0.05; Y2O3 0.09; Ce2O3 0.07; Nd2O3 0.13;
FeO 0.05; MnO 0.06; UO2 0.01; P2O5 42.01; SiO2
0.44; SO3 0.28; F 3.67, total is (–O = F2) 101.61;
Cl, La, Pr, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb, Lu,
Th are below detection limits. Formula of this
apatite is (Ca4.97Sr0.01Na0.01Y0.01)5(Р2.94Si0.04S0.02)3
O12F0.96. This is all-fluorine apatite. Phosphorous
in the gumbeites apatite is substituted to some
extent with Si and S that testifies to the high
temperature of formation and high oxidation
potential (Peng et al., 1997; Phosphates.., 2003).
Table 5. Chemical composition (wt.%) of potassium feldspar from apopicritic phlogopite-magnesite gumbeites,
Berezovsky deposit
Component 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37
SiO2 65.27 64.71 64.49 64.54 64.07 64.57 63.61 63.65
Al2O3 18.62 18.59 18.50 18.53 18.57 18.77 18.84 18.89
Fe2O3 bdl bdl bdl bdl bdl 0.15 bdl bdl
CaO bdl bdl bdl bdl 0.11 bdl bdl 0.16
Na2O 0.40 0.37 0.52 0.65 0.73 0.45 0.74 0.71
K2O 16.32 16.25 16.00 15.73 15.64 15.90 15.30 15.18
BaO 0.23 0.34 0.47 0.66 0.67 1.22 2.19 2.29
Total 100.85 100.27 99.98 100.10 99.78 101.06 100.68 100.88
K 0.96 0.96 0.94 0.93 0.93 0.94 0.90 0.90
Na 0.04 0.03 0.05 0.06 0.06 0.04 0.06 0.06
Ba - 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.04 0.04
Total 1
Si 3.00 2.99 2.99 2.99 2.97 2.98 2.96 2.96
Al 1.00 1.01 1.01 1.01 1.03 1.01 1.04 1.04
Fe3+ − − − − − 0.01 − −
Total 4
Table 6. Chemical composition (wt.%) of Cr-bearing muscovite (39-45) and phengite (46) from apopicritic
phlogopite-magnesite gumbeites, Berezovsky deposit
Component 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46
SiO2 48.16 47.60 47.54 47.27 46.61 47.47 49.40 49.61
Al2O3 26.38 26.65 25.13 26.11 24.96 26.67 30.83 29.43
Cr2O3 2.98 2.68 2.58 2.36 2.16 1.47 0.41 0.39
Fe2O3 1.26 1.58 1.13 1.76 1.82 1.19 0.27 0.36
MgO 5.52 3.99 7.10 5.57 8.71 6.19 3.66 3.85
Na2O 0.18 0.12 0.15 0.17 0.25 0.18 0.21 0.22
K2O 11.14 10.91 10.98 10.97 10.89 11.06 11.12 11.12
F 1.69 0.98 1.87 1.88 2.32 1.93 1.37 1.10
H2O+ 5.14 6.66 4.36 4.94 2.43 4.68 6.75 7.05
Total –O = F2 101.74 100.76 100.05 100.24 99.17 100.03 103.44 102.67
K 0.93 0.95 0.94 0.94 0.91 0.94 0.93 0.94
Na 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.03
□ 0.05 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.06 0.04 0.04 0.03
Total 1
Al 1.24 1.38 1.11 1.23 0.96 1.25 1.61 1.59
Cr 0.16 0.14 0.13 0.13 0.11 0.08 0.02 0.02
Fe3+ 0.06 0.08 0.06 0.08 0.09 0.06 0.02 0.01
Mg 0.54 0.40 0.70 0.56 0.84 0.61 0.35 0.38
Total 2
Si 3.18 3.24 3.15 3.17 3.04 3.16 3.23 3.29
Al 0.82 0.76 0.85 0.83 0.96 0.84 0.77 0.71
Total 4
OH 1.20 1.60 1.02 1.17 0.56 1.10 1.56 1.65
F 0.39 0.21 0.39 0.40 0.48 0.41 0.28 0.23
Total 1.59 1.81 1.41 1.57 1.14 1.51 1.84 1.85
Notes. A Jeol SM-6480 LV electron microprobe, N.N. Korotaeva analyst. Contents of Ca, Mn, and Ti are below detection limits. H2O+
calculated by stoichiometry.
Table 7. Chemical composition (wt.%) of muscovite (48, 50, 51), phengite (47, 49), Ba-bearing muscovite (52, 53)
from yellow zone of apopicritic phlogopite-magnesite gumbeites, Berezovsky deposit
Component 47 48 49 50 51 52 53
SiO2 48.84 48.84 49.95 48.05 47.92 46.04 46.18
TiO2 0.95 0.77 0.66 0.27 0.13 bdl bdl
Al2O3 28.44 29.04 29.11 29.53 30.21 32.90 32.82
Fe2O3 1.53 1.53 0.47 1.29 2.18 1.81 1.38
MgO 3.74 4.07 4.51 4.89 4.12 2.72 2.80
Na2O 0.17 0.19 0.19 0.20 0.21 0.41 0.35
K2O 11.09 11.18 11.18 11.23 11.18 10.63 10.44
BaO bdl bdl bdl bdl bdl 1.47 1.71
F 1.27 1.30 1.00 1.29 0.89 0.93 1.05
H2O+ 6.94 6.64 6.76 5.99 6.81 6.89 6.80
Total – O = F2 102.44 103.01 103.41 102.23 103.27 103.41 103.19
K 0.95 0.94 0.93 0.94 0.94 0.90 0.89
Na 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.05 0.05
Ba − − − − − 0.04 0.04
□ 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.03 0.03 0.01 0.02
Total 1
Al 1.50 1.48 1.50 1.45 1.48 1.64 1.65
Fe3+ 0.08 0.08 0.03 0.06 0.11 0.09 0.07
Ti 0.05 0.04 0.02 0.01 0.01 − −
Mg 0.37 0.40 0.45 0.48 0.40 0.27 0.28
Total 2
Si 3.26 3.22 3.26 3.16 3.15 3.06 3.08
Al 0.74 0.78 0.74 0.84 0.85 0.94 0.92
Total 4
OH 1.64 1.55 1.58 1.39 1.58 1.62 1.60
F 0.27 0.27 0.21 0.27 0.18 0.20 0.22
Total 1.91 1.82 1.79 1.66 1.76 1.82 1.82
Notes. A Jeol SM-6480 LV electron microprobe, N.N. Korotaeva analyst. Contents of Cr, Ca, and Mn are below detection limits. H2O+
calculated by stoichiometry.
Fig. 6. Back-scattered electron image of grains of fluorapatite (light gray) confined to aggregate pseudomorph of acicular rutile
after plates of ilmenite. Small bright white crtstal are monazite. Groundmass is composed of cluster of magnesite, quartz, phlogopite,
potassium feldspar, and muscovite.
Fig. 7. Back-scattered electron image of fluorapatite (light gray) intergrown with rutile (white) in aggregate of magnesite, phlogopite,
and muscovite.
Table 8. Chemical composition (wt.%) of tourmaline (dravite) from apopicritic phlogopite-magnesite gumbeites,
Berezovsky deposit
Component 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62
SiO2 37.01 36.61 37.18 37.00 36.61 36.76 36.94 36.96
TiO2 bdl 0.11 0.26 0.33 0.17 0.28 bdl 0.10
Al2O3 32.78 31.25 31.61 31.82 31.72 32.21 33.75 33.29
Fe2O3 − 0.42 0.07 − 0.57 − − −
FeO 2.11 3.64 4.20 3.93 3.94 3.76 1.95 3.18
MgO 10.13 9.81 9.96 9.91 9.83 9.83 9.68 9.60
CaO 0.13 0.24 0.15 0.48 0.10 0.44 0.10 0.17
Na2O 2.41 2.51 2.84 2.59 2.85 2.73 2.56 2.62
K2O bdl bdl bdl bdl 0.10 bdl bdl bdl
Total 84.58 84.59 86.28 86.05 85.88 86.00 84.98 85.92
Na 0.76 0.80 0.89 0.81 0.90 0.85 0.80 0.82
K − − − − 0.02 − − −
Ca 0.02 0.04 0.03 0.08 0.02 0.08 0.02 0.03
□ 0.22 0.16 0.08 0.11 0.06 0.07 0.18 0.15
Total 1
Al 0.27 0.04 − 0.04 − 0.09 0.40 0.26
Fe3+ − 0.05 0.01 − 0.07 − − −
Ti − 0.01 0.03 0.04 0.02 0.03 − 0.01
Fe2+ 0.28 0.50 0.57 0.53 0.53 0.51 0.27 0.43
Mg 2.45 2.40 2.39 2.39 2.38 2.37 2.33 2.30
Total 3
Al 6.00 6.00 6.00 6.00 6.00 6.00 6.00 6.00
Total 6
Al − − 0.01 0.02 0.06 0.05 0.03 0.05
Si 6.00 6.00 5.99 5.98 5.94 5.95 5.97 5.95
Total 6
O 0.07 − − 0.08 − 0.11 0.21 0.10
OH 3.93 4.00 4.00 3.92 4.00 3.89 3.79 3.90
Total 4
Notes. A Jeol SM-6480 LV electron microprobe, N.N. Korotaeva analyst. Contents of Cr and Mn are below detection limits.
Zircon is a member of solid solution series Zirconium is established to be mobile in alkali

Zr[SiO4] (zircon proper) – Hf[SiO4] (gaphnon) high-temperature hydrothermal solutions;
– Th[SiO4] (thorite) – U[SiO4] (coffinite) high-temperature altered rock enriched in
– Y[PO4] (xenotime) (Heinrich, 1962; Kras newly formed zircon was found (albitite –
nobaev, 1986; Frondel and Collette, 1957; Gratz mariupolite) (Frondel and Collette, 1957;
and Heinrich, 1997; Strunz and Nickel, 2001; Rubin et al., 1993; Zircon..., 2004).
Zircon…, 2004; Förster, 2006). Accessory zircon Zircon in phlogopite-magnesite gumbeites
is typical of magmatic rocks from granites, occurs as disseminated prismatic and short-
granitic pegmatites, rhyolite to gabbros and prismatic crystals up to 90 μm in length, which
basalts; baddeleite is formed instead of zircon are frequently associated with fluorapatite
in magmatic rocks undersaturated in silica. A (Figs. 8–10). Compromise growth surfaces are
lot of publications are devoted to morphology frequent between zircon, quartz, magnesite, and
and composition of zircon from magmatic fluorapatite. The predominant zones of zircon
rocks (and weathered products); there is a crystals contain (wt.%): 1.4–1.9 Hf, 0.6–1.2
rather complete review (Zircon.., 2004) and P2O5, traces of U, Th, and Y; the zones enriched
reviews for the Urals (Krasnobaev, 1986; in U contain up to 3.8 wt.% U, 2.4 Hf, 1.4 Y, 0.8
Votyakov et al., 2011). As a result of magmatic Th (Table 10). Zircon from gumbeites contains
fractionation, Hf, U, and Th are accumulated 1–2% of hafnon end-member, 0–3% of coffinite
in zircon and high-tempreature zircon is end-member, 0–1% of thorite end-member, and
enriched in the xenotime end-member. 0–3% of xenotime end-member.
Table 9. Chemical composition (wt.%) of fluorapatite from apopicritic phlogopite-magnesite gumbeites,

Berezovsky deposit
Component 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
CaO 54.06 54.40 54.70 54.79 54.83 54.94 54.56 55.04 55.31
SrO 0.94 bdl bdl bdl bdl bdl bdl bdl bdl
Ce2O3 bdl 0.25 bdl bdl bdl bdl bdl bdl bdl
FeO 0.14 0.21 0.19 bdl bdl bdl bdl bdl bdl
MnO bdl bdl 0.15 bdl bdl bdl bdl bdl bdl
P2O5 41.47 41.23 41.19 41.38 40.89 41.29 40.61 40.83 42.18
SiO2 0.30 0.36 0.36 0.43 0.45 0.46 0.46 0.53 0.58
SO3 bdl 0.30 0.11 bdl 0.29 0.10 0.45 bdl bdl
F 3.98 3.32 3.46 3.30 3.49 3.35 3.59 3.24 3.18
Total – O=F2 99.21 98.67 100.05 99.57 98.88 99.61 98.94 99.25 99.91
Сa 4.94 4.98 4.98 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00
Sr 0.05 – – − − − − − −
Ce − 0.01 – − − − − − −
Fe 0.01 0.01 0.01 − − − − − −
Mn − – 0.01 − − − − − −
Total 5
P 0.97 0.95 0.96 0.96 0.94 0.96 0.93 0.96 0.95
Si 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.05
S – 0.02 0.01 – 0.02 0.01 0.03 – –
Total 1
F 1.08 0.90 0.93 0.89 0.94 0.90 0.97 0.87 0.85
Fig. 8. Back-scattered electron image of fluorapatite (light) intergrown with zircon (white) in matrix of magnesite (dark gray),
phlogopite, potassium feldspar, muscovite (light gray), and quartz (gray).
Fig. 9. Back-scattered electron image of cluster of zircon crystals (white), two of which are large. Groundmass is composed of
intergrown magnesite (dark gray), quartz (gray), phlogopite, potassium feldspar, and muscovite (light gray).
Table 10. Chemical composition (wt.%) of zircon from apopicritic phlogopite-magnesite gumbeites, Berezovsky
deposit
Component 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
ZrO2 65.93 65.71 64.93 63.63 63.51 63.66 63.29 60.34
HfO2 1.63 1.92 1.45 1.39 1.40 2.41 1.99 2.02
UO2 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.59 2.19 3.88
ThO2 bdl bdl bdl 0.65 0.48 0.20 0.80 0.60
Y2O3 bdl bdl 0.66 1.35 1.09 0.23 0.74 0.90
Ce2O3 bdl bdl 0.11 bdl 0.37 bdl bdl bdl
Nd2O3 0.05 0.06 0.05 0.15 0.20 bdl bdl bdl
Gd2O3 0.07 bdl bdl bdl bdl bdl bdl bdl
Yb2O3 bdl bdl bdl bdl bdl bdl bdl 0.05
SiO2 32.38 32.19 32.32 31.39 31.15 32.03 32.07 31.07
P2O5 0.13 0.15 0.58 1.06 1.14 0.14 0.48 0.64
Total 100.20 100.05 100.01 99.64 99.38 99.26 101.56 99.50
Zr 0.99 0.99 0.98 0.96 0.96 0.97 0.95 0.93
Hf 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.02
U − − − − − 0.01 0.02 0.03
Th − − − 0.01 − − − −
Y − − 0.01 0.02 0.02 − 0.01 0.02
Ce − − − − 0.01 − − −
Si 1.00 0.99 0.99 0.97 0.97 1.00 0.99 0.98
P − − 0.01 0.03 0.03 − 0.01 0.02
Notes. A Camebax-microbeam electron microprobe, I.M. Kulikova analyst. Contents of S, La, Pr, Sm, Er, Dy, Ho, Tm, and Lu are
below detection limits.
Fig. 10. Back-scattered electron image of complexly zoned crystal of zircon. Points correspond to numbers in Table 10.
Fig. 11. Back-scattered electron image of aggregate pseudomorph of long-prismatic crystals of rutile after deformed and partly
brecciated large plate crystal of ilmenite. The most deformed places are dissolved; pockets of crystals of monazite (white) are
developed instead of them. Groundmass is composed of intergrown magnesite (dark gray), quartz (gray), potassium feldspar, and
micas. Long fluorapatite (light gray) is above lamella.
Fig. 12. Photomicrograph of pocket of monazite crystals in aggregate of acicular rutile. (a) Normal light, (b) crossed polars.
Monazite is a member of solid solution Pr, Sm, and Dy is appreciable; small part of P is
series (Ce,La,Nd…Sm)[PO4] (monazite proper) substituted by Si; content of the huttonite end-
– CaTh[PO4]2 (brabantite) – CaCe2Th[PO4]4 member is less than 2%. The compositions of
(cheralite) – Th[SiO4] (huttonite – gasparite five examined crystals of monazite are similar
(Ce,La,Nd)[AsO4] with a small admixture of the and correspond to the formula (Ce0.40-0.43La0.25-0.28
xenotime end-member Y[PO4] (Heinrich, 1962; Nd0.16-0.18Y0.02-0.05Pr0.03-0.04Sm0.02Gd0.01-0.02Eu0-0.01
Yushkin et al., 1986; Pabst and Hutton, 1951; Bowie Th 0.01-0.02 Са 0.02 ) 1-1.01 (P 0.97-0.98 Si 0.01-0.03 ) 0.99-1 O 4
and Horne, 1953; Graeser and Schwander, 1977; (Table 11). These compositions are typical
Rose, 1980; Strunz and Nickel, 2001; Phosphates.., of monazite of high- to medium-temperature
2003). The usual Ce:La:Nd value in monazite is hydrothermal assemblages (Phosphates.., 2003).
~ 2:1:1, less frequent La is predominant, Nd is The crystal cores of the Berezovsky monazite
predominant occasionally. Monazite is typical are enriched in Y (Table 11, anal. 81); the tem
of Ca-poor granite and syenite, granitic gneiss perature of their and rims (anal. 84, 85) formation
of normal and elevated alkalinity; it is the major estimated from the Gratz-Heinrich equation
carrier of LREE; content of Th is up to 30 wt.% and (Gratz and Heinrich, 1997) is ca. 450оC and ca.
higher (Phosphates.., 2003; Philpotts and Ague, 300оC, respectively.
2009). The content of U is also high in monazite Xenotime is a member of solid solution
of some granitic pegmatites (Gramaccioli and series Y[PO4] (xenotime proper) – HREE[PO4]
Segalstad, 1978). Th-free or Th-poor monazite including xenotime-(Yb) Yb[PO4]. The content
occurs in hydrothermal rocks (Yushkin et al., of the xenotime-(Y) end-member is 70–80%
1988; Phosphates.., 2003). When monazite is as usual; that of the HREE[PO4] is 15–25%,
associated with xenotime, its composition is an occasionally higher than 50%; the solid solution
indicator of temperature and pressure: at 2 kb, of high-temperature xenotime contains up
mole fraction of Y increases from 3 to 16% as to 5–10% of the (Ce,La,Nd…Sm)[PO4] end-
temperature increases from 300 to 1000оС at member (monazite), up to 5% of the CaTh[PO4]2
2 kb (Gratz and Heinrich, 1997). (brabantite) – CaCe2Th[PO4]4 (cheralite) end-
Gumbeites monazite has not been studied member, and up to 5% of the (Th,U)[SiO4] end-
before. In the Berezovsky gumbeite, it occurs member (thorite-coffinite) (Heinrich, 1962;
as crystals of usual shape up to 45 μm in size, Yushkin et al., 1986; Gratz, and Heinrich, 1997;
their clusters confined to deformed lamellae of Strunz and Nickel, 2001; Phosphates.., 2003;
ilmenite replaced by aggregates of acicular rutile Förster, 2006). Xenotime is a typical accessory
(Figs. 11, 12). Monazite overgrows rutile and fill mineral of various granitoids of normal and
interstices between crystals of rutile (Fig. 13). high alkalinity; it is the major carrier of HREE
It is intergrown with fluorapatite to form in them. It is rather abundant in high- and
compromise growth surfaces. In phlogopite- medium-temperature hydrothermal assemblages
magnesite gumbeite, this minerals is U-free (Yushkin et al., 1986; Phosphates.., 2003).
and Th-poor (0.8–2.2 wt.% Th); Ce content is Gumbeitic xenotime has not been studied
twice as much as that of La; the concentration before. In the Berezovsky gumbeites, it occurs as
of Nd is slightly less than that of La; content of small bipyramidal crystals and anhedral grains
Table 11. Chemical composition (wt.%) of monazite

from apopicritic phlogopite-magnesite
Component 81 82 83 84 85
Y2O3 2.40 1.41 1.33 1.18 1.04

La2O3 16.87 15.92 15.58 15.96 17.41
Ce2O3 29.58 30.73 30.36 29.43 30.60
Pr2O3 2.68 2.88 2.49 3.21 2.25
Nd2O3 11.64 12.59 13.39 12.38 12.09
Sm2O3 1.46 1.29 1.81 1.82 1.79
Eu2O3 0.36 0.23 0.27 0.10 0.16
Gd2O3 0.79 0.96 0.90 0.82 1.21
Tb2O3 bdl 0.16 0.06 0.16 0.11 Fig. 13. Back-scattered electron image of crystal of monazite
(white) in aggregate of rutile (gray), quartz, and micas (dark
Dy2O3 0.21 0.36 bdl 0.30 0.49 gray).
Ho2O3 bdl bdl bdl 0.16 bdl

Er2O3 0.18 0.15 bdl bdl 0.15
Yb2O3 bdl 0.15 bdl bdl 0.09
Lu2O3 bdl 0.09 0.17 bdl 0.19
ThO2 2.20 1.41 1.41 2.23 0.83
TiO2 0.21 0.26 0.21 0.18 0.24
UO2 0.17 0.01 0.01 0.09 0.02
CaO 0.49 0.46 0.60 0.73 0.31
SrO 0.06 bdl bdl bdl bdl
FeO 0.07 bdl 0.04 0.08 0.05
P2O5 30.35 30.63 30.91 30.72 30.70
SiO2 0.66 0.37 0.50 0.48 0.34
Total 100.39 100.06 100.04 100.03 100.07
Atoms per formula unit (Total =2)
Y 0.05 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02

Fig. 14. Back-scattered electron image of crystal of xenotime
La 0.27 0.26 0.25 0.26 0.28 (light) in aggregate of crystals of rutile (gray).
Ce 0.40 0.42 0.43 0.41 0.42 Fig. 15. Back-scattered electron image of anhedral xenotime
(light) in aggregate of crystal of rutile (gray).
Pr 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.04 0.03
Nd 0.16 0.17 0.18 0.17 0.16
Sm 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02
Eu 0.01 – – – –
Gd 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02
Dy – – – – 0.01
Th 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02
Ca 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.01
P 0.97 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.98
Si 0.03 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.01
Notes. A Camebax-microbeam electron microprobe, I.M. Ku

likova analyst. Contents of Na and Tm are below detection
limits.
Table 12. Chemical composition (wt.%) of xenotime up to 20 μm enclosed in clusters of acicular

from apopicritic phlogopite-magnesite rutile (Figs. 14, 15). Xenotime in phlogopite-
magnesite gumbeites is Th-free and U-poor
Component 86 87 88 89
(0.1–0.8 wt.% U); Y significantly predominates
over HREE, the major of which are even with
Y2O3 42.87 41.42 39.78 39.24 Dy ≥ Gd > Er > Yb. Nd and Sm are predominant
La2O3 0.06 0.06 bdl 0.06 of LREE; the content of Eu is greater than sum
Ce2O3 0.45 0.44 0.29 0.30
of Ce and La; only insignificant part of P is
replaced with Si (Table 12). The composition of
Nd2O3 2.42 2.40 2.67 2.71 xenotime corresponds to the formula (Y0.71-0.75
Sm2O3 2.07 2.05 2.51 2.55 Dy0.05-0.06Gd0.04-0.06Er0.03Nd0.03Yb0.02-0.03Sm0.02-0.03
Eu2O3 0.87 0.86 0.87 0.88 Eu0.01Tb0.01Ho0.01Lu0-0.01Са0-0.01)0.99-1(P0.99-1Si0.01)
O4. Thus, xenotime from gumbeites contains
Gd2O3 3.56 3.52 5.45 3.54
71–75% of the xenotime proper end-member,
Tb2O3 0.62 0.61 0.66 0.66 17–20% of the HREE[PO4] end-member, 6–7%
Dy2O3 4.45 4.43 5.09 5.17 of the monazite end-member, and 1% of the
Ho2O3 1.07 1.06 0.51 0.52
coffinite end-member.
Thus, in the assemblage fluorapatite-
Er2O3 3.05 3.02 3.06 3.10 monazite-zircon, U is concentrated in zircon; Th
Tm2O3 0.24 0.24 0.27 0.27 is concentrated in monazite and to some extent
Yb2O3 2.58 2.55 2.31 2.34 in zircon; LREE and most Y are incorporated into
monazite that is significantly predominant over
Lu2O3 0.40 0.40 0.54 0.55
xenotime; the latter concentrates HREE and part
TiO2 0.18 0.25 0.14 0.14 of Y; fluorapatite is nearly REE-and actinide-free.
UO2 0.07 0.08 0.74 0.80 Talc is characteristic of the outer zone of
metasomatic column. This mineral is Fe-poor
CaO 0.24 0.24 0.14 0.13
with appreciable Ni; its composition is as follows
P2O5 35.53 35.33 34.94 34.07 (anal. 90; wt.%): SiO2 62.51; MgO 30.88; FeO 0.81;
SiO2 0.24 0.22 0.31 0.22 MnO 0.02; NiO 0.38, total is 94.91 (N.N. Korotaeva
analyst). Formula is (Mg2.94Fe0.04Ni0.02)3[(OH)2/
Total 100.97 99.19 99.98 99.50
Si4O10].
Atoms per formula unit (Total = 2) Gersdorffite is a typical accessory mineral of
phlogopite-magnesite gumbeites. In the green
Y 0.75 0.74 0.71 0.71
zone, the composition of gersdorffite corresponds
Ce 0.01 0.01 - - to the formula Ni0.98Fe0.02AsS; in the yellow zone
Nd 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 gersdorffite is Co-bearing Ni0.87-0.93Co0.07-0.12
Sm 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.03
Fe0.01AsS.
Eu 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
Comparison of apopicritic
Gd 0.04 0.04 0.06 0.06
and other gumbeites
Tb 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
The described hight-temperature gumbeites
Dy 0.05 0.05 0.06 0.06 replacing picrites contains assemblage mag
Ho 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 nesite-phlogopite-quartz, whereas high-tem
Er 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03
perature apogranitic gumbeites is present cal
cite-biotite-quartz. Gumbeites replacing picrite
Yb 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02 contains tourmaline that is absent in granitic
Lu – – 0.01 0.01 gumbeite.
U – – 0.01 0.01
Ca 0.01 0.01 0.01 – Comparison of apopicritic gumbeites
and other types of metasomatites
P 0.99 1.00 0.99 0.99
Si 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 Unlike listvenite, apopicritic gumbeites
contains assemblages magnesite-phlogopite-
Notes. A Camebax-microbeam electron microprobe, I.M. Ku quartz and magnesite-potassium feldspar-quartz,
likova analyst. Contents of Fe, Na, Sr, Pr, and Th are below and monazite-(Ce), xenotime, zircon, fluorapatite,
detection limits.
tourmaline, F-rich and Ba-bearing muscovite.
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Part 2. Institute of Geology and Geochemistry, Votyakov S.L., Shchapova Yu.V., Khiller V.V.
Ural Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences. Crystal chemistry and physics of radiation-
Yekaterinburg. 19972. P. 208–211 (in Russian). thermal effects in some U- and Th-bearing
Spiridonov E.M., Nurmukhametov F.M., Koro minerals as base for chemical dating. Ural
taeva N.N., Kulikova I.M., Sidorova N.V. Branch Russian Academy of Sciences. Yeka
Late magmatic allanite-(Ce) in gold-bearing terinburg. 2011. 336 p. (in Russian).
granitoids of Shartash pluton, Middle Urals Yushkin N.P., Ivanov O.K., Popov V.A. Introduc
// Ural Geol. J. 2013. N. 3. P. 46–55 (in tion to topomineralogy of Urals. Moscow:
Russian). Nauka. 1986. 294 p. (in Russian).
Spiridonov E.M., Pletnev P.A. Metasomatic rocks Zircon / Eds. Hanclar J.M., Hoskin P.W.O. // Rev.
of beresite-listvenite assemblage of Zolotaya Mineral. Geochem. 2004. Vol. 53. 500 p.
POLYCRYSTALLINE CLUSTERS OF DIAMOND

FROM THE LOMONOSOV DEPOSIT, RUSSIA
Yuliya М. Bazarova
Faculty of Geology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia, bazdim@mail.ru
Galina Y. Kryulina
Faculty of Geology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia; Fersman Mineralogical Museum,
Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia, galinadiamond@gmail.com
Victor K. Garanin
Fersman Mineralogical Museum, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia, vgaranin@mail.ru
Polycrystalline aggregates of diamond from the Arkhangelsk pipe of the Lomonosov deposit have been studied
with optical and scanning electron microscope, color cathode luminescence, and infrared Fourier spectroscopy.
The diamonds were divided into two morphological and structural groups referred to VIII and IX varieties by the
classification of Yu.L. Orlov (1984). There are diamond crystals with high N content among them, but N-poor
crystals were also found. Unzoned and zoned polycrystalline clusters related to different stages of crystallization
have been established.
Keywords: diamond, polycrystalline clusters of diamond, VIII variety of diamond, IX variety of diamond,
admixture defects, inclusions.
As both single crystals and polycrystalline to the VIII varieties by the mineralogical
varieties of diamond (Orlov, 1984) are widely classification of Yu.L. Orlov (1984).
used in various industries, the origin of diamond Eight clusters of the collection studied are
is one of the urgent problems of geology. irregular-shaped angular pieces. Well dis
Morphology and structure of diamond are the tinguished grains composing these clusters
source of unique information on geological are predominantly octahedral. The clusters
processes at the depth of 150 km. Polycrystalline are dark gray opaque. Dark irregular-shaped
clusters of diamond at present are studied inclusions, which are probably graphite typical
poorer than single crystals (Smelova, 1991). of diamond for the Arkhangelsk diamond
Therefore, the examination of their outer and province, are in crystallites. Significant amount
inner morphology ensures new evidence about of these inclusions causes black color of the
the conditions of diamond formation explaining crystals (Figs. 1d–f). Green pigmentation spots
actuality of this study. resulted from natural radioactive irradiation
Twenty samples of polycrystalline clusters and parallel growth striation caused by layered
of diamond of 3–4 mm in size from the growth of faces (Fig. 1d) are well seen on some
Arkhangelsk pipe were examined with optical crystallites (octahedra). Some samples show
and scanning electron microscopy, color split tips indicating change of growth conditions.
cathode luminescence (CL), and infrared Polycentric growth of faces of the samples
Fourier spectroscopy (FTIR). studued testified to oversaturated medium
The polycrystalline aggregates studied here and shifted center of growing face (Kriulina,
are composed of octahedral, combination, and 2012). Transformation to dodecahedroid is
dodecahedral crystallites; these crystallites not observed. This type of polycrystalline
are light to dark gray, greenish gray, pink, and clusters was referred to the IX varieties by the
yellow transparent or semitransparent. mineralogical classification of Orlov (1984).
Most samples studied (12 clusters) are All diamond crystals have traces of local
aggregates of numerous faced small nearly dissolution. Faces of separate crystals are dull,
equal-sized crystals. These clusters are oval uneven and are penetrated by etch channels
and globe-shaped. Separate individuals are (Fig. 2). Matting is resulted from effect of
combination and dodecahedral. Dark granular mobile reagent that acted with equal power
core is in transparent clusters. This core is through all points of surface of diamond crystal
aggregate of irregular-shaped diamond grains, and easily penetrated all pits on the crystal. In
which are dark because of inclusions of graphite. nature, such reagent was suggested to be fluid
The clusters are predominantly light gray and medium (Gnevushev and Shchemanina, 1975).
greenish gray; pink and zoned clusters also The CL intensity and distribution differ in
occur (Figs. 1a–c). These clusters are referred the polycrystalline clusters studied (Fig. 3).
Polycrystalline clusters of diamond from the Lomonosov deposit, Russia 57
Fig. 1. Polycrystalline clusters of

diamond from the Arkhangelsk
pipe (transmitted light). (a)
Polycrystalline clusters of the
VIII variety; (b) pink crystal
of diamond overgrown by
small crystallites; (c) zoned
polycrystalline cluster of the
VIII variety; (d) cluster of
octahedra with pronounced
growth striation and of black
color resulted from numerous
inclusions, IX variety; (e)
cluster with chip, IX variety;
(f) irregular-shaped inclusion
in crystallite of the IX-variety
cluster.
Fig. 2. Back-scattered electron

image of crystallite surface.
(a) Fragment of polycrystalline
cluster with etch features,
which are fractures, pits and
rough surface; (b) fragment
of polycrystalline cluster with
etch caverns and negative etch
pyramids.
The polycrystalline clusters studied have testify to the different formation conditions of
basically blue luminescence of varied intensity polycrystalline clusters.
complicated with green and red lines and The set of nitrogen defects in the crystal
spots (Figs. 3a, b). The clusters, where separate structure of diamond is extremely vast and
crystallites with green CL are observed at the diverse (Sobolev, 1978). According to FTIR
background of homogeneous blue CL (fig. 3c), spectroscopy, the content of nitrogen defects
were found. These crystallites are frequently is higher in the studied polycrystalline
complicated with blue CL spots (Fig. 3d) clusters referred to the IX variety that that of
probably resulted from various generations clusters referred to the VIII variety (Fig. 4).
and growth stages of the cluster. Zoning of The average content of A and B defects in
crystallites is expressed as different CL of core the N-rich crystals is significant (1000 ppm),
and rims (Fig. 3b). Different CL patterns indicate whereas in N-poor, that is low (260 ppm).
Fig. 3. Cathode lu

minescence pattern
of diamond.
(a) monotonous
blue luminescence
(b) blue lumines
cence complicated
with lines of green
luminescence;
(c) monotonous blue

luminescence with
green luminescence
of one crystal;
(d) green
luminescence of
separate crystallite
complicated with
blue luminescence.
Table 1. Concentration of structural defects in polycrystalline clusters of diamond from the Arkhangelsk pipe
estimated from IR-Fourier spectroscopy
Number of sample Ntot, at.ppm A, at.ppm B1, at.ppm B1, % B2, cm-1
1787-3-2 1002 948 54 5.39 10.36

1787-3-17 267 208 59 22.09 2.18
Notes. Ntot means total concentration of nitrogen in crystal; A (at. ppm) and B1 (at.ppm) are nitrogen defect A and B1 and their
content; B1 (%) is content of defect B1 expressed as percent of total concentration A + B1 (aggregation of nitrogen); B2 (cm-1) is
concentration of defect B2 (planar defect). IR spectra were measured at National Mineral Resources University (University of Mines),
St. Petersburg, Russia (V.A. Vasil’ev analyst).
C defects were not found. The aggregation of latter are predominantly bort (IX variety).
nitrogen is all polycrystalline clusters ranges Ellipsoidal and nearly rounded clusters, in
from 5 to 25% with the average value 15%. which faced tips of diamond individuals are
The content of B2 defects ranges from 2.18 to observed over the entire surface, indicate the
10.36 cm-1. Average content of B2 defects in growth in the medium contributing uniform
crystals with high content of nitrogen defects influx of feed substance that is possible only
is 10 cm-1, whereas that in the crystals with low in mobile medium. According to Smelova
content of nitrogen is 2.3 cm-1. Both N-rich and (1991), the chemical composition of cogenetic
N-poor diamond contains hydrogen. solid inclusions (olivine, richterite, magnesite,
The studied polycrystalline clusters were and phlogopite) and their assemblages in
compared with those from the Udachanaya polycrystalline clusters attribute the latter to
pipe in the Yakutia diamond province. The the ultramafic medium.
Polycrystalline clusters of diamond from the Lomonosov deposit, Russia 59
Fig. 4. IR spectra of polycrystalline

varieties of diamond. (a) IR spectrum
of polycrystalline cluster of the IX
variety (sample no. 1787-3-2) with
high content of nitrogen defects А,
В, and В2 and hydrogen defect CH;
Absorption, cm-1
(b) IR spectra of the VIII-variety

cluster (sample no 1787-3-17) with
low content of nitrogen defects.
Wave-length, cm-1
Absorption, cm-1
Wave-length, cm-1
Conclusions of diamond from the Arkhangelsk pipe and

those from the Udachnaya pipe indicates
The polycrystalline clusters studied are similar conditions of formation in ultramafic
divided into two groups. The first group is medium.
clusters with dark gray to nearly black well-
faced octahedral crystallites. Evenly distributed
inclusions are typical for these clusters. References
These clusters belong to the IX variety by Gnevushev M.A., Shchemanina E.I. Experience
the classification of Orlov (1984). Uniform CL in classification of diamond crystals //
indicating one-stage growth of the clusters is Minal. Proc. Lvov Univ. 1975. N 29. Issue 3.
typical of these clusters. The high content of P. 45–52 (in Russian).
nitrogen and low aggregation testify short post- Kriulina G.Yu. Constitution of diamond form
crystallization annealing. the Arkhangelsk and Yakutia diamond
The second group is clusters with small provinces // Diss. Cand. Mineral. Geol.
nearly equal-sized predominantly octahedral Sciences. Moscow: Moscow State Univ.
and dodecahedroidal crystallites. These clusters 2012. 192 p. (in Russian).
are light gray. These samples are referred to the Orlov Yu.L. Mineralogy of diamond. Moscow:
VIII variety by the mineralogical classification Nauka. 1984. 264 p. (in Russian).
of Orlov (1984). They are characterized by Smelova G.B. Morphology of bort from kim
heterogeneous CL, low content of nitrogen, berlite pipe of Yakutia // Mineral. J. 1991.
and higher aggregation testifying to longer No. 3. P. 83–90 (in Russian).
annealing of the clusters. Sobolev E.V. Nitrogen centers and growth of
The clusters referred to the VIII variety crystals of natural diamond // Petrological
is suggested to crystallize earlier at higher Problems of Earth Crust and Upper Mantle.
temperature than those of the IX variety. Novosibirsk: Nauka. 1978. P. 245–255 (in
Similar morphology of polycrystalline clusters Russian).
AUTHIGENIC GYPSUM IN ROCKS AT THE BOTTOM

OF JAPAN AND OKHOTSK SEAS
Evgeny P. Terekhov, Anatoly V. Mozherovsky, Nadezhda G. Vashchenkova
Pacific Oceanological Institute, Far East Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, Vladivostok, Russia, manatoly@poi.dvo.ru
Nikolay N. Barinov
Far East Geological Institute, Far East Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, Vladivostok, Russia
Morphology of authigenic gypsum occurring at the surface of the Cenozoic rocks at the floor of Seas of Japan
and Okhotsk is described. The mineral looks like unusual because of morphology of mineral aggregates,
shape of crystals, and conditions of formation. The formation of this type gypsum was probably determined by
high concentration of Ca2+ and SO42- in porous water of cristobalite-bearing rocks, lithostatic pressure, and
temperature gradient between porous and sea water. Abundance of gypsum in the rocks at the slopes of submarine
morphostructures of the Japan and Okhotsk Seas allows consideration of this region as a province of authigenic
gypsum mineralization.
Keywords: authigenic gypsum, morphological type, rocks at the bottom of Okhotsk and Japan Seas.
The study of the Cenozoic rocks obtained DRON 2.0 diffractometer (CuKα radiation,
from dredging of various morphostructures graphite plate monochromator) operated at vol
of marginal seas in the northwestern Pacific tage 30 kV and current intensity 30 mA. Mor
in 1974–2006 revealed authigenic gypsum in phology and chemical composition of gypsum
them. In the Sea of Okhotsk, gypsum was found were examined on an EVO 50-XVP scanning
in the rocks picked up at the western (stations electron microscope equipped with an INСA
2222, 2225, and 2227; depth of dredging ENERGY 350 EDS. The samples were coated
1350–2000 m), northern (stations 2356 and by carbon film EDVARDS E-306 high-vacuum
2357; depth 2600–2900 m), and southwestern system.
(stations 2361, 2363, 2364, 2367, and 2368; depth
2300–2900 m) slopes of the Kuril Trench. In Results
the Sea of Japan, it was found at the Primorsk
continental slope (stations 1076 and 1126; depth Gypsum occurs as two varieties: (1) submarine
1500–1930 m), uplands Pervenets (station 1747; variety formed under submarine conditions at
depth 2350–2460 m) and Alpatov (stations 2047 the contact between Cenozoic rocks and sea
and 2212; depth 2900–3300 m), ridges Okushiri water, and (2) cellar (seasonal) variety formed in
(stations 1708 and 1713; depth 1300–2500 m), storage at the section of the same rocks.
Oki (stations 1270; depth 1250–1300 m), and Aggregates of submarine gypsum are
South Yamato (station 1434; depth 280–320 m). spheroids (0.1–0.5 mm in diameter, predomi
The similar gypsum was also found at the Pacific nantly 0.2 mm) (Figs. 2, 3a, d, f) and occasional
slope of the Kuril arc system in the Vityaz Ridge disks up to 0.2 mm thick and up to 1.5 mm in
(station LV 41-16; depth 1200–1400 m) (Fig. 1). diameter (Fig. 3c). Spheroids cover the sample
Further, seasonal (cellar) gypsum was formed at surface, whereas small disks are sporadic. The
the section of some samples dredged from the cellar gypsum occurs as spheroids (globe-
Alpatov Upland (sample 2047-2; depth 2900– shaper aggregates of 0.1 to 0.3 mm in diameter,
3300 m) and Oki Ridge (sample 1296-4b; depth predominantly 0.2 mm) which are scattered on
350 m). Authigenic submarine gypsum occurs the section of the samples (Figs. 3b, e).
as rounded (close to spherical) aggregates The aggregates of submarine gypsum are
composed of mineral individuals, which were composed of one type of mineral individuals
not previously described in literature1. The aim as close aggregate of parallel lamellae of
of this study is examination of these aggregates 1 × 0.5 × 70 to 4 × 1 × 70 μm in size (Figs. 4a, b, c).
and establishing their formation. Globules of cellar gypsum are composed of
abundant acicular (1 × 15 × 70 to 3 × 15 × 70 μm)
(Fig. 4d) and tabular (2 × 0.5 × 4 to 6 × 1 × 14 μm)
Analytical techniques
(Fig. 4e) crystals. Convex isometric (5 × 6x4 μm)
Gypsum (monomineralic sample) and cris segregations of gypsum are occasional between
tobalite (bulk sample) were detected with a its needles (Fig. 4d).
1
– Below the similar aggregates are named spheroids.
Authigenic gypsum in rocks at the bottom of Japan and Okhotsk seas 61
Fig. 1. Location of
dredging stations.
1–3 – Slopes of Kurile
Through, Sea of Okhotsk:
1 – western (stations
2222, 2225, 2227), 2 –
northern (2356, 2357),
3 – southwestern (2361,
2363, 2364, 2367, 2368);
4 – Vityaz Ridge, Sea of
Okhotsk (station LV 41-
16); 5–10 – Sea of Japan:
5 – Primorsk continental
slope (1076, 1126),
6 – Pervents Upland
(1747), 7 – Alpatov
Upland (2047, 2212),
8 – Okushiri Ridge
(1708, 1713), 9 – Oki
Ridge (1270), 10 – South
Yamato Ridge (1434).
Thus, the habit of crystals of mineral and S (19.12–19.37), and higher content of Si
individuals of submarine gypsum differs from (8.2–8.94) and Al (1.56–1.62); in addition, K
that of cellar gypsum. (0.32–0.56), Na (0.55), and Mg (0.39–0.57)
Submarine gypsum was formed at the surface were measured. This composition is similar to the
of substrate that is the Cenozoic (Late Paleocene complex composition of the surface of the broad
to Late Miocene) rocks. Authigenic gypsum as part of submarine lamellae and convex cellar
sporadic twins of 30 × 10 × 1 μm in size (Fig. 4f) gypsum (anal. 3, 6).
and tables 4 × 5 × 1 μm (Fig. 4g) was found within The substrate is distinguished by high (in
the rocks. comparison with gypsum) content (wt.%) of Si
The chemical composition of most part of the (19.93–3.64) and O (24.68–64.05); Mg (0.32–
newly formed submarine (cores of lamellae) and 1.97), Al (1.06–9.73), S (0.32–2.34), and Fe
cellar (surface of needles and tables) gypsum (0.38–11.07) are constant; K (0.37–4.36), Na
is usual (henceforward wt.%): 25.29–28.12 Ca, (0.7–2.18), Ca (1.83–2.75), Cl (0.3–1.26), and
21.57–23.7 S, and 46.84–48.0 O. Insignificant Ti (0.4–1.15) are frequent; and Cu (0.68–2.35)
admixture of Si (up to 2.0), Cu (up to 0.87), and Zn (0.59–0.61) are occasional (see Table 1).
and Al (up to 0.43) is frequent; Fe up to 0.53 is
occasional; and Zn (0.78) and Ti (0.75) are in Discussion
isolated compositions (see Table 1).
The complex composition of surface of Gypsum is known to be formed in marine
the broad part of subsea gypsum lamellae sediments as indicated by its frequent findings
is characterized by lowered content of Ca in the core of Cenozoic biogenic-siliceous
(16.96 wt.%) and S (16.12), elevated content rocks raised from floor of Atlantic, Indian, and
of O (53.44), Si (4.98), Al (1.08), Fe (1.27), and Pacific Oceans (Briskin and Schreiber, 1978;
presence of K (0.82), Na (2.49), Mg (0.59), Cl Muza and Wise, 1983). Many scientists suggest
(1.42) (anal. 3). The composition of the surface that gypsum is formed at the early diagentic
of convex isometric cellar gypsum is similar. The stage close to water/sediment interface. It
absence of Cl in the cellar gypsum is the unique precipitated (in most districts studied) in anoxic
difference (anal. 6). environment with involvement of anaerobic
As aforementioned, two varieties of gypsum bacteria and significant amount of organic
were found within the rocks which were basement matter. The necessary concentration of Ca2+
for submarine gypsum. The chemical composition is believed to be reached due to dissolution of
of tabular gypsum is close to theoretical, whereas carbonate microfossils composing sediments
that of gypsum twins is slightly different. With (Briskin and Schreiber, 1978; Muza and Wise,
the same O content (48.33–48.78) and close Fe 1983; Schnitker et al., 1980), whereas the link of
content (0.91–1.17), the latter is characterized SO42- with sulfate-reducing bacterial activity is
by the lower concentration of Ca (19.66–20.35) proved only theoretically. Common association
Fig. 2. Morphology of aggregates of submarine gypsum. Numbers of samples correspond to the sample locations shown in Fig. 1:
a – cherty mudstone, sample 2227-a; b – diatomite, sample 2356-1; c – cherty silty mudstone, sample 2364-2; d – cherty silty
mudstone, sample LV 41-16-1; e – silty mudstone, sample 1126; f – tuff stone, sample1747-2t.
Fig. 3. Morphology of aggregates of submarine (a, c, d, f) and cellar (b, e) gypsum: a – cherty silty mudstone, sample 2047-3;
b – diatom clay, sample 2047-2; c – cherty rock, sample 1713-8a; d – silty mudstone, sample 1713-9; e – diatom tuff, sample 1296-
4b; f – tuffdiatomite, sample 1434.
Table 1. Composition of gypsum and substrate of Cenozoic rocks in Japan and Okhotsk Seas
№ № Number
Location Content of elements (wt.%)
an. sample of points
Ca S O Si Cu Al Fe Zn Ti Mg K Na Cl
Submarine gypsum
1 2227-а inner part of 5 25.67 23.35 48.26 2.47 – 0.37 – 0.39 0.38 – – – –
lamella
2 1713-8 inner part of 8 25.11 24.02 46.86 0.14 0.58 – – 0.53 0.38 – – – –
lamella
surface 2 28.64 23.62 46.98 0.36 0.39
of lamella
3 1713-8 surface of broad 1 16.96 16.12 53.44 4.98 0.8 1.08 1.27 – – 0.59 0.85 2.49 1.42
part of lamella
Cellar gypsum
4 2047-2 surface of needle 2 25.77 23.58 47.74 1.45 0.93 0.43 – – – – – – –
5 2047-2 surface of plate 2 26.09 23.51 47.63 1.39 0.80 0.51 – – – – – – –
6 2047-2 surface of convex 1 22.75 20.05 47.59 5.54 0.81 1.47 0.46 – – 0.42 0.37 0.55 –
segregations of
gypsum
Gypsum in substrate
7 2227-а surface of twined 3 20.00 19.24 48.56 8.43 – 1.60 1.00 – – 0.28 0.47 0.28 –
segregation
8 2047-2 surface of table 1 25.07 23.54 47.97 1.6 1.12 0.7 – – – – – – –
Substrate
9 2227-а substrate 2 0.92 1.85 55.58 30.65 4.36 2.13 – 0.2 1.29 0.76 1.62 0.62
10 2047-2 substrate 2 2.44 2.92 56.52 33.10 0.89 1.18 0.47 – – 0.14 0.14 1.49 0.63
11 2047-а surface of diatom 1 1.85 1.46 64.05 26.96 0.78 1.27 0.84 0.59 0.43 0.32 0.37 0.70 0.38
Notes: Scanning electron microscope equipped with integrated standards for qualitative (Point & ID) EDS analysis.
The sums obtained were normalized to 100%. N.N. Barinov, analyst.
High content of Si, Al, and Fe is resulted from rapid growth of gypsum, when it does not manage to release impurities trapped at
crystallization.
of gypsum and pyrite suggests accumulation of Na and occasionally Cl. The qualitative chemical
SO42- in interstitial water (involving gradient of composition of the second type is close to the
diffusion) during the formation of pyrite SO42- is of substrate and sea water (Brownlow, 1984).
probably accumulated as a result of dissimilatory The both types were found in both submarine
sulfate-reducing to form H2S followed by the and cellar mineralization in samples from three
transition of sulfide sulfur to sulfate ion by different districts. The geographical abundance
chemo- and phototrophic sulfur-bacteria and of gypsum allows relict sea-water as common
archaea (Grabovich, 1999). The available models source of Ca2+ and SO42–.
of the SO42- concentration in porous water do All samples containing gypsum are rocks
not explain the formation of authigenic gypsum displaying transformation of biogenic opal
(found in the rocks from drill cores deep-water (A-opal) to CT-opal (cristobalite). In the Ceno
holes) in oxidative environment. The model of zoic rocks of the Japan and Okhotsk Seas,
concentration of sulfate ion in sediments as a cristobalite was resulted from crystallization
result of its diffusion from sea-water is applicable of silica of frustules dissolved in porous water
to this sedimentation environment (Berner, (Mozherovsky et al., 2001; Svinnikov, 2004). In
1970). SO42– could be accumulated in both the samples studied here, orals of diatoms are
sediments enriched in oxygen and sediments dissolved partially (semi-dissolved diatoms,
enriched in H2S. sample 1296-4b) or completely (to form holes,
In our case, authigenic (submarine) gypsum samples 1713-9, 1747-2t, 2047-2). Crystallization
was formed on the rock surface rather than in of dissolved silica is shown as cristobalite that
sediments. Porous solutions were probable so was established with the X-ray as insignificant
urce of Ca2+ and SO42– As aforementioned, gyp impurity, initial transformation of A-opal
sum studied here is divided into two types in (samples 1296-4b, 1434), rock-forming mineral
chemical composition: usual and more complex (the process is appreciable) along with CT-
distinguished by the admixtures of Mg, K, and opal (samples 1126, 1713-8b, 2047-3, 2227-a,
Fig. 4. Photomicrographs of submarine

(a, b, c,), cellar (d, e), and substrate (f, g)
gypsum:
a – submarine lamellar gypsum, surface
of weathered aggregates, sample 2227-a;
b – submarine lamellar gypsum, fresh
surface of aggregates, sample 1713-8a;
c – submarine lamellar gypsum, sample
1713-8a;
d – cellar acicular and convex (B) gyp
sum, sample 2047-2;
e – cellar tabular gypsum, sample 2047-2;
f – substrate gypsum, twinned segrega
tions, sample 2227-a;
g – substrate tabular (Т) gypsum, (D) di
atom, sample 2047-2.
2356-1, 2364-2, LV 41-16-1), and predominant in different districts of the World Ocean (Murray
constituent (pronounced reflection at 0.413 et al., 1992). Some publications give data of
nm, sample 1713-8a). Thus, in the Cenozoic distribution of the composition of interstitial
sediments of the Japan and Okhotsk Seas, water along sections of holes crossing the A/
gypsum is spatially related to the transformation CT boundary. Cristobalite was found at depth
boundary A-opal/CT-opal (A/CT). (thickness of sediments) ca. 200 m, drill hole 469
The process of transformation of silica is and ca. 150 m, drill hole 471 when the Cenozoic
well studied in the core of Cenozoic biogenic (Miocene to Quaternary) cover was drilled in the
siliceous rocks obtained with deep-sea drilling region of the California continental borderland
(Eastern Pacific) (Grechin et al., 1981). Cristoba from drying of porous solutions in core samples
lite was established in the Mesozoic to Cenozoic of deep-sea drilling in bank of core storage
siliceous rocks at the depth ca. 300 m (Eocene- supports this (Briskin and Schreiber, 1978).
Oligocene boundary) in the Nauru depression The similar situation is probable in the
(drill hole 462, region of Caroline and Marshall Cenozoic rocks of the floor of the Japan and
Islands, Western Pacific) (Riech et al., 1981). Okhotsk Seas. The assemblage of submarine
Cristobalite was found at the depth ca. 140 m gypsum and cristobalite, presence of gypsum
in the core of the Upper Miocene calcareous in substrate (cristobalite), and the formation of
mudstone from the Barbados Ridge (drill hole cellar individuals on the rock surface in stone
672 m, region of Lesser Antilles, Western At storage room indicate the high concentration
lantic Ocean) (Capet et al., 1990). Content of of Ca2+ and SO42– in the porous water of the
SO42– and Ca2+ in interstitial water of Cenozoic samples studied here.
rocks in these morphostructures ranges from The examined gypsum was formed on the
27.9 to 18.9 and from 29.0 to 12.14 mmol/L, surface of primary diatom-bearing sedimentary
respectively above the A/CT boundary. Below and volcanosedimentary rocks. The sediments of
this boundary, the content of these ions is 24.9 to the Japan and Okhotsk Seas, where transformation
1.6 and 29.45 to 79.2 mmol/L, respectively. The of A-opat to CT-opal is weak (dissolved diatoms,
content of SiO2 below the boundary drastically absence or traces of cristobalite) are weakly
(2–10 times) drops (from 1030–1116 to 584– lithified and high porous. In most samples,
93 μmol/L) due to the formation of solid phase transformation of silica was terminated by the
that is cristobalite (Gieskes, Johnson, 1981; Gi formation of lithified siliceous assemblages
eskes et al., 1981; 1990). (chert, cherty siltstone and mudstone), where
The maximal solubility of gypsum in water cristobalite is rock-forming mineral. The rocks
without regard for effect of other components similar in composition are highly fractured
is known to be 2.05–2.11 g/L that corresponds (diagenetic and tectonic nature); because of this
to 21 mmol/L for SO42– and 51 mmol/L for fracturing the common hydrodynamic system
Ca2+ within the temperature range of 20 to occurs in the sedimentary system (Tectonics…,
50°С. At temperature above and below these 1985). It is evident that under lithostatic pressure,
values, its solubility drastically decreases (Great porous solutions should be pressed off on the
Encyclopedia…, 2008). The range of temperature outcropped rock surface.
36.5 to 51.0°С within cristobalite is formed Submarine gypsum on the rock surface
(Kuramoto et al., 1992) is similar. According indicates its formation at the contact with sea-
to Gieskes, and Johnson (1981), porous water water. In the Sea of Japan, gypsum-bearing
in sedimentary rocks from all holes 10–27 m rocks were raised from the depth of 300 to 2900
higher than the A/CT boundary is saturated m. The temperature of near-bottom water ranges
in SO42– and undersaturated in Ca2+ (to form from 0.14 to 1.5°С (Hydrometeorology…, 2003).
gypsum at 20–50°C). Below (45–207 m) of In the Sea of Okhotsk gypsum-bearing rocks
the А/СТ boundary, porous water (drill holes were raised from the depth of 1350–2900 m. The
469, 462, 672) is also saturated in SO42–; below temperature of near-bottom water in the dredging
200 m, the content of SO42– decreases (down to area is 1.9–2.1°С (Hydrometeorology…, 1998).
1.1–0.1 g/L). The content of Ca2+ below the А/ As aforementioned, cristobalite crystallizes at ca.
СТ boundary gradually increase and below 200 40°С. The similar bed temperature (42–62°С) was
m becomes high (drill holes 469, 672, and 462, established in the sequences, where cristobalite
at depth 190, 187, and 207 m, respectively). The is a rock-forming constituent (Tectonics…,
concentration of Ca2+ continues to increase 1985). The above data are testimony that there
downward and reaches 3.1 g/L at 340 m in drill is a thermal gradient at the boundary between
hole 672 and at 555 m in drill hole 471. At the porous water (rock surface) and sea-water.
depth below 200 m of the A/CT boundary, porous Drastic drop of temperature at this boundary
water is the maximum saturated in gypsum that results in decreasing solubility of gypsum that
is confirmed by the content of SO42– 2.4 g/L and appears to determine the mineral precipitation
Ca2+ 2.3 g/L at 207 m in drill hole 462. immediately on the rock surface.
Thus, interstitial water of the Cenozoic Thus, in our opinion, the formation of sub
cristobalite-bearing rocks of the Pacific and marine gypsum is determined by high concen
Atlantic Oceans have high content of SO42– and tration of Ca2+ and SO42– in porous water of the
Ca2+ at the depth ca. 200 m below the A/CT rocks outcropped on the sea floor, lithostatic
boundary. Frequent findings of gypsum resulted pressure of overlaying sequences, and thermal
gradient at the boundary between porous and Japan and Okhotsk Seas allows considering this
sea water. region as a province (Frolov, 1992) of submarine
In the drill core raised from the floor of At authigenic gypsum mineralization.
lantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans, gypsum
usually occurs as single or twinned crystals of References
selenite (up to 5 mm in diameter) and gypsum
rosettes (from 2 to 7.5 mm) (Muza and Wise, Berner R.A. Sedimentary pyrite formation //
1983; Briskin and Schreiber, 1978). Tabular and Amer. J. of Sci. 1970. Vol. 268. P. 1–23.
prismatic to acicular (Briskin and Schreiber, Briskin M., Schreiber B.C. Authigenic gypsum
1978), prismatic, and flattened (0.5 × 1.0 × 1.5 mm) in marine sediments // Mar. Geol. 1978.
(Criddle, 1974) crystals of gypsum are very sel Vol. 28. P. 37–49.
dom. According to description and photos, all Brownlow A.H. Geochemistry. Englewood
these crystal types differ from those studied here Cliffs and London (Prentice-Hall Inc.).
in both habit and significantly larger size. Radial 1979.
aggregates (spherulites) of gypsum similar in size Capet X., Chamley H., Beck C., Holtzapffel T.
to spheroids of cellar gypsum are formed on the Clay mineralogy of ODP sites 671 and 672,
surface of pebbles in continental environment. Barbados Ridge accretionary complex and
In caves, gypsum is resulted from saturated Atlantic abyssal plain: paleoenvironmental
solutions filtrated through porous carbonate sub and diagenetic implications // Proc. ODP.
strate under effect of outer (hydrostatic) pressure. Sci. Results. 1990. Vol. 110. P. 85–96.
This model of gypsum formation at the contact Criddle A.I. A preliminary description of mi-
of porous substrates saturated in mineralizing crocrystalline pyrite from the nannoplank-
solutions and air (Maltsev, 1996) is close to that ton ooze at site 251, Southwest Indian
of the formation of submarine gypsum proposed Ocean // Init. Repts. DSDP, 26. Washing
in this study. ton: (U.S. Govt. Printing Office. 1974.
In addition to the conditions governed by Vol. 26. P. 603–611.
natural environment, the process related to hu Frolov V.T. Lithology. Moscow: Moscow State
man factor – deteriorating environmental situ University. 1992. 336 p. (in Russian).
ation – is known. This is sulphatization that is Gieskes J.M., Blanc G., Vrolijk P., Elderfield
«disease» of marble and limestone sculptures H., Barnes R. Interstitial water chemistry –
and constructions resulted in the formation major constituents // Proc. ODP. Sci. Re-
of black patina by gypsum, other authigenic sults. 1990. Vol. 110. P. 155–179.
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(up to 30 μm) forming «continuous carpet» of studies, Leg 61 // Init. Repts. DSDP. 61,
rosettes were found in these assemblages among Washington: (U.S. Govt. Printing Office).
numerous individuals of gypsum (Timasheva et 1981. P. 603–605.
al., 2007). Some individuals of this gypsum are Gieskes J.M., Nevsky B., Chain A. Interstitio
close in size to those of submarine gypsum, but nal water studies // Init. Repts. DSDP, 63,
frequently differ in curved shape and disordered Washington: (U.S. Govt. Printing Office).
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Grabovich M.Yu. Prokaryotes in sulfur cycle //
Conclusions Soros Education J. 1999. No 12. P. 16–20
(in Russian).
Thus, the aggregates of authigenic gypsum Great Encyclopedia of Oil and Gas. 2008. URL:
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hotsk Seas interesting in their morphology (in Russian).
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due to their morphology, shape of individuals, deeva S.N. Neogene siliceous and rocks of
and conditions of formation. The occurrence of Southern Callifornia and Baja Callifornia
gypsum is determined by the following reasons: // Init. Repts. DSDP, 63, Washington: (U.S.
high concentration of Ca2+ and SO42– in porous Govt. Printing Office). 1981. P. 579–593.
water in the Cenozoic rocks outcropped on the Hydrometeorology and hydrochemistry of
floor, lithostatic pressure, and thermal gradient seas / The Sea of Okhotsk. Issue 1. Hyd
between porous and sea water. rometeorologic conditions. St. Petersburg:
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the slopes of submarine morphostructures of the Russian).
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Murray R.W., Bramsack H.J., Breymann M.T. Vlas ov D.Yu. Morphology of gypsum
et al. Diagenetic reactions in deeply bur- crystals and some features of their forma
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Crystal Chemistry,
Minerals
as Prototypes
of New Materials,
Physical and Chemical
Properties of Minerals
MORPHOLOGICAL STUDY OF THE MEANS

OF ACCOMMODATION OF ADMIXTURE ATOMS
IN THE CRYSTAL STRUCTURE OF MOLYBDENITE
Inna M. Kulikova, Inna E. Maximyuk
Federal State Unitary Organization Institute of Mineralogy, Geochemistry,
and Crystal Chemistry of Rare Elements, Moscow, Russia,
kulikova@imgre.ru, maximyuk@imgre.ru
Accommodation modes of trace elements were studied in molybdenite from porphyry copper, quartz vein
greisen and other ore types by means of microprobe analysis (on a Camebax-microbeam) and morphologi-
cal analysis of secondary-electron images (SEI, on a Jeol 6700F scanning electron microscope). Molybdenite
is one of the main minerals concentrating Re. Our microprobe analysis do not show any differences in the
Re distribution in molybdenite from deposits of different genetic types. Re concentrations above the detec-
tion limit (0.04–0.05 wt.%) were found only at 98 analytical spots of the analyzed 284 spots. These propor-
tions practically do not change at Re concentrations in the specimens varying within the range of
80–1100 ppm. Analysis of the secondary-electron images makes it possible to identify structural defects of
crystals in the examined specimens: splitting into thin sheets (0.05–0.50 µm thick), intense growth of den-
drites and the development of screw, edge and other types of dislocations (1–6 µm in characteristic size).
Hexagonal pits (negative crystals) geometrically corresponding to crystals of the hexagonal 2H molybde-
nite polytype testify that our specimens are dominated by this polytype, with triangular pits geometrically
corresponding to crystals of the 3R trigonal (rhombohedral) polytype found very rarely. The accommoda-
tion modes of minor elements in the molybdenite structure are controlled first of all by structural defects
and Re atoms are often concentrated at dislocations.
7 figures, 15 references.
Keywords: molybdenite, polytype, rhenium, morphological analysis, dislocation.
Introduction gularity in the atomic structures of these

minerals.
Modern analytical techniques make it pos- Molybdenite MoS 2 is characterized by a
sible to study minerals at micro- and even layered crystal structure. In the planes of the
nanometer scales. Molybdenite has been sheets, Mo and S atoms are connected by
extensively studied by a diversity of physical strong covalent bonds, whereas chemical
(X-ray diffraction topography, electron mic- binding perpendicular to the layers is of the
roscopy, etc.) and chemical (calorimetric ana- Van der Waals type, very weak and can be
lysis, etching-pit method, etc.) techniques. easily broken by even a minimal mechanical
This mineral is a principal concentrator of Re, action. Molybdenite occurs in nature in two
an element of paramount importance for mod- polytypes: the overwhelming majority of
ern industry, whose individual minerals are specimens of this mineral from 200 deposits
very rare and are thus of no economic interest. are its hexagonal 2H modification (a = 3.16Å,
Molybdenite is a semiconductor and can con- c = 12.3Å, Z = 2)), the other, strongly subor-
sequently be successfully utilized, along with dinate, polytype is 3R trigonal rhombohedral
silicon, in nanoelectronics to artificially sepa- (a = 3.16Å, c = 18.33Å, Z = 3) and the rest of
rate chemically pure and structurally perfect the specimens consist of a mix of these poly-
monomolecular layers of synthetic crystals types (Khurshudyan et al., 1966; Chukhrov et
(Atuchin, 2011). al., 1968; McCandless et al., 1983; and others).
Electron properties of natural molybdenite Both polytypes are stable within a broad tem-
broadly vary from sample to sample because perature range. Literature data on the poly-
of the structural and chemical heterogeneity types of molybdenite from high-temperature
of its individual crystals. Interaction of admix- deposits is still very scarce. For example,
tures with defects in the crystal structure of molybdenite specimens from the Kamchab
the host mineral leads to the accumulation of pegmatite deposit, S. Africa, contain 44 and
these admixtures and development of local 35% of the 3R polytype, which bear 700 and
structured domains with elevated concentra- 1800 ppm Re, respectively (McCandless et al.,
tions of these admixtures (Alekseev and 1993). The content of the 3R polytype in
Marin, 2012). Enrichment of minerals in cer- molybdenite from skarn deposits (Newberry,
tain chemical elements often disturbs the re- 1979; McCandless et al., 1993) ranges from 5%
(100 ppm Re) to 30–90% (750 ppm Re). At the accelerating voltage of 20 kV and beam cur-
same time, this mineral from Pitkjaranta, rent of 25–30 nA, using a PET crystal, with
Karelia and Ak-Kezen', Kazakhstan, consists regard for the contribution of the Mo line to
solely of the 2H polytype (Chukhrov et al., the intensity of the Кa line of S. Re concentra-
1968). tions were calculated from the intensity of the
The principal aim of our research was to La line of Re, using a LiF crystal, with regard
elucidate the means of accommodation of for the overlap of the Zn line and with the
admixture atoms in the crystal structure of amplitude discrimination of the signal (the Zn
molybdenite. Among all admixture atoms, Re concentration was determined from the Кb1
is the only one always detected in all molyb- line, with regard for the overlap of the W line).
denite specimens, which contain this element For the sake of control, we also made use of
in concentrations from a few ppb to 2000 ppm the Мa line of Re (TAP crystal), which was
and even higher (Voudouris et al., 2009). complicated by the overlaps of lines of W, Pb,
Elevated concentrations of Re, as well as other Si, Ca and certain other elements that are
minor elements, such as W and Fe, are usual- commonly found in molybdenite.
ly found in the rhombohedral 3R polytype of The standard for Re was high-purity metal-
the mineral. It has been experimentally lic Re and the standards for S, Mo, Zn and W
demonstrated that crystals of 3R molybdenite were sulvanite Cu 3VS 4, powellite CaMoO 4,
grow at spiral dislocations, which are pro- sphalerite ZnS and scheelite CaWO4. The de-
duced in the presence of admixtures (New- tection limit of Re in molybdenite was 0.04%.
berry, 1979). At the same time, structural The analytical technique is described in much
analysis of four Re-rich (0.45–4.2%) molyb- detail in our earlier publication (Maximyuk
denite specimens from northern Greece indi- and Kulikova, 2013).
cates that the mineral crystallized as its Back-scattered electron (BSE) images
hexagonal 2H polytype (Voudouris et al., show the microtopography of the surface of
2009). Several researchers studying Re accom- the sample. The images were acquired under a
modation in molybdenite explain this by iso- Jeol 6700F with field emission and a cold cath-
morphism between Re and Mo (Noddack and ode at an accelerating voltage of 5 kV; crystal
Noddack, 1935; Pokalov, 1963; Kosyak, 1965; morphology was examined in SEI (occasional-
McCandless et al., 1993; and others). ly LEI and ADD) modes. No chemical compo-
sition of mineral was determined in regions
Methods where the BSE images were taken.
In order to elucidate the modes of Re Microprobe analysis

accommodation in the crystal structure of
molybdenite, we have examined molybdenite Microprobe analysis of the mineral was
specimens from ten deposits of various genet- conducted using its specimens from molybde-
ic types in Mongolia, Magadan area, Trans- num-copper porphyry and quartz-vein grei-
baikalia and the Urals. The specimens were sen deposits. The Re concentrations have be-
studied with the use of an electron microscope en preliminary roughly estimated by colori-
(BSE images) and X-ray microprobe (Maxi- metric techniques by G.G. Lebedeva at the
myuk and Kulikova, 2013). The morphology Institute of the Mineralogy, Geochemistry
of molybdenite in the specimens is very di- and Crystal Chemistry of Rare Elements.
verse: it occurs as large (0.3–1 cm) aggrega- We have not detected any differences in
tes, individual platelets, aggregates of such the Re distribution in molybdenite from
platelets in quartz and as thin films in frac- deposits of various genetic types and the only
tures (slickensides). Microprobe analysis was discernible differences were the concentra-
carried out using a Camebax-microbeam, in tions of this element. The X-ray microprobe
polished sections and epoxy pellets impreg- analysis of molybdenite crystals in planes par-
nated with molybdenite grains. Aggregates allel to its cleavage and perpendicular to it
and individual platelets of molybdenite were reveal that Re is extremely unevenly distrib-
either perpendicular or parallel to the pol- uted in the mineral and that Re concentrations
ished surfaces of the pellets. Sites for their unsystematically vary. Re in concentrations
analysis were selected based on BSE images of higher than its detection limit (0.04%) but
the molybdenite crystals. lower than 0.42% were detected at 98 of 284
Mo and S concentrations in the mineral analyzed spots (i.e., at 35% of the spots) and
were determined using the intensities of the this proportion practically did not vary at Re
Lb 1 and Кa reflections, respectively, at an concentrations in the specimens varying from
of admixture atoms in the crystal structure of molybdenite 71
80 to 1100 ppm. The fact that Re may be con- Lifshitz, 1987; Novikov, 1975). Modern elec-
centrated within very small domains results in tron microscopic techniques make it possible
that this element is sometimes not detected to elucidate specifics of crystal growth mecha-
when the beam was shifted for a few microme- nisms described by these researchers.
ters away from spots with elevated Re concen- Our study of molybdenite at micrometer
trations. Moreover, both Pb and W were deter- and submicrometer scales (hundreds of
mined to behave analogously to Re. An equal- nanometers) indicates that molybdenite crys-
ly uneven Re distribution is also typical of tals can be easily split into sheets. Figure 1
poorly polishable aggregates that typically shows SEM images of this splitting in natural-
have a "hillocky" surface topography and bear ly occurring molybdenite. The sheets are usu-
the highest Re concentrations. ally 0.05–0.10 µm thick and occasionally
Our microprobe analytical data led us to reach 0.50 µm (Figs. 1a–1f), which corre-
suggest that the uneven Re distribution in the sponds to 40–400 unit-cell parameters and
molybdenite crystals at Re concentrations roughly corresponds to the spacing of struc-
higher than 0.04% may be explained by de- tural sheets. No sheet splitting have ever been
fects in the crystal structure of the mineral, observed even at magnifications as high as
namely, by the presence of tiny inclusions of ×120 000 (Fig. 1f). The figures clearly show
3R molybdenite in a matrix of 2H molybden- that the thin sheets warp in their margins to
ite. Correlations between Re concentration in form hollow pipes in capillary cracks between
molybdenite and the proportion of its 3R poly- split sheets of a crystal. The pipes are some-
type were mentioned by several researchers. times triangular (with rounded angles) in
Judging by literature data (Gertsen et al., cross section (Figs. 1f, 1h). Molybdenite pipes
2003; Newberry, 1979; McCandless et al., approximately 0.4 µm in diameter and
1993; and others), in spite of the broad scatter approximately 4–10 µm long often host
of the data, the content of the 3R polytype is minute (some 0.04–0.07 µm across) mineral
likely to positively correlate with their Re con- crystals (Fig. 1b). The pipes are likely filled
centrations. Thereby the contents of the 3R with solution (because some of the pipes show
polytype generally range from 6 to 36% of the a meniscus) or a gas phase.
total of both polytypes (3R+2Н) at Re con- Figure 1d shows that empty space between
centrations Ј1200 ppm. molybdenite sheets is healed with minute
aggregates (no larger than 0.10 µm across),
Electron microscopic data which sometimes penetrate more than one
sheet and are perpendicular to their planes.
We took BSE images of the molybdenite These aggregates resemble dendrites that
specimens from the Erdenet, Mongolia and grew between sheets and oriented them. It is
Mys Pavlovich, Magadan area, Mo-Cu por- known that material is deposited more rapidly
phyry deposits that had been analyzed on a closer to a tapering part of a crack. The mate-
microprobe. The deposits are similar in miner- rial for the growth of the dendrite and healing
alogy but differ in age and are hosted in dif- cracks was mobilized via dissolving the walls
ferent rocks. of the cracks.
Molybdenite is one of the principal ore Molybdenite sample from the Erdenet
minerals at the Erdenet deposit and occurs at deposit. Figure 2 displays SEM images of
it in a number of populations. We have stud- molybdenite specimens from the Erdenet
ied molybdenite of the main, oldest molyb- (Figs. 1a–1d) and Kadzharan (Figs. 1e, 1f)
denite-quartz association. The mineral was deposits. As seen in Fig. 2a, the surface of the
found in the form of large (up to a few cen- crystal is cut by cracks and displays numerous
timeters across) hexagonal tabular crystals knobs and pits. In spite of the low magnifica-
and pockets and contains 760–1035 ppm Re. tion of the SEM image (×250) but thanks to the
Molybdenite from the Mys Pavlovicha deposit high resolution of the zoomed-in images, it
is coarse-crystalline and is sometimes found can be seen that the knobs are spiral growth
as subhedral thick tabular crystals up to layers of the crystal on steps of the crack
3–5 cm across. According to chemical analy- (shadows indicate that one side of the crack is
ses, the mineral contains 363–393 ppm Re. somewhat higher than the other) that form
Detailed data have been previously spiral dislocations (A–C and E in Figs.
obtained on the origin of various morphologi- 2a–2c). Some of them (B and C in Fig. 2b)
cal features in a great number of various crys- show "ledges" with hexagonal sectorial crys-
tals, such as healing cracks (Lemmlein, 1973) tals on their tips. Figure 3 (A–C and E, row I)
and development of dislocations (Landau and displays geometrical representations of the
Fig. 1. Secondary-electron
images (SEI) of molybden-
ite specimens split in thin
sheets. (a, c, e) Erdenet de-
posit, Mongolia, (b, d, f, g),
Pavlovich cape, Magadan
area and (h) Kharbeiskoe
deposit, Polar Urals.
Magnification: а – ×40000;
b – ×10000; c – ×10000;
d – ×50000; e – ×120000;
f – ×1000 (fragment);
g – ×1000 (fragment);
h – ×800 (fragment of an
a b image taken on a Camebax-
microbeam).
c d
e f h
morphologies of the defects shown in Fig. 2. that defines the boundary of a displacement
The linear dimensions of spiral sheets in Fig. 2 (slide) zone in the crystal is referred to as edge
are equal: dislocation A is 4.4 µm (note the dislocation. In Fig. 1g, some sheets do not
pronounced step of the crack), B is 8.4 µm continue to the right-hand bottom portion.
(the hexagon is 3.1 µm), C is 3.9 µm and in E, These are extra planes that act as a wedge and
the outer size of the hexagon is 10 µm. Dis- perturb the crystal lattice. Above the edge of
locations B and C are geometrically similar to the extra plane, the sheet spacing is lower
those in naturally occurring rosettes of molyb- than below the edge.
denite crystals. The displacement of an edge dislocation
Figure 2a displays a pit 3 µm in diameter along a normal to the slide plane (climb) is
(D), which has a hexagonal morphology (Fig. related to mass transfer. The origin and dis-
2b, image fragment zoomed-in by a computer) placement of edge dislocations toward a crys-
and the SEM image of another sample from tal margin can explain such structural defects
the Erdenet deposit shows a triangular pit (D, as steps at plane margins (circled in the fig-
Fig. 3 row I). The pits were produced by dis- ure) in crystal bends (Figs. 2d–f).
solving molybdenite sheets where disloca- Molybdenite sample from the Mys
tions are exposed on the surface. Pavlovicha deposit. Gray shades in the SEI
Defects whose distortion of structural per- image of molybdenite in Fig. 4 make dis-
fectness extends to areas near a certain sur- cernible thin growth layers of the crystal. The
face can be microscopically described as dis- growth front envelops various obstacles high-
continuity surfaces. This linear imperfectness er than the layer itself. The concentrations of
a b Fig. 2. SEM images

B of molybdenite spec-
imens from (a – d)
E A the Erdenet deposit,
D Mongolia and (e, f)
Kadzharan deposit,
Armenia. (a) Magni-
fication ×250, letters
A
B C A, B, C and D denote
screw dislocations, D
D is a negative crystal.
C
The white line con-
tours the region of
c dislocations. (b, c)
This region of dislo-
cations (enlarged
image); magnifica-
tion: d – ×3300;
e, f – ×800 and
×2000, respectively
(taken on a Came-
bax-microbeam).
d
E
10 µm
Fig. 3. Geometry of structural defects in our

Row A B, C D E specimens:
row I: screw dislocations (A, B, C and E) and
negative crystals (D) shown in Fig. 2a;
row II: negative crystals (a-g) shown in Figs.
5a, 5c,5 e, 5g and 5h;
row III: a – helical-layered growth contours of
a crystal (Fig. 7a), arrows point to a pair of den-
drite needles growing from a single center;
a b c d e f h b –contours of the screw dislocation shown in
Fig. 7d.
a b
Ca and Si admixtures (microprobe data) usu- negative crystals is manifested. Evaporation

ally increase along the growth front of a layers should correspond to spiral growth
molybdenite sheet, where clusters of minute layers, which is explained by spiral disloca-
particles are seen. The following four distinct tions in the crystal, which reach the crystal
regions are discernible in the image: (I) a surface and form steps that are spiral growth
region of relatively smooth surface with pits of centers of the crystal. It is known (Lemmlein,
certain morphology 2–4 µm across, (II) sur- 1973) that layers ranging in thickness from a
face with numerous and diverse pipes up to single unit-cell parameter to a few thousand
30 µm long and <1 µm in diameter, (III) sur- such parameters often develop on crystals
face with knobs up to 60 µm and (IV) region (Fig. 5c). Figures 5a and 5e show dendrites
abounding in structural defects exposed at growing from beneath and seen through the
the surface and precluding the propagation of holes.
the growth layer. Smaller domains were Figures 5g and 5h (see contours in Fig. 3,
selected for detailed studying in each of the row II, f and g) display two triangular pits with
regions. sides approximately 1 µm. The pits were
Region I. Figure 5 presents a SEI image of found in region II. The triangular pits seem to
this region of the molybdenite sample from be negative crystals similar to the molybden-
the Mys Pavlovicha deposit. The geometry of ite crystal of the rhombohedral 3R polytype
the pits is shown in Fig. 3 (row II: a–e). The (Fig. 5f).
hexagonal pits in Figs. 5a, 5c, 5e are equant Region II. As seen in Fig. 6, this region is
negative crystals of the hexagonal 2H molyb- characterized by intense growth of dendrites
denite polytype (Figs. 5b, 5d). The geometric (the cross section of thin needles is Ј0.1 µm).
shapes of the pits exactly replicate the shape During their early growth, crystals are usually
of the crystal itself. The negative crystals are not perfectly shaped and faceted but rather
formed via molybdenite redeposition with grow in the form of dendrites (Lemmlein,
dissolution and evaporation of the material in 1973). These are branching individuals that
a hydrothermal environment. The cavities are crystallize under unequilibrated conditions,
shaped, similar to shaping of growing crys- when the edges and apexes of skeletal crystals
tals, by a tendency of minimizing the surface split following certain laws. The resultant
energy of the crystals. At intense evaporation optically disordered subindividuals branch
and a small enough thicknesses of the surface (see, for instance, Fig. 6b). When a little bit
layers, the holes go all the way through the differently oriented branches of a single den-
layers (Fig. 5e), but if the layers are thick drite crystal merge, spiral dislocations devel-
(Fig. 5c), layered spiral morphology of the op at their boundary. One of such dislocations
Fig. 4. SEM image of a molyb-
denite sample from the Pav-
lovich cape, Magadan area,
magnification ×250. Rectan-
gular contours outline four
regions (I, II, III and IV, see
text).
a b c d
e f g h
Fig. 5. SEM images of (a, c, e, g, h) negative molybdenite crystals in regions I and II (Fig. 4) from the Pavlovich cape, (b, d) molyb-
denite crystals, 2H polytype and (f) molybdenite crystals, 3R polytype.
Magnification: а – ×4500, c – ×20000, e – ×25000; g, h – enlarged fragments shown in Fig. 6a. Crystals: Molly Hill, Quebec, Canada
(photo: Rob Lewinsky, see http://www.mindat.org/photo-20568.html); d – Selimitsa, Vitosha, Bulgaria (photo: A.A. Evseev, see
http://geo.web.ru/druza/m-molib_0.htm); and f – Central Province, Zambia (photo: J. Ralf and I. Chaw, http://www.mindat.org/
min-2745.html).
is displayed in Fig. 7d and the contour of this the effect of admixture atoms. In the triangu-
dislocation is portrayed in Fig. 3 (row III, b). lar hollows of the pipes, rhombohedral 3R
The richer the system in admixtures, the molybdenite polytype can grow in the pres-
stronger the branching of the seed crystal and ence of admixtures (Fig. 5f).
the higher probability that spiral dislocations Free surfaces, cavities, cracks and disloca-
are generated during further growth of the tions are sources of vacancies in the crystal.
crystal (Lemmlein, 1973; Novikov, 1975). The attraction of vacancies accounts for the
Compounds prone to crystallize in the form of origin of helical dislocations whose lines form
dendrites commonly generate numerous dis- geometrically regular screw (Novikov, 1975).
locations (for example, metals). The dislocations thereby acquire an edge
Region II also shows thin sheets of the component (Fig. 7c). Figure 7f shows the saw-
crystals rolled into pipes (some of them are toothed edges of the pipes shaped by geomet-
exhibited in Figs. 1f, 1h). Several of the pipes rically regular spirals.
are triangular in cross section, likely because Region III. This region of the crystal
of the elastic strain field of the crystal along (Fig. 4) abounds of dislocations of different
the lines of edge dislocations. It is known that types that are closely spaced (their spacing is
the imperfectness region of a crystal because nevertheless greater than the unit cell para-
of its edge dislocation (it is referred to as the meters). Such dislocations can be considered
core of dislocations) can be visualized as if collectively and integrally (Landau and
enveloped by a cylindrical surface whose axis Lifshits, 1987). The concentration of disloca-
is the edge of the extra plane (Novikov, 1975; tions commonly growths toward obstacles
Landau and Livshits, 1987). In contrast to a both in a single glide plane and in parallel
screw dislocation, the strain field around an planes, at a density reciprocally proportional
edge dislocation does not show a cylindrical to the square root of their distance. As the
symmetry (Novikov, 1975; Landau and Liv- density of dislocations increases, collective
shits, 1987): it has extension-gliding planes on effects start to play the main role, i.e., certain
its one side and compression on the other. properties are now controlled by the inte-
In the presence of admixture atoms, the raction of several dislocation groups.
elastic strain fields of a dislocation and an The only interacting force between ho-
admixture atom interact and admixture monymous edge dislocations (whose extra
atoms are accumulated at the dislocation. planes are similarly oriented relative to the
They are attracted to the edge of the extra gliding plane) in the same gliding plane is
plane near an edge dislocation and the con- repulsion, whereas heteronymous disloca-
centrations of the atoms decrease away from tions, conversely, attract one another. The
the dislocation (Novikov, 1975). Figure 6d interacting force between parallel edge and
shows a crystal growing within a pipe under screw dislocation is zero. It is much more dif-
a b
d e Fig. 6. SEM image of region II

of the molybdenite sample
(Fig. 4) from the Pavlovich
cape: а – magnification:
×1500,
b–g – enlarged fragments of
Fig. 6a.
f g
ficult to evaluate the interacting force bet- around the marginal constituent of this group
ween randomly oriented dislocations. of dislocations (Novikov, 1975). One of the
Figure 4 displays the distribution of nu- centers of the joint dislocation group is the
merous interacting and propagating mixed center of spiral growth of the layers and
dislocations. Figure 7a exhibits a fragment of another center (pit) is the evaporation center
Region III with discernible crystal growth of the layer and hence, only the needles of the
contours of spiral-layer configuration (Fig. 3, tangential constituent can be seen in this
row III, a). The spiral centers of this group of area.
dislocations are spaced 50 µm apart. The spi- Region IV. This region in Fig. 4 (whose
rals growing from these centers are different enlarged fragment is displayed in Fig. 7b)
in their sense. The contours of the spirals are concentrates various dislocations: helical,
marked by dendrite needles that grow from a which are perpendicular to the plane, are
single center in perpendicular directions, one 0.5 µm across and 2 µm high; edge, which
of which is tangent to the spiral plane. The reach the surface at various angles and whose
growth directions of the needles change to pipes are 2.5 µm in diameter; spiral, which are
opposite ones likely according to changes in 2.5 µm in diameter; etc. The arrow within a
the sense of the tangential and normal strain group of dislocations in Fig. 7b points to a tri-
a b Fig. 7. Fragments
of regions (a) III
and (b) IV mar-
ked in Fig. 4. Dis-
locations: (c) he-
lical (Fig. 2d)
and (d) screw
(Fig. 6a).
(f) Fragment of
molybdenite
image (sample
from the Khar-
beiskoe deposit,
Polar Urals) ta-
ken on a Came-
bax-microbeam
(all image frag-
ments are enlar-
ged by a compu-
ter). For compar-
ison, the figure
c d shows (e) 3R mo-
lybdenite polyty-
pe from the Slyu-
dorudnik depo-
sit, Mount Kysh-
tym, Chelyabinsk
area, Urals (see
http://форум.
хитник.рф/dow
nload/file.php?i
d=2887&mode=
f view).
e
100 µm
angular tablet (its sides are 7 µm long and its pic data demonstrate that molybdenite crys-
height is 0.2 µm). This minute domain resem- tals can be easily split into thin sheets
bles the triangular 3R molybdenite platelets in (0.05–0.50 µm thick), which can be readily
the sample from the Slyudorudnik deposit in shifted relative to one another, cracked and
the Chelyabinsk area in the Southern Urals form voids. Defects in the crystals can be
(Fig. 7e). We have earlier obtained analogous healed via intense growth of dendrites and
results when studying molybdenite from the the development of screw, edge and other
Kharbeiskoe deposit in the Polar Urals dislocations. The dominant mechanisms gen-
(Fig. 7f). erating dislocations in molybdenite crystals is
the shift of one crystal part relative to anoth-
Discussion er for a distances ranging one unit-cell para-
meter to hundreds and even thousands unit-
Thanks to the layered structure of mo- cell distances. The boundary line of this shift
lybdenite, very weak bonds between its struc- can be seen as a line and is a structural imper-
tural layers are readily broken under the fectness of the crystal at the nanometer scale.
effect of an even minimal force. Our X-ray Screw dislocations observable in molybdenite
microprobe and scanning electron-microsco- are 1–6 µm in diameter.
Admixture atoms are concentrated at dislocations. This pertains not only to Re, an ele-
locations. In a group of dislocations, the ment of undoubted scientific and applied
greater the density of dislocations, the higher interest, but also to such elements as Si, Ca,
the concentration of an admixture "attracted" Pb, W and Fe.
to them, with the concentration of the admix-
ture rapidly decreasing away from the core of Acknowledgments
the dislocations. Surface regions of a sample
with an elevated density of screw and other The authors thank G.N. Trach and
dislocations are usually poorly polishable. X- N.S. Smirnova for providing us with molyb-
ray microprobe analysis of our specimens denite specimens and A.A. Burmistrova for
shows than molybdenite with such a charac- help with conducting the experiments.
teristic knobby surface bears the highest con-
centrations of Re and other admixtures, such References
as W, Pb, Ca, Si and Fe. The accommodation
of these elements in molybdenite is likely Alekseev V.I., Marin Yu.B. Structural and che-
explained by their occurrence in the form of mical heterogeneity of natural crystals and
certain minerals rich in these elements: microgeochemical studies in the ontogeny
quartz, powellite, galena, scheelite, Fe oxides, of minerals // Zap. VMO. 2012. Part CXLI.
etc. The admixtures are thereby concentrated No. 1. P. 3–21 (in Russian) (translated:
within very small domains. Structural and Chemical Heterogeneity of
The loci of dislocations on the surface of a Natural Crystals and Microgeochemical
molybdenite crystal are marked by minute Line of Research in Ontogeny of Minerals
pits, which are negative crystals. The core of // Geol. Ore. Deps. 2012. Vol. 54. No. 8.
dislocations acts as a dissolution and evapora- P. 589–601.
tion center. The pits (2–6 µm across) on our Atuchin V. Interview, Computerra-Online.
specimens have clearly seen faces of negative URL: http://www.computerra.ru/inter-
crystals, which are often hexagonal and simi- active/598591/ (date: March 10, 2011) (in
lar to hexagonal crystals of the 2H polytype of Russian).
molybdenite. This led us to conclude that this Chukhrov F.V., Zvyagin B.B., Ermilova L.P., So-
polytype is dominant in our specimens. Tri- boleva S.V., Khitrov V.G. Molybdenite po-
angular pits are negative crystals analogous to lytypes and their occurrence in ores // Geol.
crystals of the 3R rhombohedral polytype of Ore Deps. 1968. Vol. 10. No. 2. P. 12–26 (in
the mineral, which is very rare. Russian).
It has been experimentally demonstrated Gertsen L.E., Petrova N.N., Beketova G.K., Chi-
(Newberry, 1979) that crystals of 3R molyb- stilin P.E., Vyatchennikova L.S., Zhukov N.M.
denite grow on screw dislocations that are Molybdenite and Re mineralization at Mo-
formed in the presence of admixtures. How- Cu porphyry deposits in the Kuigan-Mai-
ever, the occurrence of admixtures is only one bulak ore field, southwestern Balkhash area
of the possible reasons for the development of // Izv. National Acad. Sci. Kazakhstan. Ser.
screw dislocations. In the vicinity of an edge geol. 2003. No. 2 (382). P. 61–72 (in Rus-
dislocations, admixtures are concentrated at sian).
the edge of the extra plane. The rolling of the Khurshudyan E.Kh. On the genesis of rhom-
sheets into pipes is likely caused by the elastic bohedral molybdenite polytype // Dokl.
strain field of the crystal along the line of edge Acad. Sci. USSR. 1966. Vol. 171. No. 1.
dislocations. When a crystal grows in a pipe P. 186–189 (in Russian).
(which are 4–30 µm long, <0.40 µm in outer Kosyak E.A. X-ray microprobe analysis of a Re-
diameter and are sometimes triangular in bearing mineral in ores from the Dzhez-
cross section) because of admixture atoms, kazgan deposit // Vestnik Izv. National Acad
the pipe likely predetermines its structure as Sci. Kazakhstan. 1965. No. 8. P. 52–57 (in
the 3R polytype. Russian).
Microprobe analyses and SEM images of Landau L.D., Lifshits E.M. Theoretical physics.
molybdenite specimens make it possible to Vol. VII: theory of elasticity, 4th edition. Mos-
closely examine minute details in the struc- cow. Nauka. 1987. 248 p. (in Russian).
ture of the mineral and the composition of its Lemmlein G.G. Morphology and genesis of crys-
small fragments. tals. Moscow. Nauka. 1973. 328 p. (in Rus-
Our data indicate that admixture ele- sian).
ments are accommodated in molybdenite at Maximyuk I.E., Kulikova I.M. Modes of Re ac-
its structural defects, first and foremost, dis- commodation in molybdenite from deposits
of various genetic types // Zap. RMO. 2013. Noddack I., Noddack V. Geochemistry of Rhe-
Part 142. No. 2. P. 94–106 (in Russian). nium // Major ideas in geochemistry. Lenin-
МcCandless T.E., Ruiz J., Campbell A.R. Rhe- grad. 1935. Issue 2. P. 73–110 (in Russian).
nium behavior in molybdenite in hypogene Pokalov V.T. On the mode of Re accommoda-
and near surface environments: implications tion in molybdenite // Mineral resour-
for Re Os geochemistry // Geoc. et Cosmoc. ces. Moscow. VIMS. 1963. Issue 7.
Acta. 1993. Vol. 57. № 4. P. 889–905. P. 179–181 (in Russian).
Newberry R.J.J. Polytypism in molybdenite (II): Voudouris P.C., Melfos V., Spry P.G., Bindi L.,
relationships between polytypism, ore depo- Kartal T., Arikas K., Moritz R., Ortelli M.
sition/alteration stages and rhenium con- Rhenium rich molybdenite and rheniite in
tents // Amer. Mineral. 1979. Vol. 64. Pagoni Rachi Mo Cu Te Ag Au prospect,
№ 7–8. P. 768–777. Northern Greece: implications for the Re
Novikov I.I. Defects in the crystal structure of geochemistry of porphyry style Cu Mo and
metals. Moscow. Metallurgiya. 1975. 208 p. Mo mineralization // Canad. Mineral. 2009.
(in Russian). Vol. 47. No 5. Р. 1013–1036.
PLATINUM AND PALLADIUM SULFIDES IN THE CRYSTALLIZATION

PRODUCTS OF MELTS IN THE Cu-Fe-S SYSTEM
Tatyana A. Kravchenko
Institute of Geology and Mineralogy (IGM), Siberian Branch,
Russian Academy of Sciences, Novosibirsk, tanyuk@igm.nsc.ru
To facilitate understanding conditions under which Pt and Pd sulfides were formed in Cu-Fe ores at magmatic Cu-
Ni deposits of the Norilsk type, the crystallization of these minerals was experimentally modeled by cooling (from
1200–1100°C to room temperature) melts corresponding to the central portion of the Cu-Fe-S system doped with
Pt and Pd (1 wt.%). The synthesized Pt and Pd sulfides are analogues of naturally occurring minerals: malanite
Cu(Pt,Fe)2S4, cooperite PtS, vysotskite PdS and braggite (Pt,Pd)S. Their crystallization field in the examined por-
tion of the Cu-Fe-S system (50 at.% S, Cu/Fe = 1.22–0.25 and 45 at.% S, Cu/Fe = 1.44–0.69) corresponds to the
crystallization field of phase associations with chalcopyrite CuFeS2 (Cu/Fe = 0.99–0.67), isocubanite CuFe2S3
(Cu/Fe = 0.61–0.48) and mooihoekite Cu9Fe9S16 (Cu/Fe = 1–0.95). The line of the bornite Cu5FeS4 – mooi-
hoekite Cu9Fe9S16 – isocubanite CuFe2S3 separates the crystallization fields of Pt-Pd sulfides and Pt-Pd metallides.
2 tables, 1 figure, 18 references.
Keywords: Cu-Fe-S system, platinum, palladium, melt crystallization, Pt sulfides, Pd sulfides.
Introduction Cu-Fe-S system (Kravchenko, 2009) and the

boundary between these regions is so far uncer-
Averaged data on the mineralogy of the Cu- tain. Our study was focused on experimental
Ni Norilsk ores indicate that their Pt and Pd determining the stability field of Pt-Pd sulfides
amounts contained in minerals of these metals during the crystallization of the central part of
increase with increasing Cu content of the ores the Cu-Fe-S system at 50 at.% S and Cu/Fe =
from their pyrrhotite to cubanite and then to 1.22–0.43 and 45 at.% S, Cu/Fe = 1.44.
chalcopyrite types (Dodin, 2002). It is currently Provisional information has been obtained on
generally believed that Pt-Pd minerals were phase equilibria in the central part of the Cu-Fe-
formed in magmatic ores of the Norilsk type by S system at 50 at.% S, Cu/Fe = 1.22–0.25 and
their crystallization from magmatic fluid after the 45 at.% S, Cu/Fe = 1.44–0.69 (Fig. 1) and the
ore-forming sulfides (Genkin, 1968; Genkin et composition of the respective phases: chalcopy-
al., 1981; Distler et al., 1979, 1988, 1999). Thereby rite CuFeS2, isocubanite (cubic fcc cubanite)
all researchers emphasized that the crystalliza- CuFe2S3, talnakhine Cu9Fe8S16, mooihoekite
tion temperatures of several Pt-Pd minerals, such Cu9Fe9S16 and cubic pc haycockite Cu4Fe5S
as isoferroplatinum Pt3Fe, rustenburgite Pt3Sn, (Kravchenko et al., 2012).
atokite Pd3Sn, cooperite PtS, vysotskite PdS and
others, is higher than the crystallization temper- Experimental
atures of major ore-forming sulfides (chalcopy-
rite and pyrrhotite) and hence, they could have ВThe starting materials were carbonyl iron
crystallized immediately from the melt. The A-2, copper B3, reagent-grade sulfur, which had
behavior of Pt and Pd during crystallization of Pt- been additionally dehydrated by fusing in vacu-
Pd sulfide melt is understood still inadequately um, metallic platinum and palladium. Pt and Pd
poorly, largely because of our poor knowledge of were added separately (1 wt.% each) or simulta-
the Cu-Fe-S system, whose central part corre- neously (0.5 wt.% each) to the starting mixtures
sponds to the compositions of the Norilsk Cu-Fe of the preparatorily synthesized samples and to
sulfide ores. Experimental data on the Pt and Pd the preparatorily synthesized Ce-Fe-S phase
speciation in the crystallization products of the associations. The melts with Pt and Pd admix-
central part of the Cu-Fe-S system at corre- tures were cooled in the same regimes as the
sponding sulfur fugacity and 600°C (Krav- melts without these admixtures. The synthesis
chenko, Fedorova, 1996; Kravchenko, Kolonin, was carried out in vaccumized quartz ampoules
1998) are consistent with data in (Evstigneeva et by cooling the melt from 1200–1150°С to room
al., 1989; Evstigneeva, 1996) on isoferroplatinum temperature. The cooling regimes of the melts
and cooperite crystallization in hydrothermal have been adjusted experimentally in order to
systems. Similar to naturally occurring ores, the obtain phase equilibria stable at room tempera-
crystallization fields of Pt-Pd and Pd-Pt sulfides ture (Kravchenko, 2011; Kravchenko et al., 2012;
are separated in the phase associations of the see the fig. 1). After synthesis, all crystallization
Platinum and palladium sulfides in the crystallization products of melts in the Cu-Fe-S system 81
at.%
Fig. 1. Schematic representation of phase relations (solid lines according to Kravchenko, 2011, 2012) in the central part of the Cu-Fe-
S system at 600°C (dashed lines according to Cabri, 1973).
o– Stoichiometric compositions of chalcopyrite CuFeS2 (cp), bornite Cu5FeS4 (bn), pyrite FeS2 (py), troilite FeS, talnakhite Cu9Fe8S16
(tal), isocubanite CuFe2S3 (cb), mooihoekite Cu9Fe9S16 (mh) and haycockite Cu4Fe5S8 (hc). Solid solutions: iss – chalcopyrite, bnss –
bornite and po – pyrrhotite. Initial compositions of the synthesized samples: 50 wt.% S, Cu/Fe = 1.22–0.25 and 45 at.% S,
Cu/Fe = 1.44–0.69. · – Pt Pd sulfides, ° – Pt Pd metallides.
products were examined under an optical micro- according to their naturally occurring mineral
scope and by X-ray diffraction techniques. The analogues. We also report their generalized for-
polished sections were prepared from portions of mulas, including elements whose concentrations
each of the samples (which were cut along their in the synthetic phases are no lower than 5 at.%.
vertical axes). The phases were analyzed for The structures of the synthetic phases are men-
major elements and for distribution of admix- tioned when (and if) they differ from those of the
tures over the whole volume of the samples on a natural mineral analogues. The synthesized
Camebax-Micro microprobe, using the universal phases of the haycockite composition Cu4Fe5S8
program (Lavrent'ev and Usova, 1991). Analysis have a cubic pc structure and thus differ from
was conducted based on the FeKa, CuKa, SKa, naturally occurring orthorhombic haycockite.
PtMa, PdLa X-ray reflections, which do not Generalized information on the accommoda-
overlap. The standards were CuFeS2, Pt and Pd. tion of Pt, Pd and Pt together with Pd in the phase
The operating conditions were as follows: 20 kV associations of the central part of the Cu-Fe-S
accelerating voltage, 40 nA absorbed electron system (50 at.% S, Cu/Fe = 1.22–0.25 and 45
current, 40° angle, 10 s counting time on each at.% S, Cu/Fe = 1.44–0.69) are graphically rep-
analytical line and 2–3 µm beam diameter. The resented in the figure and reported in Table 1.
analytical errors for all elements were within 2%. Solid circles in the figure show the composition
The detection limits Cmin in compliance with the of the samples with Pt-Pd sulfides examined in
2d criterion at 99% confidence level were (in this publication and open circles display the
wt.%) 0.05 for Cu, 0.03 for Fe, 0.02 for S, 0.06 for composition of Pt-Pd metallides studied earlier
Pt and 0.05 for Pd. (Kravchenko, 2009). The composition of phases
in the region of Pt-Pd metallides that have been
Results obtained previously and are necessary for dis-
cussing our results herein are printed in Table 1
As in our earlier publications (Kravchenko, in italics. Neither Pt nor Pd are major elements in
2011; Kravchenko et al., 2012), the composition the phases synthesized in the Cu-Fe-S system.
of the synthesized samples in the Cu-Fe-S sys- As can be seen in Fig. 1, when the melts crystal-
tem and the compositions of the corresponding lize, Pt and Pd admixtures are contained in the
Cu-Fe sulfides are expressed in the form of same phases that crystallize from melts with
Cu/Fe ratios. The synthesized phases are named admixtures of either Pt alone or Pd alone. The Pt-
Table 1. Phase composition of the synthesized crystallization products of Cu-Fe-S melts with admixtures of Pt
(1 wt.%), Pd (1 wt.%) and Pt + Pd (0.5 wt.% each)
Starting composition (at.%) of Cu-Fe-S Crystallization products of Cu-Fe-S melts
melts and their Cu/Fe ratios with Pt, Pd and Pt + Pd admixtures
S Cu Fe Cu/Fe Cu Fe S Pt Pd Pt+Pd
27.5–25 22.5–25 1.22–1 cp+bn+py Cu(Fe,Pt)S4 PdS Cu(Fe,Pt)S4; (Pt,Pd)S
25–17.5 25–32.5 1–0.54 cp+icb, 0.61–0.52*
50 0.431 icb, 0.52–0.48* PtS PdS (Pt,Pd)S
15 35 0.432 mh+bn, 0.95*
0.433 hc+bn, 0.90* Pt3Fe Pt3Fe; (Pd,Cu)16S7
1.441 mh+bn, 1.00* PtS (Pd,Cu)16S7 (Pt,Pd)S; (Pd,Cu)16S7
32.5 22.5
45 1.442 mh+bn, 0.95* Pt3Fe Pt3Fe; (Pd,Cu)16S7
30–25 25–30 1.20–0.83 hc+bn, hc+bn+po, 0.90–0.68* Pt3Fe Pd(Cu,Fe) Pd(Cu,Fe)
Note: bn – bornite Cu5FeS4; py – pyrite FeS2; po – pyrrhotite Fe1-xS; cp – chalcopyrite CuFeS2 (Cu/Fe = 0.99–0.67); cb – isocuban-
ite CuFe2S3 (Cu/Fe = 0.61–0.39); mh – mooihoekite Cu9Fe9S16 (Cu/Fe = 1.04–0.93); hc – haycockite Cu4Fe5S8 (Cu/Fe = 0.90–0.68).
Cu(Pt,Fe)S4 – malanite, PdS – vysotskite, PtS – cooperite, (Pt,Pd)S) – braggite, (Pd,Cu)16S7 – unnamed Pd sulfide, Pt3Fe – isoferro-
platinum, Pd(Cu,Fe) – unnamed Pd metallide. * – Cu/Fe isocubanite, mooihoekite, or haycockite. Phase compositions compiled
from (Kravchenko et al., 2012) are printed in italics.
bearing melts in samples with 50 at.% S and nite, chalcopyrite and pyrrhotite (figure) gave
Cu/Fe = 1.22–1 crystallized the association way to phase associations of mooihoekite and
chalcopyrite + bornite + pyrite and malanite haycockite with bornite and pyrrhotite. In sam-
Сu(Pt,Fe)2S4. The Pd-bearing melts crystallized ples with 50 at.% S, Cu/Fe = 0.431 and 0.432
cooperite PtS and the melts that contained isocubanite (Cu/Fe = 0.52–0.48) and mooi-
both Pt and Pd crystallized malanite and brag- hoekite (Cu/Fe = 0.95) with bornite respective-
gite (Pt, Pd)S. In samples with 50 at.% S and ly, occur in association with the same Pt-Pd sul-
Cu/Fe = 1–0.54, cooperite, vysotskite PdS fides (cooperite, vysotskite and braggite) as in
and braggite were synthesized in association samples with 50 at.% S and Cu/Fe = 1–0.54. In
with chalcopyrite and isocubanite (Cu/Fe = samples 0.433 with 50 at.% S and Cu/Fe = 0.43,
0.61–0.52) from melts with Pt, Pd and Pt + Pd the association haycockite (Cu/Fe = 0.90) +
admixtures, respectively. Isocubanite of vari- bornite contains synthesized isoferroplatinum
able composition and various Cu-Fe sulfide as- Pt3Fe and (Pd,Cu)16S7, which is Cu-enriched ana-
sociations were synthesized in samples with logue of the Pd sulfide (which has no proper
50 at.% S and Cu/Fe = 0.43 (see Table 1, lines name) Pd16S7 in the Pd-S system, which crystal-
0.431, 0.432 and 0.433). This is explained by cer- lized at 639°C (Taylor, 1985). In samples with
tain specifics of isocubanite crystallization and 45 at.% S and Cu/Fe = 1.44, the association of
related traits in establishing phase equilibria mooihoekite + bornite (with mooihoekite ha-
during the crystallization of melts correspond- ving Cu/Fe = 1) involves cooperate, (Pd,
ing to the central part of the Cu-Fe-S system. If Cu)16S7 and braggite and this association with
the cooling rate of the melt was increased, the mooihoekite having Cu/Fe = 0.95 contains
field of Fe-enriched (Cu/Fe < 0.5) isocubanite isoferroplatinum and (Pd, Cu)16S7. Hence, Pt-
CuFe2S3, shrank, as also did the crystallization Pd sulfides were synthesized from melt with
field of Fe-enriched chalcopyrite CuFeS2 50 at.% S and Cu/Fe = 1.22–0.43 in associa-
(Kravchenko et al., 2012). The samples with tion with chalcopyrite and isocubanite (Cu/Fe
50 at.% S and Cu/Fe = 0.431 obtained at differ- = 0.61–0.48), whereas brom melt with 45 at.%
ent cooling rates of the melts contained S and Cu/Fe = 1.44 these sulfides crystallized
isocubanite (Cu/Fe = 0.52–0.48) whose com- in association with mooihoekite (Cu/Fe =
position is closely similar to the stoichiometric 1–0.95) and bornite.
one CuFe2S3 (Cu/Fe = 0.5) and corresponds to Table 2 reports typical compositions of the
the bornite Cu5FeS4 (bn) – mooihoekite synthesized crystallization products of Cu-Fe-
Cu9Fe9S16 (mh) – isocubanite CuFe2S3 (cb) S melts with admixtures of Pt and Pd sulfides.
equilibrium (Fig. 1). The composition of the The following Pt and Pd sulfides crystallized
mooihoekite Cu/Fe = 1.04–0.93 correspon- from melts with Pt and Pd admixtures: malan-
ding to this equilibrium is also close to the sto- ite, cooperite and vysotskite as single grains
ichiometric composition (Cu/Fe = 1). More- and as zoned aggregates (Table 2). Thereby
over, an increase in the cooling rate of the melt malanite and cooperite formed the cores of the
resulted in that phase associations of isocuba- grains and vysotskite made up their outer por-
Table 2. Composition of crystallization products of melts in the Cu-Fe-S system with admixtures of Pt (1 wt.%),
Pd (1 wt.%) and Pt + Pd (0.5 wt.% each)
Initial composition: S, at.%, Phases Composition (at.% / wt.% ) of phases
Cu/Fe ratios and admixtures Cu Fe Pt Pd S Total, wt.%
50, 1.22–1 cp 24.59 25.90 0.00 0.00 49.11
33.93 31.41 0.00 0.00 34.48 99.80
bn 48.70 10.38 0.00 0.00 40.92
61.81 11.60 0.00 0.00 26.22 99.63
py 0.37 33.26 0.00 0.00 66.37
0.59 46.08 0.00 0.00 52.78 99.45
Pt + Pd (each 0.5 wt.%) Cu(Pt,Fe)S4* 15.21 11.20 17.40 0.00 56.19
14.26 9.23 50.09 0.00 26.59 100.17
Pt + Pd –//– (Pd,Pt)S** 1.18 0.55 13.59 35.43 49.25
0.94 0.39 33.33 47.39 19.85 101.90
Pt + Pd –//– PdS** 1.17 0.54 0.00 49.14 49.15
1.08 0.44 0.00 75.46 22.75 99.73
50, 0.82 cp 23.77 26.91 0.00 0.00 49.32
32.82 32.66 0.00 0.00 34.35 99.83
Pt PtS 1.54 1.00 49.39 0.00 48.07
0.87 0.49 85.30 0.00 13.64 100.30
Pd PdS 0.36 0.22 0.01 50.72 48.69
0.33 0.18 0.04 76.89 22.24 99.68
Pt + Pd (each 0.5 wt.%) (Pt,Pd)S* 2.13 2.16 44.72 5.40 45.59
1.22 1.09 78.42 5.17 13.14 99.04
Pt + Pd –//– (Pd,Pt)S** 1.34 1.10 5.84 43.38 48.34
1.16 0.87 15.52 62.85 21.13 101.53
50, 0.67 cp 22.89 27.50 0.00 0.00 49.61
31.00 33.36 0.00 0.00 34.54 99.50
cb 18.15 32.48 0.00 0.00 49.37
25.20 39.62 0.00 0.00 34.58 99.40
Pt+Pd (each 0.5 wt.%) PtS* 1.25 1.13 49.70 2.02 45.90
0.69 0.54 83.51 1.85 12.67 99.27
Pt+Pd –//– PdS** 0.14 0.15 0.54 49.61 49.56
0.12 1.12 1.49 75.42 22.20 100.35
50, 0.54 cp + cb 22.12 28.73 0.00 0.00 49.15
30.34 34.62 0.00 0.00 34.00 98.96
Pt PtS 0.99 0.64 50.74 0.00 47.63
0.55 0.31 86.20 0.00 13.30 100.36
1.11 1.54 77.62 6.22 12.84 99.60
Pt + Pd –//– PdS** 0.42 0.68 0.06 49.62 49.21
0.38 0.54 0.18 75.84 22.66 99.33
50, 0.431 cb 16.33 34.07 0.00 0.00 49.60
Cu/Fe = 0.48 22.86 41.91 0.00 0.00 35.03 99.80
0.70 0.96 79.94 5.07 13.08 99.75
Pt + Pd –//– PdS** 0.29 0.52 0.04 50.32 48.83
0.26 0.42 0.11 76.56 22.38 99.73
50, 0.432 mh 25.84 27.18 0.00 0.00 46.98
Cu/Fe = 0.95 34.84 32.22 0.00 0.00 31.96 99.02
bn 46.37 13.55 0.00 0.00 40.08
58.65 15.06 0.00 0.00 25.58 99.29
0.29 0.38 82.27 3.92 13.31 100.17
Pt + Pd –//– PdS** 0.35 0.48 0.11 49.48 49.58
0.32 0.38 0.29 75.40 22.76 99.15
50, 0.433 hc 24.96 27.78 0.00 0.00 47.26
Cu/Fe = 0.90 33.68 32.94 0.00 0.00 32.18 98.80
bn 46.37 13.55 0.00 0.00 40.08
13.55 15.06 0.00 0.00 25.58 99.29
Pt + Pd (each 0.5 wt.%) Pt3Fe 2.07 28.14 68.01 1.34 0.44
0.86 10.35 87.38 0.94 0.09 99.62
Pt + Pd –//– (Pd,Cu)16S7 12.21 4.31 0.00 53.50 29.98
9.98 3.10 0.00 73.30 12.38 98.76
1.441 mh 26.94 27.00 0.00 0.00 46.06
Cu/Fe =1 36.26 31.94 0.00 0.00 31.27 99.47
bn 46.19 12.92 0.00 0.00 40.89
59.04 14.51 0.00 0.00 26.37 99.92
Pt + Pd (each 0.5 wt.%) PtS 8.30 0.98 45.45 2.84 42.43
4.71 0.49 79.18 2.70 12.15 99.23
Pt + Pd –//– (Pd,Cu)16S7 17.02 0.97 0.00 52.67 29.34
14.07 0.70 0.00 72.90 12.24 99.91
1.442 mh 25.86 27.20 00.0 0.00 46.94
Cu/Fe = 0.95 34.78 32.14 00.0 0.00 31.84 98.76
bn 47.10 13.40 0.00 0.00 39.50
59.542 14.18 0.00 0.00 25.19 99.62
Pt + Pd (each 0.5 wt.%) Pt3Fe 2.38 27.18 69.10 0.82 0.52
0.99 9.92 88.04 0.58 0.11 99.64
Pt + Pd –//– (Pd,Cu)16S7 15.71 0.30 0.00 54.70 29.29
13.00 0.22 0.00 75.80 12.22 101.24
Note: cp – chalcopyrite CuFeS2; bn – bornite Cu5FeS4; py – pyrite FeS2; cb – isocubanite CuFe2S3; mh – mooihoekite Cu9Fe9S16; hc – haycockite Cu4Fe5S8.
Cu(Pt,Fe)S4 – malanite, PdS – vysotskite, PtS – cooperite, (Pt,Pd)S – braggite; (Pd,Cu)16S7 – unnamed Pd sulfide, Pt3Fe – isoferroplatinum.
* – cores of zoned grains, ** – margins of zoned grains.
tions. The synthesized Pt-Pd phases exhibit composition CuFe2S3 and corresponds to the
crystallization features and phase relations equilibrium line bornite – mooihoekite – iso-
with sulfides in the central part of the Cu-Fe-S cubanite. We have previously proved (Krav-
system analogous to those of Pt-Pd and Ag-Au chenko, 2009) that melt with 50 at.% S and Cu/Fe
phases synthesized and described in much = 0.25 crystallizes, in association with isocuba-
detail earlier (Kravchenko and Nigmatulina; nite (Cu/Fe = 0.43) + pyrrhotite, Pt3Fe and
2009 Kravchenko, 2009): the largest grains Pd3Fe or, in associations haycockite + bornite
crystallized on the surface and cavities (frac- and haycockite + bornite + pyrrhotite (Tab-
tures) of the synthetic samples, crystal faces le 1), Pt-Pd metallides: Pt3Fe and Pd(Cu,Fe).
are unequally developed, crystallizing grains Hence, the equilibrium line bornite Cu5FeS4 –
were often zoned, a single sample may contain mooihoekite Cu9Fe9S16 – isocubanite CuFe2S3 is
different modes of occurrence of the phases, a the boundary line between the crystallization
single grain may show uneven distribution of fields of Pt-Pd sulfides (malanite, cooperite,
elements and Cu-Fe sulfides are found in frac- vysotskite and braggite) and Pt-Pd metallides
tures and cavities in larger grains. These fea- (Pt3Fe and Pd(Cu,Fe)).
tures are typical of crystallization of Pt-Pd and Our data indicate (Tables 1 and 2) that in
Au-Ag phases immediately from melts of less samples 0.432 of the composition 50 at.% S,
refractory Cu-Fe sulfides with admixtures of Pt, Cu/Fe = 0.43, Pt-Pd sulfides were synthesized
Pd, Au and Ag and if encountered in naturally (cooperite PtS, vysotskite PdS and braggite
occurring ores, are commonly regarded as evi- (Pt,Pd)S) in association with bornite and mooi-
dence that these minerals crystallized after the hoekite. In samples 1.442 of the composition
ore-forming sulfides. 45 at.% S and Cu/Fe = 1.44, bornite and mooi-
hoekite were synthesized with isoferroplatinum
Discussion and sulfide (Pd,Cu)16S7, which were also synthe-
sized in samples 0.433 of the composition 50 at.%
As seen in Table 1, Pd sulfide (Pd,Cu)16S7 was S, Cu/Fe = 0.43, in association with haycockite
synthesized with isoferroplatinum or with co- and bornite. This testifies that the modes in
operite and braggite in samples whose composi- which Pt and Pd are contained in the crystalliza-
tions (50 at.% S, Cu/Fe = 0.43 and 45 at.% S, tion products of melts in the Cu-Fe-S system are
Cu/Fe = 1.44) are transitional from the crystal- controlled by the initial composition of the melt.
lization field of Pt-Pd sulfides to that of Pt-Pd These modes are independent of variations in
metallides. The composition point at 45 at.% S, the phase associations: isocubanite ® mooi-
Cu/Fe = 1.44 lies on the equilibrium line bor- hoekite + bornite and isocubanite + pyrrhotite
nite (bn) – mooihoekite (mh) – isocubanite ® haycockite + bornite, which crystallized at
(cb) (Fig. 1). In sample with 45 at.% S and Cu/Fe different cooling rates of the melt.
= 1.441, Pt-Pd sulfides were synthesized with
mooihoekite of stoichiometric composition Conclusions
Cu9Fe9S16 (Cu/Fe = 1). The composition with
50 at.% S and Cu/Fe = 0.43 corresponds to the 1. The crystallization field of Pt and Pd sul-
Fe-rich end member of the chalcopyrite solid fides, which are analogues to those of natural
solution of cubic fcc structure (Fig. 1, iss; Cabri, minerals, such as malanite Cu(Pt,Fe)2S4, co-
1973). Naturally occurring analogues of the operite PtS, vysotskite PdS and braggite (Pt,
cubic fcc solid solution (Caye et al., 1988) are Pd)S, in the crystallization products of melts in
referred to as isocubanite to distinguish them the Cu-Fe-S system at 50 at.% S, Cu/Fe =
from natural cubanite of the stoichiometric com- 1.22–0.25 and 45 at.% S, Cu/Fe = 1.44–0.69
position CuFe2S3 (Cu/Fe = 0.5) of orthorhombic with Pt and Pd admixtures 1 wt.%) corresponds
structure. The composition of the synthetic to the crystallization field of associations with
isocubanite (Kravchenko et al., 2012) is closely chalcopyrite CuFeS2 (Cu/Fe = 0.99–0.67),
similar to its natural analogue and varies within иisocubanite CuFe2S3 (Cu/Fe = 0.61–0.48) and
the Cu/Fe range of 0.61–0.39. The Cu-enriched mooihoekite Cu9Fe9S16 (Cu/Fe = 1–0.95). The
isocubanite (Cu/Fe = 0.61–0.52) crystallizes bornite Cu5FeS4 – mooihoekite Cu9Fe9S16 –
from melt in association with chalcopyrite, isocubanite CuFe2S3 equilibrium line separates
whereas Fe-enriched isocubanite (Cu/Fe = the crystallization fields of Pt-Pd sulfides and Pt-
0.49–0.39) is formed in association with pyr- Pd metallides.
rhotite and haycockite. As was mentioned above, 2. The Pt-Pd sulfides synthesized in associa-
isocubanite in association with Pt-Pd sulfides tion with less refractory sulfides in the central
(sample 0.431, Table 1) has the composition part of the Cu-Fe-S system typically occur in
(Cu/Fe = 0.52–0.48) close to the stoichiometric grains similar to natural minerals and show
phase relations analogous to those of the corre- // Europ. Jour. of Miner. 1996. No 8.
sponding natural minerals. This testifies that P. 546–549.
malanite, cooperite, vysotskite and braggite Genkin A.D. Minerals of platinum-group metals
could have crystallized immediately from Pt- and and their associations in Cu-Ni ores at the
Pd-bearing Cu-Fe-S melts of the Norilsk type Norilsk deposit. Moscow: Nauka. 1968.
before ore-forming sulfides (isocubanite, chal- 106 p. (in Russian).
copyrite and mooihoekite) crystallized from Genkin A.D., Distler V.V., Gladyshev G.D., et al.
these melts. Sulfide Cu-Ni ores of the Norilsk deposits.
Moscow: Nauka. 1981. 233 p. (in Russian).
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tallic compounds crystallized from Cu-Fe
Cabri L.J. New data on phase relations in the sulfide melt // New Data on Minerals. 2009.
Cu Fe S System // Econ. Geol. 1973. V. 68. Vol. 44. P. 66–73.
P. 443–454. Kravchenko T.A. Experimental study of the crys-
Caye R., Cervelet B., Cesbron F., et al. Isocu- tallization products of chalcopyrite solid
banite, a new definition of the cubic poly- solution // New Data on Minerals. 2011.
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Distler V.V., Smirnov A.B., Grokhovskaya T.L., et E.N. New data on the chemistry of phases in
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Russian). tion course of Cu-Fe sulfide melt // New
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On the 150th
anniversary of the
birth of V.I. Vernadsky
MINERAL SYSTEMATICS
FROM V.I. VERNADSKY TILL 21 CENTURY
Svetlana N. Nenasheva
Fersman Mineralogical Museum, RAS, Moscow, nenashevasn@mail.ru
The article briefly reviews currently most widely accepted systematics of minerals that were developed in the 20th
century by V.I. Vernadsky, J.D. Dana, A.G. Betekhtin, I.N. Kostov and G.P. Barsanov. A.A. Godovikov’s systematic
(Godovikov, 1997) is described in more detail as one reflecting currently acknowledged concepts of relationships
between the chemical composition of minerals and their structures and properties. The author considers the struc-
ture of a mineral at the level of not upper but middle or even lowermost mineralogical taxons, in close relations
with the chemical composition and physicochemical parameters of mineralizing systems. The upper taxons, or
mineral types, are distinguished according the type of the dominate chemical bond. The basis for recognizing
lower taxons, down to mineral classes, is a classification of the chemical elements. In this context, the classifica-
tions of elements suggested by V.I. Vernadsky, A.E. Fersman, A.N. Zavaritsky, A.A. Godovikov are also debated.
A.A. Godovikov has more deeply explored the concepts of similarities and differences in the properties of chemi-
cal elements to put forth a more detailed mineralogical-crystallochemical systematics of the chemical elements
with regard for various properties of elements that are manifested depending on other elements simultaneously
occurring in a compound and on physicochemical parameters of the system. A.A. Godovikov applied this classifi-
cation to distinguish taxons of order lower than type. The criteria suggested for distinguishing taxons in
A.A. Godovikov’s structural-chemical systematics of minerals are presented.
Keywords: systematics of minerals, classification of elements, chemical bond type, chemical composition, mineral
structure, physicochemical parameters of mineralizing system.
It is often thought to be senseless to elabo- The characteristics taken as a basis for a classifi-
rate any new systematics of minerals. This opi- cation should permit the possibility that the
nion is most commonly shared by young place of a mineral in it may be changed after its
researchers, who consider virtual data of mine- composition or structure are determined more
rals to be of much greater importance. How- accurately and/or in more detail. These charac-
ever, such distinguished scientists as M.V. Lo- teristics should make it possible to coin new tax-
monosov, V.M. Severgin, J.J. Berzelius, V.I. Ver- ons for newly discovered minerals, which are
nadsky, J.D. Dana, A.G. Betekhtin, I.N. Kostov, chemical compounds that have not been known
A.S. Povarennykh, H. Strunz, A.A. Godovikov, before to occur in nature, i.e. the classification
J.J. Berzelius, A.R. Hoelzel and A.M. Clark creat- should be evolutive system.
ed their own versions of mineral classifications. Because it is not possible to discuss the whole
The reasons why so much importance was multitude of currently existing classifications in
attached by these scientists to mineral systema- this article, below I will dwell only on the most
tics may be as follows: widely accepted ones.
1 – there is necessity to systematize differ- Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky – an acad-
ent and numerous information on individual emician of the Imperial Academy of Sciences,
minerals. Without this it is not to get slim and sci- the Head of the Mineralogical Section of the
entific description; Geological Museum at the Academy of Sci-
2 – there are a lot of mineral properties ences (Fig. 1), estimated quite highly efforts to
which are used in their descriptions. We need to constrict mineral systematics and believed that
know them for mineral diagnostics and for clari- “establishing a natural and accurate classifica-
fication of their searching features, forming con- tion concerned with the deepest comprehension
ditions of their paragenetic associations, capa- of chemical and mineralogical phenomena”
bilities of mineral utilization by humans; (Vernadsky, 1927). V.I. Vernadsky’s require-
3 – by belonging of minerals to the complete ments for mineral classification were as follows.
different chemical compound types; by differ- 1. The classification should be based on
ences and complexity of their composition; chemical properties of compounds and the
4 – minerals are formed in completely, even chemical elements composing them, similarities
in interexcluded physical-chemical conditions. and differences in the properties of these ele-
Any of mineral systematics appears to be ments and other chemical characteristics.
multidementioned, because it should consider 2. The classification should take into ac-
all the multitude of different mineral features. count genetic and paragenetic features of min-
erals, what should be expressed in combining Type V. Oxides.

minerals into taxons that should comprise as Type VI. Oxosalts: 1 – carbonates; 2 – sili-
many as possible mineral species similar in gen- cates; 3 – titanates; 4 – phosphates, arsenates,
esis (paragenesis) and correspond to under- vanadates, antimonates, nitrates; 5 – borates,
standing physicochemical coherence of the tax- uranates; 6 – sulfates, chromates, tellurates; 7 –
ons and relations between them. tungstenates, molybdates.
3. The structural (geometric), often named Type VII. Salts of organic acids: oxalates,
crystallochemical, traits of minerals are their mellates etc.
secondary (follow level after chemical ones) Type VIII. Hydrocarbons.
identification features because they are deter- Anatoly Georgievich Betekhtin (Fig. 3), the
mined by the chemical composition of minerals author of “Mineralogy”, one of the most compre-
and the physicochemical parameters of their hensive handbooks on mineralogy (Betekhtin,
forms. They surely must be taken into account in 1950). A.G. Betekhtin subdivided minerals into 6
the classification, but only at lower levels of its sections according to their anions.
taxons. Section I. Native elements and intermetallic
V.I. Vernadsky has classified all minerals compounds.
into 14 series (Vernadsky, 1927). Section II. Carbides, nitrides and phos-
I. Free elements and their mixtures (native phides.
elements). Section III. Sulfides, sulfosalts and similar
II. Hydrogenous minerals. compounds.
III. Sulphuric and selenic compounds. Section IV. Haloide compounds (halo-
IV. Arsine and stibine derivatives. genides).
V. Telluric compounds. Section V. Oxides.
VI. Bismuthic compounds. Section VI. Oxygen salts (oxosalts), consis-
VII. Phosphoric, nitrogenous and carbonic ting of 10 classes: 1 – iodates; 2 – nitrates; 3 –
metals. carbonates; 4 – sulfates, selenates, tellurates;
VIII. Oxygenic peroxides, bases and anhy- 5 – chromates; 6 – molybdates and tungste-
drides. nates; 7 – phosphates, arsenates and vanadates;
IХ. Hydrates and fluoranhydrides. 8 – arsenites; 9 – borates; 10 – silicates.
Х. Oxygenic salts and products of attaching Ivan Nikolov Kostov (Fig. 4), a Bulgarian
to them. mineralogist and crystallographer, has created a
ХI. Oxyhaloide compounds. mineral classification based on the chemical
ХII. Haloide compounds. composition and paragenetic series of some ele-
ХIII. Silicic compounds without clear saline ments (Kostov, 1965) and subdivided minerals
nature (glasses). into 12 classes.
ХIV. УCarbonic compounds containing Class I. Native elements.
oxygen, without saline nature. Class II. Sulfides and sulfosalts.
The series are subdivided into groups Class III. Halogenides.
according to the character of the chemical ele- Class IV. Oxides and hydroxides.
ments in the minerals composition. When sug- Class V. Silicates.
gested, the classification comprised more than Class VI. Borates.
200 groups. Class VII. Phosphates, arsenates, vanadates.
Simultaneously with V.I. Vernadsky, James Class VIII. Tungstenates, molybdates.
Dwight Dana, a mineralogist and geologist at Class IX. Sulfates.
the Yale University (Fig. 2), created an appropri- Class X. Chromates.
ate chemical systematics of minerals based on Class XI. Carbonates.
Mendeleyev’s Periodic Law. J.D. Dana grouped Class XII. Nitrates and iodates.
mineral species into 8 major taxons according Georgii Pavlovich Barsanov (Fig. 5), a re-
to the types of their anions and resemblance of markable mineralogist and teacher, Director of
elements, which followed from their position in the Fersman Mineralogical Museum, Acade-
the Periodic Table (Dana, 1892). my of Sciences of the USSR (1952–1976), Vice
Type I. Native elements. President of the International Mineralogical
Type II. Sulfides, selenides, tellurides, Association (1960–1964), Head of the Depart-
arsenides, stibnides. ment for Mineralogy at the Moscow State
Type III. Sulfosalts – sulfoarsenides, sul- University (1953–1986). G.P. Barsanov held
fistibnides, sulfobismuthides. that the bases for classification of minerals
Type IV. Halogenides – chlorides, bromi- should be:
des, iodides, fluorides. 1) types of chemical bonds in crystals;
Mineral systematics from V.I. Vernadsky till 21 century 89
1 2 3 4
Fig. 1. Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky (1863–1945). Fig. 3. Anatolii Georgievich Betekhtin (1897–1962).
Fig. 2. James Dwight Dana (1813–1895). Fig. 4. Ivan Nikolov Kostov (1913–2004).
2) qualitative composition of atoms in the hard (if even possible at all) to apply these classi-
crystal coupled via any type of chemical bond; fications to the newly discovered species. For
3) how and which are the atoms (ions) sur- this reason, several mineralogical works were
rounded by other atoms (or ions) in the three- recently published that describe minerals in an
dimensional crystal structure, i.e. coordination, alphabetic order (Clark, 1993; Robert et al.,
packing character, structure motif (Barsanov, 1990). However, this practice does not provide
1959). G.P. Barsanov divided all minerals into the reader with any type of information on a min-
4 types according to their the chemical bond eral other than its characteristics. The reader
type. The types are further subdivided into class- remains unaware of the circumstances in which
es according to the qualitative composition of the mineral is formed and its associations and,
the anions that make up a certain structure. The hence, is not able to predict as to where the min-
classes consist of taxons, which are distinguished eral may be searched for and how can it be used.
depending on the presence of additional anions. As is known, any hypothesis becomes a theory if
Finally, a taxon next in the hierarchy is estab- it is able to predicted something that turns true
lished according to the qualitative composition in a while.
of the cations. G.P. Barsanov recognized 4 types Aleksandr Alekcandrovich Godovikov (Fig. 6)
as highest taxons (Barsanov, 1959). was a mineralogist of the universal style of think-
Type I. Atomic (partly ionic) lattices with ing, professor, the Director of the Fersman
bonds of metallic or covalent type; which in- Mineralogical Museum (1984–1996), renowned
cludes 2 classes: 1) free atoms of elements and 2) specialist in theoretic, descriptive, experimental
intermetallic compounds. and genetic mineralogy. A.A. Godovikov strove
Type II. Ionic lattices with covalent (rarely for approaching mineralogy to the frontier
ionic) type of bonds, with 5 classes: 1) sulfuric where it would become not a descriptive but
compounds; 2) selenides; 3) tellurides; 4) ar- precise science. Thereby he explored theoretical
senides; and 5) stibnides. aspects of mineralogy aiming to create a founda-
Type III. Typical ionic lattices without com- tion for a uniform classification of minerals based
plex anion groups in their structures. Herein 3 on their chemical features and genetic character-
classes: 1) chlorides, bromides, iodides; 2) fluo- istics, with regard for their structures. These
rides; and 3) oxides. studies conducted by A.A. Godovikov (and
Type IV. Ionic lattices with complex anions. described in 6 monogaphs) laid the basis for his
Herein 11 classes: 1) niobotantalates and niob- “Structural-chemical classification of minerals”
otantalotitanates; 2) silicates; 3) borates; 4) chro- (Godovikov, 1997), in which he did his best to
mates; 5) molybdates; 6) tungstenates; 7) phos- meet the basic requirements to systematics yet
phates; 8) vanadates; 9) sulfates; 10) carbonates; formulated by V.I. Vernadsky. In A.A. Go-
and 11) nitrates. dovikov’s opinion, “it is apparent that mineralo-
These are the most widely accepted mineral gist will be satisfied, if systematic has on its basis
classifications suggested before the 1990s. chemical features which could enable to under-
Unfortunately, most of them postulate the forma- stand their connection with mineral structure and
tion of various taxons and show their hierarchic properties, mineralforming conditions and para-
arrangement but do not explain the principles genesis. Features which are characterizing the
and sequence of this recognition , which makes it structure of minerals should have not the highest
5 6 7 Fig. 5. Georgii Pavlovich

Barsanov (1907–1991).
Fig. 6. Aleksandr
Aleksandrovich
Godovikov (1927–1996).
Fig. 7. Victor Moriz

Goldschmidt
(1888–1947).
taxon positions, but rather middle or even inferi- In the range metallides ® semimetallides ®
or taxon positions, because they are in straight chalcogenic compounds ® oxygenic compo-
dependence on chemical composition and phy- unds ® halogen compounds, the chemical
sical-chemical parameters of mineralforming sys- bond changes consistently: metallic ® metal-
tems” (Godovikov, 1997). lic-covalent ® ionic-covalent ® covalent-ionic
A classification should be natural, for “it must ® ionic bond. The type of the chemical bond
able to account of not only formal features, but also changes according to the affiliation of
also of real mineral associations, their paragene- compounds with elementary substances, bina-
ses, differences of those physicochemical para- ry compounds, or salts and is controlled by the
meters at which minerals are formed and exist, fundamental properties of atoms composing a
giving preferences, in certain instances, to the lat- given mineral, namely their power characteris-
ter in the classification order of minerals”. tics (PC), atomic number Z in the Periodic
Naturally occurring mineral associations are System and their interrelations. The general
genuine criteria of naturality of mineral system- trend manifests itself in the fact that the transi-
atic. It is necessary that there were gradual tran- tion elementary compound ® binary com-
sitions from one taxon to another showing their pound ® salt proceeds so far as the difference
multiple interrelations. DPC of power characteristics of consisting
In effort to make mineralogy closer to exact cations increases, i.e. according to increasing
science, A.A. Godovikov introduced the concept ionicity of the bond.
of power characteristics (PC). According to A.A. Godovikov, a classifica-
Power characteristics of atoms and ions are a tion of chemical elements must be utilized as a
measure of Coulomb’s interaction between an basis for distinguishing taxons of order lower
electron (mostly a valence one) torn off the than type and higher than classes inclusive. A
nucleus (g). The possible power characteristics of number of geochemical classifications of ele-
atoms and ions in the free state and cations in ments and cations were created in the 20th cen-
ionic crystals are: tury. The most widely known classifications of
a) gorb. = F/rorb., where F is the affinity of the elements are described below.
atom to electron and rorb. is the orbital radius of Victor Moritz Goldschmidt (Fig. 7), a crys-
the atom; tallographer, the director of the Geological
b) gorb.n+ = In/rorb.n+, where In is the nth ioni- Museum in Oslo. On the basis of crystal chem-
zation potential and rorb.n+ is the orbital radius of istry, he analyzed the distribution conditions of
the ion with valence number n+; elements in various minerals and conditions of
c) gi = In/ri, where ri is the effective ionic their concentration and migration. Using the
radius of the cation with valence number n+ in dependence of the atomic volume (V) on the
the ionic crystal. atomic number of the corresponding elements
Power characteristics serve as a measure of (Z), V.M. Goldschmidt was the first to suggest
donor-acceptor (acid-alkaline) properties of a classification of elements (Fig. 8) and devided
atoms and ions. them into 4 groups (Goldschmidt, 1937).
As a basis for a mineral classification within Siderophylic elements are located around
chalcogenic, oxygenous and halogenic com- the minima on the curves of atomic volumes as
pounds, i.e. within upper taxons of the classifi- functions of atomic numbers. These elements
cation (types), the dominant type of chemical were C, P, Fe, Co, Ni, Tc, Mo, Ru, Rh, Re, Os, Ir
bond is used. and Pt.
Fig. 8. Atomic volume (V) dependency on atomic number of corresponding elements (Z). Structures: space-centered cubic – CBC,
hexagonal close packing CPH, cubic close packing – CPC, of diamond, structures of other types, La – structures of La type.
Chalcophylic elements correspond to as- the first series of d-elements, that are kain-
cending parts of the curves: S, Cu, Zn, Ga, Ge, osymmetric too, as it was discovered later.
As, Se, Pd (which seems to be more appropriate Aleksandr Nikolaevich Zavaritsky (Fig. 10),
for the siderophile elements), Ag, Cd, In, Sn, an academician, great geologist, petrographer,
Sb, Te, Au, Hg, Tl, Pb, Bi and Po. specialist in ore deposits and volcanology,
Lithophylic elements cluster on descending elaborated his geochemical classification of
parts: Li, Be, B, Na, Al, Si, K, Ca, Sc, Ti, V, Cr, elements (Zavaritsky, 1950) based on the prop-
Mn, Rb, Sr, Y, Zr, Nb, Cs, Ba, Ln, Hf, Ta, W and erties of elements reflected in an extended ver-
Fr (it was not shown in the V. M. Goldschmidt’s sion of the Periodic System . Within the frame-
diagram), Ra, Ac, Th, Pa, U. Taking into ac- work of the Periodic System, he distinguished
count the common presence of O, F, Cl, Br and 11 fields of elements:
I in minerals of rocks and deviating from the 1 – hydrogen – Н;
logically formal classification of elements in 2 – noble gases – He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn;
favor of natural one, V. M. Goldschmidt attrib- 3 – rock-forming elements – Li, Na, K, Rb,
uted them to the same group, although they are Cs, Be, Mg, Ca, Al, Si;
located on ascending segments of the curves. 4 – elements of magmatic emanations –
Atmophylic elements located on the upper B, C, N, O, P, S, F, Cl;
parts of curves. These are He, N, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, 5 – elements of the iron group – Ti, V, Cr,
Rn (Em); hereto he also referred H. Mn, Fe, Co, Ni;
Dissatisfied with V.M. Goldschmidt’s clas- 6 – rare elements – Sc, Y, Ln, Zr, Hf, Nb, Ta;
sification, A.E. Fersman and A.N. Zavaritsky 7 – radioactive elements – Fr, Ra, Ac, Th,
have elaborated their own geochemical classi- Pa, U;
fications. 8 – elements of the platinum group – Ru,
Aleksandr Evgenyevich Fersman (Fig. 9), Rh, Pd, Os, Ir, Pt;
an academician and the Director of the Mine- 9 – metallic elements (nonferrous metals)–
ralogical Museum of the USSR's Academy of Cu, Ag, Au, Zn, Cd, Hg, Ga, In, Tl, Ge, Sn, Pb;
Science (starting in 1919). The sphere of his 10 – metalloid metallogenic elements (ele-
interest was extremely wide: mineralogy, crys- ments of sulphoacids) – As, Sb, Bi, Se, Te, Po;
tallography, geochemistry, studying mineral 11 – heavy haloids – I, Br, At.
resources and the processing technologies of The elements Mo, W, Tc, Re were not
minerals. In his systematics, A.E. Fersman seg- ascribed to any particular fields.
regated typical elements (i.e. elements with As was mentioned above, classifications of
kainosymmetric outer and pre-outer electrons) elements were suggested by several mineralo-
by means of separating them from the others gists but mostly satisfy neither their authors
(in the Periodic System) with a doubled hori- nor their colleagues because the mineral sys-
zontal line (Fersman, 1933). The upper part of tematics based on these classifications were
the System includes all typical elements of the not natural. These systematics did not take into
first three periods and elements from K account the actual associations of minerals,
through Ni. This was done to emphasize the their parageneses and variations in the physic-
unusual properties of most refered ascribed to ochemical parameters under which minerals
9 Fig. 9. Aleksandr Evgenyevich 10 Fig. 10. Aleksandr

Fersman (1883–1945). Nikolaevich Zavaritsky
(1884–1952).
can be formed and exist, as well as the fact that 14 – O, F (?);

natural associations of minerals are not gener- 15 – Co, Fe, Ni, where Co, Fe, Co, Fe, Ni;
ated randomly but result from the grouping of 16 – Si, Ti, Zr, Mn, where Si, Ti, Zr, Mn, Si,
elements according to all of their properties Ti, Zr, Mn;
into natural associations. 17 – Th, U;
Aleksandr Nikolaevich Zavaritsky’s classi- 18 – Zr, Hf;
fication proved most acceptable. Unfortuna- 19 – Nb, Ta;
tely, it inherited certain disadvantates from 20 – S, Se, Te?, where S, Se, Te? , S, Se, Te?
earlier classifications. Symbols print in bold denote the whole iso-
A significantly more detailed classification morphous series and other prints select ele-
of elements was put forth by V.I. Vernadsky. ments of various “thermodynamic shells”: bold
His classification was based on characteristics italic – material of weathered mantles (so-
of isomorphism of elements, genesis of miner- called weathering crusts), underlined bold ita-
als and and parageneses. The core idea of this lic – metamorphic, regular – magmatic shells
classification was expressed in the form of the (Vernadsky, 1927).
widely known isomorphous series (Vernadsky, These isomorphous series show that simi-
1923; 1927). Vernadsky not only grouped ele- larities between elements may appear in diffe-
ments similar in chemical properties but also rent ways depending not only on the formation
showed how these series dependend on the conditions (thermodynamic shells) but also on
genesis. other elements constituting a given isomor-
V.I. Vernadsky’s isomorphous series: phous series. At the same time, certain ele-
1 – Аl, Fe, Cr, MnфTi, B, (Y), (Ce), V, In?, ments can be found in more than one of such
where Al, Fe, Cr, Al, Fe, Cr, Mn, Al, Fe, Cr, series. For example, Fe occurs in 5 series – 1,
MnфTi, B, (Y); 9, 11, 13, 15; Mn is in 4 series – 1, 9, 13, 16; and
2 – Ba, Ca, Sr, Pb, where Ba, Ca, Sr, Pb, Ba, Ca is in 2 series – 2, 13, etc.
Ca, Sr, Ba, Ca, Sr; Therefore, isomorphous series attract atten-
3 – Br, I, Cl, F, where Br, I, Cl, F, Cl, F, Cl, F; tion to the versatility (plurality) of the chemical
4 – V, P, As, Sb? ; properties of some chemical elements, because
5 – Bi, Sb, As, where Bi, Sb, As, Bi, Sb, As; of which such elements may simultaneously
6 – K, Na, Cs, RbфTl, Li, H, where K, Na, fall into a few isomorphous series. At the same
Cs, Rb, K, Na, Cs, RbфTl, Li, H, K, Na, Cs, time, the series cannot (for the same reason) be
RbфTl, Li, H; directly applied in a mineral classification.
7 – W, Mo; This led A.A. Godovikov to alaboration
8 – Ge, Sn; more fundamental concepts of similarities and
9 – Mg, Mn, Fe, Zn, Cd, Cu, Ni, Co, In?, differences in properties of elements, which
where Mn, Fe, Zn, Mg, Mn, Fe, Zn, Cd, Cu, Ni, allowed to create a more detailed mineralogi-
Co, Mg, Mn, Fe, Zn, Cd, Cu, Ni, Co; cal-crystallochemical classification of ele-
10 – Au, Ag, Hg, Cu, Pb, Tl, where Pb, Tl (?), ments, with regard for the variability of proper-
Au, Ag, Hg, Cu, Pb, Tl, Au, Ag, Hg, Cu, Pb, Tl; ties of elements that is manifested depending
11 – Pt, Fe, Pd, Ir, Rh, Cu; on other elements involved in a given com-
12 – Os, Ru, Rd, Ir; pound and on the physicochemical parameters
13 – Ca, Mg, Mn, Fe, where Ca, Mg (?), Ca, of the system. A.A. Godovikov divided all ele-
Mg, Mn, Fe, Ca, Mg, Mn, Fe; ments into 8 groups.
1. Hydrogen – H. Separating H into an als and manifest acid properties. It was demon-
individual group complies with systematics of strated to be convenient to express differences
A.N. Zavaritsky. in the acid-base properties of cations with vari-
2. Lithophylic elements with low PC: 2.1. ous CN by the produced PC values i.e. their
alkaline and alkaline-earth elements – Li, Na, PC/CN ratio, which enables one, together with
K, Rb, Cs, Fr; Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba; 2.2. rare-earth and the cation electronic type (s-, f-, d-, p-) and its
radioactive elements – Sc, Y, Ln (La – Yb), order number, to present a classification of
Th, U; 2.3. amphoteric elements – Be, Al, (Ga); major mineral-forming ions in a tabular form
2.4. kainosymmetric d'-elements – Ti, V, Cr, (Fig. 1).
Mn, Fe, Co, Ni. This group of elements is At the same time, A.A. Godovikov has de-
entirely analogous with A.N. Zavaritsky’s monstrated that the PC/CN ratio determines
group of iron; the role of cations in compositions but cannot
3. Lithophylic elements with intermediate be used as a strict formalized criterion, because
PC: 3.1. non-kainosymmetric d'-complex for- cation properties also depend on some minute
mers – Zr, Hf, Nb, Ta; 3.2. Mo and W. features of the atomic structure, in particular,
4. Noble-metallic (Siderophylic) elements their Z value and affiliation with kaino- or
– Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag, Os, Ir, Pt, Au. Among them, nonkainosymmetricals. However, in several
Ag and Au are often contained in chalcophylic instances, it elucidates not only the role of a
minerals and associations. cation in a compound but also the possibility of
5. Chalcophylic elements: 5.1. chalcophylic isomorphism between it and other cations, es-
elements with low PC – Cu, Zn, Cd, Hg, (Ga), pecially when they are similar in terms of
In, Tl, Pb; 5.2. chalcophylic elements with mid- other features. On the basis of this cation clas-
dle PC – Ge, Sn, As, Sb, Bi, Se, Te. Groups 5.1. sification (Godovikov, 1997), A.A. Godovikov
and 5.2. are very closely similar to, respective- has worked out a more detailed grouping
ly, groups 9 – metallic (colored) elements and scheme for structural-chemical groups of ele-
10 – A.N. Zavaritsky’s metalloid metallogenic ments (cations) depending on their chemical
elements (elements of “sulphoacids”), except and crystallochemical properties (Godovikov,
Ge and Sn, which were referred by A.N. Za- 2001).
varitsky to the group 9. 1. H+
6. Light anion-forming elements – B, C, Si, 2. Li+
N, P, O, S, F, Cl. This group of elements is com- 3. Na+, K+, Rb+, Cs+, Fr+; Ba2+(CN = 12);
pletely analogous to A.N. Zavaritsky’s group of Pb2+(CN = 12); Tl+(CN = 12)
elements of magmatic emanations that com- 4. Mg2+, Fe2+, Mn2+, Co2+, Ni2+
pose lithophile minerals as anion-forming ele- 5. Ca, Sr, Ba; Cu2+(CN = 12); Pb2+(CN = 12)
ments (B, C, Si, N, P, S) or anions (O, F, Cl); 6. Sc, Y, Ln; Th, U
with only S able to additionally act as an anion 7. Be
in chalcophylic minerals. 8. Al3+, Fe3+, Mn3+, Cr3+, V3+, Ti3+
7. Heavy anion-forming elements – Br and I. 9. Ti4+
8. Noble gases elements – He, Ne, Ar, Kr, 10. V4+, Mn4+
Xe, Rn. 11. V5+
This classification was later proved to also 12. Cr6+
need refining, because most elements turned 13. Zr4+, Hf4+
out to be amphoteric, with their acid-base 14. Nb5+, Ta5+
properties defined by the properties of other 15. Mo4+, W4+
elements of composition, the proportions of 16. Mo6+, W6+
these elements, the physicochemical parame- 17. Ru, Rh, Pd; Os, Ir, Pt
ters of the systems in which the minerals exist 18. Au
or were generated. Thus, depending on its CN 19. Cu+, Ag+, Tl+(CN = 2–4)
in a compound, a typical siderophylic or even 20. Zn, Cd
chalcophylic element can become a crystalo- 21. Hg
chemical analogue of typical lithophylic ele- 22. Ga, In, Tl3+
ments. This classification cannot thus form a 23. Pd2+(CN Ј 12)
basis for selecting taxons of order lower than 24. Ge, Sn
type, because the same cations can play a 25. As3+, Sb3+, Bi3+, Te4+
cation role in different mineral types e.g. litho- Comparison of these series of cations (ele-
phylic and chalcophylic and be cations in cer- ments) with V.I. Vernadsky’s isomorphic series
tain minerals manifesting their alkaline proper- show that they are mostly similar, but they is
ties, or anion-forming elements in other miner- able to more completely take into account the
94
New Data on Minerals. 2013. Vol. 48
Fig. 11. Tabulated classification of main ions containing in minerals.

Table 1. General enumeration of the taxons of structural-chemical classification of minerals

Taxon Feature Examples
1 2 3
Type It is principle type of The five types are uniting all minerals species:
chemical bond (but 1. Type: Minerals with principal metallic and metallic-covalent bond – native metals and
not a single type of semimetals, metallides and semimetallides.
chemical bond) 2. Type: Minerals with principal metallic-covalent and ionic-covalent bond, rare van der
Waals forces – chalcogen compounds and native VIa nonmetals.
3. Type: Minerals with principal ionic-covalent and covalent-ionic bond – nonmetallides of
light (typical, noncenosymmetrical) VIa element (O) – oxygen compounds.
4. Type: Minerals with principle covalent-ionic and ionic bond – halogen compounds.
5. Type: Carbon, its compounds (without carbonates) and related substances.
Quasitype* Type of chemical bond There are two quasitypes at the second type of minerals with principal metallic-covalent and
(this taxon is divided ionic-covalent bond, rare van der Waals forces – chalcogen compound and native VIa
when more higher taxon nonmetals:
unites the minerals with 2a. Native VIa nonmetals (van der Waals forces);
three or more types of 2b. Chalcogenic compounds (metallic-covalent and ionic-covalent bond rare van der
chemical bond) Waals forces) – simple (isodesmical) ® complex ® chalcosalts (anisodesmical).
Subtype 1. Type of chemical There are two subtypes at the 1. taxon of minerals with principal metallic and metallic-
bond, (only single type covalent bond – native metals and semimetals, metallides and semimetallides:
of chemical bond) 1.1. Metals and metallides;
1.2. Semimetals and semimetallides.
2. Type of cation There are two subtypes at the 2b. quasitype of the second type:
(siderophyllic, chalco- 2b.1. Chalcogenic compounds of sidero – and chalcophyllic cations (metallic-covalent bond);
phyllic or lithophyllic) 2b.2. Chalcogenic compounds of lithophyllic cations (ionic-covalent bond).
3. Belonging of mineral There are two subtypes at the 3 type of minerals with principal ionic-covalent and covalent-
to isodesmical and ani- ionic bond -nonmetallides of light (typical, noncenosymmetrical) VIa-element (O) – oxygen
sodesmical compounds compounds:
3.1. Oxides and hydroxides (isodesmical);
3.2. Oxysalts (anisodesmical).
There are two subtypes at the 4 type of minerals with principle covalent-ionic and ionic bond –
halogen compounds:
4.1. Halogenides (isodesmical);
4.2. Halogenosalts (anisodesmical) (with hexacyanoferrates and hexatiocyanates, rhodonides).
Quasi- 1. Anion There are two quasitypes at the 2b.1. subtype chalcogen compounds of sidero- and chalco
subtype* phyllic cations (metallic-covalent bond):
2b.1a. Sulfides and sulfosalts of sidero- and chalcophyllic cations;
2b.1b. Selenides and selenosalts of sidero- and chalcophyllic cations.
2. Type of cation and There are six consequently changing quasitypes at the 3.1 Subtype oxides and hydroxides
FC of cation (isodesmical), that are corresponding for transferal from the cations with low FC to the
cations with high FC, from lithophyllic cations to chalcophyllic and to nonmetallic cations of
the elements with mostly high FC:
3.1a. Oxides and hydroxides of lithophyllic cations with low FC;
3.1b. Oxides and hydroxides of lithophyllic cations with middle FC;
3.1c. Oxides and hydroxides of chalcophyllic cations (without Va- and VIa- cations);
3.1d. Oxides and hydroxides Va- cations (As, Sb, Bi);
3.1e.Oxides and hydroxides VIa- cation (Te);
3.1f. Oxides and hydroxides of nonmetals (lithophyllic) elements.
Overclass* Cation There are seven overclasses at the 3.1b. taxon – oxides and hydroxides of lithophyllic cations
with middle FC:
3.1b.1. Oxides Zr;
3.1b.2. Oxides Ti (Ti4+);
3.1b.3. Oxides and hydroxides Nb5+ and Ta5+;
3.1b.4. Oxides and hydroxides Mo and W;
3.1b.5. Oxides and hydroxides Mn4+;
3.1b.6. Oxides and hydroxides V4+;
3.1b.7. Oxides and hydroxides V5+.
Table 1. Continue.
Class 1. Type of anion There are two classes at the 2b.1a. quasitype – sulfides and sulfosalts of sidero- and chalco-
(simple, complex) or phyllic cations:
compound (simple, 2b.1а.1. Class: Sulfides of sidero- and chalcophyllic cations;
complex) 2b.1а.2. Class: Sulfosalts of sidero- and chalcophyllic cations.
2. Anionforming, when There are two classes at the 3b.1b.1. overclass – oxides Zr:
minerals are anisodes- 3.1b.1а. Class: Simple oxides of Zr;
mical compounds 3.1b.1b. Class: Complex oxides of Zr ® titanates of Zr ® zirconotitanates.
There are eleven classes at the 3.2. subtype - Oxosalts (anisodesmical):
3.2.1. Class: Silicates;
3.2.2. Class: Borates;
3.2.3. Class: Carbonates;
3.2.4. Class: Phosphates;
3.2.4a. Class: Arsenates;
3.2.5. Class: Sulfates;
3.2.6. Class: Sulfites;
3.2.6a. Class: Selenites;
3.2.7. Class: Nitrates;
3.2.7a. Class: Iodates;
3.2.7b. Class: Rhodonates (tiocyanates).
Quasiclass Coordination number There are three quasiclasses at the 3.1b.7b. class - complex oxides and hydroxides of V5+:
of the anionforming ((6)-vanadates ® (5)-vanadates ® (4)-vanadates);
3.1b.7b.1. Qusiclass: (6)-vanadates;
3.1b.7b.2 Qusiclass: (5)-vanadates;
3.1b.7b.3 Qusiclass: (4)-vanadates.
There are tree quasiclasses at the borates class: 1) (4)-borates; 2) (3)-borates; 3) (4)-(3)-borates:
3.2.2.1. Quasiclass: (4)-Borates;
3.2.2.2. Quasiclass: (3)-Borates;
3.2.2.3. Quasiclass: (4)-(3)-Borates.
Subclass The size of FC There are three subclasses at the class of silicates:
1) silicates with low FC;
2) silicates with middle FC;
3) silicates of chalcophyllic elements.
Family The minerals of one The family of zeolites unite the subfamilies: thomsonite, scolecite-natrolite, garronite,
family have similar of wairakite, gmelinite, stilbite, stellerite, mordenite.
equal compound, single The micas family unite dioctahedral and trioctahedral micas and all polytypes.
genesis or paragenesis
Subfamily Similar or equal compo- There are five subfamilies at the chalcopyrite family: talnakhite, actually chalcopyrite,
und and same type of germanite, briartite, morozeviczite.
structure There are three subfamilies at the stannite family: stannoidite, actually stannite, rodostannite.
Series Uninterrupted solid The forsterite genus and garnet genus among of the middle tetrasilicates.
(genus) solutions between two
or greater number of
the extreme members
Group The same type of the The dolomite group include dolomite, ankerite, kutnohorite, benstonite, eitelite. All its
compound or structure minerals have one type structure, but they have not the uninterrupted solid solutions
between ones.
Mineral There is an individual а) There are three mineral species at the genus monticellite: monticellite, glaucochroite,
species chemical compound, kirnschsteinite.
extreme member of the b) There are five mineral species at the forsterite genus: forsterite, fayalite, tephroite, lieben-
solid solutions, middle bergite, laihunite.
member of the uninter-
rupted solid solutions
Notes: asterisks after taxon names dente taxon introduced but not named by A.A. Godovikov. Their names were suggested by
S.N. Nenasheva, for exaple, quasitype*, quasisubtype*, ore overclass*.
mineralogical and crystallochemical similarity Mineralogical Museum. 1959. Issue 9.

of cations (elements). P. 3–8 (in Russian).
These series of cations (elements) are taken Betekhtin A.G. Mineralogy. Moscow: Gosgeo-
as a basis of a further classification of minerals lizdat. 1950. 956 p. (in Russian).
within classes distinguished according to Clark A.M. Hey’s Mineral Index / 3rd ed. London,
anions features. Glasgow, New York, Tokyo, Melbourn, Mad-
Thus, higher taxons up to classes are ras. 1993. 852 p.
selected according to the prevailing type of Dana E.S. The system of mineralogy of James
the chemical bonds. All minerals are grouped Dwight Dana 1837–1868. N.-Y.: John Willey
into five types (see Table 2). and Sons, Inc. L., Chapman and Hall, Ltd.
In conclusion, it is pertinent to quote 1892. 1134 p.
A.A. Godovikov: “the fundamentals of the min- Fersman A.E. Geochemistry. Leningrad: Gos-
eral classification elaborated by V.I. Vernadsky khimtekhizdat. 1933. Vol. 1. 328 p. (in Rus-
and their further development made it possible sian).
to construct a natural classification of minerals Godovikov A.A. Classification of minerals from
so much needed during his lifetime, with a firm V.I. Vernadsky to the present day // Bulletin
foundation laid for this classification by of Commission for Exploring Acad. V.I. Ver-
V.I. Vernadsky himself” (Godovikov, 2001). nadsky’s heritage. Moscow: Nauka. 2001.
As became evident over years that has P. 48–64 (in Russian).
passed since the publication of the structural- Godovikov A.A. The structural-chemical classifi-
chemical classification of minerals, it enables cation of minerals. Moscow: Fersman Mine-
accurate arranging newly discovered species. ralogical Museum RAS. 1997. 247 p. (in
During this time, cells in the systematic table Russian).
were found for 1457 species, most of which are Goldschmidt V.M. Crystallochemistry. Lenin-
newly discovered minerals and lesser part are grad: ONTI Khimteoret. 1937. 61 p. (in Rus-
minerals known earlier but not fit into the sys- sian).
tematic tables proposed by A.A. Godovikov. Kostov I.N. Geochemical principle in classifica-
The features assumed as the basis the of classi- tion of minerals // Problems of geoche-
fication allow one to change the position of a mistry. Moscow: Acad. Sci. USSR. 1965.
mineral in this classification after more accu- P. 457–462 (in Russian).
rate and/or precise data are obtained on the Robert W.L., Campbell T.J., Rapp G.R.Jr. En-
composition or structure of this mineral. The cyclopedia of minerals / 2nd ed. N.-Y.: VNR.
classification makes it possible to distinguish 1990. 978 p.
new taxons for newly discovered minerals that Vernadsky V.I. The history of minerals of the
present chemical compounds not known in the earth's crust. Petrograd: NKhTI. 1923. Is-
early 1990s. Thus, this is not a frozen concept sue 1. 208 p. (in Russian).
but a developing system. Vernadsky V.I. The history of minerals of the
earth’s crust. Petrograd: NKhTI. 1927. Vol. 1.
References Issue 1. P. 209–376 (in Russian).
Zavaritsky A.N. Introduction into petrochemistry
Barsanov G.P. Foundations of a contemporary of igneous rocks, 2nd ed. M.-L.: Acad. Sci.
mineral classification // Proc. A.E. Fersman USSR. 1950. 396 p. (in Russian).
GEOCHEMICAL MINERALOGY BY VLADIMIR IVANOVICH VERNADSKY

AND THE PRESENT TIMES
Boris Ye. Borutzky
Fersman Mineralogical museum, RAS, Moscow, borborutzky2012@yandex.ru
The world generally believes that “the science of science” about natural matter – mineralogy – became obsolete
and was replaced by the new science – geochemistry, by V.I. Vernadsky. This is not true. Geochemistry was and
is never separated from mineralogy – its fundament. Geochemistry studies behaviour of chemical elements main-
ly within the minerals, which are the basic form of inorganic (lifeless) substance existence on the Earth conditions.
It also studies redistribution of chemical elements between co-existing minerals and within the minerals, by vari-
able conditions of mineral-forming medium during the mineral-forming processes. On the other hand, owing to
V.I. Vernadsky, mineralogy became geochemical mineralogy, as it took in the ideas and methods of chemistry,
which enables to determine chemical composition, structure and transformation of minerals during the certain
geological processes in the Earth history.
1 photo, 20 references.
Keywords: Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky, mineralogy, geochemistry, geology, physics of solids, mineral-forming
process, paragenesis, history of science.
Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky’s remark- into several stages. Forming his personality of
able personality and his input to the Earth sci- scientist-mineralogist and the main input into
ences, first of all, to mineralogy – changing it reformation of Russian mineralogy and creation
from the trendy mineral collecting hobby, of mineralogical science in Russia are related
observation of mineral beauty, art and culture with the early, “Moscow” stage (1988–1909).
areas into the mineralogical science, are not to At that time, on the recommendation of profes-
be expressed. Even at present, over a century sor Alexey Petrovich Pavlov, Vladimir Ivano-
since, his studies impress with its full of vich was invited to occupy the post of associate
thought, unity, systematic character and wide professor in mineralogy at the mineralogical
approach to investigation of natural objects, department at the Moscow State University, for
deep analysis of previous publications in this giving lectures in mineralogy at the natural his-
area. His activity amazes with unusual dedica- tory faculty (1890). Since 1891 he became a
tion and uncompromisingness for organization director of Mineral cabinet and since 1892
research and fight with traditional conser- became the head of the department and started
vatism, with solution of principal issues of sci- giving lectures in mineralogy, crystallography
ence and with creation of progressive scientif- and natural history both at the natural depart-
ic mineralogical school in Russia. Scientific ment of the physics-mathematical faculty and
ideas by Vernadsky are actual at present not in mineralogy at the medical faculty and also
less, but even more than 100 years ago, when (since 1901) – at the Moscow high women’s
not all the mineralogists could accept and courses. During that time (1891) he defended
understand them. According to Dmitriy Iva- his thesis for a mastery’s degree in geology and
novich Scherbakov’s memoirs: “Vladimir Iva- geognosy, the topic is “On sillimanite group
novich in his addictive aspiration forward was and the role of alumina in silicates” (Vernadsky,
often taking the lead over scientific ideas of his 1891). Later he obtained his PhD on the theme
epoch. Sometimes he was not understood and “Phenomena of sliding of crystal matter (phy-
his thoughts were underestimated by his con- sics-crystallographic study” (Vernadsky, 1897).
temporaries. But his outstanding scientific in- The fundament of those lectures (which
tuition always lead him by the right way and his were later re-published as textbooks) and scien-
clear-sightedness helped to create the number tific generalizations was strict unified method-
of new leading courses with perspective future” ology, which was not accidental, sudden happy
(Scherbakov, 1963, p. 34, 35). striking, but it resulted from the huge, purpose-
ful work. Vernadsky analysed in detail what was
Vladimir I. Vernadsky – as a mineralogist done by different scientists from different coun-
tries to reveal trends in development of scientif-
As to the memoirs by Boris Leonidovich ic ideas, collective input in the whole image of
Lichkov (Lichkov, 1948; 1963), scientific cre- knowledge of construction and laws of the envi-
ative work of V.I. Vernadsky could be divided ronment, of the Universe. We will not replicate
Geochemical mineralogy by Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky and the present times 99
the scientist’s well-known biography facts, but Fig. 1. Vladimir

will mention only those, which are necessary for Ivanovich Ver-
nadsky.
the topic of this paper and our grounds for us Photo 1905 year.
characterizing mineralogy of Vernadsky as geo-
chemical mineralogy and not geochemistry. As
the basic documents we will cite scientific
works by Vernadsky himself, his letters and tes-
timonies of his contemporaries.
First of all, Vladimir Ivanovich had brilliant
teachers at the Saint-Petersburg University,
which he was graduated from in 1885 at the nat-
ural history department of physics-mathemati-
cal faculty. His tutors were outstanding Russian
scientists, who contributed a lot into the world
science. The lecturer and examiner in chem-
istry was Dmitriy Ivanovich Mendeleev – the
creator of Periodic Table of chemical elements.
Lectures in geology and mineralogy were given
by Vassiliy Vassilyevich Dokuchaev – the
founder of revolutionary new direction in soil
science. Under his tuition Vernadsky practised
in the fieldwork, studying soils of Nizhegorod-
skaya and Poltavskaya provinces, with geologi-
cal mapping; and also actively worked in Mi-
neralogical cabinet of the University. Still being research should be learnt there, in advanced as
a student, he was interested in problems of mi- to Russian development.
neral genesis, which he described in Brockhaus After a short visit at the foreign correspond-
and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary (Vernad- ing member of the Imperial Russian academy of
sky, 1892). His tutor was also Sergey Fedoro- science, professor Archangello Skakki, Vladi-
vich Glinka – who supported traditional views mir Ivanovich moved to Munich for visiting
in mineralogy, however brilliant mineral expert. well-known mineralogist and crystallographer,
After graduating from the University, Vla- professor Paul Groth and physicist crystallogra-
dimir Ivanovich obtained a position of the keep- pher Leonard Zonke. At Groth’s laboratory
er of the Mineral cabinet and after successful (1888–1889) he synthesised triethyl ester of
passing his masters exam (1887) he was appre- trimesic acid, which seems to have nothing in
ciated with the overseas trip (1988). common with mineralogy. But the essentials are
It is usually considered that he was busy that Groth was the first who understood and
with deep studying crystallography there and decided to express an idea that crystal can be
since that sometimes “Moscow” stage is subdi- described simultaneously both as molecule of
vided into two: crystallographic and mineralo- chemical compound (which until nowadays
gical. But it is not quite, as we can read from the remains as empirical chemical formula of the
Vernadsky’s detailed autobiographical abstract mineral) and endless three-dimensional pattern
to the 4th edition of his lectures he gave at the with atoms in lattice points. At that time he was
Moscow University in 1910–1912: “Almost all busy with this problem since 1870s and then
mineralogy departments at the universities and was first who understood and promoted in self-
high technical and medical schools were occu- founded magazine Zeitschrift für Krystal-
pied with not mineralogists, but geologists… Me lographie the works by Evgraf Stepanovich Fe-
myself, the follower of V.V. Dokuchaev and dorov, who was repelled in Russia and Arthur
S.F. Glinka at the Petersburg University, got the Moritz Schoenflies. Later Groth was one of the
scientific training in methods of research only initiators of X-ray analysis application in mine-
abroad, in Munich and Paris” (Vernadsky, Kur- ralogy, after professor of physics Max von Laue
batov, 1937, p. 38). This edition was prepared in proved the possibility of diffraction of X-rays on
cooperation with Sergey Mikhailovich Kur- crystal lattice and in 1912 in presence of Groth
batov under the title “The Earth silicates, alumi- and with assistance of Walter Friedrich and
nosilicates and their analogues”. Paul Knipping obtained the first X-ray picture
Thus, Vernadsky considered western coun- of halite.
tries as providers of progressive trends in mine- Describing the fundamental changes in
ralogy and crystallography and new methods of crystallography Vladimir Ivanovich wrote: “At
the end of the XIX and beginning of the XX cen- silicon and aluminium – the most important
tury in crystallography there was formed new chemical elements on Earth. The latter was the
precise geometrical conception about crystal, basis of his above mentioned Masters disserta-
which replaced the previous idea about crystal tion (Vernadsky, 1891) and later this investiga-
polyhedra. Crystal is considered to be an end- tion was the central one amongst his innovative
less system of homologous points within space, studies of the huge group of petrologically
which distribution meets the basic geometric important aluminosilicates, which resulted in
characteristics of crystal polyhedra – their sym- explanation of relation between their structure
metry and the law of rational indices. The back- and chemical composition.
ground of such ideas about crystal can be traced Recalling that time in the letter to Alexan-
in XVIII century, in works by Bergman and der E. Fersman from Carlsbad dated 1 October
Hahn1, general conclusions by Haüy2. Now we 1935, Vladimir Ivanovich wrote: “All my scien-
see that the discovery of cleavage made by tific past is going over again. Both work and
Hahn, was the fundament of all the theoretical wishes, failed to be fulfilled – about structural
thinking of the century long. Finally, it was chemistry of aluminium and silicon – work with
crowned with the complete mathematical theo- Le Chatelier and Fougué and then – interest in
ry of possible systems of homologous points polymorphism where a little was done about,
within space, it was presented independently: postponed till better times, when at the begin-
analytically – by professor Evgraf S. Fedorov in ning of a century I left for mineralogy as dynam-
St.-Petersburg (1888–1891) and geometrically – ic discipline and then – for geochemistry”
by Arthur Schönflies in Stuttgart. They both (Letters..., 1985, № 139, p. 173–175).
obtained the same result – 230 systems of such However, was everything that bad at the
points, which could be brought to fractional divi- Moscow University when Vernadsky came?
sions. All the crystallographic groups were found What was the real level of Russian mineralogy?
earlier (Johann F. Hessel3, 1830–1832, Auguste The impression about this can be based on
Bravais4, 1851–1914, L. Zonke, 1879–1885) oc- the jubilee “Geologic almanac” (2003), pub-
curred to be the subcase of this remarkable and lished to 250th anniversary of Moscow State Uni-
unique mathematical construction. ... The newly versity. The authors recall that Moscow Univer-
created concept was not in accord with the usual sity, founded according to the Decree of Em-
but experimentally unproved belief that chemical press Elizaveta Petrovna from 12 (25) January
compound must be presented with molecule. In 1755, consisted of three faculties: faculty of law,
fact, this was absolutely new approach to the sci- medicine and philosophy. Department of natural
entific understanding of matter solid phase – sciences was within the Medical faculty and at
crystal one – chemical compounds, determined that time it had excellent mineral cabinet. It was
or undetermined. This approach was different donated to the University by the Urals industrial-
rather than thermodynamic ideas, the approach ist Nikita Akinfiyevich Demidov and compiled
enabled to bring together solid phase substances on the basis of collection acquired by Akinfiy
to investigation of their atomic structure” (Ver- Nikitich Demidov in Saxony, from professor of
nadsky, Kurbatov, 1937, p. 10). Freiberg Bergakademie Heckel. There were
In March 1889 Vernadsky had moved to Paris nearly 6000 specimens in the “Heckel mineral
where he worked under supervision of professor cabinet”, supplemented with specimens from the
of natural history and inorganic chemistry Urals and Siberia, but in charge of this collection
Ferdinand A. Fougué in Collège de France and was not a mineralogist, but famous writer –
of professor of general chemistry, physicist and Mikhail Matveyevich Kheraskov. At the begin-
chemist Henri Louis Le Chatelier – the author of ning, classes in mineralogy were available at two
theory of dynamic equilibrium in thermodyna- faculties – medical and faculty of philosophy;
mics and also the discoverer of pyrometer and lectures in mineralogy were given since 1758 by
metallographic microscope, in École des Mines. German professor Johann Christian Kerstens,
Vernadsky studied methods of pyrometry, syn- then since 1769 – by Matvey Ivanovich Afonin,
thesized minerals and studied their optical pro- who had studied abroad, at the universities of
perties; also he was interested in natural forms of Königsberg and Sweden.
1
– Otto Hahn (1879–1968) – German physicist and radiochemist, discovered nuclear isometrism and uranium fission. In 1944
was awarded with the Nobel Prize.
2
– René Just Haüy (1743–1822) – French mineralogist, the founder of crystallography, presented the law of whole numbers and
the basic law of crystallography – the law of rational intercepts.
3
– Johann Friedrich Christian Hessel (1796–1872) – German scientist, professor of mineralogy, worked at the Marburg
University.
4
– Auguste Bravais (1811–1863) – French physicist, one of the founders of crystallography, initiated the geometrical theory of
structure, established 14 Bravais lattices.
In 1804 there was established new division (until 1861) and Mineral cabinet, previously
of physics and mathematics and another one based at the Natural history museum since 1839,
department of mineralogy within it – the in 1846 became independent too and was trans-
department of mineralogy and agriculture. The ferred to the department of mineralogy and
heads of this department were graduates of the geognosy, under supervision of Charles Fran-
University Anton Antonovich Prokopovich tzévitch Roulier. Even though Schurovskiy was
(1804–1818) and Mikhail Grigoryevich Pavlov mostly interested in geology, his lectures in min-
(1820–1835). At the same time the department eralogy were remarkably professional, with
of natural history at the faculty of medicine was demonstration of facts and critical revision of
transformed into the “Demidov” department of existing theories. Under Schurovskiy’s proposal,
natural history on the basis of “Semyaticheskiy in 1863 department of mineralogy became inde-
mineral cabinet” donated by Czar Alexander I. pendent within the division of physics and ma-
This mineral cabinet was acquired from prince thematics, even though it was not officially
Yablonovskiy for 50000 Netherlands guilders established until 1870 due to the absence of pro-
and handed over by the Urals industrialist Pavel fessor of mineralogy. Since 1861 lectures in min-
Grigaryevich Demidov, according to the family eralogy were given by Mikhail Aleksandrovich
traditions, with the splendid private mineral Tolstopyatov, but he was appointed to the job
museum, library and transferring professors (on the 7th (20th) March 1870) only after he
position, which was occupied for 30 years (from obtained his Doctoral degree in 1869; he was
1804 till 1834) by German professor Johann occupying this position will his death in 1890 (i.e.
Gotthelf Fischer von Waldheim (in Russian – until Vladimir I. Vernadsky). He created a good
Grigoriy Ivanovich). During that period he collection of minerals and crystallographic mod-
brought many innovations to the education, for els in the Mineral cabinet, his lectures in miner-
instance, practical classes with students on the alogy were brilliant and also in 1887 he founded
basis of museum specimens and excursions to chemical laboratory at the department, for analy-
the Moscow suburbs. Fischer von Waldheim sis of minerals; so that way he went down in his-
wrote and published two-volume text-book in tory as the founder of experimental mineralogy
mineralogy (1812 and 1820). In 1805 he orga- and crystallography.
nized Moscow society of naturalists (MOIP), that Thus, it is hard to agree with Alexander E.
became the platform for propaganda of new Fersman saying that “all the predecessors of
ideas in mineralogy by Vernadsky and Fersman Vladimir Ivanovich on the post of head of geology
and it’s Magazine (“Proceedings of MOIP” – and mineralogy department, Fischer von Wald-
since 1806, “Memoirs of MOIP” – since 1809 heim, Schurovskiy and Tolstopyatov were the
and “Bulletin of MOIP” – since 1829). He was strangers to innovations” (Fersman, 1946). Appa-
the director of Museum of natural history from rently, this reproach is unfair – the lecturers at
1805 till 1834. Later, the position of the Head of the University took so much effort to make both
“Demidov” department occupied Alexey Leon- mineralogy as a science and mineralogical
tyevich Lovetskiy, who gave lectures in mineral- department at the Moscow University indepen-
ogy from 1824 till 1840 and in 1832 offered the dent, 20 years prior to Vernadsky’s presence.
innovative mineral classification by their chemi- However, in comparison with what Vladimir
cal, physical and crystallographic features. Ivanovich experienced in Europe, it was seem-
Unfortunately, the comprehensive Mineral cabi- ingly incomplete. He wrote: “At the Moscow
net suffered from the Moscow fire of 1812, but in University long before me the head of the mine-
1813 was reconstructed owing to the collection ralogy department was M.A. Tolstopyatov (since
donated by Nikolay Nikolayevich Demidov. 1868), who did not work in science, palaeontolo-
Since 1835 the courses in mineralogy and gist by education and the first professor of miner-
geognosy became independent in Moscow Uni- alogy, after G.E. Schurovskiy5. It can be said, that
versity and after integration of two departments: there was no mineralogy at the proper scientific
of mineralogy and agriculture of the physics- level of that time at the Moscow University… In
mathematical division and “Demidov” of med- Moscow I found newly equipped chemical labo-
ical faculty, there occurred the new department ratory at the Mineral cabinet, which M.A. Tol-
of “mineralogy and geognosy”. The head of that stopyatov faught out from the faculty, on the ini-
department was Grigoriy Efimovich Schurovskiy tiative of his friend E.D. Kislakovskiy6…
5
– Both theses by M.A. Tolstopyatov were on crystallography and were the summarized literature data. He was an amateur min-
eralogist and a brilliant lecturer, made up a good mineral collection. After his death his interesting observations of the beryl crys-
tals morphology were published.
6
– Yevgeniy Diodorovich Kislakovskiy – the keeper of the Mineral cabinet at the Moscow University in the time of
M.A. Tolstopyatov.
V.V. Dokuchaev, one of the greatest naturalists, with the first-class equipment and world-level
was a geologist and at that time was busy creat- scientific achievements. One of the largest
ing a new tendency of universal importance in Russian mineralogical museums, replenished
soil science, where I was granted to take part in. with Rumyantsev’s collection of minerals, was
But his lectures in mineralogy were not trivial. organised (Geological almanac, 2003).
He stressed on the dynamic meaning of miner- First of all, it was necessary to write textbooks
alogy and this was the major difference between according to the new scientific ideas and to edu-
his lectures and teaching mineralogy at home cate new specialists in mineralogy, which
and abroad. In that respect I became his follow- Vladimir Ivanovich drew out of his students
er, bringing physics of solids – as a separate (Popov, 1963). His first students were Anatoliy
science into teaching crystallography and min- Orestovich Shklyarevskiy and A.A. Aunovskiy,
eralogy – as a history of minerals of the Earth’s later – the 1897s graduates Sergey Platonovich
crust, proceeding with the course by Comte de Popov, Pavel Karlovich Alexat and Vladimir
Buffon and not by Linneaus, which was domi- Georgiyevich Orlovskiy; Yakov Vladimirovich
nant everywhere at that time” (Vernadsky, Samoylov from Odessa and Nikolay Nikolaye-
Kurbatov, 1937, p. 28). vich Tikhonovich from Khar’kov; and also
In fact, Carl Linneaus was a world trend-set- Yelizaveta Dmitrievna Revutskaya and Anna
ter at that time, who divided all the natural Boleslavovna Missuna – the graduates from the
occurrences into three kingdoms: animals, Moscow high women’s courses. Later the num-
plants and minerals, with an idea about con- ber of the followers and staff of the Mineral cabi-
stancy and stability of the species, which natu- net rapidly increased, the new specialists were
rally led directly to creationism – an idea of Nikolay Ivanovich Surgunov, Vladimir Vasilye-
divine creation. But Vernadsky was already vich Arshinov, Vissarion Vissarionovich Karan-
firmly following the positions of transformism deev, Vladimir Victorovich Kritskiy, Konstantin
by Georges-Louis Leclerc Comte de Buffon and Avtonomovich Nenadkevich, Leonid Lakriono-
Jean-Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monet La- vich Ivanov, Pavel Prokopyevich Pilipenko, Olga
marck who proved variability of species under Mikhailovna Shubnikova, later – Genrikh Iosi-
conditions of existence conditions and chan- fovich Kasperovich and Alexander Yevgenye-
ges in the environment; that was explained by vich Fersman. The majority of the followers of
Charles Darwin that “we regard every produc- Vladimir Ivanovich later had become the promi-
tion of nature as the beginning of having a long nent scientists.
history”. We will add to this that in 1910 there Vladimir I. Vernadsky creates his textbooks
were discovered only 82 chemical elements out on the basis of his own lectures in mineralogy
of 115. Radioactivity was discovered not long and crystallography, he gave to the medical
ago and studies of diffraction on crystal lattice and natural history students from 1891 to 1912,
nearly began. It became apparent, that the nat- consequently corrected and supplemented,
ural form of existence of chemical elements is published on every possible occasion. What
atoms, but their bonds within the mineral crys- was the difference between them and the
tal structure were not determined yet. 230 generally accepted mineralogy course at that
Fedorov space systems deduced were not iden- time? Even in 1891 Vladimir Ivanovich cited
tified with the real atoms (or ions) within the some phrases from the three-volume book by
structure. And the preliminary conclusion by Jöns Jacob Berzelius published in 1822, as an
Vernadsky about “geochemistry that studies epigraph to his Masters dissertation: “Mine-
atoms within the Earth’s crust and mineralogy – ralogy as a science about inorganic compounds
molecules” was the gained revelation that comprising our Earth, is only a part of chem-
could become the fundament for radical refor- istry, which is its comprehensive and historical
mation of mineralogical science by revision of fundament”.
all the data accumulated. As we know, the description of every mineral
as a natural compound must include characteris-
Vernadsky’s mineralogy tics of its chemical composition, crystal structure
and conditions of formation – certainly, if we
Vernadsky’s appointment to be the head of consider it as an object of scientific investigation
the mineralogy department (1890–1911) gave and not as an object of arts, interior or collection,
start to the golden age of mineralogy and crys- which interest mostly amateurs. Such a complex
tallography at the Moscow University. The description of a mineral did not exist prior to
Moscow (later the pan-Russian) mineralogical Vernadsky – mineralogy “terminated” in its
school rose from the small Mineral cabinet into evolution in detailed description of crystal faces
the scientific centre of mineralogical research and habitus and its physical properties (density,
hardness, cleavage, color, luster, transparency). ical reactions resulted in mineral formation, their
The necessity of above mentioned three major genesis and paragenesis, 3) investigation of their
characteristics of the mineral substance was first alteration in various geospheres – their weather-
declared by V.I. Vernadsky, even though the ing, metamorphism (biogenic included). Chemi-
chemistry’s key role: “It seems to me that all the cal mineralogy is primarily based on chemistry –
future evolution of crystallochemistry should be on synthesis and analysis of minerals, – but at the
in close cooperation with chemical mineralogy same time it is based on and is using field obser-
and chemistry in general. Mineralogist and crys- vation – determination of paragenesis and study-
tallochemist have to work together. …The data of ing pseudomorphs. It is necessary to stress on the
crystallochemistry and data of chemical mineral- latter, as the study on pseudomorphs created by
ogy should correspond to each other. The data of scientific observation, is far beyond the limits of
chemical mineralogy – not only as a stoichiomet- modern chemistry, as reactions should be consid-
ric formula – should be initial for calculation the ered, take place within the solid matter, the crys-
space atomic formula. Where this was not done, tal matter, the space lattices. ...Pseudomorphs
the space atomic formulas should be considered play a great role in the study on paragenesis,
as undetermined and have to be refined. All the which is significant for the dynamics of chemical
crystallochemistry is in such a state now, but for mineral-forming process. Both the study on
the simpler compounds this is not of big issue, pseudomorphs and the study on paragenesis are
however for the groups like silicates and alumi- still incomplete. (But) Actually, the study on para-
nosilicates it is absolutely necessary to take this genesis penetrates all the mineralogy. ...The main
circumstance into an account as here we have chemical problem ever existed for all the miner-
minerals of completely different chemical func- als, ... was the problem of understanding of digits
tion rather than simple saline compounds, crys- of chemical analysis of minerals. At the begin-
tallochemists believe them to be. …The possibility ning, it appeared that the majority of minerals
to construct the space atomic lattices using the dramatically do not correspond to the stoichio-
regular mathematical evaluation of X-Ray data – metric ratios of atoms which constitute the natur-
is the supreme achievement from chemical mine- al compound. They correspond, as solutions, to
ralogy. This enabled it to move this part of the sci- the undetermined compounds of Berthollet7.
ence forward, as the latter was weakening and …Eilhard Mitscherlich8 mentioned that these
developing too slow for the last several decades. undetermined compounds have similar shapes
...From such a co-operation with science field, and compounds with analogous shapes are able
rich in facts but poor in the modern-level ideolo- to crystallise with non- stoichiometric ratios of all
gy, both areas of mineralogy – chemical minera- or part of atoms. He named this phenomenon as
logy and crystallochemistry – will benefit” isomorphism – the feature corresponding to
(Vernadsky, Kurbatov, 1937, p. 16). atoms and undetermined compounds crystallised
Chemical approach to mineralogy was natu- – isomorphic mixtures. ...The simple solution was
ral for V.I. Vernadsky, as he was an excellent made mach later, at the beginning of the XX cen-
chemist himself, more precisely – chemist-min- tury, by Svante Arrhenius9, who pointed out that
eralogist like J.J. Berzelius and he worked in isomorphic mixtures are solid solutions, similar to
chemical laboratories together with such promi- liquid solutions, which comply with the similar
nent Russian chemists-mineralogists as Kons- laws” (Vernadsky, Kurbatov, 1937, p. 16–19).
tantin Avtonomovich Nenadkevich, Irina Dmi- According to these statements V.I. Vernad-
trievna Borneman-Starynkevich and others. But sky decided to revise existing facts in mineralo-
V.I. Vernadsky interpreted “chemical minera- gy by writing the multi-volume monograph
logy” in a greater sense rather than chemists: “Experience of descriptive mineralogy” (Ver-
“Chemical mineralogy aims for: 1) determination nadsky, 1955; 1959)10. In the foreword to the 1st
of chemical composition of natural compounds, issue of “Experience” he wrote: “The major aim
minerals, 2) reconstruction of conditions of chem- is to revise the natural chemical compounds of the
7
– Claude Louis Berthollet (1748–1822) – French chemist, the founder of the theory of chemical equilibria.
8
– Eilhard Mitscherlich (1794–1863) – German chemist, professor at Berlin University (since 1821), the founder of the theory of
isomorphism and dimorphism.
9
– Svante August Arrhenius (1859–1927) – Swedish physical chemist, determined dissociation of compounds and ionic com-
position of diluted solutions, Nobel Prize winner (1903).
10
– Vladimir I. Vernadsky overestimated his abilities: only two volumes of “Experience of descriptive mineralogy” were published:
volume 1 – Native elements, published in 5 editions (1908–1914) and volume 2 – Sulphury and selenite, in 2 editions (1918 and
1922). These editions are the examples of encyclopedic guidebooks and at present, almost after 100 years, are easily read as if were
written recently. This definitely indicates that fundamental mineralogical data does not become out of date and can be only sup-
plemented and revised. The further work on addition and continuation of this edition under the title “Minerals of the USSR” was
performed by A.E. Fersman. However only two volumes were also prepared: volume 1 – Native elements, volume 2 – Sulphides
and sulphosalts (M.-L.: AN USSR. 1940). The further work was interrupted by the Great Patriotic War and later – by death of
V.I. Vernadsky and then A.E. Fersman in 1945.
Earth from the point of view of chemical process- mental and detailed but comprehending more
es which take place within it. This, by my opinion, mineral species with characteristics of their
is the main task of mineralogy, which is, similar to possible practical application and with des-
chemistry, has to study both products of chemical cription of the profitable deposits in the coun-
reaction and these very same reaction processes. try. Thus, V.I. Vernadsky in co-operation with
This view on mineralogy and revision in this S.M. Kurbatov urgently revised and replen-
respect all the material on mineralogy took place ished the data of lectures Vernadsky gave at
subsequently in the early 1890s, when I gave lec- the Moscow University and that were pub-
tures in mineralogy at the Moscow University” lished in 1910–1912; they publish them as a
(Vernadsky, 1955, p. 9). monograph characterising most important
Such a grand task by means of one even groups of minerals: simple oxides and hydrox-
though extraordinary talented and hard-wor- ides, silicates, aluminosilicates and their ana-
king person, is unlikely to be accomplished. logues (Vernadsky, Kurbatov, 1937). And the
This can be only done by the team of experi- team of mineralogists of the Lomonosov insti-
ences qualified associates, bind together with tute AS USSR translated the revised and reple-
the common scientific idea, under supervision nished text of “Descriptive mineralogy” by
of competent respected editor or tough ad- Edward Salisbury Dana11 (Dana, 1937) from
ministrator. In this case, the attempt to write English into Russian under edition by Alexan-
such a fundamental encyclopaedic work pro- der E. Fersman and Olga M. Shubnikova. In the
ceeded against private circumstances and foreword for this translation Fersman wrote:
political events. Those include the fight aga- “Exceptional need for knowledge in mineralogy
inst traditional conservatism of colleagues- is obvious in the past several years. Develop-
mineralogists and indolence of regal bureau- ment of mining industry, expansion and appli-
crats, who subsidised scientific research; the cation of various mineral ores, involvement in
situation resulted from the First World war, practice both rare metals, rare compounds and
February and October revolutions; the fight various mineral bodies, widening of application
with the sudden decease after which Vladimir of non-metallic ores and new paths of the mod-
Ivanovich found himself in Ukraine, in Kiev ern mineral technology – everything demand,
(where he founded Ukrainian Academy of first of all, precise knowledge of a substance
Science and became its president) and – in itself – a mineral, knowledge of its constants, its
Crimea, in circumstances of civil war followed exact chemical composition and all the fea-
by devastation of the country. At that time he tures, which can be used as a searching and
was trying to find new bonds with the new prospecting markers, or have specific techno-
authority and to prove the importance of in- logical value. On the new path of geochemical
tensive and comprehensive mineralogical analysis theoretic concepts in mineralogy has to
investigations for development of productive use precise constants of minerals obtained by
industry in the country. He struggled for dis- laborious work of crystallographers, crystallo-
covering in Russia own ore deposits, new per- chemists and mineralogists for the last 200
spective types of mineral rough, for studying years long”.
the opportunities given by atomic energy and Concluding this part, it would be impossible
for including science into intensive socialistic to ignore the problem of natural forms of silicon
development. And, finally, he stood for mobil- and aluminium – the one V.I. Vernadsky was
isation of all the forces to help the battle-front interested all his life long, starting with his
against perfidious fascist Germany (where Masters dissertation “On sillimanite group and
Vernadsky in his young years learnt miner- the role of alumina in silicates” (1891) – investi-
alogical science), in circumstances of Great gation that resulted in real revolution in minera-
Patriotic War (WWII). In fact, one had to be logy. Later, Vladimir Ivanovich wrote about his
Vernadsky to be able to make all that was work: “After experimental studies of disthen
done for the Russian science. andalusite and sillimanite, that were considered
Accelerated pace of the socialistic economy to be saline silicates of aluminium, the author did
creation demanded the wide-range practical not find any qualities of saline in them, but pro-
work in searching, prospecting, mining of ores, nounced features of acidic anhydrides, close to
technologies of their extracting and separa- quartz. In the line of comparative analyses ... the
tion. This resulted in publishing mineralogical author came to conclusion that alumina and sili-
hand-books of a different type – less funda- ca play the same role in aluminosilicates and that
11
– Edward Salisbury Dana (1849–1935) – son of James Dwight Dana (1813–1868), the author of the famous “System of
Mineralogy”, who continued its publication with supplements and revisions under the title “Texbook of Mineralogy” till the 6th edi-
tion, in 1911, with appendix-3 of 1915.
they both are acidic anhydrides12. In that case, number of cases which could not be interpreted
kaolinite and its analogues are silica-alumina for a long time” (Vernadsky, Kurbatov, 1937,
acids and such minerals as feldspars, leucites, p. 36), i.e. finally in denial of idea about “kaoli-
zeolites etc. – silica-alumina salines. Made sure nite core”.
experimentally that the concept about all the sil- This is the history. However we should not
icates and aluminosilicates as about silica forget that V.I. Vernadsky was the first who
salines, I determined aluminosilicates and their drew attention to the similar chemical functions
analogues as silica-alumina and analogues of Si and Al within the large group of minerals,
anhydrides... The similar ideas evolved by later determined as aluminosilicates which are
Swedish chemist and mineralogist Blomstrand13 greatly significant for mineralogy, petrology
in the field of compounds of titanium, niobium, and geology. These minerals are rock-forming
heavy metals; he tried to understand chemistry and almost completely form the Earth’s crust,
of more mysterious group of minerals (Ver- i.e. they are the main form of mineral substance
nadsky, Kurbatov, 1937, p. 25–26). within the Earth mineral-forming processes.
Vladimir I. Vernadsky made a great effort
and spent a lot of time for solving the problem Mineralogy, geochemistry
of so-called “kaolinite core” which is consid- or “geochemical mineralogy”?
ered inaccurate at present. Even in 1898–1899
he determined “existence of typical complex So, who was Vladimir I. Vernadsky after all
Al2Si2O7 (kaolinite core) which remains stable – mineralogist or geochemist? We believe that
under endless chemical processes, natural or lab- such a contraposition is absurd – those are the
oratory, sometimes taking place within solid sub- different sides of the same conception, the same
stance. This complex (metanacrite): 1) had to science about natural mineral substance. How-
have chemical character of a complex anhydride, ever, some people used to think that Vernadsky
i.e. Al2O3 and SiO2 had to have similar functions “destroyed” Russian mineralogy by moderniz-
of acidic anhydrides within it and 2) obviously, ing it and replacing it with “new” science –
that within the crystal lattice they had to be dis- geochemistry. It is hardly possible to claim upon
tributed equally in regard to the surrounding Vladimir Ivanovich that our contemporaries are
atoms: Al and Si had to be chemically identical” that neglectful to the “science of science” about
(Vernadsky, Kurbatov, 1937, p. 38). Over a peri- the mineral substance, which gave birth to crys-
od of many years Vernadsky unsuccessfully tallography, petrology and geochemistry; upon
tried to refine its chemical formula to explain the scientist who brought up mineralogy, who
bonding of cations and aqua with Al, via saturat- determined its scientific fundaments and put it
ed atoms of oxygen and later accepted the to the same level with the other natural sciences
hypothesis by Felix Karl Ludwig Machatschki about Earth and its inhabitants. We investigated
who admitted (in 1928) that “in some aluminosi- earlier what Vladimir I. Vernadsky meant by the
licates Al2O3 and SiO2 play the same chemical term mineralogy. And what did he mean by geo-
role. Machatschki pointed to the possibility to chemistry?
avoid the problem by admitting exiting the com- Vladimir I. Vernadsky, obviously, looked
plexes (AlO4) and (SiO4). These complexes occur wider. He wanted to get to know the rules of
as tetrahedra with ions Al or Si in the centre and conduct of the chemical elements both on Earth
ions of oxygen – in the corners. ... X-ray data and in the Universe – the processes of their ori-
show that in these minerals aluminium and sili- gin (by studying radioactivity), dissemination
con are always surrounded with atoms of oxygen, and concentration (by learning about isomor-
this is the closest atom amongst the others. This phism and solid solutions formation), re-distrib-
results in peculiar frame. ution during mineral-forming processes and
Al2Si2 + nO7 + 2n (where n can be equal to 0). later alteration of minerals (by dealing with
Accepted the hypothesis by Machatschki genetic or dynamic, according to Vladimir Iva-
ideally resulted in understanding of the whole novich words, mineralogy).
12
– The further investigations of the crystal structures of the polymorphs of sillimanite, on the one hand, confirmed the ideas of
V.I. Vernadsky and on the other hand, defined them dramatically. In the sillimanite structure in the chains, elongated along the c
axis, aluminium occupies AlO6 octahedra and in AlO4 tetrahedra, alternating with SiO4 tetrahedra (formula Al(AlSiO5)). In the
andalusite structure, besides the chains of AlO6 octahedra there occur two-dimensional lattices of alternating SiO4 tetrahedra and
AlO5 pentaredron (formula Al2(SiO4)O). In the structure of kyanite (disthen) one half of AlO6 octahedra occupies in the chains elon-
gated parallel to the c axis and another half – in the chains, where AlO6 octahedra alternate with SiO4 tetrahedra (formula
Al2(SiO4)O). The bonds within the AlO6 octahedra – ionic, within SiO4 and AlO4 tetrahedra – covalent (minerals, 1972; 1981). I.e.
only in sillimanite Al and Si are acidic anhydrides, whereas in andalusite and disthen the function of Al – is intermediate between
acidic anhydride and silicate saline.
13
– Christian Wilhelm Blomstrand (1826–1897) – Swedish chemist and mineralogist, professor of the University in Lund (since
1862), a member of the Stockholm Academy of science.
The term “geochemistry” was not his “inven- minerals consist of. It systematizes chemical ele-
tion”. It was applied as the “chemistry of the ments of the Earth’s crust. For this purpose it is
Earth’s crust” at the end of 1830s – beginning sufficiently to replace “mineral” with its chemi-
of 1840s, by the scientist from Bazel, Christian cal composition” (Vernadsky, 1922, p. 77).
Friedrich Schönbein. Quoting Schönbein, Vla- “Another system was developed much later.
dimir I. Vernadsky reminded: “In 1842 Schön- …That second system – about quantitative com-
bein wrote: “Already some time ago I publicly position of the Earth’s crust and its separate
expressed my belief that we have to deal with parts – followed two different paths, both fruitful
geochemistry first, before speaking about the and important. On one hand they chose the most
real geological science. The latter has to pay the abundant elements, trying to express numerical-
same amount of attention to the chemical ly or orderly their relative quantity in the Erath
nature of masses that conclude our globe and to crust… in 1888, those attempts resulted in the
their origin, as to the relative age of these mas- form, convenient for scientific work, by the
ses and fossilized plants and animals embed- American Clarke16 and later were developed by
ded. It can be confidently affirmed that geolo- his follower, well-known Norwegian scientist
gists would not always follow the direction they Vogt17. …However, merely quantitative
do at present; for broaden of their science they approach of research, usual for precise chemical
have to search for the new supplements and conclusions, is obviously not sufficient here.
then surely would introduce mineralogically …Because in the Earth’s crust the order of num-
chemical element into geology” (Vernadsky, bers, which express distribution of different
1954, p. 20). I.e. Vladimir I. Vernadsky was chemical elements, varies in a huge scale. Some
obviously in accordance with that and inter- elements are million and billion times much
preted the term geochemistry as mineralogical- more abundant than the others. …The usual and
ly chemical element. rare elements of the Earth’s crust are difficult to
It is believed that Vladimir Ivanovich “gave compare. For the latter elements, the second
life” to geochemistry in his speech at the open- path was developed. It was about their traces
ing ceremony of the Geology & mineralogy sec- distribution within the minerals and parts of the
tion at the XII Meeting of Russian naturalists Earth’s crust, about their dissemination within
and medical doctors on the 28th December 1909 the natural chemical compounds. …The only
(Vernadsky, 1910 – according to: Essays…, possible explanation for the microcosmic dis-
1922). For the first time he drew attention to semination of elements we can find in those min-
paragenesis of chemical elements in the Earth’s erals which are comparable with solutions. Due
crust: “The ideas by de Beaumont14 on paragen- to dissemination, chemical elements form
esis of elements as the function of geological his- extremely diluted solid solutions – and in dilut-
tory of their distribution and by Crookes15, as the ed solutions the substances solved are subject to
result of their dissociation – are the base tones gas laws” (Vernadsky, 1922, p. 77–79). I.e. in
of the modern scientific thoughts in this area. this very case, geochemical conclusions are to
…Ideas in natural history have to constantly be based on the analysis of the chemical com-
grow, to change and to be created; if they would position of the specific minerals.
not be continually fed by the new facts, observa- “Mineral paragenesis is most deeply and in
tions, experiments and specific material, then full comprehended by the study about isomor-
they would decay and alter and this process phic series. …Isomorphic series for us is such a
would finally lead to dull and dead abstraction… series, where similar compounds give isomor-
the mystics dissimilar to scientific reality” phic mixtures, i.e. are able to give mutual solu-
(Vernadsky, 1922, p. 75–76). Then, citing the tions in solid state. …we have reliable basis for
works by Johann Friedrich August Breithaupt studying natural elemental paragenesis in iso-
from Freiberg, Vernadsky wrote: “Mineral par- morphic series. Due to them, we understand
agenesis, classifying co-existing minerals, mineral formulae. The reasonable number of
inevitably distributes chemical elements those natural chemical compounds enables to apply
14
– Jean-Baptiste Élie de Beaumont (1798–1874) – French geologist, a member of Paris Academy of science (since 1835) and its
permanent secretary (since 1856), professor of École des Mines (in 1829) and Collège de France (in 1832).
15
– William Crookes (1832–1919) – English physicist and chemist, a member and a chairman of The Royal Society of London,
introduced spectral analysis in science, developed radiometer, discovered thallium.
16
– Frank Wigglesworth Clarke (1847–1931) – the chief chemist of the Geological survey of the USA (since 1883), all his life was
interested in geological problems, summarized and revised an enormous data on the content of chemical elements in the Earth’s
crust in the book Data of geochemistry (1908). The book was published 5 times (the ast one in 1924), one of the founders of geo-
chemistry, professor of the University of Cincinnati (1874–1883), a member of the National Academy in Washington (since 1911).
17
– Johan Herman Lie Vogt (1858–1932) – Norwegian petrographer and geologist, the foreign correspondence member of the
Imperial Saint-Petersburg Academy of science (since 1912), professor of metallurgy at the University of Christiania (at present –
Oslo) (1886–1903), professor of mineralogy and geology at the Norwegian technical high school of Trondheim (1912–1928).
the method of isomorphic series, which is awk- might say, the “higher one” and Vernadsky’s
ward and inconvenient in chemistry. …In con- mineralogy – is mineralogy, transformed from
trast of chemical series, we would name (them) purely descriptive and contemplative into the
natural isomorphic series. It is extremely typical natural historical science, based on precise sci-
that such series are changeable due to not only entific methods of research. Vladimir Ivanovich
the type of chemical compound itself, but to the introduced in it methods and methodology of
external conditions of its formation. Isomorphic both chemistry and geology; in this form it can
series expresses the quality of specific com- be characterized as geochemical mineralogy.
pounds to form solid solutions of a certain type, I.e. geochemistry and geochemical mineralogy
in the Earth conditions. Observation reveals that are actually synonyms. At Vernadsky’s times
the isomorphic series traverse and alter under there was neither complete structural analysis
impact of temperature and pressure changes. nor modern spectroscopy – i.e. methods of
Chemical element which is contained by one iso- research of a mineral as both a natural chemical
morphic series at a certain temperature and compound and a natural physical body. Other-
pressure, is not contained by it at their changed wise, there might appear another term – not
rate, but is contained by another series. At the geochemistry, but something more precise and
same time, some elements which are included in broad, for example, “geochemphysics” or “geo-
some isomorphic series, cannot be included in physchemistry”.
any isomorphic series at another temperatures Concerning the tasks of mineralogy in our
and pressures and become the lonely outcasts” country, Vladimir I. Vernadsky wrote: “In the
(Vernadsky, 1922, p. 80–83). thousand-years-long history of mineralogy, the
“Thus, the isomorphic series demands the understanding of its contents changed dramati-
following conditions: partially 1) geological and cally. …The new content was included in the old
genetic, partially 2) physical and chemical. The word. This content is agile; it changes and trans-
latter can obviously be dependent on the former forms with time” (Vernadsky, 1928, p. 21). And
ones. Geological reasons are clear and can be this is true. When characterizing modern min-
traced in each separate case. …However, some- eral science, it is important to say, that it has
times the stronger influence would be not from experienced rather glorious but difficult way of
chemical or physical properties, far from iso- development: once had involved the methods
morphic series itself, but the very ability of the of structural analysis, it transformed from
elements to make isomorphic series, i.e. – coin- chemical mineralogy into crystallochemistry;
cidence of the stability fields within the same on the basis of physical chemistry, thermody-
crystal classes for the similar compounds” (Ver- namics, physical-chemical experiment and
nadsky, 1922, p. 87). detailed natural observations – into genetic
Later, looking back at the path of geochem- and regional-genetic mineralogy.
istry in our country, Vladimir I. Vernadsky
wrote: “The concept of geochemistry as the sci- The hard times of mineralogy
ence about the history of the Earth atoms ap-
peared on the basis of new atomistic ideas, new All the above said demonstrates the huge
chemistry and physics, in close relationship role of Vladimir I. Vernadsky – as the re-
with that specific idea about mineralogy which former of the Russian and the world mineralo-
was accepted in the Moscow University in gy, who showed its first-rate value among the
1890–1911. Teaching and studying mineralogy other natural historical Earth sciences and who
were presented with priority of mineral history, presented the actual tasks for mineralogy in
genesis and alteration; which were normally our country and then successfully solved them
moved to the background in the high school. In in cooperation with the group of his followers.
such a course of mineralogy, geochemical prob- But the fortune of Russian mineralogy was
lems appeared to be in a higher scale level that sometimes tragic, which cannot be easily
in usual university courses of inorganic chem- explained, yet being highly valued. It appears
istry. Continually, the work at the Mineral cabi- that in Russian and the world scientific society
net of the Moscow University and later – Mine- there existed forces which disagree with such
ralogical museum of Academy of Science, be- progressive evolution of mineralogy and its
came more and more geochemical. The name, enhancement among the other geological and
given by Clarke, found the prepared contents mineralogical sciences. We believe it would be
and fertile grounds, but different from his ones” wrong to keep science about these conditions,
(Vernadsky, 1954, p. 28). which became public from the correspondence
All cited above clearly demonstrate that of V.I. Vernadsky and A.E. Fersman (Letters…,
geochemistry – is the same mineralogy, but one 1985).
In 1922 the physics-mathematical faculty of have a giant work to do at the Academy, but the
the Moscow University gave birth to 12 scienti- most important – the Lomonosov institute”21
fic research institutes, amongst which there (Letters…, 1985, № 143, p. 178).
were institute of geology (director – A.P. Pav- The letter from the 24th September 1938 is
lov) and institute of mineralogy and petrogra- already official, as if it was not a correspon-
phy, supervised by Ya.V. Samoylov – the fol- dence between friends, recognized world lead-
lower of V.I. Vernadsky. However, they existed ers, mineralogists, who did a lot for develop-
only until 1930, when, after reorganization of ment of the mineral science in our country:
Moscow State University, geological, mine- “Dear Alexander Yevgenyevich,
ralogical and some other sciences were exclud- I ask you to discuss the problem of teaching
ed from the University18. mineralogy and geochemistry in the high school
On the 10th January 1936, V.I. Vernadsky of our Union and scientific work in the same dis-
wrote to A.E. Fersman: “Had an appointment ciplines in our Academy, at the Department. Due
with Bauman19 and there I raised the question to the reconstruction of the Academy, the situa-
about mineralogy in our high school and about tion with the scientific work can extremely ret-
rehabilitation of mineralogy and geology depar- rogress in these disciplines. For more than ten
tments to the Moscow University. Bauman took years in our country the question about the state
effort immediately and insists in urgent solution. of mineralogy is on the agenda. The first All-
Already on the 8th, when I was at Radium insti- Union conference on mineralogy in 192722
tute meeting Gabidulin, I met there also the rec- stressed on the hard situation with teaching and
tor of the Moscow University20 and talked to him. scientific work on mineralogy in our country. In
You and I have to prepare short applications. I 1930 the Council of People's Commissars had
will do it tomorrow or the day after“ (Letters…, ceased teaching and scientific work in mineral-
1985, № 141, p.174). ogy and all geological sciences in the Moscow
In the letter from the 1st February 1936 University, where they were at the high level. In
Vladimir I. Vernadsky wrote about it again: “I 1937, the Second mineralogical meeting ap-
believe that I wrote to you that spoke to Bauman pealed to the government again, indicating the
about returning mineralogy to the Moscow abnormality of the situation and damage to the
University. It looks like the case has moved for- country. All my attempts to make the situation
ward. But, obviously, they are waiting for the better, via the Committee of the high school and
determined arrangements from above” (Let- media, were not successful23. Now the situation
ters…, 1985, № 142, p. 177). becomes even worse, as the scientific work in the
And in the letter from the 13th May 1936 Academy does so.
Vladimir I. Vernadsky was already worried But in the meantime, the need of life de-
about the future of mineralogy in the Academy: mands broad development of these areas of
“I strongly believe that you can set scientific knowledge. Their theoretical and practical app-
work in mineralogy on the proper level – there is lication becomes more valuable… Now we need
a huge work and long life in front of you. You are definite arrangements for enhancement of the
very, very young man, comparing to me. And it is downward scientific work on these disciplines at
you who only can make it: you are the head of the Academy’s Geological institute. The situa-
the Lomonosov institute, where your scientific tion is that among the directorate staff there is
leadership is necessary and where you – and no acknowledgement to these disciplines. For
only you – can make it – can change alien to the plan of the 1939 – the prospecting map – the
science environment that appeared there in only issue is geology. However, in fact, geo-
times of your absence now and before. Now you chemistry and mineralogy must be equal to geol-
18
– Department of mineralogy at the MSU was reestablished only in 1944, at the Geological-soil faculty.
19
– K rlis (Bauman) Baumanis (1892–1937) since 1934 till his arrest and execution in 1937 was the head of the science department
(est. in 1934) at the Central committee of the Bolshevik’s party.
20
– Mathematician, professor A.S. Butyagin was the director since 1934 till 1939 and rector of the MSU – since 1939 till 1943.
21
– Lomonosov institute of geochemistry, crystallography and mineralogy (LIGEM) under leadership of A.E. Fersman, was estab-
lished in 1932 by integration of Geochemical and Mineralogical institutes and Mineralogical museum of Academy of science in
Leningrad. In 1934 it was moved, along with the Academy, to Moscow and in 1937 was interposed into the Institute of Geological
Sciences (IGN AN USSR).
22
– The conference took place from the 1st till the 6th January 1927 in Leningrad by the initiative of the group of the Leningrad mi-
neralogists, who worked in the Academy of science and the Mining institute. In its work there participated president of the AN
USSR A.P. Karpinskiy (chairman), academicians V.I. Vernadsky, A.E. Fersman, F.Yu. Levinson-Lessing, N.S. Kurnakov and the ot-
hers. A.E. Fersman, in his talk “Mineralogy of the USSR and adjacent countries” indicated the need of the collective work of mi-
neralogists to be resulted in the complete mineralogical description of all the territories of our country within the 10 years.
23
– The second mineralogical meeting, which took place in Moscow on the 14th–18th of May 1937, was prepared by the
Organizing bureau under management by V.I. Vernadsky. But Vladimir Ivanovich did not take part in it due to his illness.
P.P. Pilipenko gave a talk “Mineralogy in the high and high-technical schools” about the wrong situation around mineralogical sci-
ences in the high school.
ogy. As a result, all the problematic seems wrong of scientific work in our area – definitely moves
to me. The prospecting map can be created on to America and the most interesting publica-
the basis of 3 sciences: geochemistry, geology tions – American ones. Comparing to that, the
and mineralogy. As to my knowledge, the at- European literature in this area is moved to back-
tempt in the incomparably lower scale – the map ground more and more. In France there are not
of Switzerland by professor Niggli24 – was made enough people involved in mineralogy. Depart-
by mineralogist. Essentially, geochemistry must ments of all the universities are occupied with
occupy the eminent place. All the work of the crystallographers and only Georges Friedel from
American mining prospecting, in contrary to Strassbourgh is less strange to mineralogy. Here,
ours, is based on the mineralogical-geological Mauguin and Walletan are both crystallo-
fundament. The plan of Geological institute is graphers” (Letters…, 1985, № 92, p. 107). “In
based only on geological fundament. I believe, Germany, I think, it is specifically bad, especial-
that at present in Geological institute scientific ly with mineralogy. The most prominent one was
work in geochemistry is not properly set and that Groth; Hecke, Tschermak, Niggli – are not
it is not all right as good young mineralogists German. And now, as it was before the war, they
(Labuntsov, for example) are moving away from have no outstanding mineralogists. But in other
it. The situation is getting more complex by cre- areas they have physicists, chemists, mathemati-
ating two new departments (Geological and cians” (Letters…, 1985, № 97, p. 117).
Chemical). Geochemistry is the chemical sci- A similar pattern holds for mineralogy in our
ence by its major methodology and which is the country at present. Mineralogical theme is
reason of its weak position at the Geological actually excluded from the priority research
institute, where chemical science is on the low mainstream of the Russian academy of science
level. We have to reconsider now such disci- (see Decree of the Presidium RAS from 1st July
plines as geochemistry and geophysics at the 2003 № 233 as well as the “Plans for Funda-
Academy of science. They cannot belong to the mental Research Russian Academy of Sciences
Geological department. Geochemistry in a great for the periods 2006–2010 and 2011–2025”).
measure was created in our country, but now we In the last part the word “mineral” exists only in
have no place for its forceful development, one program № 67 as: “Fundamental problems
despite its rising application value. of development of lithogenic, magmatic, meta-
The situation looks critical to me, it demands morphic and mineral-forming systems”. Nice
fundamental solution. Presidium of Geological but difficult to understand – as if lithogenic,
institute is not scientifically authoritative eno- magmatic, metamorphic systems are not the
ugh, as the prominent science academician Ar- mineral-forming ones? In the reviewed “VAK”
khangelskiy, its chairman, does not participate magazine “Proceedings of Academy of science”
in it for many months and was not replaced. you will find neither section “mineralogy”, nor
More than that, I reckon that the program of “crystallography” (everything was included
Geological institute cannot be approved without into “geochemistry”). Good news still that geol-
preliminary coordination with scientific work of ogist are still awarded with the philosophy doc-
the People’s commissariat on the heavy industry. tor degree of geological-mineralogical (and not
Concluding all presented above, I ask you to geochemical) sciences, reminding with that that
organize the temporary Commission at the without the knowledge in mineralogy they can-
Department, for discussion the problems of tea- not be the professionals in geology. Of course,
ching and scientific work on mineralogy and at present there are no such mental giants like
geochemistry in our country and at the Academy Vladimir I. Vernadsky or Alexander E. Fersman,
in particular. I see huge possibilities around, the but mineralogy still exists and successfully
new generation of mineralogists, which are develops, taking in methods and achievements
unable to complete their scientific education of chemistry and physics, as Vladimir Ivanovich
and to apply their energy to scientific work. We predicted long ago.
have to hurry, otherwise life could lose them”
(Letters…, 1985, № 156, p. 190–192). Vladimir I. Vernadsky
The same situation with mineralogy was in and the present times
the foreign countries. In the letters to Alexan-
der E. Fersman from Paris (1923–1924) where Vladimir I. Vernadsky was not only the first-
Vladimir Ivanovich was sent to give lectures on rate scientists but also the uncompromising
geochemistry, he wrote: “At present, the center social, governmental and political activist,
24
– Paul Niggli (1888–1953) – Swiss mineralogist, petrographer and geochemist, professor of the University of Leipzig
(1915–1918), Tübingen (1918-1920) and Zürich (since 1920) and Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule (since 1920), the foreign
correspondence member of the Academy of science of the USSR (since 1924).
keenly reacting to all the events in Russia and in tion, scientific and organizing deeds, contribu-
the world; at the same time he was curating tion in science.
huge scientific and scientific-organizing work But how do we respect the heritage of this
of a great value. ingenious scientist 100 years later? Differently,
We would not recall about his emphatic retire- indeed. There are researchers which fairly show
ment from the Moscow University with his stu- onto some mistakes and out-of-date solutions
dents and followers: A.E. Fersman, V.V. Kandeev, and ideas. And how is without it? Although
G.I. Kasperovich, Ya.V. Samoylov, V.M. Tse- Vladimir I. Vernadsky undoubtedly was far
brikov and 126 other lecturers in protest of ahead of his time, he could not surpass future,
arrangements of the Minister of education eternity. Science (and also mineralogical) ra-
L.A. Kasso, who broke the University’s autono- pidly moves forward, despite obstacles of life,
my, gave it to the police arbitrariness and who that is always full of contradiction of social-eco-
discharged rector A.A. Manuylov, his assistant nomical formations, countries, people, reli-
M.A. Menzibir and deputy rector P.A.Minakov, gions, all that interests and well-being of elite
disagreed with that. In the same 1911 in respect and leaders. Science has more noble and gener-
with the 200th anniversary of M.V. Lomonosov’s ous tasks and targets, including acquirement
birth, Vladimir I. Vernadsky actively participat- the knowledge about humanity, about world,
ed in application of the Academy to the Tsar’s about the planet Earth – its structure, compo-
government to organize the Lomonosov insti- sition, processes which take place on it, in it and
tute25 on the base of chemical and mineralogical in its far past, geological history. In this respect,
laboratories and physical cabinet of the Mine- Vladimir I. Vernadsky was the brightest person,
ralogical museum (Vernadsky, 1911). During the fighter for the power of the world science
the World War I and after the October Revo- and the world human fairness. He was standing
lution he organized KEPS and SOPS – above strictly government, strictly political
Commission and Counsel on investigation of party, strictly clan interests; he was the Man of
the natural productive forces in Russia; he the World.
actively works at the discovering Russian own His ideas are actual at present as in the past,
ore deposits and strategically important ores, as they were founded on the basis of scientific
which are necessary in war times and the fur- methodology, which was developed alongside
ther economic blockade from the side of impe- with the total progress of the methods of re-
rialistic countries. Being involved in a research search and knowledge, in fight with conser-
of uranium minerals and radioactivity, he orga- vatism, admiration of authorities and limitation
nized Radium institute in Petrograd, on the of scientific schools, for omnipotence and
base of the respective laboratory of the Mine- power of objective scientific facts.
ralogical museum. Later, he insistently recom- What is the situation in our mineralogy at
mended the Soviet government to investigate in present? Even among the prominent scientists
the area of nuclear energy. During the Civil war there is an opinion that mineralogists should be
he happened to be in Ukraine, where he foun- involved only in mineral diagnosing, for the
ded the Ukrainian Academy of science and be- other sciences studying Earth, for those scien-
came its president. When directing the Mi- tists who produce global ideas about the gene-
neralogical museums in Moscow and St.-Pe- sis of rocks, minerals and ore deposits. The top
tersburg-(Petrograd), he organized analytical achievement of mineralogist should be precise
laboratories within them, which later became diagnosing, description of the mineral phases
scientific-research institutes etc. It is impossible and discovery of the new mineral species and
to list everything. Shortly before his death in these are exactly what is supported by various
1943 he was awarded with the Stalin’s Prize of grants, projects, collector’s and amateur’s inter-
the first rank, for his scientific and organization est (rather than genetic mineralogy).
works; this, in some extent, demonstrates Vladimir I. Vernadsky taught and appealed
recognition of his contribution in foundation to another idea. And, in particular, the idea that
and development of the Russian mineral sci- mineral, as a major form of mineral substance in
ence by the Soviet government. nature, must be in the center of all the Earth sci-
We, mineralogists, do not need any proofs. ences. And that on the fundament of the
In Russian and world science there hard to find detailed chemical, physical, structural investi-
a person which is comparable with Vladimir gation of minerals, natural observations and
Ivanovich Vernadsky by his authority, erudi- physical-chemical experiments mineralogists
25
– In 1912 the Tsar’s government formally agreed with the organizing Lomonosov institute, but the Academy did not receive nei-
ther funds, nor piece of land for its construction. It did not find any funding for it in 1912–1918 in respond to the second applica-
tion of the Academy. Lomonosov institute was established only during Soviet times, but did not exist for a long period.
can and have to obtain the most valuable infor- the mainstream tasks and contradictions in
mation about the composition, structure and fea- progress of the human civilization on Earth,
tures of the natural chemical compounds and deepest patriotism, the need in serving people
can use this information in solution of genetic and his fatherland, Russian science, the ability to
and applied problems. Something was achieved understand the leading value of mineralogy with-
in this direction: genetic, regional, experimental, in the Earth sciences, its role in economics, ecol-
applied and technological mineralogy are devel- ogy, culture and human history – all these often
oping. Those are the powerful arsenal of miner- run against one’s indifference, misunderstanding
alogy branches which are able to provide with and maybe envy. But Vladimir Ivanovich was
the detailed mineralogical description of geolog- unselfishly serving the science, believed in prog-
ical objects, to reveal mineralogical indicators for ress and power of mineralogical science, despite
search and prospecting of the ore deposits, to be all the obstacles made and taught his followers
the basis for choosing the method of mining, and those who wanted to be one of them. Besides,
technology of processing and extraction of the he studied in detail the problem he began with, in
ore components and finally to use structure and historical aspect: what has been done in this
features of number of minerals as new and inno- direction by his predecessors. Alexander E.
vative materials. However, one has to have the Fersman indicated: “Vladimir Ivanovich always
will and skill to use it. began to study every phenomenon with precise
historical analysis. And regardless of the begin-
Instead of conclusion ning of his treatise or description, it was always
preceded with the history of a problem. Vladimir
More than a century ago, academician Ivanovich always required deep description of the
Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky (1863–1945) – history, from us, his students; and he made it not
the greatest Russian naturalist of the XIX–XX, formally but practically, by teaching us to under-
whose 150th anniversary we celebrated this year, stand the way of a thought and the history of its
achieved a scientific feat – he got over misun- development” (Fersman, 1946, p. 790).
derstanding and conservatism of the number of “In one of the letters from Italy, Vladimir
the “office” scientists and authorities. Reso- Ivanovich wrote about the role of museum in the
lutely and constituently, he introduce practiced history of science. Museums, according to his
new trends of the world science appeared at that opinion, had an exceptional value in develop-
time into practice of mineralogical research and ment of natural sciences and culture in general…
teaching mineralogy at the department he was he told: “We, naturalists, have to learn from his-
leading at the Moscow University. For a rela- torians the deep historical methods of under-
tively short time he created brilliant Russian standing of the mankind past. Using these meth-
school of mineralogists, equipped it with scien- ods we can become the historians of nature”
tific-research institutes and organized excellent (Fersman, 1946, p. 790–791).
mineralogical museums in Moscow and Peters-
burg. Russia is lucky to have such a Scientist, References
Patriot and a Man, who was able to lead miner-
alogy onto the first positions in the world. Dana E.S. Textbook of Mineralogy // Revised
According to A.E. Fersman: “There is no doubt and supplemented. Translated from English
that Vladimir Ivanovich – is the largest and the by A.E. Fersman & O.M. Schubnikova. L.-М.:
most original researcher of live and dead nature, ONTI NKTP USSR. 1937. 423 p.
the creator of new scientific trends, the reformer Essays and speeches by academician Vladimir I.
and the founder of Russian mineralogy and the Vernadsky. Vol. I. Petrograd: Scientific-tech-
world geochemistry” (Fersman, 1946, p. 788). He nic department of V.S.N.Kh R.S.F.S.R. Sci-
“has not only remarkable organizing talent, but entific chemical-technical publishers. 1922.
also deep knowledge in the number of science 159 p. (in Russian).
areas: mineralogy, geochemistry, biogeochem- Fersman A.E. Course of life of academician Vla-
istry, biology, soil science, geology, chemistry, dimir Ivanovich Vernadsky (1863–1945) //
physics, crystallography, energetics, radiogeolo- Zap. VMO. Series 2. 1946. Part 75. Vol. 1.
gy, radiography, hydrology, cartography, history P. 5–24. After: Selected works. М.: AN
of science, philosophy etc. Such diversity of cre- USSR. 1959. Vol. 5. P. 787–805 (in Russian).
ative thinking was combined with the rarest Geological almanac. To the 250th anniversary of
depth of analysis” (Fersman, 1946, p. 789). the Moscow University and 65th anniversary
Unfortunately, the uncommon talent of natu- of Geological faculty of the MSU // Author-
ralist and tutor Vladimir I. Vernadsky to predict compiler B.Y. Yanin. М.: MSU. 2003. 236 p.
and to understand trends of the world science, (in Russian).
Letters from V.I. Vernadsky to A.E. Fersman. М.: phic studies). Scientific essays of the Mos-
Nauka. 1985. 272 p. (in Russian). cow University. Nat.-Hist. section. Vol. 13.
Lichkov B.L. Scientific ideas and work of the last М.: Moscow University. 1897. III. 182 p. (in
years of Vladimir I. Vernadsky // Life and Russian).
work of Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky by Vernadsky V.I. Paragenesis of chemical elements
contemporaries’ memoirs (to the 100th anni- with the Earth’s crust. Speech at the opening
versary of birth) / History essays on geologi- ceremony of the Geology & mineralogy sec-
cal knowledge. Vol. 11. М.: AN USSR. 1963. tion on the 28th December 1909 // Diary of
P. 124–151 (in Russian). the XII Meeting of Russian naturalists and
Lichkov B.L. Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky medical doctors. Section I. М.: Lissner &
(1863–1945) // Ed. by N.L. Zelinskiy. М.: MOIP, Sobko. 1910. P. 73–91 (in Russian).
History Series. № 33. 1948. 103 p. (in Russian). Vernadsky V.I. About the Lomonosov institute at
Minerals (Reference Book). Vol. III. Pt. 1. М.: the Imperial Academy of science. SPb: AN.
Nauka. 1972. 883 p. / Pt. 3. М.: Nauka. 1981. 1911. 6 p. (in Russian).
398 p. (in Russian). Vernadsky V.I. The tasks of mineralogy in our
Popov S.P. Mineral cabinet of the Moscow country (1917–1927) // Nature. 1928. No 1.
University during 1894–1908 // Life and P. 21–40 (in Russian).
work of Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky by Vernadsky V.I. Essays on geochemistry //
contemporaries’ memoirs (to the 100th anni- Selected works in 5 volumes. М.: AN USSR.
versary of birth) // History essays on geolog- 1954. Vol. 1. P. 7–392 (in Russian).
ical knowledge. Vol. 11. М.: AN USSR. 1963. Vernadsky V.I. Experience of descriptive mi-
P. 21–29 (in Russian). neralogy with the author’s supplements
Scherbakov D.I. From the history of the Com- 1912–1922. Vol. 1. Native elements // Se-
mission of the natural productive forces in lected works in 5 volumes. М.: AN USSR.
Russia // Life and work of Vladimir Ivano- 1955. Vol. 2. 615 p. (in Russian).
vich Vernadsky by contemporaries’ memoirs Vernadsky V.I. Experience of descriptive minera-
(to the 100th anniversary of birth) // History logy withtheauthor’ssupplements 1912–1922.
essays on geological knowledge. Vol. 11. М.: Vol. 2. Sulphury and selenitic compounds //
AN USSR. 1963. P. 34–45 (in Russian). Selected works in 5 volumes. М.: AN USSR.
Vernadsky V.I. On sillimanite group and the role of 1959. Vol. 3. P. 5–319 (in Russian).
alumina in silicates. М.: MOIP. I. 1891. 100 p. Vernadsky V.I., Kurbatov S.M. Earth silicates,
(in Russian). aluminosilicates and their analogues // From
Vernadsky V.I. Genesis of minerals // Brockhaus the lectures of V.I. Vernadsky at the Moscow
and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary. Vol. 8. University, published in 1910–1912. 4th edi-
SPb.: Typo-Lythography of I.A. Efron. 1892. tion, revised and brought to the new level of
P. 306–311 (in Russian). knowledge by prof. S.M. Kurbatov and acad.
Vernadsky V.I. Phenomena of sliding of the V.I. Vernadsky. L.-M.: ONTI NKTP USSR.
crystal substance (physical-crystallogra- 1937. 378 p. (in Russian).
VLADIMIR I. VERNADSKY
AND HIS ROLE IN RESOLUTION OF CHALLENGES
OF NUCLEAR ENERGY UTILIZATION IN RUSSIA
Vladimir I. Kuzmin
N.M. Fedorovsky All-Russian Research Institute of Mineral Resources (VIMS), Moscow, vladimirkuzmin@mtu net.ru
The article describes V.I. Vernadsky’s activity in the area of study of natural source of radioactive decay, prospec-
tive of practical use of energy of nuclear decay. Activity of Fedorovsky All-Russian Institute of Mineral Resources
in the development of mineral resources for nuclear industry in Russia is explained.
6 references.
Keywords: V.I. Vernadsky, nuclear industry, uranium ores.
150th anniversary of academician V.I. Ver- power revealing for the human awareness. What
nadsky, a prominent Russian scientist, mine- will it bring us in its future development?”. He
ralogist, historian of science, philosopher, foun- stated later: “…with hope and concern we look
der of geochemistry and many of its branches into our new ally and defender” (Vernadsky,
such as radiogeochemistry, biogeochemistry, 1954).
cosmochemistry, geochemistry of Earths’ hyd- Amazing farsightedness of the great scientist,
rosphere and other was celebrated on March 12, who could vividly describe complete meaning of
2013. He was promoted to a member of Prague the recent discovery was astonishing. Contem-
and Paris Academies of Science, was granted porary history showed that his concerns were not
many international awards. Majority of geolo- baseless: tragic incidents such as atomic bombs
gists, mineralogists and other specialists in explosions on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, serious
Earth sciences in Russia and other countries accidents at nuclear power stations: Three Mile
employ ideas of the grand intellectual acumen Island, tragedies at Chernobyl, in the South
of V.I. Vernadsky as the outstanding naturalist of Urals and Fukushima. Those episodes worsen
the 20th century. His bright dynamic ideas con- with the problem of safe nuclear waste disposal
nected all natural processes and phenomena, that awaits its solution as many other ecological
anticipated and defined development of Russian problems caused by careless human activities
and the Worlds science for decades. Vernadsky not mentioning radioactive factor. The world
gave an impulse to Russian science in many community started to actively address these
areas to contribute to the treasury of the Worlds issues, so hope for the effectiveness of the collec-
science. tive mind gives a space for some cautious opti-
One of the most interesting areas of Ver- mism. This is why Vernadsky stated: “The way of
nadsky’s creativity and executive scientific man- history is changing before our own eyes… Human-
agement was connected to his works on radioac- kind as a whole becomes a great geologic factor.
tivity, search for its natural sources and practical Demand to accommodate the biosphere accor-
application of nuclear decay energy. He was one ding to the interests of freely thinking humanity
of few scientists who recognized and foresaw the as a unity arises before its mind and effort. This
new great source of energy for the humanity, the new state of the biosphere which we are unaware
least known by the turn of the last century with approaching is noosphere” (Vernadsky, 1944;
hardly realized consequences of its use in the Armand, 2001).
future. He mentioned in one of his first speeches Vernadsky’s belief in the power and rational-
“The urgent issues of radium” on the open mee- ism of the collective mind of humanity and sub-
ting of the Academy of Science on December 25, sequently his forecast of evolutionary develop-
1910: “We watch a revelation of such a source of ment of human civilization with transition to the
energy that will make negligible power of steam, era of noosphere has been inspiring natural sci-
electricity, power of explosive chemical process- entists and philosophers of various schools to
es…., in the phenomenon of radioactivity we dynamic research for almost half a century.
anticipate a source of nuclear energy which is Specific attention has been paid to the issue of
millions of times greater than all energy sources sustained development of the civilization in the
that the mankind was dreaming of.” His report last decade. This issue is in the mainstream of the
included the following words: “… with a thrill and noosphere concept. Prevailing optimistic appro-
expectations we direct our vision to the new ach to the future of the humanity in the world
spread out because of the great influence of Vernadsky was a special direction of studies of
V.I. Vernadsky. The scientist was convinced of that period. It was in the Urals in the Ilmens,
the civilization stability and its regular and glo- where he started to study formation of thorium
bal development towards more sophisticated and uranium minerals yet in 1897. Radiogeo-
forms of structuring and collaboration in harmo- chemistry was formed there as a new branch of
ny with the whole biosphere. It brings natural geochemistry. Regions of Caucasus, Middle
response of optimism because he cherished this Asia, Siberia, Transbaykalia were other regions
idea in the time of numerous natural, technolog- where Radium expedition worked till 1918. The
ical and social catastrophes that happened on researchers in the expedition gathered mineral
the break of the 20th century. collections to replenish funds of Saint-Peters-
There were also people who did not share the burg Mineralogical Museum of the Academy of
optimism of the followers of Vernadsky noos- Science, Geological and Mineralogical museum
phere concept. Philosopher N.N. Moiseyev dis- of Peter the Great back then. The mineralogical
cussing the “gradual transition to the noos- laboratory of the museum formed upon Vernad-
phere” was very cautious about this change of sky’s initiative in 1912, was transformed into
humanity “… half a century ago thinkers (Ver- Radium Institute of the Academy of Science in
nadsky and Teilhard de Chardin – authors note) 1922.
had more reasons to be optimistic than the people Stepping away from the main topic of the
of todays’ fin de siècle. They did not know about article, I would like to present some interesting
nuclear weapons and did not realize that the facts that linked V.I. Vernadsky and Nikolay
humankind is up to pass a harsh and severe glob- Mikhailovich Fedorovsky. Fedorovsky later be-
al economic crisis. This transition will not be came his student and successor, then prominent
gradual and painless “amalgamation of the mineralogist, corresponding fellow of the Aca-
races, nature and God” as Teilhard de Chardin demy of Science and the director of the Institute
thought, but will be more likely bifurcation with of Applied Mineralogy (All-Union from 1935 and
unpredictable outcome” (Moiseyev, 1994). then All-Russian Research Institute of Mineral
Nevertheless, let us be optimistic together Resources, VIMS). They met in the Ilmeny, whe-
with V.I. Vernadsky and based on the main law of re Fedorovsky, was sent to collect mineral col-
the dialectics – the law of development and let lections by the owner of a store selling learning
us believe in the human mind: “… the human had guides. Fedorovsky was previously dismissed
realized for the first time that he was a dweller of from the university for his political activities and
the planet and has to think and act in the new experienced big financial troubles. Vernadsky
approach that is not limited by minding each liked the smart and sharp-sighted young man.
individual, family or tribe, states or their alliances He involved Fedorovsky in work of his expedi-
but in the light of the globe as a whole” tion, helped him to resume study at the universi-
(Vernadsky, 1991). ty, which he graduated in 1914 and cultivated
Study of radioactivity was one of the main love of mineralogy in him. Fedorovsky had
interests of V.I. Vernadsky of during all his life. respect and gratefulness to the teacher for all his
Among a large group of professors he resigned life and there friendship lasted for many years.
from his professor position at Moscow University Fedorovsky was politically active person and
in 1911 in the protest to the repressive actions became Bolshevik in 1904. He headed the
taken by the Tsars’ government against students. Mining Council of the VSNKh (Supreme Coun-
He moved to Petersburg and in a year had orga- cil on National Economy) after October 1917 and
nized Radium Expedition of the Academy of executed some very important commands of the
Science that explored for radioactive ores. The government. He got to know in the summer of
first results of the expedition allowed pioneering 1921 that Vernadsky was arrested as an active
makeshift recovery of uranium and radium from member of Constitutional Democratic Party and
ores of small Tyuya-Muyun and Taboshar an associate of a minister of the Temporary gov-
deposits. Small amount of the metals was recov- ernment. Fedorovsky promptly sent a telegram
ered from the ores for research and applied pur- to narkom Lunacharsky assuring him that accu-
poses. sation of Vernadsky in anti-Soviet activity was
A special chemical-mineralogical laboratory baseless and demanding his immediate release.
was organized at Mineralogical Museum of Vernadsky was freed the next day.
Academy of Science in Petersburg, which It was unfortunate, that Fedorovsky fell vic-
Vernadsky was leading since 1906. Mineralogy tim of defamatory accusation report as well in
of rare and radioactive elements was studied 1937 and was imprisoned for 15 years. Neither
there. Mineralogical and geochemical studies in V.I. Vernadsky, nor V.A. Obruchev, who wrote
Ilmeny Mountains in the Urals conducted by appeals to I.V. Stalin to release Fedorovsky,
Vladimir I. Vernadsky and his role in resolution of challenges of nuclear energy utilization in Russia 115
could help him. Presently the Institute of Mine- do not have fundamental problems, urgent mea-
ral Resources and streets in Nizhny Novgorod sures of establishing uranium exploration, mining
and Talnakh bear name of N.M. Fedorovsky. and extraction in the USSR have to be taken. They
Soviet geologists remember the talented student are necessary to provide enough precious energy
of V.I. Vernadsky. Fedorovsky All-Union (All- source material by the time when the technical
Russian now) Institute of Mineral Resources issues in interatomic energy utilization will be
made the essential contribution to development solved. So far, the situation with such resources in
of the mineral resource basis for the nuclear the USSR is exceptionally bad. There is absolute-
industry of the USSR. ly no resource of uranium. This metal is very
In 1920–30s V.I. Vernadsky paid consi- scarce. There is no established recovery of the
derable attention to the matters of nuclear reac- metal. Large explored deposits of it on the
tions connected with fission of uranium nucleus (Soviet) Union territory are unknown. Detailed
with high energetic effects. He meticulously exploration of the known deposits and searching
kept track of publications on the topic. Simul- for new ones go at very low pace, are not enough
taneously with other soviet scientists, especially and are not connected with one big idea…” The
physicists, he noticed almost complete with- “Note” was discussed on the Department of the
drawal of materials on this matter from public Academy of Science few days later and academi-
accessibility in the end of 1930s. It was a certain cians were asked to develop a project with cer-
sign of concealing work on the topic because of tain implementation plan in two-week time.
possible weapon applications of nuclear fission. Vernadsky wrote in his diary on July 17, 1940:
We need to note that further materials were “There was a question on uranium on Presidium
taken from book of V.S. Gubarev (2009). session. I presented a report that was not very
Materials gathered by Russian intelligence successful, but the result was gained. The vast
informed on commencing of development of majority does not understand the historical
nuclear weapons in England and USA. These meaning of the moment. I wonder if I’m mistaken?
data was delivered to the Soviet administration A note to the Government is needed…”.
but at first was regarded to be disinformation The Commission on uranium issues was
determined to deviate Soviet efforts to the false formed on the meeting of Presidium of the Aca-
direction. It was even more, that the intelligence demy of Science of the USSR on July 30. It was a
data did not reach the people who actually group of 14 people. There were ten academi-
worked on the nuclear program. In particular, cians: Khlopin (the chairman), Vernadsky, Joffe,
I.V. Kurchatov was surprised when he was given Fersman, Vavilov, Lazarev, Frumkin, Mandel-
helpful materials on the weapon development in shtam, Krzhizhanovsky, Kapitsa, professor Vino-
England and USA in 1943. It needs mentioning, gradov and senior researchers Kurchatov,
that the study on the nuclear program was car- Shcherbakov, Khariton. Academicians Vernad-
ried out in several institutes of the Academy of sky and A.F. Joffe were appointed to deputy
Science even before the Second World War in chairmen of the commission. However, the com-
spite of blunt skepticism from some scientists. mission worked much slower than expected. It
There were problems with production of neces- became particularly clear with the start of the
sary instrumentation and obtaining radioactive Second World War. All the energy was turned to
materials for experiments. Vernadsky was aware the defense. Attention to the nuclear problem
of the situation. increased somewhat in 1942 after the first suc-
Vernadsky knew about discovery of the cesses of the Red Army.
effective chain fission reaction of nuclei of urani- Vernadsky wrote in November of 1942: “It is
um-235 with neutrons and actively called for necessary to seriously and extensively establish
attention to it from the Presidium of the Aca- development of nuclear energy of actin-uranium.
demy of Science of the USSR. There were always In this order the Uranium commission has to be
visionaries in our nation who could foresee the reorganized and transformed into a flexible orga-
future. Academicians Vernadsky and Khlopin nization that would have two main goals: First of
directed a “Note on arranging uranium produc- all, the quick discovery of rich uranium ores in our
tion” to the Presidium of the Academy of Science country, which is possible. In the second place,
of the USSR. This document stated the important few kilograms of actin-uranium for experimental
fundamental scientific and applied meaning of work with practical applications have to be pro-
the study of nuclear reactions with energy ef- duced promptly. We need to quickly solve the
fects. In particular it said: “…We think, that even dilemma if we are indeed in the wake of a new era
now, when the question of separation of U-235 of the humankind, as I and many other geo-
isotope and utilization of nuclear fission energy chemists and physicists think, the new era of
meets some technical issues, which in our opinion application of new forms of atomic energy or we
are not. In the light of devastation that Nazis bar- Vernadsky took part in the meeting of the
barians caused to the national economy, we need Committee on geological affairs at the Sov-
to find out if it is realistic and beneficial to utilize narkom of the USSR on October 2nd, 1943. It was
this form of energy”. chaired by I.I. Malyshev and worked out a plan
The government made the decision creating for uranium exploration program and organizing
“the Nuclear project of the USSR” on September a permanent Consulting Bureau on the issues of
28, 1942. It was the direction No 2352cc of the uranium resources at the All-Union Research
State Committee of Defense “On arranging work Institute of Mineral Resources. V.I. Vernadsky
on uranium”, signed by I.V. Stalin. This docu- was a member of the bureau.
ment considered organization of a special labo- It can be noted with satisfaction that intensive
ratory (It was laboratory No 2 from 1943), separa- work of all exploration and mining companies,
tion of materials for experimental work and pro- research institutes of the country quickly provid-
viding laboratory space for atomic nucleus ed the solution for uranium resource problem.
laboratory in the city of Kazan. A.F. Joffe was Several large deposits of radioactive ores had
appointed to a lead resuming the study on urani- been discovered and the work on nuclear defense
um. He, in turn, insisted on transferring the program succeeded. In very restricted time limits
duties to I.V. Kurchatov. I.V. Kurchatov was USSR obtained enough uranium to extract iso-
appointed the scientific chief of the work on ura- tope U-235, the main component of weapon metal
nium by the order of State Committee of Defense as well as fuel elements of the world’s first nuclear
on February 11, 1943. power plants developed in the Soviet Union.
V.I. Vernadsky was concerned with low activ- The soviet scientists, designer engineers,
ity of the Uranium Commission of the Academy researchers of the nuclear industry, numerous
of Science of the USSR and addressed to the geological parties and the whole soviet nation
President of the Academy of Science from Boro- accomplished a great historical achievement.
voy, where he was evacuated. He wrote: “I con- Monumental efforts of the soviet nation created
sider it is urgent to resume activities of the a reliable and safe nuclear shield in unreason-
Uranium commission, having in mind possibility ably short period. The opponents who wanted to
of military application of uranium as well as in destroy Soviet Union with atomic fire were
quick reconstruction of the economy after devas- stopped in their efforts being aware of inevitabil-
tation of the country from Hitlers barbarians. New ity of protective retaliation.
sources of powerful energy are needed to reach Importance of Vernadsky’s contribution to
these tasks.” With these words Vernadsky actu- the solution of the nuclear problem in our coun-
ally pointed to possibility of electric energy gen- try is gigantic. We, the grateful descendants of
eration and anticipated design of nuclear power the great scientist will remember this accom-
plants. plishment!
He wrote to the President of the Academy of
Science later in personal letter criticizing his col- Refenences
league: “I’m certain that the future belongs to the
atomic energy and we need to understand where Armand A.D. Experiment “Gaea” – the problem
uranium ores localize in our country. Our efforts of live Earth. Moscow: Sirin sadhana. 2001.
in this question have been stalled for few years. 191 p. (in Russian).
Unfortunately, Ioffe does not understand or pre- Gubarev V.S. The atomic bomb: chronicles of
tends that he does not understand, that to utilize great discoveries. Moscow: Algorithm. 2009.
atomic energy, in the first place uranium ores 607 p. (in Russian).
need to be found in significant amount. I think Moiseyev N.N. V.I. Vernadsky and the modern
that it can be done during one summer campaign. age // V.I. Vernadsky. Life matter and the
Fersman and Khlopin share the same opinion as biosphere. Moscow: Nauka. 1994. P. 634–
far as I know” (Gubarev, 2009). 647 (in Russian).
The Manhattan project was actively de- Vernadsky V.I. Some words about noosphere //
ploying in the USA from January 1943, accor- Successes of modern biology. 1944. No. 18.
ding to the intelligence sources. It resulted in Issue 2. P. 113–120 (in Russian).
creation of the atomic bomb that killed hundreds Vernadsky V.I. The urgent issues of radium //
of thousands of people in Japan in September Selected works, Moscow: Academy of Sci-
1945. Active work on the Atomic project, which ence of the USSR. 1954. Vol. 1. P. 620–628
was numerous times endorsed by Vernadsky, (in Russian).
commenced in the USSR in the same time. We Vernadsky V.I. Scientific thought as a plane-
know now that its mission was accomplished tary phenomenon. Moscow: Nauka. 1991.
successfully. 272 p. (in Russian).
Mineralogical Museums
and Collections
WORKS OF CHINESE STONE-CUTTING ART

AT FERSMAN MINERALOGICAL MUSEUM
OF RUSSIAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Vladimir A. Korenyako
State Museum of Oriental Art, Moscow, korenyako@gmail.com
Marianna B. Chistyakova
Fersman Mineralogical Museum, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, mineral@fmm.ru
This article is the first publication about Chinese stone-cutting art in a collection of Fersman Mineralogical
Museum of Russian Academy of Sciences.
Keywords: Fersman Mineralogical Museum, works of stone-cutting art, Chinese art, collection of ornamental and
precious stones.
The collection of Fersman Mineralogical a collection of ornamental and gem stones.

Museum of Russian Academy of Sciences Chinese stone-carving works received from
began to form as a part of cabinet of curiosi- different organizations and from a few indi-
ties, which was founded by Peter the Great in viduals appeared in the collection, the time of
1714. Inter alia the Mineral cabinet was creat- the production of which in the inventory lists
ed. Then, in 1836, it was reorganized into an is marked as "new".
independent Mineralogical Museum as a part In following years, up to 1980–1986s,
of Russian Academy of Sciences. Though in Chinese masters’ works almost didn’t come to
the first catalogue of the collection, compiled the Museum. Only with the beginning of the
by M.V. Lomonosov and published in 1745, Perestroika an opportunity of purchasing of
there were descriptions of several small pla- some things and getting them through the
quettes of Florentine mosaic (Novgorodova, exchange appeared. All these items are from
2011), collecting of stone products was not the late 20th – early 21st century.
included in the objectives of the Museum and Unfortunately, the collection of Chinese
their appearance in the collection (right up to stone carving art still almost does not attract
the twentieth century) had an incidental attention of the researchers. The exception is
character. Even in the catalogues of the 19th the article written by D.D. Novgorodova. It
century mentioned only a few stone carving has published two jade disks, donated to the
items and they were all Chinese, for example Museum by chief curator of the Museum
in Ivan Wagner’s (Wagner, 1806) and Kon- V.I. Kryzhanovsky in 1923 and jade "disk 3",
stantin Grewingk’s (Grewingk, 1846) cata- received in 1949 from the State Historical
logues. Museum and which is not a disk, but the
In the Mineralogical Museum the current image of the animal is most likely as a dragon
collection of the collection of ornamental and curled up in the ring (Novgorodova, 2004).
precious stones was first formed only in the The attribution of these works D.D. Novgoro-
1920s, during the period of rapid nationaliza- dova conducted on a broad historical and cul-
tion of the property of the Royal family and tural background. We do not object to the
the nobility. A huge amount of seized materi- proposed D.D. Novgorodova dates: ranging
al was donated to various museums. from the Ming dynasty (1368–1644 years.)
By this time among the Museum’s collec- until the early twentieth century for a single
tions, there existed several thematic sets of disk within the 19th – beginning of 20th cen-
exhibits. It was possible to create a collection tury to another and within the second half of
of chiselled stones, including artistically 17th – beginning of 20th century for the image
done ones. The direction of the Museum ap- of a coiled into a ring of the dragon. This cau-
pealed to various organizations of Leningrad tious, relatively late dating is reasonable.
(the Museum moved to Moscow later in 1934) China is predominantly a mountainous
with the request to transfer the material to the country, except for the lower reaches of large
new Fund. Many departments responded to rivers carrying their waters to the Pacific
the request and as a result during several Ocean and the great plain between the Hu-
years there was created a new Fund – it was ang He and the Yangtze River. It applies not
Works of Chinese stone-cutting art at Fersman Mineralogical Museum of Russian Academy of Sciences 119
only to the southern and North-Eastern Chi- is just one work of fluorite (FMM #PDK
na, but to included in China vast regions of 7874) and three Chinese works of malachite.
Inner Mongolia, Qinghai, Tibet and East Tur- This is the reason for the late arrival of such
kestan (present-day Xinjiang Uyghur Auto- works in the Museum (malachite – 1982, flu-
nomous region). It is a vast territory with orite – 1998).
numerous deposits of various minerals. China These are the basic data on minerals, used
can be called a country of stone and stone- for the production of the caught in the
cutting art, traditions which comprise the mil- Museum of Chinese carved items.
lennia. The attribution of Chinese stone-carving
The collection of the Mineralogical Mu- works is very difficult. It is connected with the
seum is not an accurate reflection of the mi- rich artistic heritage of the vast country,
neral resources of China. In general, this is a whose artistic production is divided into elite
collection of products that were accidentally and provincial, "folk".
included into the Museum. They were not the Speaking about the works of the collec-
main object of gathering, keeping and analy- tion we should definitely mention that there
sis. At the same time, the "Chinese character" are not only the Chinese ("Han") elite works
of the collection as a whole meets if not the which was connected with the old centers of
variety of produced in China ornamental Chinese crafts, but provincial products, too.
stones, but preferences and tastes of Chinese So, we must consider China as a huge multi-
stone-cutters. ethnic country. Part of this state are vast terri-
About half of stored in the Museum works tories inhabited until recent decades, not
of Chinese stone-cutters are jade. Nephrite is Chinese and other peoples, who had sus-
one of the favorite in China stones. Its hard- tained centuries-old artistic traditions. This is
ness can be called average (5.5 on the Mohs the extreme West of China, East Turkestan,
scale). But jade is so thick and viscous that in modern Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous region.
ancient times it was already a great material The main population of East Turkistan Uig-
for various works. hur, a Turkic-speaking Muslim people, has
The second place in popularity in the long been famous for carpet weaving, art
Chinese collection of the Museum is agalma- metal work, embroidery. One of the areas
tolite, well-known ornamental stone. Agal- Uighur traditional art stone carving has not
matolite is a solid variety of the mineral pyro- been studied yet. Touch this area to some
phyllite. Its name is composed of the Greek extent allow the materials of the Minera-
words "agalma" (a sculpture, a statue) and logical Museum of the Russian Academy of
"lithos" (a stone) and other names of this mi- Sciences.
neral (a soapstone, a waxstone, steatite, pa- When receiving things in the Museum
godite) they say of its softness or of those bea- quite often mineral (in this case jade) was
utiful products, which can be carved out of it determined and commented addition "the
(Korenyako, Chistyakova, 2012). The hard- Murghab river, China". The use of the hydro-
ness of agalmatolite (1–3 on the Mohs scale) nym "Murgab in somewhat mysterious, beca-
allows carving it with an ordinary knife and use there is no such river in China (Xinjiang
the combination of density and viscosity Uygur Autonomous region). Murghab is one
gives the stone plastic qualities, highly val- of the main sources of the Amu Darya, the
ued in stone-cutting art. current in Gorno-Badakhshan (Tajikistan).
A significant number of Chinese works On the Murghab River, there are deposits of
were carved out of quartz and its varieties like jade. River valley is separated by only several
rock crystal, amethyst, chalcedony, carneli- tens of kilometers (including the crossing of
an, agate, moss agate. the ridge Sarykol) from Tashkurgan – one of
There are only few instances of using fluo- the artisan and trading cities of Xinjiang.
rite and turquoise. Jade was supposed to go to the East across
Malachite is also little known in Chinese the border of the Russian Empire and Sarykol
stone-carving art. This mineral has bright mountains. Why the source jade could not
green colour and low hardness (3.5–4 on the become its field in China is primarily famous
Mohs scale), it’s highly valued as a striking since the Middle Ages jade mines Kunlun
ornamental stone in the form of a patterned part located here in Xinjiang?
kidney-shaped units. Museum documentation does not give
The use of fluorite and malachite in Chi- answers to these questions. Perhaps codified
nese stone-carving art has began relatively the definition of "R. Murghab, China" altho-
recently. In the Mineralogical Museum there ugh not quite clear, but indicates a peripheral
(Western China, East Turkestan, Xinjiang, the dragon began to emerge in the Neolithic-
Uighur) the area of production of jade carv- the late Stone Age, 8th–3rd millennia BC. Me-
ings, different from the Han Chinese forms. an stone carvings and images on clay – they
This, at least, ten items received in the 1920s. are quite guessed animals with long bodies
Among them are two simple and identical in and tails, with a ferocious predator head. In
the shape of a cup, like the Central Asian these images we can see the deformed artistic
cups (FMM #PDK-1583, FMM #PDK-1640). imagination reptiles or amphibians, animals
Green jade carved small hexagonal "tray" and and fantastic animals, which combined fea-
decorated on the edge of the ellipsoidal cavi- tures of reality and fiction.
ties – "spoons" (FMM #PDK-1661). As "Per- The study of the origin of the image of the
sian" in the documents identified carved from dragon in the East Asia and neighboring re-
gray "the Murghab" jade deep dish (FMM gions clearly shows that this image took
#PDK-2314). Both the internal and external shape in China and very early. In the Neo-
surfaces it is all decorated belts of “spoons”. lithic, we see the start of his features, in the
Such decoration matches with wavy edge of Bronze Age in the 2nd millennia BC. it is quite
the bowl. In General, the style of these prod- obvious. China is almost indisputable home-
ucts is not Chinese, but rather pointing to the land of the dragon image. Of course, the
morphological features of the Islamic pottery image of the dragon is well known and in
of Central Asia and the Middle East. neighboring regions (Korea, Japan, Mongo-
With this group of things we can bring lia, Tibet, Vietnam). But that all countries for
together six jade beads (Fig. 1). They are which China were if not the "mother civiliza-
large, rounded and brown (with the exception tion", in a sense, a cultural metropolis. It is
of one cut from a lighter, greenish jade). The significant that India, with all the complexity
pattern is made in the technique of inlaying of religious beliefs and a high level of art,
with gold wire. The main part of the pattern is cannot claim the role of "mother of dragons".
the triple duplicate picture plant sprigs of Close to the dragon, is also fantastic and
flowers, leaves, buds, spiral curls. These "hybrid" image of crocodile-like water mon-
images are limited to the paired bands of ster Makara – in India it has a different ori-
zigzag lines or circuits closed diamonds. In gin.
General, the pattern, with all its technological The iconography of the image of the dra-
complexity, angular, geometrized and "dry", gon "Lung" quite clearly emerged in China in
with a noticeable number of small failures the era of the first historically attested States
and "texture" and this makes it unambiguous Shang-Yin (17 th–11 th centuries BC). In the
attribution as Chinese ornament. We have no era of Zhou (11 th–3rd centuries BC) dragon
reason to believe these six jade beads Eastern has purchased the kind that practically did
Turkestan products. But in any case within not change in the coming era of Chinese his-
the huge Chinese cultural space such prod- tory. Mandatory signs images of Chinese
ucts are the essence of "products second-rate, dragons: monstrous head with bulging eyes, a
peripheral, provincial. wide toothy mouth, moustache, beard and
Now let us refer to the images of the ani- horns, long covered with scales torso and tail,
mals and plants that are characteristic of four powerful claws.
Chinese art and even to some extent, are em- The dragon was one of the main places in
blems of the Chinese artistic traditions. ancient mythology, religious views, picture of
First place in the list of such images, un- the world. The semantics of the dragon image
doubtedly, is the dragon. is varied. He was considered a symbol of the
Experts on the history of Chinese culture bright male power "Yang", the Supreme po-
long incline to the opinion that the image of wer and the Emperor himself, the element of
Fig. 1. Beads. Nephritis. In-

laid with gold. From 2.7×
2.65 cm to 1.8×2.9 cm. 19th –
early 20th centuries. Recei-
ved from the Department of
nonmetallic minerals KEPS
(Commission for the Study
of Productive Forces) in
1925. FMM #PDK-2345.
Fig. 2. Two-part buckle with dragon. Nephrite. 7.3×5.45×2.75 cm. 19th – early 20th centuries. Purchased from Y.S. Edelstein in 1912.
FMM #PDK-814.
Fig. 3. Vase with lid. Rock crystal. Support – wood. Size of the "assembly" (with cover and stand) 24.2×10.55×8.7 cm. 19th – early 20th
centuries. Received from the Hermitage in 1926. FMM #PDK-1669.
Fig. 4. Part of the buckle. Nephrite. 9.1×1.8×2.5 cm. The first half of the 20th century. Purchased from B.A. Fedorovich in 1950. FMM
#PDK-4911.
fire, Lord of thunder, lightning and rain (Bir, More successful is a different product
2011; Terent’ev-Katanskiy, 2004; Fisser, 2008; from light gray jade (Fig. 2) received in the
Shmotikova, 2012). Museum collection in 1912, is a two-part belt
In the Mineralogical Museum a few things, buckle. Each part of it represents the dragon:
decorated with dragon images or an image of a sculpture or bas-relief head with round
a dragon. This is primarily a flat image of a eyes, horns, mane and flat, enriched with dec-
coiled into a ring of the dragon "disk 3", pub- orative elements, "broken" at right angles to
lished D.D. Novgorodova (Novgorodova, the body. Geometric and decorative charac-
2004). In the artistic sense, this work is mind- ter hampers the determination of the dragon
less. Decorative developing stonecutter gave image, but after a brief examination of the
so important that it even makes recognition buckle this task is successfully solved.
in carved stone dragon image. Essentially, The most spectacular in the "dragon" part
recognizable only horned head, very vaguely of the collection of the Museum is a vase with
depicted paws and tail. You can say that they lid, carved from colorless rock crystal (Fig. 3).
disappeared in a mass of curls and spiral ele- This is a pretty big subject, the walls of which
ments (FMM #PDK-4662). are covered with large, energetic bas-relief
The plate of light grey (white) jade (FMM and high relief carvings, combined with cut-
#PDK-6935) is also inexpressive. The plate is lines: vegetative shoots, the abundance of
a delicate image of two dragons in the "he- spiral and double-spiral curls. Three defor-
raldic" (symmetric) compositions. Quite dis- med and stylized high relief image of dragons
cern only the head. All items dragon bodies stretched vertically. Probably the same ani-
efface under "pressure" excessive decoration. mal, but curled up in the ring, depicts the
round sculpture on the cover of the vessel. All large head and with the common shortened
images are different heads, ridges and paws. and compressed proportions. "Shijia" cannot
But they are so deformed by styling and over- be confused with any other animals primarily
loaded "plant" items, that to call them drag- in the face, mane and tail. His snout – it's gri-
ons can only conditionally. macing pug’s face with wide open jaws,
Around the same time (1926), the Museum bulged eyes, bushy eyebrows and sharply dis-
received a bottle carved from agate (FMM tinguished elements of facial muscles. Mane
#PDK-1603). It is decorated with bas-relief treated stressed decorative – it consists of a
carvings and with plane-thread. On the shoul- number of regularly spaced curls, each of
ders – a simple conditional ornament. The which is typically a spiral, coiled into a tight
main surface of the body is covered with carv- cone or pineal bulge. The tail has no stem –
ings with a predominance of smooth curves. almost behind the base of it is dissolved in a
This is a figure of two opposing dragons. The more or less lush plumes.
abundance of large and small spiral curls, Qing "Shijia" in terms of zoological mor-
turning into drawn from these scrolls branch- phology – not lions at all, although the word
ing shoots hard conceals the dragon figure. itself means "lion", these images have other
The museum has two objects with images "lions" names like ''Korean Lion", "Lion Fo",
of dragons which are made from Kunlun light ie "Lion of Buddha" (Williams 1941, p. 254).
gray and slightly greenish jade. One of them Morphologically "Shijia" has little in com-
– part of a belt buckles with a sculptural mon with the individuals of the cat family and
head and figure of a dragon (see Fig. 4). The is fully consistent with small dogs of Chinese
other – the head pin is differing with the fine rock "Pekingese" and "chin".
openwork carving. Here depicts a dragon sur- Analysis of works of Chinese art from the
rounded by lace elements (FMM #PDK- Han Dynasty (3 rd century BC – 3 rd century
4910). AD), says that the first images of lions
Given that the Chinese collection of the appeared in China in the 2 nd AD. They are
Mineralogical Museum is small, it is clearly dry, laconic, schematized embodiment of real
traced one very important feature: with all the beast. In 3 rd–6 th centuries, along with rea-
clarity of the dragon’s image, the attempts to listic images of the long-tailed animals, other
implement in art differ. Peripheral or provin- images appear. They differ more grotesque
cial level of art, the individual features of and decorative, with thick tails in the form of
artistic skill could lead to deviations from the sheet, festoon, blades or large curl (Lee, 1968,
canons and greatly complicate the definition p. 142, 143, ill. 167; Asiatische Kunst..., 1977,
in the dim form of a dragon image. A similar S. 18, Abb. 58; Fong, 1991). The coexistence
situation apparently exists in the embodi- of these two styles of lions images even sharp-
ment of a zoomorphic image – comically er denoted in the art of the Tang Dynasty
grotesque lion "Shijia" or "Shifo." (618–907.), The second style is developing in
The origin of the fantastic image of the direction of the canon "Shijia» (Lessing,
"Shijia" is very rarely considered in the spe- 1936, S. 5, 14, Abb. 2; Jenins, Watson , 1980, p.
cial literature (Korenyako, 1998). 34, 89, ill. 17, 53; Miroir des arts de la Chine,
It is well known that the area of the lion as 1984, p. 315, ill. 174).
a zoological species never locked in historical Chinese lions' images of the Yuan Dynasty
times the territory of China. Lions for Chinese (1260–1368) are carried out in full accordance
people have always been rare exotic animals, with the canon of "Shijia", i.e. they mark the
which were delivered from time to time from complete victory of the grotesque ornamental
the west to the imperial court, since 1st – 2nd style (Muensterberg, 1912, S. 262, 263, Abb.
centuries AD (Schaefer, 1981, p. 120–124; 219; Asiatische Kunst..., 1977, S. 41, Abb. 202).
Muensterberg, 1910, S. 103). This huge dis- Approximately the same situation is for the era
tance between the visual canon and natural of the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644). However,
conformation of the animal prototype could in contrast to the Qing time, in the art of
be explained by this statement. which the canon "Shijia" monopoly domi-
In the era of the Qing Dynasty nates, among Ming images of lions can be
(1644–1911) in the architectural decoration, seen not only grotesque ornamental "Shijia",
sculpture, painting and arts and crafts of but also realistic images or images with real-
China dominated the iconic canon of the lion istic details, for example with a long thin tail
"Shijia". and not the tail-plume (Muensterberg, 1912,
"Shijia" – short-legged creature with the S. 72, 146, 147, Abb. 112, 246, 250; Boersch-
body as it is swollen, with disproportionately mann, 1914, S. 48–54, Bilder 24, 25; Boersch-
mann, 1925, plates 24, 63–65, 81; Muenster-

berg 1910, S. 317, Abb. 292; Jenins, Watson,
1980, p. 96–98, ill 62, 63).
We can say that the formation of the
canon "shijia" completed in China long be-
fore the Qing era (obviously, in the end 1 st
millennium – the first half of the 2nd millen-
nium) that the genesis of this canon was not a
simple process.
In the collection of the Mineralogical
Museum there are eight products which are
the pictures of the fantastic feline predator or
they bear his image.
One of the earliest sculptures (in the
inventory book – link to the catalog of Gre-
wingk, 1846) – a small (2.7×2.5×1.5 cm) agal-
matolite sculpture (FMM #PDK-819). Ani-
mal lying on the stand is vaguely interpreted.
Many of its features do not coincide with the
canon "Shijia": small ears, narrow and long
tail with a brush, cutting mane, tail and sides
with a simple parallel grooves. Considering
the statuette, you do not come to a conclu-
sion, that is, you cannot stop at any of the
possible definitions (lion, tiger, "shijia" or a
hybrid "tiger-lion").
In 1920s the Museum received a bottle
which was carved from smoky, pinkish-pur-
ple agate with orange-red spots. Relief
images are made of opaque dark (from brown Fig. 5. Signet with a lion and the young lion "Shijia".
to black) layer (FMM #PDK-1515). On one Agalmatolite. 7.7×3.6×3.6 cm. 19th – early 20th centuries.
side of the flattened side bottle – stylized Received from the State Museum Fund in 1926. FMM #PDK-
1587.
pine branch, on the other – a composition
composed of an adult "Shijia" and "Shijia" of the features of the product are characteris-
child which is supplemented with spherical tic for the canonical image "Shijia". However,
image of emblems and a long ribbon. the top of the legs are completely covered
At the same time the museum has with regular rounded protuberances which
received a signet from different shades of red resemble large scales or horny scutes, and
agalmatolite (see Fig. 5). Sculptures of adult such cutting is not typical for the Chinese
animal and clung to him a baby can be rough- canonical image "Shiji" (but there are exam-
ly defined as "Shijia". It is hampered by care- ples to refute (see: Mongol ardyn gar urlag).
less simplified thread and some of the details At the beginning of the 1980s in the Mine-
(small ears, no relief mane with clearly recog- ralogical Museum came on exchange the two
nizable neck and back because of narrow par- images "Shijia" carved from African (Congo),
allel grooves, "non-canonical" form of the malachite (see Figs. 8, 9). Sculptures, obvi-
tail). Figures of animals placed on a high and ously made by one master; similar in shape
prismatic pedestal, all side and bottom faces and in ornamentation and with wooden sup-
of which are filled with Chinese characters. ports for them. The modeling of animals coin-
More specifically discern "Shijia" in a cides with the visual canon "shijia". One adult
small sculpture of a light gray jade (Fig. 6). lion fell down, holding in his mouth a long
But he has also "non-canonical" long and ribbon and stepped right with the front paw
divided into two parts tail, on which sits a bird on the ball. Right at his side fell a child
held by the beast. "Shijia". Another picture more succinctly, is
One of the images "Shijia" made of not accompanied by any ball or baby figure,
turquoise (see Fig. 7). Green ("old") turquoise but the similarities in the details is very big.
color varies in intensity and broken by dark In 1998, the museum acquired two-figure
gray, almost black spots. As eyes there are sculptural composition of polychrome fluo-
two small diamonds with the cut "rose". Most rite from South China's Hunan Province
Fig. 6. Lion "Shijia" with bird. Nephrite. 2.25×3.85×3.45 cm. 19th – early 20th centuries. Came from the Department of nonmetallic mi-
nerals KEPS in 1925. FMM #PDK-2315.
Fig. 7. Lion "Shijia". Turquoise, diamonds. 2.4×5×2.9 cm. 19th – early 20th centuries. Came from the State Museum Fund in 1927. FMM
#PDK-1612.
(FMM PDK#7874). Transparent and translu- ges and their parts are modeled succinctly
cent stone is bicolored. Between the colors and rough, which inevitably leads to an
here is a clear boundary, so that the higher uncertain, conjectural definitions. Maybe
animal has a light green color and the color of these features are peculiar to the late and
the lower animal is a combination of light "provincial" Chinese Stone Carving Crafts
green and light purple hues. Lower animal, products.
judging by the horns, by three-toed paws and Pictures of other animals are rare. One of
by trying to treat the rows of scales – dragon the earliest is fixed in the catalog of Grewingk
sitting and turning his head back. The second (№ 351) – a small sculpture of taupe agalma-
animal, perched on the "dragon", is very diffi- tolite (see Fig. 10). It depicts schematically
cult to learn. Perhaps this is some sort of feli- interpret figure of sitting tailless monkeys, not
ne beast or fantastic creature. The exact defi- devoid of comic features like round eyes and
nition of animals which were carved from flu- grotesquely stretched down jaws. Emblematic
orite is impossible, especially if you consider role of monkey is well known and fixed in the
the same techniques of interpretation: both of Far Eastern culture very often. Let us recall
animals are the same, ending with two swirls that the monkey – one of the zoomorphic
of their tails and large plant stems with swirls emblems of the twelve calendar cycle.
or leaf-like shapes at the ends are hanging In the 1920s the museum received a cat
from their maws. Generally, animalistic ima- sculpture, carved from "Murghab" light gray
Fig. 8. Lion and cub "Shijia". Malachite (Africa, the Congo). Support – wood; thread, toning, inlaid metal. Size assembly (on the
stand) 7.8×10.2×5.3 cm. Late 20th century. Came from Cisneros Sh. (Miner Res. Co) in 1982. FMM #PDK-6938.
Fig. 9. Lion "Shijia". Malachite (Africa, the Congo). Support – wood; thread, toning, inlaid metal. Size assembly (on the stand)
5.3×7.7×4.15 cm. Late 20th century. Came from Cisneros Sh. (Miner Res. Co) in 1982. FMM #PDK-6939.
jade. Its shape is concise and rounded. The

cat is lying, it's head is turned to the right and
bending the tail on the right side; rounded
and very catlike body and all the details –
eyes, ears and even a mustache (see Fig. 11).
Much later, in the early 1980s, the muse-
um acquired the jade sculpture of dog –
clearly domestic, if judged by the collar with
two ball-shaped pendants (FMM #PDK-
6936).
Other images of mammals are not full
sculptures. They are the small sculptural or
relief parts of larger objects; in fact it's a
zoomorphic decoration, although expressive.
Basically, these things were got in Mine-
ralogical Museum in the 1920s except recei-
ved vase in 1990 (FMM #PDK-7823). This
vase of "Murghab" bright greenish-gray jade
has a neck with two handles in the form of
stylized heads of wild beasts or dragons. In
the museum documents the vase was attrib-
uted presumably to the 18th century, but hard-
ly worth sticking this dating of the object that
is different by a perfectly preserved. Vase,
apparently is a good reproduction of the
Chinese artistic traditions, but it is unlikely
was made before the 20th century.
Small bottle (FMM #PDK-1535) was ma-
de of a two-layer agate. Pink stone with gray- Fig. 10. Monkey. Agalmatolite. 3.4×1.9×2.2 cm. 18th – first half
ish spots became the stuff for the image 19th centuries (?). FMM #PDK-818.
gourd. From white opaque layer was carved
two figures which were located on a pumpkin. (see Fig. 12) on the belt buckle of the light-
It’s a four-legged animal like a tiger and the gray "Murghab" jade (see Fig. 13) on the vial
leaves on the stems. of yellowish-gray chalcedony (see Fig. 14),
Images of bats are very popular in the where the bat – a very small element of land-
Chinese cultural tradition. They are placed scape and emblematic composition.
on an agate composition of two peach fruits In addition to mammals, images of birds
(FMM #PDK-1552) on a vase of carnelian are worth noting. From transparent almost
Fig. 11. Image of a cat. Nephrite. 3.6×5.7×3.35 cm. Came from the Department of nonmetallic minerals KEPS in 1925. FMM #PDK-
2317.
Fig. 12. Vase in the form of two pieces of tree trunks. Carnelian. 8.9×11.3×5.7 cm. Beginning of the 20th century. Assigned to the State
Museum Fund in 1926. FMM #PDK-1600.
Fig. 13. Part of the belt buckle with images of bats. Nephrite. 6.1×4.05×1.75 cm. 19th – early 20th centuries. Received from the V.I. Kry-
zhanovsky in 1923. FMM #PDK-2319.
Fig. 14. Small bottle. Chalcedony. 6.3×5.9×1.85 cm. 19th – early 20th centuries. Transferred from the Hermitage in 1926. FMM
#PDK-1508.
colorless quartz was cut a bottle (FMM Image of a bird which was carved in the
#PDK-1511). Its surface layer was used for Hong Kong from round agate almonds is dated
flat-relief carving: stylized image "rocks" and from the end of the 20 th century (Fig. 17).
"water", a large blooming lotus and far sche- External polished surface is gray and yellow
matic figures of heron (or crane). and with dark brown spots the inner part of it is
Of the same transparent slightly yellowish composed of light-blue and blue-white layers
quartz was cut a vessel ("the vase") in a shape of agate. Of the last was carved high relief (or
of waterfowl, which has turned its head back round-sculpture) image of a prey bird with a
with an extending from the beak beard, spec- powerful beak and clawed feet. Raising its
tacular decorative trim with mortise lines of wings, the bird is sitting on a branch of a tree
plane and sculptural carvings. All the bird's and below it there are distinct curves and
body is covered with curls, single and double swirls which reflect an attempt to portray the
spirals and circles (see Fig. 15). wave water – in the stylized form and which is
It is much easier was done a little often found in the Far East traditional art. This
amethyst sculpture of waterfowl with chick is an example of modern lapidary crafts, which
(see Fig. 16). Cutting was made by carvings tends to remain in the mainstream of Chinese
and devoid of decorative effects. Mortice art traditions. Small cuts only schematically
straight lines and parallel minor cuts only transmit the plumage or coloring of both birds.
schematically transmit the plumage or colo- A unique thing in the collection of the
ring of both birds. Mineralogical Museum can be considered
Fig. 15. The vessel in the form of waterfowl. Rock crystal. 7.05×12.45×6.85 cm. 19th – early 20th centuries. Came from the Hermitage
in 1926. FMM #PDK-1657.
Fig. 16. Waterfowl with nestling. Amethyst. 3.65×6.4×4.2 cm. 19th – early 20th centuries. Received from the Hermitage in 1926. FMM
#PDK-1654.
Fig. 17. Eagle. Chal-

cedony. 9.1×9.1×
3.85 cm. Late 20th
century. Obtained
on the exchange in
2000. FMM #PDK-
7943.
Fig. 18. Mantis on

leaves. Agalmatoli-
te. 14.4×9.9 cm. Late
20th century.
Purchased in Tuc-
son (USA) in 1998.
FMM #PDK-7876.
the image of a leaf which was received in the Perhaps equally numerous in Chinese
1920s. It is carved from rock crystal (FMM stone-cutting art images of different plants
#PDK-1553). On the convex side of it there is and their parts. Among the exhibits fruit are
a greenish stain. Master used it for small primarily can be called.
high-relief figures of frogs, it is shown Explicit creative success – masterfully
schematically. carved from translucent light, bluish-green
Insects are also widely reflected in the chalcedony group of three large fruit –
Chinese stone-cutting art. This refers prima- "palmate lemon", ordinary lemon (this defini-
rily to the butterflies; it's very popular in tration is most likely) and pomegranate (see Fig.
ditional culture. Images of butterflies or de- 19). Fruits merge with each other, entwined
corated with insects objects committed to the leaves and stems and flowers are comple-
museum in the 1920s. This is a pair of identi- mented with a small pomegranate. Large fruit
cal plate suspension from light-gray and gre- are hollow and open at the top, so the compo-
enish "Murghab" jade. It is made in the art of sition is defined as a "vase".
plane and openwork carving (FMM #PDK "Palmate lemon" with typical finger-like
2318). Images are simulated and geomet- sprout is at least an exotic fruit, in its complex
rized. form. Mineralogical Museum has another
Small, with a big mustache, more stylized image of it – a small yellowish agate pendant
not easy defined shapes of butterflies are (FMM #PDK-1510).
arranged on a jade things: the suspension in Form of pomegranate fruit is a completely
the form of two elongated fruits (FMM ordinary ball. Pomegranate is recognized un-
#PDK 2344) and details of the handle (FMM der "disclosure" of the fetus. There is depic-
#PDK-2392). In the thread on the details of ted a wide gap or slit of the rind with a grid
the handle is quite apparent a characteristic filling, juicy pomegranate grains are desig-
of Chinese handicrafts – its paradoxicality. nated in such a way. In addition to said com-
The decor was made with a confident and position, in the museum there is an image of
energetic thread and zoomorphic image itself the pomegranate fruit from "Murghab" light
– unintelligible, "confusing", disintegrated gray, yellow jade (FMM #PDK-1662).
before the disappearance of a coherent and There are quite a lot of images of peach
easy-to-guess image. fruits. Their Chinese canon is simple and eas-
Much later modern work was acquired by ily recognizable: a round fruit with a pointed
the Museum in the late 1990s (Fig. 18). It is end in the form of narrow curved grooves. Of
made of two-color agalmatolite. Large leaves grayish-red agate was carved a couple of pea-
are cut from light, pinkish-yellow stone. A ches, which was completed with images of
pair of insects located on the leaves which are stems, leaves, small peach, bats and flowers
made of light yellow "amber" agalmatolite. (FMM #PDK-1522). Amethyst bottle has a
The interpretation of them is so naturalistic shape of single peach fruit (see Fig. 20). The-
that they can be easily determined. These se things were received in 1920s. At the be-
common mantises, in any case, are members ginning of the 1980s the vessel in the form of
of the class of mantis. a pair of peaches with a stem and leaves was
Fig. 19. The vessel in the form of fruits palmate lemon, lemon and pomegranate. Quartz. 10.9×15.15×7.4 cm. 19th – early 20th centuries.
Came from the Hermitage in 1926. FMM #PDK-1502.
Fig. 20. Small bottle in the form of peach fruit. Amethyst. 5.0×5.4×3.0 cm. 19th – early 20th centuries. From the State Museum Fund in
1927. FMM #PDK-1618.
acquired. It is made of light gray, greenish #PDK 2344). Of purple amethyst is made an
jade (FMM #PDK-6937). image of two serried oblong fruits.
"Murghab" jade was a material for rectan- Its outlines were duplicated by a band or a
gular with rounded corners low box which tape with small frequent cuts (FMM #PDK-
was received in the 1920s. Vegetable decor 1658).
fills the upper surface of the lid and the upper One of the earliest works of stone carving
inner surface of the box itself. It is made by art in the Mineralogical Museum (Grewingk,
cut-lines, tinted gold pigment. The main 1846), can be considered a vase from reddish
ornamental space is filled with images of agalmatolite with whitish, dark gray and
"bushes" with fruit peaches; these "bushes" black spots (see Fig. 22). The vase has a wi-
grow from the symbolic "rock" among rising dened upwardly irregular shape and cross-
bubble waves. section in the form of a segment of a circle.
The images of gourd from agate (Fig. 21) Rear flat surface just polished out and the
and a jade pair of rounded oblong fruits con- "front" occupied with a high-relief and sculp-
cern to new things of the 1920s. They merge tural threads – black vines, light-gray leaves
with each other and complemented with a and red grapes. Polychrome points out that
peony flower or rose and butterfly (FMM the thread was enhanced with toning.
Fig. 21. Small bottle

as a gourd. Agate.
6.6×5.1×2.7 cm. 19th
– early 20th centu-
ries. From the Her-
mitage in 1926.
FMM #PDK-1535.
Fig. 22. A vase with

decoration of gra-
pes. Agalmatolite.
11.3×9.9×4.3 cm.
18th – first half 19th
centuries. Source
of unknown. Recor-
ded in 1950. FMM
#PDK-4727.
Fig. 23. Flower. Chalcedony (Brazil). 2.4×9.0×7.7 cm. End of 20th – beginning of 21st century. Present from D.I. Belakovskiy.
FMM #PDK-8103.
Fig. 24. Crisp-head lettuce. Agalmatolite. 22.2×13.9×8.3 cm. Late 20th century. Purchased in Tucson (USA) in 1998. FMM #PDK-7875.
In the 1920s a box made of greenish "Mur- wood borers that they have become hollow,
ghab" jade (FMM #PDK-1660) was trans- turned into a container. The collection of the
ferred from the Hermitage to the Mineralo- Mineralogical Museum has such containers,
gical Museum. The box has four internal cells singles and doubles. The main forms are com-
and the general shape of flower’s rosette with plemented by spikes, excrescences, flowers,
four petals. This form is completed at the lid mushrooms, spiral curls. Material for vases
with carved images of the flower with four served as a bright red carnelian (see Fig. 25),
petals and four long curly leaves. The core of red with white, pink and yellow spots agate
the flower is round ruby cabochon. Its weight (FMM #PDK-1600), a light transparent ame-
is 0.15 carats in gold caste. thyst (FMM #PDK-1656).
A much later time includes the image of Fig. 25. A vase in the form of the trunk of a peach tree. Car-
the flower, arrived in 2011 (see Fig. 23). nelian. 12.5×8.5×5.7 cm. 19th – early 20th centuries. Transferred
Flower with large petals is carved from a from the Hermitage in 1926. FMM #PDK-1531.
bluish chalcedony. The master used the stone
excellent. He cut its cavity and opened the
"center of the flower" – a flat plot of fine-
grained quartz. Due to this peculiar recep-
tion, we can admire the spectacular modern
stone-cutting work.
The museum's collection presented a few
images of leaves. The things of the 1920s
include the previously mentioned list of rock
crystal with a small sitting frog (FMM #PDK-
1553) and carved from light, purple-milk-yel-
low agate lotus leaf (FMM #PDK-1651).
Example of modern carving agalmatolite
of Hunan Province is the image of crisp-head
lettuce. Stone carving in light gray with large
pockmarked green areas is diverse but the
general interpretation is extremely naturalis-
tic (see Fig. 24). This makes the thing in pairs
for described image of two mantises on a leaf
(see Fig. 18).
Incarnations of plant motifs can be consid-
ered as stone container – "vases" in which
basis conditional image "pieces of trunks" or
"stump" – so old, decayed or corroded by
Fig. 26. Table decoration

two-part. Agalmatolite.
23.8×36.6×8.1 cm.
19th – early 20th centuries.
From State Museum Fund
1926. FMM #PDK-1586.
Fig. 27. Paired vessels depic-

ting monkeys and squirrels,
eating grapes. Agalmatolite.
12×24×5.4 cm. Present from
Martin Bohaty in 1988. FMM
#PDK-7612.
Bamboos are often found in the works of table decoration (see Fig. 26). It is a large
Chinese art. In the collection of the Minera- two-part thing. Lower part is a stand. It has
logical Museum you can see the image of the shape of a squat container or column
bamboo on the already described bottle base and decorated by two notches filled
which was made of rock crystal with white with openwork decoration "skew the grid."
layer and hollow handle, carved from dark The upper part – complex sculptural image
green jade (FMM #PDK-2313). Both pro- of mountain forest uninhabited landscape. In
ducts came to the Museum in 1920. the center on a hill with a step-rise two-
In a flat bottle of the same arrival time, storey building is towering, apparently
made of yellowish-gray chalcedony with secluded temple. It is surrounded by cliffs
areas of milky color (FMM #PDK-1508), one and thick forest of pine, bamboo, willow.
side covered with Chinese characters. On the The lower part of table decoration is
other was placed landscape and emblematic carved from dark brown, almost black agal-
composition which was consist of images matolite. Stone of the upper "landscape" half
rocks, waves of water, bamboo, mushrooms, is light red with light yellow spots, but on the
bat, "endless knot" and two or three obscure front side clearly localize spots of different
items. colors from light green to black. Obviously,
An example of pure landscape composi- the decoration of carved stone was finished
tion is received in the 1930s agalmatolite by coloring.
Landscape filled with animals, we see in

other major agalmatolite product which was
donated to the museum in 1988, by a citizen
of Czechoslovakia Martin Bohaty (Fig. 27).
The base of composition is two flattened, ver-
tically arranged containers of vertical propor-
tions. Below them and to the left – "rock",
roughly interpreted "terra firma." Actually
landscape areas are irregular in shape with
frequent round curved places. Apparently, in
such a way the stonecutter depicted vines
with bunches. Active participants in the com-
position – three tailless monkey and two
squirrels with bushy tails – they regale with
juicy berries. Color of the stone is warm, ter-
racotta-red with black and greenish-yellow
spots. Fig. 28. Oval lid. Nephrite. 2.1×12.15×11 cm. 19th – early 20th
Object identified as "cover" (see Fig. 28) centuries. Came from the Department of nonmetallic minerals
KEPS in 1925. FMM #PDK-2367.
refer to the things of the 1920s. Oval and con-
vex, it is exquisitely carved out of the "white" In the Chinese collection of the Mine-
(light gray) jade. In the flat and shallow relief ralogical Museum there is a number of anth-
felt certain monotony and lack of expressive- ropomorphic sculptures – expressive images
ness. It can be assumed that the master was of people or gods in human form.
guided by traditional Chinese painting and One of the earliest (18th – first half 19th
drawing and this has affected on the style of centuries) anthropomorphous sculptures is
stone-cutting work. Depicted composition is agalmatolite small figure of a man sitting
interesting and not typical for stone carving. cross-legged on a bit of a cushion (Fig. 29).
The middle part is occupied by figures of Bearded face, a large nose and round eyes, a
elderly men: three of them are sitting around turban or a wrapper on his head – these signs
a game board. The fourth stands at a dis- probably indicate that depicts not Chinese,
tance, leaning on a long staff, the fifth is on but "Westerner" and probably a Muslim.
the right bottom. The rocks and boiling water Another sculpture is image of a seated man
are showed below. It is at the top and on the with long beard and mustache which is carved
sides – stylized pine. In fact, the composi- from yellowish green agalmatolite. He is wear-
tion embodies the story, very popular in the ing a large coat (see Fig. 30). In his left hand
classical Chinese culture: voluntary leaving men swatter "inshua" behind the back is the
of sages and scientists and thinkers of the sword "jian". These attributes clearly indicate
world of dust, their staying in the gardens, that Liuy Dong Bin was depicted there. He
groves, wooded mountains of the charming was one of the "Eight Immortals" ("ba xian"),
nature. Taoist deities which were once humans, but
Fig. 29. Seated man in a tur-

ban. Agalmatolite. 5.45×
2.45×3.3 cm. 17th – the first
half of the 21st century.
From old collections. FMM
#PDK-531.
Fig. 30. Chinese Taoistic

deity Liuy Dong Bin. Agal-
matolite. 10.7×10.5×3.8 cm.
18th – first half 19th cen-
turies (?). From old collec-
tions. FMM #PDK-532.
Fig. 31. Chinese Taoistic deity Liu Hai. Agalmatolite. 39.0×15.0×7.5 cm. 19th – early 20th centuries. Received from the Military
Medical Academy in 1931. FMM #PDK-4188.
Fig. 32. Chinese deities. Agalmatolite. 22.7×24.5×6.6 cm. 18th – first half 19th centuries (?). From old collections. FMM #PDK-4726.
because of their feats they achieved immor- the article has a big loss – chips; because of
tality and turned into spirits (Vasil’ev, 1970, the damage it could lose this zoomorphic de-
p. 283–287; Riftin, 19801, 19802; Sidihmenov, tails (Riftin, 19802, 19822).
1987, p. 174, 175; Sychev, Sychev, 1975, p. 65, Apparently, large and complex sculpture
112, fig. XIX). At first a group of gods "ba consisting of five anthropomorphic figures on
xian" led Lee Tae-guay, but then this role a stand came to the museum relatively early
passed to Liuy Dong Bin. He was born at the (Grewingk, 1846) and can be dated within the
end of 8th century AD and was canonized in 18th – first half 19th centuries. The material of
1111. Judging by the literary biography, the a long narrow and with a through hole of the
Liuy Dong Bin possessed supernatural po- coasters is of agalmatolite dark brown color.
wers: in adolescence, for example, he could The main color of agalmatolite figures – yel-
memorize 10,000 characters per day. His life low-gray, but colored spots talk about color-
– is a series of exploits directed on taming ing of the stone (see Fig. 32). The central fig-
the evil demons and help disadvantaged sim- ure depicts an elderly man in a complex tiara-
ple people. From here – most popularity of like headdress, holding in his right hand a
the Taoist deity in Taoism and folk religion, magic wand "Ruyi" head in the form of "gan-
his prominent role in the traditional pan- oderma" – the "mushroom of immortality".
theon. This is probably the god of happiness Fu-
In 1931 the Mineralogical Museum was hsing, or Fu-sheng. Lower on the right and
transferred from the Military Medical Aca- left of the figure stand figures which are
demy an agalmatolite sculpture, designated smaller with a comely adolescent faces. The
in the inventory records as "image lying" right figure is a middle-aged man holding a
Buddha "Chinese work" (see Fig. 31). In fact, baby in his arms – maybe god Lu-hsing
this work of art has nothing to do with Budd- (Riftin, 18821, 19824). The most expressive and
hism. It depicts a smiling cheerful fat man recognizable is the left image – a god of
standing on the left leg (right arm is raised longevity Shou-hsing with a staff in his right
and strongly bent at the knee). From the top hand and a "peach of immortality" in the left
of the head to the left arm is a bunch of eleven (Vasil’ev, 1970; Riftin, 19821, 19823, 19825).
yellow coins on red cord and completes with In the Mineralogical Museum is stored
a brush. Depicts not the Buddha and do not also other carved stone anthropomorphic ima-
Buddhist deity, but Liu Hai – god of coins in ges, which are not published in this article pri-
the retinue of the Chinese god of wealth Tsai marily because of these difficult attribution of
Shen. It is believed that Liu Hai was a real his- works of art created in the country with the
torical figure of 8 th–9 th centuries and Liuy rule of polytheistic religions: there are only in
Dong Bin guided him on the path of Taoist the Taoist pantheon thousands of deities.
teachings. Liu Hai, or Liu Har – a popular Work on the collection of Chinese art of
Chinese deity. Liu Hai necessarily accompa- stone-cutting has just begun and it is difficult
nied by a toad, which is absent in the sculp- to say what discoveries are waiting for us
ture of the Mineralogical Museum. However, along the way.
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Sychev L.P., Sychev V.L. Chinese costume. Salze. St.-Petersburg. 1806. Theil I. 64 S.
Symbolism. History. Interpretation in li- (in German).
terature and art. M.: Nauka. 1975. 134 p. Williams C.A.S. Outlines of Chinese Sym-
+ XXXI (in Russian). bolism and Art Motives. Third Revised
Terent’ev-Katansky A.P. Illustrations to the Edition. Shanghai: Kelly and Walsh, Li-
Chinese Bestiary. Mythological animals in mited. 1941. XXI + 472 p.
DIAMOND COLLECTION
IN THE FERSMAN MINERALOGICAL MUSEUM OF THE
RUSSIAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES: SHORT HISTORICAL REVIEW
Valeria A. Pustovojtova
Lomonosov Moscow State University, Geological Department, Moscow, valeria-2425@mail.ru
Tatyana M. Pavlova
Fersman Mineralogical Museum, RAS, Moscow, pavlovaminmus@mail.ru
Historical review on development of diamond collection of Fersman Mineralogical Museum is presented. Several
chronological stages were outlined according to the history of exploration and study of new worlds diamondifer-
ous provinces. Yu.L. Orlov's contribution to diamond studies and collection replenishment with diamond of vari-
ous genesis and morphology was shown as well as his diamond classification. Several varieties of diamonds are
described.
Keywords: diamond, mineralogical collection, diamond genetic classification, Yu.L. Orlov.
Diamond collection of Fersman Mineralo- Chernik (1865–1942), major general of the

gical museum contains more than 1200 dia- Russian Army, who was professionally involved
mond crystals from placer and bedrock de- in gathering and studying of minerals. He han-
posits from Russia, Brazil, Namibia, South ded more than 300 samples of various minerals
Africa, Indonesia, USA and Australia. Its al- to the museum within 30 years starting from
most a century long history covers periods of 1903 (Mokhova, Generalov, 2007). Those samp-
discoveries and studies of Russian and foreign les included diamonds from Kalimantan placers
deposits and carries names of people who (samples FMM #11273 and FMM #11304).
contributed to the collection. Diamond deposits in Brazil were discov-
The oldest diamond discoveries were done ered in the 18 th century (Smith, 1980). The
from placers and were made almost always by worlds center of diamond mining moved from
accident. It is known that bondman Pavel Indonesia to South America for almost one
Popov, found the first Russian and European century till the discovery of bedrock deposits
diamond in the basin of Koiva River near Kres- in South Africa. Brazil is famous by unique
tovozdvizhensky gold workings in Perm gov- green colored diamonds. Black cryptocrys-
ernment on the western slope of Ural moun- talline aggregates, so-called carbonados, were
tains (now village Promysla of Gornozavodsk also found there (Orlov, 1984). Uniqueness of
district in Perm region) on 4 th of July, 1829 the black diamonds was in their origin from
(Kharkiv et al., 1997). There are several crys- environment that was not suitable for typical
tals (sample FMM #25684) from those work- diamond formation as kimberlitic pipes. Bra-
ings that came to the museums by the merit of zilian black diamonds were found in young
Pavel Vladimirovich Eremeev (1830–1899), sedimentary rocks, in spite to their isotopic
professor of mineralogy and crystallography age that was calculated to be 3 bln. years old
of the Petersburg Mining Institute. (Mal’kov, Askhabov, 2010).
Significant donations of diamonds came to Kimberly pipe (South Africa) was discov-
the museum in 1912–1916 period. They deri- ered in 1871 and was the first bedrock body
ved from foreign deposits: crystals from placers containing diamonds. That is why the diamon-
in Indonesia (Kalimantan and Borneo islands), diferous rock was named kimberlite. Kimberly
Brazil, Namibia, Australia (Bingara); Middle pipe was mined out by 1914 (Smith, 1980).
Urals and also bedrock diamonds from South 14.5 mln. carats of diamonds were mined dur-
Africa (Kimberly and Jagersfontain pipes). ing its exploitation. Diamond mining is still
The diamond findings from Kalimantan active in South Africa, but located in other ter-
and other regions of Indonesia were known ritories and depths. Thus, studies of diamonds
from ancient times and were dated to VI–X from historical mines and ones that are still
centuries. Those are the second oldest dia- operational at larger depths are useful to com-
mond placers after India (Smith, 1980). pare diamond characteristics from various
The specimens from Borneo (Kalimantan) deposits and trace change in their properties
island are connected to Georgiy Prokof’evich with depth.
Fig. 1. Diamonds from South

Africa: a – fragment, sample
FMM #3; b – cubs of II, II
and IV variety; sample FMM
#64771. Donor: Ministry of
Finance of the USSR.
South African crystals from the collection Arkadyevich Kochubey (1825–1892) was
have various morphology: octahedral, cubical, purchased hundred years ago, in 1913 on the
combination forms, fragments and other. initiative of Vernadsky and Fersman. The col-
There are many colored stones and often are as lection contained 2700 samples of minerals
large as around 1 carat and bigger. So-called from Russian and foreign deposits, including
“coated diamonds” (or diamond in diamond – fine assortment of diamond crystals from
translator) need to be mentioned as they are Brazil and South Africa.
well presented in the collection. They belong The museum purchased a big mineral col-
to the IV variety according to Yu.L. Orlov clas- lection from Ilya Nikolayevich Kryzhanovsky
sification. Referring of any diamond to a vari- in 1912. The gathering contained placer dia-
ety marked with Latinic digits in the article monds from Bobrovka River near Nizhniy
below was done according to this classifica- Tagil in the Middle part of the Ural (sample
tion. “Coated” crystals represent octahedrons FMM #22911). Those samples of museum
and cubes with dominating cubes (Fig. 1). The funds were assigned to the diamond collec-
sample on the figure 1a is a flat fragment of tion in 1927.
indefinite shape weighed 0.4 ct. It is colorless, I.P. Balashovs’ collection containing Bra-
transparent with small dark inclusions. It fits zilian diamonds was acquired with A.E. Fers-
to the variety I. Glide lines are well defined in man involvement in 1919.
one direction on the whole surface. South Discoveries of numerous diamond placers
African cubic crystals of 3.48 ct total mass are mostly in Africa were made in 1920s (Kharkiv
shown on figure 1b demonstrating II, III and et al., 1997). The largest coastal marine plac-
IV varieties. All of them are characterized with ers in Namibia have the highest grades of gem
substantial degree of dissolution and slightly grade diamonds. Namibian diamonds in the
distorted shape. The crystals classify by the collection are small (lighter than 0.3 ct) and
color into yellow, grey, black and crystals with most of them are fragments of greenish-yellow
yellow and green tint. All the cubes are dull crystals with well-defined surface sculpture
due to the rough surface sculpture, so inclu- and dark inclusions (Fig. 2). Greenish-yellow
sions cannot be observed. Yellow and yellow- 0.17 ct crystal of complex shape is shown on
green specimens have etch channels on the figure 2a. This diamond has medium resorp-
surface. tion degree. One side of the sample has “lolly-
The museums main fund is replenished pop” surface sculpture, which shows mecha-
from various sources. Most part of samples nic abrasion in the coastal zone (Posukhova,
comes from scientific expeditions, from 2003). The crystal is transparent with dark
exchange with private people and organiza- inclusions. Fragment of combination shape
tions and from donations. The museum man- (octahedroid) 0.26 ct crystal is shown in figure
agement always considered acquisition of pri- 2b. It has yellow color with smooth polished
vate collections that have high historical, sci- surface and deep etch channels and a nega-
entific and cultural value as a very important tive cavern. The whole crystal is cut with dark
method to expand funds. and light fractures.
Academicians V.I. Vernadsky and A.E. Fers- Active exploration for bedrock diamond
man and also the museum associate and later deposits started in Siberia in 1930–40s. V.I. Ver-
director of the museum V.I. Kryzhanovsky nadsky was the first who predicted possibility
made significant contribution to the museums of kimberlite discovery in Siberia region. He
replenishing. Unique collection of prince Petr recommended revising of diamond prospects
of the Russian Academy of Sciences: short historical review 137
Fig. 2. Placer diamonds from

Namibia: a – fragment with
“lollipop” sculpture, sample
FMM #999 (A.E. Fersman);
b – octahedroid fragment,
sample FMM #1054.
(A.E. Fersman).
of the Russia’s North according to results of Nizhnyaya Tunguska tributaries and middle
new studies of South African deposits as early reach of Angara river. Diamonds were subse-
as in 1914. Diamond crystal (FMM #37711) quently discovered in sediments of Vilyuy
found in the vicinity of Melnichnaya River near and Malaya Botuobiya rivers. Those findings
Eniseysk in 1897 came to the collection in 1938. pointed to presence of a large diamondiferous
It is established fact that this sample was the province in Eastern Siberia.
first diamond fount in Eastern Siberia. Vera The collection replenishes not only with
Arsenyevna Balandina (1871–1943), a known Siberian diamonds during this period. The
educator, scientist and public person of her State Research Institute of Mining and Che-
time gifted this sample to the museum. mical Resources (GIGKhS) presented dia-
Irkutsk Geological Survey carried out monds from Brazil (Minas Gerais, Diamantina,
exploration in the north of Irkutsk Region, in Villa Rica) and South Africa. State Archives of
Krasnoyarsk Territory and Yakutia. Diamond Ministry of Internal Affairs of the USSR gifted
expedition of All-Union Geological Institute a collection of placer diamonds from Urals.
(VSEGEI, in Leningrad) explored foothills of Part of the diamond collection was recei-
Sayan Mountains. The predictions for dia- ved from private donors. O.M. Shikhova pas-
mond discoveries in Siberia in that period sed diamonds from SAR in 1938. N.V. Ka-
were based on geological and structural simi- zakova donated diamonds also from South
larity with largest diamondiferous region of Africa in 1940. V.Ya. Burdakov handed over
South Africa. Diamonds were actually found diamonds from Zhuravlik River area in the
soon in terrace and riverbed sediments of Middle Urals in 1941.
Fig. 3. Places of discove-

ries of some diamonds
from the Ural mountains
in the collection of Fers-
man Mineralogical Mu-
seum:
1 – Bobrovka river,
Nizhniy Tagil, Middle
Ural mountains, sample
FMM #22911 (I.N. Kry-
zhanovskiy);
2 – Zhuravlik river, the Is
river tributary, Ural mo-
untains, sample FMM
#43171 (V.Ya. Burdakov);
3 – Krestovozdvizhensky
mines to northeast of
Bisersk, the Middle Urals,
sample FMM #25684
(P.V. Eremeev).
Fig. 4. Diamonds from Ayhal pipe, Yakutiya: a, c, d – octahedra with various resorption degree, sample FMM ##64723, 64726,
64725 accordingly; b – intergrowth of two crystals, sample FMM #64724. Donor: Ministry of Finance of the USSR.
Localities of placer diamonds from the structure of the crystal. Only one dark inclu-
Urals in the collection of the museum are sion can be spotted. Colorless 0.14 ct spinel
marked on a map on figure 3. twin crystal with slight brownish tone from a
Center of diamond exploration in our co- thin color coat of unclear origin on the surface
untry moved to Yakutiya in 1950s. The work is depicted on figure 4b. The crystal has flat-
advanced with a great success very soon in rounded faces with medium signs of resorp-
1953 when pipes Zarnitsa (1954), Mir (1955) tion. One small light inclusion is observed.
and Udachnaya (1955) were discovered in Figure 4c demonstrates a 0.58 ct crystal of I
very short period of time. These pipes are cur- variety with yellow hue. It has combination
rently the biggest operating deposits in the shape with dodecahedroid faces originated
country (Kharkiv et al., 1997). from stepped growth. The crystal is strongly
Russia has the worlds biggest proven dia- resorbed and the faces are covered with etched
mond reserves as a result of big exploration trigons pits. The surface sculpture hides from
efforts. The major diamondiferous territories view the internal structure of the diamond.
are Yakutiya and Arkhangelsk region. Yaku- Colorless 0.51 ct octahedron with brownish hue
tiya diamond province has about 1000 known and no inclusions on figure 4d belongs to I cat-
kimberlite pipes, 150 of which are diamond egory. Medium degree of resorption, small
bearing and 20 are economical. Arkhangelsk microlayers, etch trigons and a channel are
deposits are now in mine developing stage. present of the faces. Fractures are observed
M.V. Lomonosov deposit is in pilot produc- near tip.
tion since 2000. Industrial operations of dia- Samples from Mir pipe are shown on fi-
mond placers in Perm Region in the Urals gure 5. All of them belong to the I variety.
started in 1955, but showed very high opera- Transparent 0.12 ct octahedron with yellow-
tion costs per carat exceeding by several times ish tone and no inclusions is shown on figure
Yakutiyan diamonds. 5a. The faces are flat and fully covered with
Diamond exploration and mining boom in pattern of small trigon etch pits that dull the
Eastern Siberia gave start to growth of the crystal. Colorless 0.17 ct spinel twin crystal is
museums funds. Large amount of diamonds shown on Fig. 5b. It is transparent and has
from Russian deposits came to the museum in characteristic twin seam. Small brownish dia-
the second half of the 20th century. Diamonds mond grown on one face of the twin. Rounded
from Aykhal, Mir and Udachnaya pipes bed- stepped 0.3 ct octahedron with little resorp-
rock deposits in Yakutiya compose the main tion is shown on figure 5c. There is significant
part of the collection. The crystals are mostly size smaller diamond grown on an apex.
octahedral in shape with insignificant resorp- Micro layers and pits are well observed on the
tion. The diamonds have high color and clari- faces of the crystal. Many black inclusions
ty characteristics and there are some of lower are seen and a tension zone manifested with
quality including brown, black and crystals rainbow.
with inclusions (Fig. 4, 5). Collection has also placer diamonds from
Samples from Aykhal pipe are shown on Prilenskaya region in Yakutya (Motorchuna,
figure 4. One of them is colorless gem quality Molodo, Irelyakh rivers). These crystals are
octahedral crystal of I variety (Fig. 4a). The dodecahedroids, rounded octahedrons, frag-
crystal weighs 0.36 ct and has sharp steps on ments and intergrowths. Their outlook and
its faces and deep negative apexes at fourfold surface morphology are different from placer
crystal axes. Sharp stepped surface of the diamonds from the Urals. The last ones have
faces makes difficult observation of internal characteristic shape thet allowed to distin-
of the Russian Academy of Sciences: short historical review 139
Fig. 5. Diamonds from Mir

pipe, Yakutiya: a – flatte-
ned octahedron, sample
FMM #74398; b – flat-
tened spinel twin crystal
with intergrown crystal,
sample FMM #74398, c –
rounded stepped octahe-
dron with intergrown crys-
tal, sample FMM #74398.
Donor: Centrakademsnab.
guish a specific “Ural type dodecahedroid” The short description of bedrock and placer
which is dodecahedron with smooth faces pre- diamonds of two genetic types: of Yakutiya
senting a final resorption shape (Palyanov, and the Urals diamondiferous provinces from
1997). the museum collection gives an idea on mor-
Diamonds in Yakutiya placer showings are phologic features of the crystals.
usually rounded crystals with convex crystal Two sources of the museum collection re-
faces and rarely have flat surfaces. They also plenishing were mentioned above. The govern-
are larger and rounded, have rough sculpture ment and various organizations: Yakutalmaz,
with signs of mechanical attrition typical for Centracademnab, Gokhran, Institute of Expe-
placer diamonds. Surface features make the rimental Mineralogy (IEM RAN) played a big
stones dull and do not allow observation of role donating significant amount of samples to
their internal structure. Placer diamonds of the museums funds. Some diamonds were recei-
“Urals type” from Yakutiya are shown on figu- ved from private collections of research mineral-
re 6 (a, b) and have residual (etch – transl.) ogists: A.A. Arsenyev (samples FMM ##57215
relief pattern on the surface. –57218), M.E. Yakovleva (FMM ##62181
Figure 6a illustrates large 0.23 ct single –62184), V.I. Stepanov (sample FMM #87470),
dodecahedroid crystal of saturated yellow- E.M. Spiridonov (sample FMM #92005).
brown color. Droplet shaped surface relief and Yury Leonidovich Orlov (1926–1980), the
intensive color assigns it to the II category. most prominent expert in diamond mineralo-
The crystal is semi-transparent due to surface gy, made exclusively significant contribution
roughness. Similar 0.07 ct dodecahedroid is to the collection. He gathered unique field
documented on figure 6b. It is also yellow but specimens of the Urals diamonds as early as in
less intensive with cool greenish tint, has no 1953. He was hired as a junior researcher at
inclusions and was classified as I variety. the Fersman Mineralogical Museum in 1956
Colorless 0.15 ct octahedral crystal with po- and continued studying diamonds, then he
lynucleation facet growth is shown on figu- became the director of the museum in 1976
re 6c. The crystal has well defined stepped (Pavlova, 2011). He investigated immense
facet surface with ferrous stains on the surface amount of crystals from placers in republics of
features visible with stereoscope. Colorless Soviet Union, South Africa, Kongo, Brazil,
1.03 ct dodecahedroid with rough relief and bedrock deposits of Yakutiya and other coun-
tegular etch texture. Resorption degree of the tries. The museums collection of diamonds
crystal is high and thus internal features can- and precious stones increased greatly by the
not be observed. efforts of Yu.L. Orlov.
Fig. 6. Placer diamonds from Russia: a, b – dodecahedron of the Ural type, Yakutiya, Molodo River, sample FMM #74404 (Donor:
Centrakademsnab); c – octahedron with polynucleation character of facet growth and sharp stepping, Yakutiya, Motorchuna River,
sample FMM #74405. Donor: Centrakademsnab; d – spongy dodecahedroid of Yakutian type, the Urals, sample FMM #64776.
Donor: Ministry of Finance of the USSR.
Orlov’s main interests were associated The work was performed within the State
with diamond genesis and morphology. Yuriy contract with Minobrnauka #14.518.11.7061.
Leonidovich had opportunity to collect samp-
les from industrial concentrators and had References
most typical samples in the museums collec-
tion, which became the basis of his famous Afanas’ev V.P., Yeliseev A.P., Nodolinniy V.A.,
genetic classification. Every variety in the Zinchuk N.N., Koptil’ V.I., Rylov G.M.,
classification has its own typical features: Tomilenko A.A., Goryainov S.V., Yur’eva O.P.,
forms of growth, mechanism of facet growth, Sonin V.M., Chepurov A.I. Mineralogy and
color, visual transparency and other physical some aspects of origin of diamonds of V
properties of the mineral such as light absorp- and VII varieties by Yu.L. Orlov’s classifi-
tion in IR, visible and UV spectral range, lumi- cation // Vestnik of Voronezh University.
nescence in UV light, presence of typical Geology. 2000. No 5 (10). P. 79–96 (in
color centers. All these features reflect condi- Russian).
tions of diamond formation. Total of 11 vari- Kharkiv A.D., Zinchuk N.N., Zuyev V.M.
eties were determined and can be categorized History of diamond. Moscow: Nedra. 1997.
into two groups: singular crystals – from I to 601 p. (in Russian).
V variety and polycrystalline aggregates – Kriulina G.Yu. Essential characteristics of dia-
from VI to X variety. XI variety was distin- mond from deposit of Arkhangelsk and
guished separately and includes impact dia- Yakutiya diamondiferous provinces //
monds. Thesis for the degree of Candidate of Geo-
Orlovs’s classification was the first well logical and Mineralogical Sciences. Mos-
thought-out genetic diamond classification. All cow. 2012. 192 p. (script) (in Russian).
diamond experts in Russia use it. It is important Mal’kov B.A., Askhabov A.M. Impact origin of
to mention that discovery of new deposits carbonado (diamonds) // Proceedings of
reveals new genetic types of crystals which is Komi Scientific Centre of UD RAS. 2010.
hard to fit into a definite variety. Origin of dia- Issue 2. P. 40–43 (in Russian).
monds of some varieties is questionable, for Mokhova N.A., Generalov M.E. The General
example V variety (Afanas’ev, 2000; Solodova and his collection. Mineral gathering of
et al., 2008; Kriulina, 2012). Disparity between G.P. Chernik in Fersman Mineralogical
modern observations and limitations of vari- Museum // New data on minerals. 2007.
eties the classification surfaced nowadays. The Issue 42. P. 120–128.
cause of it, without going into scientific details, Orlov Yu.L. Mineralogy of diamond. Moscow:
lays in the development of instrumental meth- Nauka. 1984. 263 p (in Russian).
ods of mineralogical studies from 1970s when Pal’yanov Yu.N. Growth of diamond crystals:
the classification was created and methods of experimental research // Thesis for the
modern micro mineralogy utilizing electron degree of Doctor of Geological and Mi-
microscopy and microprobe analysis, Raman neralogical Sciences. Novosibirsk. 1997.
spectroscopy, methods local trace element 266 p. (script) (in Russian).
composition and so forth. Contemporary Pavlova T.M. On 85th anniversary of Yu.L. Or-
research methods can be used to solve ques- lov // New data on minerals. 2011. Issue
tionable issues and also support introduction of 46. P. 153–156.
new genetic types developing Orlov’s classifi- Posukhova T.V. Diamond and its pathfinders
cation. from sediments of Eastern Siberia plat-
Description of morphological features of form. Morpho-genetical analysis // Geo-
crystals from bedrock and placer deposits wikipaedia. 2003. URL: wiki.web.ru http://
from various regions of the world, history of web.ru/db/msg.html?mid=1169098
their exploration and information about peo- (17.07.2013) (in Russian).
ple offered samples to the museum give an Smith G. Gemstones. Moscow. Mir. 1980. 586 p.
idea on the content of diamond collection of Solodova Yu.P., Nikolayev M.V., Kurbatov K.K.
the Fersman Mineralogical Museum, its sci- Gemmology of diamond: text book. Mos-
entific and historic value. cow: Agat. 2008. 416 p. (in Russian).
NEW ACQUISITIONS
TO FERSMAN MINERALOGICAL MUSEUM IN 2011–2012
Dmitriy I. Belakovskiy
Fersman Mineralogical Museum, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, dmz@fmm.ru
Eight hundred and seventy-seven mineral specimens representing 488 mineral species from 59 countries,
Antarctica, the oceanic floor, and space were catalogued into six collections of the main fund of the Fersman
Mineralogical Museum, Russian Academy of Sciences, during 2011 and 2012. Among them, 160 mineral species
were previously absent in the museum collection. Eighty-five of the new species are represented by type speci-
mens (holotypes, co-types, or their fragments) of which twenty-seven minerals species were discovered by
Museum staff members or with their participation. Of the new specimens, 645 (74%) were donated by 151 private
persons and 3 organizations, including 104 (85 species) type specimens. The museum staff collected 85 items
(10%). One hundred and twelve specimens were exchanged. Three specimens were purchased. Thirty-two mine-
ral specimens (4%) were documented from previous acquisitions. The new acquisitions are surveyed by mineral
species, geography, type of entry, and donor. Lists of new mineral species and mineral species missing in the muse-
um are given.
4 table, 18 figures*, 10 references.
Keywords: Mineralogical museum, collection, new acquisitions, mineral species, mineral, meteorite.
Eight hundred and seventy-seven mineral The principles guiding the new acquisi-
specimens were catalogued into six collection for the collections of the main museum
tions of the main inventory of the museum in fund were reported in previous reviews of
2011–2012. The majority – 712 items – new acquisitions (Belakovskiy, 2001; 2003;
were placed into the systematic collection; 2004; 2006; 2011; Belakovskiy and Pekova,
33 specimens were added to the collection of 2008).
deposits; 60 items were entered into the col- Only the data on the specimens which
lection of the formation and transformation of were catalogued in the collections of the
minerals (OP); 43 specimens were catalogued main museum fund in 2011–2012 are part of
into the collection of crystals and synthetic this review. Other acquisitions of this period,
compounds; 17 specimens became a part of such as those processed for registration in
the collection of ornamental stones and gems inventory or assigned by the buying com-
(PDK); and 12 specimens were catalogued mission of the museum to the scientific or
into the collection of meteorites and impac- exchange accounts are not reported here. All
tites. given numerals refer to inventory numbers
About 75% of items were acquired during of the main fund.
2011–2012 or shortly before this time. The
remainder were acquired before, but were Acquisitions
cataloguized later at that period after diag-
classified by mineral species
nostic.
The vast majority of mineral specimens The additions to the systematic collection
(807) represent various mineral species for during the surveyed period totalled 488 valid
their morphology, properties, and other fea- mineral species, 160 of which are new species
tures. Seventy specimens are rocks, meteo- for the museum. This includes 104 specimens
rites, impactites, mineraloids, mixtures of which are type materials for 85 recently dis-
minerals, and other natural or partly natural covered new minerals (holotypes, co-types,
phases, which are currently not approved by and/or their fragments). Type materials in-
the Commission on New Minerals, Nomen- clude 27 new mineral species discovered by
clature, and Classification of International the museum staff or in collaboration with the
Mineralogical Association (CNMNC IMA) as museum staff.
mineral species. For example, some are prod- The total number of mineral species in the
ucts of coal waste fire or biogenic crystalline museum as of December 31, 2012 is 3,450,
phases such as cholesterol. Stone artifacts, after excluding the species received before
synthetic minerals, and other synthetic pha- for which the diagnostic appeared to be
ses are included to this category. wrong.
* – all specimens from Fersman Mineralogical Museum, Russian Academy of Sciences.
Table 1. Distribution of mineral species on the number of specimens (for those taken as more than 5 specimens)
1. Tenorite 31 6. Goethite 10 11. Anhydrite 7

2. Quartz 24 7. Magnetite 9 12. Kurnakovite 6
3. Calcite 15 8. Epidote 9 13. Labrador 6
4. Gypsum 11 9. Rhodonite 8 14. Tephroite 6
5. Cristobalite 11 10. Schorl 8 15. Fluorite 6
Three hundred and sixty-eight of the 488 neighbors in the same sample. The collected
mineral species are represented by a single specimens surpass known specimens of teno-
specimen. Sixty-three mineral species are rite from Vesuvius, Italy in aesthetics and
represented by two specimens. Forty-two diversity. This fact and the morphological
species are represented by three or four spec- diversity of tenorite from Tolbachik caused
imens. Fifteen mineral species were taken as the introduction into the systematic collec-
five or more specimens (Table 1). Two speci- tion of a great number of specimens of this
mens contained a few mineral species, which single mineral species, which only occasion-
is novel for the museum. ally forms interesting collection specimens.
The mineral species in this table are Of the other mineral specimens collected in
reviewed below. the same trip, very interesting items of piyp-
The unusual abundance of tenorite result- ite with langbeinite (Fig. 1), dolerophanite
ed from collection by the museum staff in July, with euchlorine, anglesite (transparent crys-
2012 at the second cinder cone of the North tals up to 7 mm in size) with euchlorine, he-
breach of the Great Fissure Tolbachik Erup- matite, and sylvite are registered at present.
tion (GOPE). In the Tenorite fumarole opened In addition, CNMNC IMA is considering the
by I.S. Lykova and the neighboring fumaroles, applications for several apparent new mineral
spectacular large crystals and aggregates of species whose specimens were collected dur-
tenorite extremely variable in morphology ing this trip. A.A. Antonov, D.I. Belakovskiy,
were found. Tenorite occurs as flattened-elon- V.N. Kalachev, P.V. Kalachev, I.S. Lykova,
gated skeletal crystals up to 4 cm in size, fila- I.V. Pekov, and A.G. Turchkova collected
mentous crystals and their crossed aggregates, these minerals during this trip. Type speci-
variously split crystals, dendrites, and twinned mens of approved new mineral species pse-
clusters. Two or three types frequently are udolyonsite, cupromolybdite, steklite, kra-
Fig. 1. Piypite. Bunches of dark green acicular crystals on volcanic cinder. Second Cinder Cone of the North Breach of GOPE,
Tolbachik volcano, Kamchatka, Russia. Size of specimen 8 cm. Collected by museum. Systematic collection. FMM no. 93859. Photo:
M.M. Moiseev.
Fig. 2. Pseudomorph after tree. Trunk is replaced by chalcedony. Calcite and agate are between trunk and peeled bark. Specimen
was taken with fixing "Nevada, US", but most likely it came from Blue Forest, Eden Valley, Wyoming. Size of specimen 15 cm.
Donation of D.I. Belakovskiy. OP collection. FMM no. OP 2611. Photo: D.I. Belakovskiy.
New acquisitions to Fersman Mineralogical Museum in 2011–2012 143
sheninnikovite, calciolangbeinite, starovaite from the Peregrina mine, Guanajuato, Mexico

and yaroshevskite found earlier by M.E. Ze- with various fluorescence depending on the
lensky at the second cinder cone of GOPE wavelength of UV light are catalogued into the
have already been catalogued into the muse- collection for the exhibition Fluorescence of
um collection. Minerals. An icon ultrasonically carved on
Specimens of quartz and chalcedony catalo- nacre, designed and donated by M. Andreev,
gued into the museum collection in 2011–2012 was catalogued into the PDK collection.
are lithophyses of agate in rhyolite from Ore- Gypsum. Druse of colorless and lustrous
gon and Nevada, US donated by Stephen thin long-columnar crystals of gypsum from
Schuchman. Pseudomorphs of chalcedony the San Timoteo mine, Portman, Cartagena,
after trees from Nevada, US, consisting of Murcia, Spain, donated by D.E. Tonkacheev,
peeled pieces of bark overgrown by light frequently draws the attention of visitors.
bluish gray chalcedony and cemented by cal- Another specimen of gypsum from Spain
cite (Fig. 2) are of interest. Pseudomorphs of (Consuelo mine, Chinchon, near Madrid) is a
chalcedony after the space between stem ossi- pseudomorph after glauberite. The author of
cles of crinoids in silicified limestone (fol- this review brought a few clusters of colorless
lowed by the dissolution of the ossicles), a transparent crystals of gypsum up to 11 cm
novel and unusual specimen, makes a deep from the Naica mine, Chihuahua in Mexico.
impression of fossilized screws (Fig. 3). This These clusters are similar in origin to gypsum
specimen, which was donated by M.M. Mo- from the Cave of Crystals found at this mine in
iseev, came from the Komsomolsky quarry in 2000, where the size of crystals reaches 11 m.
the Donetsk area, Ukraine. A chalcedony Spectacular clusters of pale sky blue split crys-
flower carved from an agate geode and large tals of anhydrite came from the same mine.
spectacular varicolored cabochons of so called Cristobalite was received from various
pietersite from Namibia, which is a quartz localities. Spherulites up to 3 cm with fayalite
pseudomorph after a fibrous, diverse aggre- enclosed in obsidian from the Cougar Mt.,
gate of an alkali amphibole in various tints of Modoc Co., California in the United States
light blue and red, are catalogued into the were donated by S. Schuchman. A specimen
PDK collection. of cristobalite from the Libya desert in Egypt
A cluster of parallel rhombohedra of honey consists of snow-white spherulites up to 2 mm
calcite (gallery no. 34, Dodo, Sub-Polar Urals), in size in the Libya impact glass. However,
a druse of Co-bearing calcite from Likasi, the most unusual specimens of cristobalite
Democratic Republic of Congo, donated by were acquired from the Thomas Range, Utah,
N.N. Kamzolkin and A.F. Popov, and a trans- USA. There, in addition to the separate sphe-
parent twinned crystal of calcite ca. 14 cm in rulites, cristobalite was found as thick sphe-
size from the Kurunzhukul deposit, Northern rulitic crusts on quartz druses in rhyolite and
Kazakhstan, donated by M.M. Moiseev, are breccias, in which fragments of these crusts
the most interesting specimens of calcite. In are cemented by calcite. Specimens of tridy-
addition, large cleavage fragments of calcite mite and natural quartz glass lechatelierite
Fig. 3. Chalcedony after cri-
noids in silicified limestone.
Chalcedony fills space bet-
ween stem ossicles of cri-
noids. Stem ossicles are dis-
solved causing strange sha-
pe of this pseudomorph like
fossilized screws. Komso-
molsky quarry, Donetsk
area, Ukraine. Size of spe-
cimen 26 cm. Collected by
museum (M.M. Moiseev).
OP collection. FMM no.
OP 2613. Photo: D.I. Bela-
kovskiy.
Fig. 4. Rhodonite. Druse of

bright pink flattened crystals
up to 2 cm in size with quartz
and colorless fine-acicular
crystals of cummingtonite.
Conselheiro Lafaiete, Minas
Gerais, Brazil. Size of speci-
men 10 cm. Donation of
D.I. Belakovskiy. Systematic
collection. FMM no. 93322.
Photo: M.M. Moiseev.
Fig. 5. Rhodonite. Veinlets

with black selvages (parset-
tensite) in cherty metasilt-
stone. South Faizulino de-
posit, Bashkiria, Russia. Size
of specimen 12 cm. Donation
of A.I. Brusnitsyn. Systema-
tic collection.
FMM no. 93917.
were collected from that and neighboring series of specimens of rhodonite along with
ancient fumaroles. tephroite, pyroxmangite, braunite, caryopili-
Eight of the ten catalogued specimens of te, parsettensite, alleghanyite, and other mi-
goethite are from the Farafra Oasis, Matruh nerals typical of contact-metasomatic rhodo-
Governorate in Egypt. These are pseudo- nite deposits was donated by A.I. Brusnitsyn
morphs after fancy concretions and pseu- (mainly from the Ural deposits) and L.A. Pau-
dostalactites of pyrite and marcasite. tov, D.I. Belakovskiy, and A.L. Galkin, who
Of the catalogued specimens of mag- collected specimens at localities in Kirgizstan
netite, aggregates of oolites, with individual and Ukraine (Fig. 5).
oolites up to 3 cm, from the Rudnogorsk de- Most specimens of schorl donated to the
posit, Irkutsk area were donated by O.I. Grit- museum in 2011–2012 are from Tsitond-
senko and "ontogenic" specimens from Dash- roina, Fianarantsoa province, Madagascar.
kesan, Azerbaijan donated by B.Z. Kantor, These are hoper crystals of various morpho-
are of the most interest. logies up to 11 cm in size with well-shaped
Half of the catalogued specimens of epi- lustrous faces. A lot consisting of few hun-
dote were collected by D. Toland and D.I. Be- dred specimens in 2011 at the Denver mineral
lakovskiy from cavities in skarn at the classic show was quickly snapped up and similar
locality Green Monster Mountain, Prince of specimens have not been observed since.
Wales Island, Alaska, USA. These are dark Most of the new specimens of very nice
green pinacoid-prismatic twinned crystals iridescent labradorite are from Madagascar.
and sheaf-like clusters of high quality; they These specimens were added to the PDK col-
supplement the existing collection of epidote lection. One zoned 8 cm crystal of labradorite
from this locality. The remaining specimens acquired from Ylamaa in Finland was donated
are tabular pseudohexagonal crystals up to by T. and L. Holm. One specimen consists of
8 cm in size and isometric pseudoctahedral lapilli crystals collected at cinder cones in the
crystals and clusters of crystals of various region of the South breach of GFTE, Kam-
habits from Kharan, Baluchistan, Pakistan. chatka.
Although these new collection specimens are A group of well-shaped crystals of kur-
from the abundant find of a few years ago, the nakovite of various forms from Boron, Kra-
museum specimens are some of the best from mer District, Kern Co., California in the Uni-
this locality and the morphology of epidote is ted States was catalogued into the collection
well characterized. of crystals. Size of the crystals ranges from 4
A cluster of bright pink flattened crystals to 6 cm.
up to 2 cm in size with quartz and finely acic- The acquired fluorite is from various
ular cummingtonite from Conselheiro Lafai- localities. The Russian specimens are color-
ete, Minas Gerais, Brazil (Fig. 4) stands out less, transparent rhombododecahedral and
among the new specimens of rhodonite. A cuboctahedral crystals up to 5 cm from a ven-
tilation shaft at the Nikolaevsk mine in the

Dalnegorsk district, Primorskii krai (Fig. 6).
One good specimen was received from each
of the famous old deposits in Mogov, Ta-
jikistan and Akchatau, Kazakhstan (donation
of O.A. Lopatkin and N.S. Lukinykh). Y-bear-
ing fluorite from the White Cloud pegmatite,
Colorado, United States was donated by
I.V. Pekov.
One of the principal acquisition priorities
of the museum is to collect a systematic col-
lection which is as complete as possible with
known mineral species. The mineral species,
catalogued in 2011 to 2012, which are new to
the museum are given in Table 2. In this list,
mineral species catalogued as type material
or its fragments are marked by T; mineral
species discovered by the museum staff or in
collaboration with the museum staff are aste- Fig. 6. Fluorite. Colorless rhombododecahedral crystal of 5 cm
in size on fine-crystalline quartz. Nikolaevsk mine, Dalnegorsk,
risked. Primorsk krai, Russia. Size of specimen 12 cm. Donation of
As mentioned earlier, the museum cata- D.I. Belakovskiy. Systematic collection. FMM no. 93655. Photo:
logue now has ca. 3400 mineral species of the M.M. Moiseev.
ca. 5000 known species. Minerals species
which are absent in the museum collection from Lovozero massif, 6 (6) from Kovdor, and
are listed at the end of this article. 3 (2) from Keivy.
Type specimens of four new mineral spe-
New acquisitions cies (davinciite, kazanskyite, carbobystrite, ek-
classified by geography plexite) were donated by A.P. Khomyakov and
I.V. Pekov and found in Khibiny. In addition,
In 2011–2012 the museum received items other minerals added from Khibiny are luca-
from 59 countries (Table 3), Antarctica, and site-(Ce), orickite, chlorbartonite, and kulso-
the ocean floor; eleven specimens have no nite. A crystal of eudialyte in apatite, from the
geographical reference (these are mainly syn- former collection of A.S. Podlesny and donated
thetic minerals). In addition, four specimens by V.G. Grishin, should be highlighted among
originate from the Pacific floor, one is from the other specimens from Khibiny. Vigrishi-
Antarctic, and twelve are of space origin. nite, yegorovite, alluaivite, and vitusite-(Ce)
The domestic items are reviewed from are type specimens added to the museum from
localities from west to east. Then, the acquisi- the Lovozero massif. Like other specimens from
tions from the republics of the Former Soviet this massif catalogued in 2011–2012, these
Union are reported followed by those from were donated by A.P. Khomyakov, I.V. Pekov,
other countries in descending number of and V.G. Grishin. A very nice specimen with
specimens. multicolor crystals of quintinite-2H in mag-
netite is from Kovdor; the species diversity of
Russia the museum collection from this massif was
increased by the addition of specimens of
Three hundred and seventy-five domestic tacharanite, gorceixite, and sodalite. A type of
items (ca. 43% of total number) are distrib- fluortalenite-(Y) and goethite unusual for the
uted by regions as follows: Kola Peninsula region from the Serpovidniy Ridge (donation of
(51), Karelia (19), Central Russia (14), Cau- A.V. Voloshin) should be mentioned among
casus (23), Urals (77), Siberia (97), Primorskii acquisitions from the Keivy district.
krai (16), Magadan area (5), Kamchatka and About half of the 19 items from Karelia are
Kurile (59). Another fourteen specimens are specimens from old collections from the
minerals synthesized in Russia and Russian Lupikko, Pitkyranta district, among which
specimens without detailed reference. chrysoberyl should be mentioned. Most of
The fifty-one specimens (44 mineral spe- the other specimens from Karelia are shun-
cies) from the Kola Peninsula come from the gite, which are better in quality than previous
following major localities of this region: 23 specimens. Menshikovite was catalogued as
(17 mineral species) from Khibiny, 18 (18) type material (donation of A.Yu. Barkov).
Table 2. Mineral species novel for museum received in 2011–2012

1. Agardite-(Nd) T 41. Ekplexite T 81. Krasnoite 121. Piemontite-Pb T*
2. Aklimaite T 42. Eltyubyuite T 82. Kumdykolite 122. Plimerite
3. Alcaparrosaite T 43. Fangite 83. Kunatite 123. Pseudolyonsite T
4. Alexandrovaite T* 44. Ferhodsite T 84. Kuzminite 124. Pumpellyite-Al
5. Alluaivite T 45. Ferrikaersutite 85. Lahnsteinite T* 125. Qingheiite
6. Aluminocopiapite 46. Ferrinatrite 86. Langbanshyttanite T* 126. Rabbittite
7. Ambrinoite 47. Ferrotochilinite T 87. Laptevite-(Ce) T* 127. Rauchite T
8. Ammoniomagnesiovoltaite 48. Ferrovalleriite T 88. Larosite 128. Rongibbsite
9. Anatacamite 49. Fluorchegemite T 89. Lavinskyite T 129. Rooseveltite
10. Anorpiment T 50. Fluorocronite T 90. Lavoisierite 130. Rusinovite T
11. Anyuite T 51. Fluoro-magnesiohastingsite 91. Lileyite T 131. Santarosaite
12. Arangasite T 52. Fluoro-potassic-pargasite T 92. Manganoblödite T* 132. Sarrabusite
13. Arhbarite 53. Fluororichterite T 93. Manganoquadratite 133. Schüllerite T*
14. Bayldonite 54. Fluor-schorl 94. Mariinskite T* 134. Scottyite
15. Beshtauite T* 55. Galuskinite T 95. Markcooperite 135. Souzalite
16. Bitikleite-(SnFe) T 56. Gelosaite 96. Mattheddleite 136. Starovaite T
17. Boyleite 57. Günterblassite T* 97. Megawite T 137. Steklite T
18. Brandholzite 58. Hielscherite T 98. Mejillonesite T 138. Št pite
19. Byzantievite T* 59. Hillesheimite T* 99. Mendeleevite-(Ce) T* 139. Steropesite
20. Calciolangbeinite T* 60. Hughesite 100. Mendozavilite-NaCu 140. Sveinbergite T
21. Capgarronite 61. Hydrochlorborite 101. Menshikovite T 141. Švenekite
22. Carbobystrite T 62. Hydroxylchondrodite T 102. Mikasaite 142. Tashelgite T
23. Carlgieseckeite-(Nd) T 63. Hydroxyledgrewite T 103. Natropharmacoalumite 143. Ternesite T
24. Chabazite-Mg 64. HydroxymanganopyrochloreT 104. Nelenite 144. Thermessaite
25. Changoite 65. Irarsite T 105. Nickelpicromerite T* 145. Thorneite
26. Chlormayenite 66. Irinarssite T 106. Nimite 146. Tubulite
27. Christofschäferite-(Ce) T* 67. Jadarite 107. Nioboaeschynite-(Ce) 147. Uchucchacuaite
28. Claringbullite 68. Jonassonite 108. Noonkanbahite 148. Umbrianite T
29. Cobaltoblodite T* 69. Juangodoyite 109. Nowackiite 149. Vigrishinite T*
30. Cordylite-(La) T* 70. Junoite 110. Odintsovite T 150. Vladykinite
31. Cuprokalininite T 71. Kadyrelite T 111. Okhotskite 151. Wesselsite
32. Cupromolybdite T 72. Kasatkinite T 112. Orlovite T* 152. Whitecapsite T*
33. Daliranite 73. Kazakhstanite T 113. Osumilite-(Mg) T* 153. Willemseite
34. Davinciite T 74. Kazanskyite T 114. Oxyplumboromeite 154. Windhoekite T*
35. Demicheleite -Cl 75. Kirchhoffite T* 115. Oxy-rossmanite T 155. Witzkeite T
36. Demicheleite-Br 76. Kobokoboite 116. Palmierite 156. Yangite T
37. Dorallcharite 77. Kobyashevite T* 117. Parvo-manganotremolite 157. Yaroshevskite T
38. Dymkovite T 78. Kokchetavite 118. Pavlovskyite T 158. Yegorovite T
39. Edgrewite T 79. Kottenheimite T 119. Perrierite-(La) T* 159. Yttriaite-(Y) T*
40. Efremovite 80. Krasheninnikovite T 120. Pertlikite T 160. Yuanfuliite
Acquisitions from Central Russia are basi- in diameter from the barren Vodino sulfur
cally minerals from the Moscow area (vivianite, deposit near Samara (donation by T.V. Pashko)
chalcedony). The species diversity was increa- are also noteworthy.
sed by the addition of a few minerals. Epsomite, Two specimens of honey-colored, large
heulandite-Ca, and aluminocopiapite (a new lamellar whewellite crystals in a marl concre-
species for the museum) identified in the spec- tion from Krasnodar krai were donated by
imens from the Gzhel quarry are among them. S.V. Popov. These specimens are from an out-
The minerals previously not catalogued from crop at the Pshish River.
the Moscow area were found, identified and Half of the items from the Caucasus are type
donated by M.M. Moiseev and I.A. Novikov. specimens of recently discovered minerals from
Acicular spherulites of strontianite up to 2 cm the Lakargi Mount in the Upper Chegem Ridge,
Table 3. Distribution of new entries by countries

1. Russia 375 21. China 8 41. Czech Republic 3
2. United States 88 22. Namibia 8 42. Switzerland 3
3. Germany 27 23. Morocco 7 43. South Africa 3
4. Mexico 24 24. Pakistan 7 44. Belorussia 2
5. Hungary 18 25. Japan 7 45. Bolivia 2
6. Kazakhstan 16 26. Austria 6 46. Great Britain 2
7. Madagascar 16 27. Norway 6 47. Dania 2
8. Ukraine 16 28. Spain 5 48. Zimbabwe 2
9. Brazil 15 29. Myanmar 5 49. Iran 2
10. Romania 15 30. Turkmenistan 5 50. Island 2
11. Chile 15 31. Democratic Republic of Congo 4 51. Poland 2
12. Egypt 14 32. Kirgizstan 4 52. Bosnia and Herzegovina 1
13. Canada 13 33. Macedonia 4 53. Greece 1
14. Tajikistan 13 34. Finland 4 54. Dominican Republic 1
15. Australia 13 35. Ethiopia 4 55. Israel 1
16. Italy 12 36. Azerbaijan 3 56. Indonesia 1
17. Bulgaria 11 37. Argentina 3 57. Niger 1
18. Sweden 11 38. Afghanistan 3 58. Serbia 1
19. Peru 9 39. Slovakia 3 59. France 1
20. India 8 40. Thailand 3
Note: In addition, four specimens came from the Pacific floor, one is from Antarctic and twelve are of space origin.
Kabardino-Balkaria. This extremely interesting kasatkinite, kobyashevite, mariinskite, nick-

locality recently became a source of minerals elpicromerite, ferhodsite, and fluororichterite
found in carbonate xenoliths from ignimbrite are holotypes. In addition, a series of unique
lava. Holotypes and co-types of megawite, rusi- mineral samples from burnt rocks from the
novite, pavlovskyite, irinarssite, fluorchege- waste banks of coal opencasts in the Che-
mite, edgrewite, hydroxyledgrewite, aklimaite, lyabinsk basin, South Urals comprise a new
eltyubyuite, and bitikleite-(SnFe) were cata- type material. These assemblages were dona-
logued into the systematic collection. Subse- ted to the museum by B.V. Chesnokov, a
quently, bitikleite-(SnFe) was renamed to dzhu- famous Ural mineralogist. Due to their par-
luite (Grew et al., 2013) by CNMNC IMA. tially man-caused origin, they are not ap-
These specimens were received from I.O. Ga- proved by CNMNC IMA as a new mineral
luskina, E.V. Galaskin, A.E. Zadov and others species. Nevertheless, they do exist and con-
who collected and examined them. The Belaya tribute to the study of natural mineral-form-
Rechka deposit near the settlement of Nickel is ing processes which occur after human activ-
one of the traditional sources of new acqu- ities. In some cases, similar minerals were
isitions. Holotypes of two new minerals, rau- found in a true natural environment (for
chite and dymkovite, donated by I.V. Pekov and example, avdoninite and steklite). In addi-
V.V. Levitsky are from there. Also from this tion, there are mineral species of this type of
deposit is a new specimen with crystals of stron- origin approved by CNMNC IMA before the
tianite up to 5 cm in size on barite. A holotype of decision to discriminate against phases with
beshtauite is from the Beshtau Mount. Cus- an imperfect natural origin (for example,
pidine and ferrimolybdite from Tyrnyauz (do- downeyite and godovikovite.) Despite the
nation of E.M. Spiridonov and O.V. Kononov) decision of the Commission, B.V. Chesnokov
and a large hand specimen with spectacular published some phases with their proper
clusters of crystals of colorless barite on dark names (Chesnokov et al., 1998; Avdonin and
brown calcite within a septarian nodule from Polenov, 2007). The specimens given by him
the Lower Cretaceous sediments near the were catalogued into the systematic collec-
Uchkeken village, Karachaevo-Cherkesia (do- tion under their original names. These are
nation of V.V. Levitsky) are noteworthy other orthorhombic ammonite Zn(NH3)2Cl2, hexa-
additions from the Russian Caucasus. gonal ignicolorite FeS 2·0.7CaCO 3·2.8H 2O,
The seventy-seven specimens from the tetragonal ovchinnikovite 4FeS ·FeO ·3CaO ·
Urals consist of forty-five mineral species, of CaCO 3, cubic perkovaite CaMg 2(SO 4) 3, or-
which hydroxylchondrodite, yttriaite-(Y), thorhombic podnoginite g Ca2[SiO4] (analog
of calciolivine) and tetragonal torbakovi- The Republic of Tyva (11 specimens) is

te 3CaO · Fe 2O 3· CaCl 2. Several hand speci- basically represented by mercury minerals,
mens of tobermorite composed of snow- consisting of kadyrelite, corderoite, lavren-
white spherulitic crusts consisting of fine, tievite, eglestonite, and kuzminite from the
acicular crystals should be mentioned among Arzak and Kadyrel occurrences (collection of
the most interesting Ural specimens. These V.I. Vasil'ev).
are some of the best specimens of tobermo- Baikal region, Irkutsk area, and Trans-
rite (donation of A.B. Loskutov and E.A. Nov- baikal region. Fifty five specimens (34 mine-
gorodova). The same can be said of nioboaes- ral species) were received from these regions.
chinite-(Ce), relatively recently found in Cordilite-(La), cuprokalininite, odintsovite, pav-
mine 97, Ilmeny Mountains (Fig. 7). Separate lovskyite, and galuskinite brought by L.Z. Re-
crystals with rough lateral striations reaching znitsky, E.V. and I.O. Galuskin, A.A. Konev,
6 cm in size are combined into a near-parallel and P.M. Kartashov are among the holotypes
aggregate. Restoration of this specimen does of mineral species. Most of the items are new-
not reduce its value. The series of specimens ly processed from old collections of A.A. Ko-
from the Ural rhodonite deposits was afore- nev from the Murun massif including lampro-
mentioned. phyllite, eudyalite, noonkanbahite (previous-
Altai krai is represented by ten hand spec- ly described as K-batisite) and kalsilite.
imens where all but two (polished plates of Tausonite and recently discovered vladyki-
dark lilac stichite replacing chromite from the nite received from N.V. Vladykin are from the
Kaznakhta Valley, Terekta Ridge) originate same locality. Specimens of zircon, phlogo-
from the Rubtsovsk deposit and supply a pite and fluorapatite from old collections of
rather representative mineralogical collec- K.I. Klopotov which were collected from vari-
tion from this interesting locality. This collec- ous occurrences near town Slyudyanka were
tion is comprised of high-quality crystals of catalogued. He donated from his new collec-
cuprite, dendrite of native copper, and mier- tions a very bright specimen of agardite-(Y)
site. A magnificent cluster of isometric con- from Sherlova Gora (Fig. 9). Oolites of mag-
cretions of azurite donated by K.S. Berdy- netite from the Rudnogorsk deposit near
sheva is particularly noticeable (Fig. 8). town Zheleznogorsk were aforementioned.
One specimen, a holotype of tashelgite, Yakutia is represented by 19 specimens (15
originates from Mountain Shoriya. mineral species). Type specimens include
Eight specimens were received from the arangasite and fluorocronite from G.N. Ga-
Krasnoyarsk krai, among which are holoty- myanin and P.M. Karatshov and yuanfuliite
pes of the new species ferrotochilinite and from the Tayoznoe deposit examined by
ferrovalleriite from the Oktyabrsk mine near V.V. Rudnev, but approved according to the
town Talnakh. earlier application of Chinese researchers, who
Fig. 7. Nioboaeschenite-(Ce). Cluster of columnar crystals up to 6 cm in size. Mine 97, Ilmeny Mountains, South Urals, Russia. Size
of specimen 11 cm. Donation of K.A. Zakharov, S.V. Kolisnichenko and V.A. Popov. Systematic collection. FMM no. 93888. Photo:
M.M. Moiseev.
Fig. 8. Azurite. Cluster of spherulitic concretions up to 5cm in size. Rubtsovsk mine, Altai krai, Russia. General size of specimen
10 cm. Donation of K.S. Berdysheva. Systematic collection. FMM no. 93817. Photo: M.M. Moiseev.
described a specimen from China. A series of specimens (58) in 2011–2012. That was pos-
specimens of innelite, harmotome, and eding- sible due to the museum collections in 2012 in
tonite originate from the Inagli massif near the the district of the Tolbachik volcano. Results
town of Aldan. V.V. Sharygin gave niererite, of these collections were discussed above.
shortite, and halite from unusual assemblages The Kurile Islands (Kunashir Island,
in the Udachanaya East kimberlite pipe, Dal- Mendeleev volcano) is represented by one
dyn field. A nugget of native bismuth (donation spectacular specimen of native sulfur donat-
of G.N. Gamyanin) found near the settlement ed by A.D. Babansky.
of Omchinkandya on the Oimyakon River
(Fig. 10) should be mentioned. Republics of the
Almost all sixteen specimens (14 mineral Former Soviet Union
species) from the Primorskii krai are from
deposits near Dalnegorsk; most are from the In total, 59 specimens were received from
Serebryanaya vein at the Nikolaevsk mine. the Republics of the Former Soviet Union. These
These collections belonged to O.L. Sveshni- specimens were basically collected during the
kova. In addition to common minerals, miar- Soviet period, although most were recently
girite, akantite, and andorite were catalogued donated. Some of them were delivered to the
from this vein. Fluorite from this locality was museum through the countries outside the CIS.
previously discussed. Kazakhstan (16). In addition to the speci-
In addition to holotypes of anyuite and mens from the classic deposits: hoper blocky
rooseveltite, new mineral species for the fluorite from Akchatau, cosalite from Kara-
museum, several specimens of the Seimchan Oba, eosphorite from Ognevka in the Kalba
meteorite were received from the Magadan Ridge, and picture moss agate from Pstan,
area. One of them, donated by V.N. Kala- Balkhash region, the systematic collection
chev, is an extremely spectacular large plate was increased by new rare minerals. Kazakh-
whose central part is acid-etched; this results stanite (holotype) donated by E.A. Anikovich
in the well-known Widmanstatten pattern and recently found in the eclogite of the
and crystals of schraibersite. The initial pol- Kokshetav massif kokchetavite and kumdy-
ishing is preserved in the 6 mm wide rim that kolite, which are polymorph modifications of
was protected from acid (Fig. 11). This old microcline and albite, respectively, are
way to prepare meteorite plates displays a among them.
difference between the etched and fresh sur- There were the same number of acquisi-
faces, which frequently causes a mistaken tions from Ukraine. An exceptional specimen
assumption that the rim is natural. of groutite from the Zavallya graphite de-
Kamchatka turned out to be one of the posit, Kirovograd area should be the first to
leading domestic regions which supplied be mentioned. This is one of the best speci-
Fig. 9. Agardite-(Y). Green radial bunches of fine-acicular crystals. Sherlova Gora, Transbaikal region. Donation of K.I. Klopotov. Size
of specimen 8 cm. Systematic collection. FMM no. 93857. Photo byM.M. Moiseev.
Fig. 10. Bismuth. Rounded nugget of native bismuth with enclosed cryatals of cassiterite. Omchikandya, Oimyakon River, Yakutia,
Russia. Size of specimen 7 cm. Donation of G.N. Gamyanin. Systematic collection. FMM no. 93885. Photo: M.M. Moiseev.
Fig. 11. Meteorite Seimchan. Polished acid-etched plate. Margins were preserved against acid. Found near settlement Seimchan,
Magadan area, Russia. Size of specimen 20 cm. Donation of V.N. Kalachev. Collection of meteorites and impactites. FMM
no. MET 55. Photo: D.I. Belakovskiy.
Fig. 12. Sylvite after langbeinite. Crystal of langbeinite (combination of tetrahedron and cube) is replaced by sylvite. Y block 700 foot
level, Mosaic mine, Carlsbad, New Mexico, US. Size of specimen 5 cm. Donation of D.I. Belakovskiy. OP collection. FMM no. OP 2640.
mens of this mineral species consisting of and kurnakovite, very nice specimens of tun-
open-work aggregates of weakly split crystals nelite, inderite, colemanite, and morphologi-
up to 1 cm in size on calcite-phlogopite rock. cally interesting ulexite from the Boron de-
An unusual pseudomorph of chalcedony after posits, Kern County, and blödite and thenar-
stems of crinoids was described above. This dite from Soda Lake, Obispo County are from
and specimens of rhodonite from the Glimeya California. The specimens of the rare mineral
deposit, Rakhiv district, Zakarpattia area species markcooperite, timroseite, thorneite,
were donated by A.L. Galkin. fluorphosphohedyphane, hughesite, and ba-
Tajikistan (13). Holotypes of new mine- rio-orthojoaquinite came from the same state.
rals found by L.A. Pautov, A.A. Agakhanov, In total, twenty-six specimens were received
and V.Yu. Karpenko, the museum staff, from from California in 2011–2012.
the Darai-Pioz alkaline massif are of the most Utah (15) is the second state by number of
interest. These are mendeleevite-(Ce), kirch- acquisitions; in addition to the aforemen-
hoffite, byzantievite, orlovite, alexandrovaite, tioned specimens of cristobalite, holotypes of
and Laptevite-(Ce). the new minerals manganblödite and cobalto-
Specimens of gypsum, calcite, and blödite discovered by A.V. Kasatkin (in col-
metacinnabar from the Fata-Morgana Cave in laboration with the museum staff) should be
settlement Gaurdak are from Turkmenistan. mentioned. An interesting specimen with
Four specimens of rhodonite assemblage grossular crystals to 2 cm in an aggregate of
from the Museyniy Sai near settlement Inyl- gehlenite from the Wah Wah Mts., Beaver
chek were received from Kyrgyzstan. Speci- County was donated by J. and C. Watson.
mens of magnetite and sphalerite from the Most of the specimens from Alaska (13) are
Dashkesan iron deposit originate from Azer- from the Green Monster Mountain, Prince of
baijan and two specimens of sylvite were re- Wales Island; in addition to the aforemen-
ceived from Soligorsk in Belorussia. tioned epidote, there are magnetite and
quartz. Arizona is represented by seven
Other countries items, including specimens of the emblematic
minerals of this state, wulfenite and vanadi-
As usual, most of the acquisitions from nite, from a few occurrences in the La Paz Co-
abroad are from the United States (88 speci- unty, and rare claringbullite, cuprobismutite,
mens from 15 states; 55 mineral species). In and rongibbsite. A holotype of the new mine-
addition to the aforementioned cristobalite ral whitecapsite, found by I.V. Pekov, is the
most interesting specimen from Nevada (6); a specimens from this famous district. Holo-
pseudomorph of sylvite after a crystal of lang- types of 12 mineral species (schüllerite, per-
beinite is of the most interest from New rierite-(La), hielscherite, kottenheimite, lile-
Mexico (Fig. 12). One to four specimens ori- yite, günterblassite, hillesheimite, lahnstei-
ginate from Arkansas, Colorado, Massachu- nite, osumilite-(Mg), hydroxymanganopyro-
setts, New Jersey, Oregon, North Caroline, chlore, christofschäferite-(Ce), ternesite) we-
South Dakota, New York, and Maine. re discovered by N.V. Chukanov with the co-
Many acquisitions are from other North authors (exceptional ternesite); museum staff
America countries. In addition to the afore- members were among the group. These mine-
mentioned crystals of gypsum and anhydrite rals were found in cavities within alkali
from the Naica mine and luminescent calcite, basalts and carbonate xenoliths. The more
a few specimens of moganite from Madre, common species ferrikaersutite, nosean, re-
Chihuahua and native tellurium from the unite, native nickel, chlormayenite, and scot-
Bamballa mine, Moctezuma, Sonora should be tyite were catalogued to show the entire char-
mentioned as specimens from Mexico (24). acteristic of mineral assemblages found at
Acquisitions from the alkaline complexes at Eifel. A. Ertl donated a specimen of fluor-
Kipawa (vlasovite, agrellite, gittinsite) and at schorl from its type locality, Zschorlau, Sa-
Mont Saint Hilaire (normandite, analcime, xony.
serandite) should be highlighted among the Most acquisitions from Hungary (18),
specimens from Canada (13). Stillwellite-(Ce) Romania (15) and Slovakia (3) were obtained
from the new locality of Desmont Mine, Hali- in an exchange with a Hungarian collector.
burton Co., Ontario was donated by W. Pinch. This series of rare minerals includes mika-
Most new acquisitions from South Ame- saite, iltisite, capgaronite, belendorffite, am-
rica are from Brazil (15), as usual, and are moniomagnesiovoltaite, and brandholzite
mainly from the Minas Gerais district. These from various localities. In addition, hyalite
are the previously discussed rhodonite clus- from Monok, Zempleni Mts. in Hungary with
ter and flower carved from chalcedony, and bright green fluorescence in UV light should
also the new species for the museum, carlos- be mentioned.
barbosaite and souzalite. In addition, a speci- Among other European countries, many
men from the Uruacu iron meteorite was cat- acquisitions were from Italy (12), Bulgaria
alogued. The same number of specimens was (11), and Sweden (11). The Italian specimens
received from Chile (15). Basically, these are are mineral species which are new for the
rare minerals which were absent in the muse-
um collection: mejillonesite (holotype), san- Fig. 13. Pectolite (larimar). Fine-fibrous concentric-zoned
aggregate of pectolite completely filling amygdule cavity with-
tarosaite, anatacamite, and mendozavilite- in volcanic rock. Sierra de Baoruco, Dominican Republic. Size
NaCu. The new spherulitic crust of orpiment of specimen 9 cm. Donation of D.I. Belakovskiy. Systematic col-
and crystals of realgar from the Palomo mine, lection. FMM no. 93766. Photo: M.M. Moiseev.
Huancavelica Department is from Peru (9).
Anorpiment, a recently discovered triclinic
polymorph of orpiment, turned out to be in
one of these specimens. The new for the
museum mineral species uchucchacuaite and
manganoquadratite were also received from
Peru. A magnificent well-shaped crystal of
andorite ca. 7 cm in size with inclusions of
zinkenite from the San Jose mine, Oruro de-
partment, Bolivia and rare phosphate qing-
heite from the Santa Anna pegmatite, San
Luis, Argentina should be mentioned. A ba-
saltic amygdule completely filled by pastel-
blue pectolite (so called larimar) was received
from Sierra de Baoruco, Dominican Republic
(Fig. 13).
The new acquisitions from Europe come
from 22 countries. The acquisitions from
Germany (27) primarily came from the Eifel
volcanic district, Rhеinland-Pfalz. They sig-
nificantly added to the current collection of
Fig. 14. Precious opal fills amygdule cavity in rhyolite. Eyhiopia. Size of specimen 9 cm. Donation of A. Volkonsky. Systematic col-
lection. FMM no. 93882. Photo: M.M. Moiseev.
Fig. 15. Stilbite. Split sheaf-like crystal on druse of apophyllite. Poona, India. Donation of D.I. Belakovskiy. Size of specimen 10 cm.
Systematic collection. FMM no. 93761. Photo: M.M. Moiseev.
Fig. 16. Ilvaite. Cluster of weakly-split crystals. Huanggang Mine, Chifeng Prefecture, Inner Mongolia, China. Donation of
D.I. Belakovskiy. Size of specimen 10 cm. Systematic collection. FMM no. 93759. Photo: M.M. Moiseev.
museum, most from the volcanic condensa- maussaq in Greenland, Dania. We suggested
tions of the craters of La Fossa Island and that volcanic ash from the Eyjafjallajökull in
Vulcano volcano (demicheleite-Cl and demi- Iceland, whose eruption disrupted air travel
cheleite-Ba, thermessaite, steropesite). A ho- in Europe for a long period in spring, 2010, is
lotype of a new mineral species, umbrianite, of enough interest to be included in the col-
found by Russian researchers (V.V. Sharygin lection.
et al.) is from Pian di Celle, Umbria. The mi- The acquisitions from Africa are from nine
nerals from the famous Langban deposit are countries, including Madagascar (16). Hoper
predominant among Swedish specimens. An crystals of schorl and iridescent labradorite are
individual specimen, weighing 345 grams, of discussed above. The other specimens from
the Muonionalusta iron meteorite (collected this island are picture jaspers, crystal of
and donated by D.A. Sadilenko) should be betafite from Betafo, and the new for the muse-
highlighted. Bulgarian acquisitions collected um species flour-potassic-pargasite.
by the museum staff characterize the minera- Nearly all acquisitions from Egypt (14)
logy of porphyry copper and base-metal were discussed in the previous section of this
skarn deposits from various districts. Among review except a specimen of the meteorite
the specimens from Austria (6), oxy-rossman- Gebel Kamil found in the Uweinat desert.
ite and olenite, minerals of the tourmaline Namibia (8), next in the number of acquisi-
supergroup, and eskimoite and heyrovskyite tions, is represented by the aforementioned
from the Hohe Tauern Mounts near Salzburg picture pietersite and holotypes of two spe-
donated by A. Ertl are of the most interest. cies new to the museum: yangite from the
From Norway (6), a holotype of a new mineral Combat mine and windhoekite from Aris. The
sveinbergite was given by A.P. Khomyakov latter was discovered in collaboration with
and some novel for the museum specimens the museum staff and named in honor of the
were exchanged. Among the five specimens capital of this country. In addition to rare mi-
from Spain, a relatively new finding of color- nerals from the Bou Azzer deposit (wend-
less, transparent crystals of glauberite from wilsonite, smolianinovite, irhtemite), a small
the Consuelo mine near Madrid should be individual specimen of meteorite (plessite
mentioned. Among the acquisitions from the octahedrite) Taza (NWA-859) is from Moro-
other European countries particular attention cco (7). A large hand specimen of heteroge-
should be paid to the new minerals štĕpite, nite from Lubumbashi, donated by N.N. Kam-
švenekite and krasnoite from Czech Republic zolkin, is from the Democratic Republic of the
(3), impactite Paasselkä from Finland (4) and Congo (4). Ethiopia (4) is represented by fine
holotypes examined by Russian researchers, specimens of precious opal donated by
piemontite-Pb from Nezhilovo in Macedonia, A. Volkonsky, from France (Fig. 14). The frag-
agardite-(Nd) from the Hilarion mine, Lauri- ment of a new mineral species, lavinskyite,
on in Greece and carlgieseckeite from Ili- containing new minerals scottyite and wes-
selsite from the Wessels mine, Kalahari in N.S. Lukinykh donated a specimen of native
South Africa (4) was donated by W. Pinch. sulfur from the Ijen crater in the eastern Java,
The cluster of colorless to dark blue crystals Indonesia.
of euclase is from Mwami, Zimbabwe (2). Australia is represented by thirteen speci-
Niger turned out to be a new country for the mens, of which clusters of acicular crystals of
museum. The fragment of trunk replaced with scholzite on limonite from Reaphook Hill in
chalcedony from Toulouk in the South Sahara South Australia are noteworthy. One of the
was donated by T.K. Berkeliev. best specimens of this species (Fig. 18) were
In addition to those from Russia and other donated by I.S. Lykova. A specimen of the
republics of the Former Soviet Union, Asian new mineral gelosatite donated by P.A. Wil-
acquisitions are from eight countries. Most of liams should be mentioned.
the specimens are from India, China (by 8), Concluding the geographical review, var-
Pakistan, and Japan (by 7). We mention iously shaped Fe-Mn concretions from the
among them the aesthetic specimen of bow- Pacific floor, which are older material bro-
tie stilbite on a druse of crystals of apophyl- ught by P.F. Andryushchenko, and a berylli-
lite from the Poona district, India (Fig. 15), um silicate surinamite, received in exchange,
well-shaped large crystals and clusters of from the Christmas point, Enderby Land in
crystals of ilvaite (Fig. 16) recently found at Antarctica should be mentioned.
the Huanggang mine, Inner Mongolia in Chi-
na, and druse of small crystals of pääkkönen- New acquisitions
ite from the Damingshan Mount, Guangxi classified by type and source
province in China. The new crystals of epido-
te were aforementioned. A series of rare mi- Five hundred and forty-one items were
nerals from Japan were exchanged. Trans- donated by private persons and organiza-
parent crystals of petalite up to 3.5 cm in size tions. In addition, one hundred and four mi-
from the Palelni mine (donation of I. Szegeni neral specimens, which are type material of
and O.A. Lopatkina) were brought from My- 85 new mineral species, are also attributed to
anmar (5). Green sodalite as clusters of rhom- donations. Thus, total donations are 645 items
bododecahedral crystals up to 2 cm in size or ca. 74% of total acquisitions. Eighty-five
from Lajuar Medam, Sar-e-Sang in Badakh- mineral specimens (ca. 10%) collected by the
shan (Fig. 17) is of particular interest among museum staff were catalogued into the main
the specimens from Afghanistan (3). A new inventory of the museum. One hundred and
mineral species, daliranite, from the Zarshu- twelve specimens (13%) were exchanged (in-
ran deposit in Iran (2) was exchanged with cluding earlier exchanged items, which were
the British Museum in London. Tektites (in- examined or processed). The exchange was
dochinites) were collected in Thailand (3). carried out with 11 domestic and foreign col-
Fig. 17. Sodalite. Cluster of green (!) rhomododecahedral crystals up to 2 cm in size on calciphyre. Ladjuar Medam, Sar-e-Sang,
Kokcha Valley, Badakhshan, Afghanistan Size of specimen 8 cm. Donation of D.I. Belakovskiy Systematic collection. FMM no. 93767.
Fig. 18. Scholzite. Druses of long-acicular crystals within cavities in limonite. Reaphook Hill, South Australia. Size of specimen 12 cm.
Donation of I.S. Lykova. Systematic collection. FMM no. 93330. Photo: M.M. Moiseev.
lectors; 4 mineralogical companies; and S.V. Mudruk, I.A. Nelkin, E.A. Novgorodova,
Natural History Museums in London, Great M.I. Novgorodova, V.M. Okrugin, L.V. Oly-
Britain; Bern, Switzerland; and Uppsala, sych, T.V. Pashko, N.A. Pekova, N.N. Pertsev,
Sweden. Thirty-two mineralogical specimens P. Petrov, N.M. Podgornykh, V.V. Ponoma-
(ca. 4%) were catalogued into the main inven- renko, A.F. Popov, V.A. Popov, M.P. Popov,
tory out of the old working materials of re- S.V. Popov, I.E. Proshenkin, L.V. Razin,
searchers from various organizations, which L.Z. Reznitsky, V.V. Rudnev, N.I. Rymskaya,
were taken when the storage was closed or G.L. Ryabinin, L.A. Samoylov, A.B. Sandomir-
after the death of the researchers. It should be skiy, E.I. Semenov, A. Serafimovich, E.V. Se-
noted that these acquisitions were catalo- reda, I. Szegeni, V.L. Skvortsova, A.M. Skrigitil,
gued as donations if the names of the collec- M.A. Smirnova, E.V. Sokol, E.V. Sokolova,
tors are known. Three specimens were pur- E.L. Sokolova, A.V. Stepanov, S.F. Struzhkov,
chased. T. Tatyanchenko, D.E. Tonkacheev, V.A. Tuz-
Donated items are from 151 private per- lukov, V.G. Tyulkin, V.V. Khiller, Yu.A. Chul-
sons and 3 organizations. Most specimens zhanov, L.I. Shabynin, V.V. Sharygin, D. Al-
were donated by 122 Russian citizens. In addi- lum, J. Fuller, E.S. Grew, F. Hofmann, J. Hol-
tion, many specimens were donated by 29 for- fert, L. Holm, T. Holm, A.L. Kidwell, P. Me-
eign citizens from 12 countries: Australia, gaw, O'Neil Cristofer, D. Toland, Gy.Var-
Austria, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, France, hedy, F. Wafi, S. Wall, K. Watanabe, D. Wey-
Germany, Hungary, Japan, Kazakhstan, Ne- hersmuller and P.A. Williams.
therlands, Ukraine, and United States. Type specimens were obtained from 31 re-
More than 10 mineral specimens were searchers: I.V. Pekov (23), N.V. Chukanov (19),
donated by A.A. Antonov (47), A.I. Brusnitsyn E.V. Galuskon (12), I.O. Galuskina (12), A.P. Kho-
(24), D.I. Belakovskiy (180), G.O. Vertyankin myakov (10), L.A. Pautov (7), B.V. Chesnokov
(11), E.V. and I.O. Galuskin (12), A.V. Kasatkin (6), A.A. Agakhanov (4), M.E. Zelensky (3).
(19), A.A. Konev (14), V.M. Moiseev (18), I.V. Pe- L.Z. Reznitsky (3), A.G. Bazhenov (2), V.D. Be-
kov (101), A.G. Turchkova (47), A.P. Kho- gizov (2), A.V. Voloshin (2), E.N. Zavyalov (2),
myakov (16), N.V. Chukanov (27) and John V.Yu. Karpenko (3), P.M. Karatashev (3), A.V. Ka-
and Claudia Watson (13). Five to ten mine- satkin (2), A.A. Konev (2), Rudnev (2), E.A. An-
ralogical specimens came from M.Yu. Anosov kinovich, G.N. Gamyanin, A.Yu. Barkov,
(6), M. Bitman (5), V.I. Vasiliev (7), A.V. Vo- Yu.V. Yerokhin, A.E. Zadov, V.V. Levitsky,
loshin (6), V.G. Grishin (5), S.G. Epanchintsev M.I. Novgorodova, M.P. Popov, L.V. Razin,
(5), B.Z. Kantor (6), K.I. Klopotov (6), V.V. Le- E.V. Sokolova, V.V. Khiller, V.V. Sharygin.
vitsky (8), A.B. Loskutov (9), A.B. Nikiforov The following organizations supplied one
(8), I.A. Novikov (6), L.A. Pautov (10), I.N. Sa- item: Museum of Volcanology at the Institute
vin (5), D.A. Sadilenko (7), E.M. Spiridonov (7), of Volcanology and Seismology, Far East
B.V. Chesnokov (6), A. Ertl (10), T. Hanna (9), Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences in
W. Pinch (5) and S. Schuchman (5). One to Petropavlovsk, Russia (given by S. Khubu-
four specimens were donated by A.A. Aga- naya); Geological Museum in Montreal, Ca-
khanov, M. Andreev, I.P. Andreeva, P.F. And- nada; and Institute of Geology, Ashkhabad,
ryushchenko, E.A. Ankinovich, A.V. Antonov, Turkmenistan.
L.A. Artemenko, S.V. Afanasiev, A.B. Baban- We are highly grateful to all donors for
sky, K. Baburov, A.G. Bazhenov, A.Yu. Bar- their assistance in adding to the museum’s
kov, V.D. Begizov, S.I. Belykh, K.S. Berdy- collection.
sheva, N.R. Berkeliev, E.A. Borisova, G.I. Bo- In 2011–2012, eighty-five specimens were
charova, A.V. Bulatov, B.I. Vaintrub, N.V. Vla- catalogued as collected by the museum staff;
dykin, A. Volkonsky, A.L. Galkin, G.N. Ga- most specimens (72) were collected in trips
myanin, M.E. Generalov, V.Yu. Gerasimov, under the recent initiative. The earlier collect-
O.I. Gritsenko, E.M. Degtyareva, P.Ya. Det- ed specimens were catalogued after identifica-
kov, A.V. Donskov, D.N. Dubkov, Yu.V. Ero- tion and processing of filed materials. Ten
khin, S.V. Efimova, E.N. Zavyalov, A.E. Za- museum researchers collected the specimens.
dov, K.A. Zakharov, M.E. Zelensky, F.Sh. Is- The most specimens were collected by D.I. Be-
kanderov, V.N. Kalachev, N.N. Kamzolkin, lakovskiy (65), I.S. Lykova(47), O.L. Svesh-
V.Yu. Karpenko, P.M. Kartashev, I.K. Klochkov, nikova (9), M.M. Moiseev (4), A.A. Agakha-
A.L. Kovalev, S.V. Kolisnichenko, O.V. Kono- nov, V.Yu. Averin, M.D. Dorfman, A.V. Kova-
nov, L.V. Kravchuk, D.I. Krinov, O.A. Lopat- lev, V.M. Chalisov, and B.B. Shkursky. The
kin, N.S. Lukinykh, I.S. Lykova, E.A. Lya- researchers of other organizations actively par-
shenko, P.A. Martynov, I.A. Mikhailov, ticipated in the collections for the museum.
The researchers from other organizations Belakovskiy D.I. New acquisitions in the
which actively collected specimens for the Fersman Mineralogical Museum, Russian
museum are: I.V. Pekov, A.G. Turchkova, Academy of Sciences in 2004–2005 //
A.A. Antonov, N.N. Pertsev, Petko Petrov, New data on minerals. Issue 41. 2006.
and D. Toland. P. 133–143.
In conclusion, on behalf of staff of the Belakovskiy D.I. Overview of new acquisitions
Fersman Mineralogical Museum, everybody in the Fersman Mineralogical Museum,
who assisted in addition of the museum col- Russian Academy of Sciences in 2002–2003
lections is thanked. // New data on minerals. Issue 39. 2004.
The author is grateful to A.A. Evseev, P. 152–164.
E.N. Matvienko, M.M. Moiseev, T.M. Pav- Belakovskiy D.I. Overview of new acquisitions in
lova, N.A. Pekova and E.A. Borisova for their the Fersman Mineralogical Museum, Rus-
discussion and assistance in preparation of sian Academy of Sciences in 2009–2010 //
the manuscript. New data on minerals. Issue 46. 2011.
P. 139–152.
References Belakovskiy D.I., Pekova N.A. Overview of
new acquisitions in the Fersman Mine-
Avdonin V.N., Polenov Yu.A. Mineralogy of the ralogical Museum, Russian Academy of
Urals in the 21st century in names of teachers Sciences in 2006–2008 // New data on
of Sverdlovsk Mining Institute – Ural State minerals. Issue 43. 2008. P. 109–123.
Mining University // Izv. vuzov. Mining J. Chesnokov B., Kotrly M., Nisanbajev T. Bren-
No. 3. 2007. P. 129–134 (in Russian). nende Abraumhalden und Aufschlüsse im
Belakovskiy D.I. Novel in the collections of the Tscheljabinsker Kohlenbecken – eine
Mineralogical Museum, Russian Academy reiche Mineralienküche // Mineralien
of Sciences in 1984–1996 // Among Welt. 1998. 9 (3). S. 54–63 (in German).
Minerals (almanac), Fersman Mineralo- Grew E.S., Locock A.J., Mills S.J., Galuski-
gical Museum, Russian Academy of Sci- na I.O., Galuskin E.V., Hålenius U. IMA
ences. Moscow. 2001. P. 44–50. Report Nomenclature of the garnet super-
Belakovskiy D.I. New acquisitions in the groupe // Am. Miner. 2013. V. 98.
Fersman Mineralogical Museum, Russi- P. 785–811.
an Academy of Sciences for five years Krivovichev V.G. Mineralogical glossary. SPb:
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Mineralogical Notes
MINERALS-GIANTS OF THE SOUTHERN URALS

Sergey V. Kolisnichenko
Institute of Mineralogy, Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Miass, sanarka@mail.ru
Mineralogy of the South Urals has different variations. The set of deposits, which has been and is being mined for
minerals in addition to the useful component do also often contain unique minerals, sometimes in the form of giant
properly shaped crystals. The article presents information on the findings of such giants, according to the lite-
rature, on personal observations and on the oral reports of geologists.
Keywords: mineral, crystal, crystal giant, deposit, South Urals.
The stone nature of Earth is generous and world". First found in the mines of the Zla-
diverse. In it's marvelous works, it is attrac- toust, Urals, he remained a "native" residents
tive with imagination, originality and exclu- of those places. Until now, the best and large
sivity of creations. The same mineral may crystals of this mineral occur at perovskite
have been born in different parts of the world mines of Chernorechenskie Mountains. The
and may look like a twin or may look fabu- largest crystals are considered to be samples
lously dissimilar. There is no person who has of M.P. Melnikov in 1882. It was a crystal-in-
never admired these masterpieces – crystals! dividuals with an edge length of 12 cm. No-
As he admires the sunset and sea wave, or a wadays there are perovskites up to 5–6 cm in
heap of stone mountains. size. A rare lump has sometimes up to 30–40
Crystals have surprised human intellect at perovskite crystals of up to 4 cm each!
the dawn of the emergence with it's perfec- Zircon. Large zircon crystals were found
tion and completeness of forms. Special rarity in the Ilmeny Mountains. One of them is a
passed from person to person, from genera- sample found in 1837: "... in this pit [kop’
tion to generation for hundreds of years. The number 12 – hereinafter in brackets annota-
evidence for this are the legends about giant tions made by author] found the most enor-
precious rubies and diamonds. mous zircon in the Ilmeny mines, weighing 8
There are cyclops and giants in the world pounds 61 spool. It consists of several fused in
of mineral monsters. Not every corner of the a parallel position indivisible" (Melnikov,
earth has given birth to its bosom these rari- 1883). It is extended to 22 cm splice of several
ties. In the South Urals so many unique crys- individuals weighing about 3.5 kg. In the pit
tals were found that was enough for a large of academician Koksharov No. 20 "zircons
narrative. Giant crystals were observed by crystals differentiate – up to 1.5 inches long
researchers, mineralogists, geologists. Often, (6.5 cm) and met very often." Crystals of a
these creatures of nature long maintained, "fist" size caught in the Ilmeny Mountains
but more often simply destroyed during pro- repeatedly in syenite-pegmatite veins. Also,
duction or used as a raw material. Rare fin- A.E. Fersman noted that G.G. Kitaev has pre-
dings settled in museum collections. sented him a similar sample (Balandin, 1982).
Interestingly, the phrase "crystal giant" for Zircon crystal (8×6 cm) from the vicinity of
different minerals characterizes completely Selyankino village exhibited at the exposi-
different in size crystals. For example, even a tion of Natural History Museum of the Ilmeny
meter long quartz crystal (morion) from the State Reserve.
Urals is not a giant compare to quartz veins of Giant zircon crystals are constantly mined
Kazakhstan or Ukraine, where in pegmatites in Vishnevogorsk on the Mountain Karavay.
much more substantial in size individuals were In nepheline pegmatites of "Vein No. 5" prop-
mined. And at the same time, transparent er shaped zircon crystals can reach sizes up to
quartz crystals "Diamonds" (Herkimer "Dia- 10 cm and weight of 2–2.5 kg, crystals weig-
monds" or the South Urals Ust Katavsk "dia- hing 1 kg are no rarity. There were rumors
monds") are considered as giant with crystal that at the mine "Central" of Vishnevogorsk
size of only 3–5 cm! In this article there more niobium deposits was found a crystal weig-
than two dozen South Ural minerals noted, hing 17 kg!
crystals which have outstanding size. Microcline. This mineral goes alone with
Perovskite. This mineral several times granitic pegmatites. Reliable data on crystals-
pleased Urals with its "appearance in the giants are on topaz pit “Polyakov” on the
Fig. 1. Microcline crystals. Length of the longest is 0.75 m. Eremkinskaya pegmatite vein, the South Urals. Photo: S. Kolisnichenko.
Fig. 2. Morion. Crystal weight is 100 kg. Svetlinskiy pegmatite quarry, South Urals. Photo: V. Musatov.
shores of Lake Argazi in the Ilmeny Moun- vety”) in Moscow. On Astafyevskoye deposit
tains and on Svetlinskiy pegmatite quarry. large crystals reach a length of up to one
There were met crystals with length of about meter with weight of 300 kg. There was mined
50 cm. In 2008 pegmatite vein at the former a unique one – piezocrystal of 100 kg! Teren-
steading Eremkin (Kochkarskiy district) was sayskoye deposit of piezoquartz (Orenburg
discovered area with crystal size of 60×75 cm! region) also excelled by giants. There was
(Fig. 1) found the largest crystal cellar of Urals with
Amazonite. The large-sized crystals were capacity of 176 m 3. The largest crystals,
observed in the pits of Ilmeny Mountains. On extracted from this cellar, weighed from 350
Lobachevskaya pit No. 85 "... Amazon stone to 750 kg. There was the famous crystal
was more than 1/4 yard and actually because "Baby" (“Malyutka”) among them, weighing
of this, topaz crystals reached to one pound 784 kg, which is stored in the Geological
weight". On pit No. 82, "the value of the pieces Museum of Ekaterinburg.
of the Amazon stone reached 1/2 yard..." (Mel- Morion. Large crystals of morion are typi-
nikov, 1883). Amazonite crystals up to 30 cm cal for Svetlinskiy pegmatite quarry (Koch-
were found in the pit No. 395. karskiy district). Larinskaya Geological Re-
Rock crystal. South Urals is characterized connaissance Expedition worked there and
by particularly large size of quartz crystals. In removed from the cavities crystals weighing
1967 at Svetlinskoye deposit of piezoelectric over a hundred kilograms. Usually it would
quartz at a depth of 13 meters has been dis- be isometric crystals (with short prisms and
covered a crystal cellar with crystals in the developed rhombohedrons facets). In 1998
vein No. 500. Two of those rock crystal from was mined crystal morion of one meter long
this nest weighed three tons each! They were and weighing 100 kg. The crystal was shaped
shaped as short-prism, with developed rhom- as long-prism, obelisk form (Fig. 2). The head
bohedrons faces. The crystalls were called part of the crystal was perfectly clean and
"Jubilee-1" and "Jubilee-2". By processing of hardly shone in a bright beam of light.
one of them was produced 92 kg piezoelectric Apatite. To the north-east of Vishnevye
materials. The other crystal is kept at the en- Mountains, in the city of Snezhinsk "Seven
trance to the Museum "Gems" (“Samots- Keys" apatite crystal locality is known. Apati-
Minerals-Giants of the Southern Urals 159
te crystals found in the peculiar pegmatite linskoye deposit of piezoelectric quartz. Ne-
consisting of phlogopite, albite and apatite. edle length in excess of 40 cm pierce smoky
Apatite appeared around phlogopite to the rock crystal (Geological Museum, Ekate-
direction of the contact with the host rock rinburg).
(ultra-basic and serpentinized rocks) almost Titanite. Sphene (titanite) of South Urals
ideal crystals bottle-green with olive tinge. is known from the pits Ilmeny Mountains.
The largest crystal is considered to be an indi- Crystals up to 15 cm have been repeatedly
vidual length of about 100 cm with a thick- found there. Vishnevye Mountains spear-sha-
ness of 20 cm. Not uncommon are the find- ped crystal of titanite length of 15 cm were
ings of crystals up to 50 cm. found in nepheline pegmatite vein in Svistu-
Polyakovite. In the Ilmeny Mountains, at nov log (1986). Crystal about 20 cm in size
the pit No. 97 for the first time in the world was found in a similar vein of Yushtinsk ridge
was discovered and described mineral to the north of the Ilmeny Mountains. White
polyakovite – chrome analogue of chevki- and cream titanites with sizes up to 12×18 cm
nite. In 2007, in the pits in ultra-basic peg- with a thickness of 1 cm (Fig. 4) are known to
matite vein (richterite-phlogopite composi- Nicolae-Maximilian mine (village Kusinsk
tion) were found two polyakovite crystals, Magnitka).
which dimensions were 12×8×6 cm. They we- Topaz. The largest crystals of topaz in the
re the largest crystals in the history of the South Urals should be considered as samples
study of this mineral. Polyakovite was found from the Ilmeny Mountains. Here we describe
in the same place in the veins of carbonatite- the crystals of amazonite pegmatites up to 10
bearing pegmatites in association with mon- pounds (4 kg) weight (Melnikov, 1883). Al-
azite and aeschynite, but here it is only reach though it is likely that it was given the weight
6.5 cm size of the crystals (Fig. 3). of all the stones from the same nest. Basically,
Rutile. Rutile crystals in granulated quartz there were found the individual crystals in
veins are known to Kyshtym deposit in the 1 pound. The length of the crystals up to
vicinity of the village Slyudorudnik. Rutile 20 cm. Proper blue-greenish crystal weighing
crystal with length of 23 cm is kept in the 720 g was found in the deposits of the Vos-
Geological Museum of Ekaterinburg. This is tochniy (eastern) log on Svetlinskoye deposit
one of the well-known large-preserved crys- of piezoelectric quartz. The largest pink topaz
tals. There, in the neighborhood of the vein from the vicinity of river Kamenka has length
number 126, was found accumulation of rutile 5.7 cm and thickness 1.1 cm (Fig. 5).
crystals weighing about 10 kg, which had the Beryl. Some large crystals of beryl from peg-
largest individ crystal measuring 18×6×6 cm matite veins reaching along the axis up to a half
and found along with it cranked twins – up of meter long, have been found in the vicinity of
to 10 cm (found by the author, 1985). From ru- the village Annenskiy (Kartalinskiy district).
mors geologists know that there have been Such fractured crystals were found at opening
cases of rutile crystals finds up to 40 cm. veins of the pit No. 411 in the Ilmeny Mountains.
The longest needle crystals of rutile, rep- M.P. Melnikov said that, "Accordingly Kok-
resenting inclusions in quartz, it is necessary sharov, 5 pounds crystal stored in the museum of
to consider the discovery in 1942 at Svet- Mining Institute has 25 cm in length and the
Fig. 3. Polyakovite. Crystal length of 6 cm. Mine number 97, Ilmeny Mountains, South Urals. Photo: A. Titaev.
Fig. 4. Titanite. The size of 8.5 cm. Quarry near village Stroiteley, Ilmeny Mountains, South Urals. Photo: S. Kolisnichenko.
Fig. 5. Topaz, pink. Crystal

length 5.7 cm. Pit of pink topaz
on the former Proroko-Ilyin-
skiy mine, South Urals.
Photo: S. Kolisnichenko.
Fig. 6. Euclase. Crystal length

7.5 cm. Bakakinskie mines, the
South Urals.
Specimen: Mining Museum,
St.-Petersburg State Mining
Institute. Photo: A. Ilyin.
same in circumference, it is bluish-green" (Mel- ultrabasic rocks. The shape of crystals is spin-
nikov, 1983). In 2011, Eremkinskaya pegmatite dle and barrel-like; they are pink, white or
vein (near Plast) in the quartz core were found blue. Sometimes corundum crystals are zonal
proper long-prizm shaped greenish-yellow crys- – the core is blue and the border is pink.
tals of beryl length of 0.75 m! The thickness of Explorated and studied of this deposit in
the crystals was 12–15 cm. 1944, geologists noted findings of large crys-
Euclase. The Homeland of Russian eucla- tals up to 50 cm and a thickness of 20 cm
se is "Russian Brazil", the territory is named (Soshina, 1944). In corundum pit No. 299 was
by academician N.I. Koksharov in 1858 beca- discovered tabular sapphire crystal, 17×15 cm
use of minerals assemblage of gold placers, in size (Kolisnichenko, 2006). Barrel-like
like the Brazilian ones. Gold placers of rivers crystal corundum 2 kg was found in corun-
Kamenka and Sanarka in the South Urals pre- dum pit, Nicolskaya Mountain (Potaninskie
sented to mineralogy a rare mineral euclase. Mountains).
The secrets of his origin and more associated Molybdenite. The crystal of molybdenite
with this has not yet been disclosed. The lar- with diameter of 47 cm is described in 1957
gest crystal is about 7 cm long. It was found for one of the pegmatite veins of Berkut ridge,
on Bakakinsk placers by washing the rocks south of the village Slyudorudnik. Fragment
for gold in 1862. This euclase is gem quality, is located in the Geological Museum of Eka-
polychrome color and has a regular shape terinburg.
(Fig. 6). Kept in the museum of the Mining Epidote. Home to the giant crystals of epi-
Institute in St. Petersburg. dote in the South Urals is considered Zelentsov-
Spinel. The largest sample of spinel in the skaya pit in the village Magnitka. Known
Urals was discovered in 1882 by M.P. Melni- gem crystal length of one meter. Formed in
kov at multimineral carbonatite veins in Nico- carbonate rocks epidote crystals are well dis-
lae-Maximilian mine. It is represented by pro- sected as by the very nature of karst and by
per octahedral shape, crystal weight is 21 kg. human actions in mines. Lovely large crystals
Crystal was a conjunction with smaller spinel of epidote sometimes intergrown with hast-
individuals weighing between 2 and 6 kg. ingsite were not uncommon.
These exemplars are stored in the Geological Large discoid crystals of yttrium-contain-
Museum of the University of Kazan. ing epidote ("yttroepidot") are described in
Corundum. Corundum crystals of up to the pegmatite veins near village Slyudorud-
0.5 m were found on Sinarskoye deposit. Here nik. In the halls of ancient tunnels there are
corundum-phlogopite pegmatites located in still visible greenish-black discoid crystals
Minerals-Giants of the Southern Urals 161
with a diameter of 20 to 80 cm and a width of Fergusonite. In muscovitic pegmatites of

5–10 cm. Slyudyanogorsk deposit in the vicinity of the
Zoisite. The mineral zoisite is distingui- village Slyudorudnik there were findings of
shed by a significant size of crystals in the poorly-formated crystals in dark brown and
veins of granulated quartz at Kyshtym de- black, which length was 20 cm (Belkovsky,
posit. There, near the village Slyudorudnik, 2010).
one of the veins contained aggregates and The sunstone and the moonstone (oligo-
single crystals of zoisite with length 35 cm clase or other feldspars). Sunstone occurs in
and thickness of 4–5 cm. Color of mineral the Ilmeny and Vishnevye Mountains. It is of-
changed from light green at the base to bluish ten found in feldspar pegmatite veins, where
on the head. it forms crystals in large cavities. On Potanin
Ilmenite. Crystals of ilmenite are often quarry in 2006 the crystal of feldspar with the
observed in cavities of alkaline pegmatite effect of sunstone has a size 29×13×9 cm and
veins in the Vishnevye Mountains. One of the a weight of 5 kg. Crystal of moonstone there
veins of Dolgaya Mountain contained about was 14×14×10 cm and weighing about 5 kg.
5 tonnes of ilmenite crystals. The large crys- Scheelite. This mineral was actively
tals weighed about 25–30 kg. In the Ilmeny mined in the South Urals during 30s to 50s of
Mountains giant ilmenites were extracted 20th century. Then new deposits of tungsten
from the Mountain Firsovaya and pits No. ores were discovered – Gumbeyskoye and
154–155, the size of the crystals was about Boevskoye where scheelite was the bulk of
30–50 cm, weight was up to 60 kg. the ore. In literature it is mentioned that dur-
Nepheline. Good crystals of this mineral ing the Second World War in 1941–1945 on
are rare, though it occurs often in Ilmeny and Gumbeyskoye deposit there were rich scheel-
Vishnevye Mountains. In pegmatites of Ku- ite veins, where the crystals of the “crystal
rochkin Log on the old pit "Shpat" nepheline cellars” acquired a size of 15 cm (World of
forms meter-sized agregates. There are cavi- Stones, 2001).
ties with imperfect crystals of nepheline locat- Monazite. The sample called "tabular zir-
ed in pegmatites of Dolgaya Mountain. The con" was brought by I. Menge from the
flattened crystal with size of 16 cm in diameter Razderishin pits in Ilmeny Mountains, the
was found by the author in the nest with study proved to be monazite. The weight of
ilmenite and lepidomelane in nepheline peg- this crystal was 362.25 g (Popov, Popova,
matite vein, exposed by trenching at the con- 2006). Later in the Ilmeny Mountains such
struction site of the Natural History Museum large monazite was not found again.
of the Ilmeny State Reserve in 1978. Gold. Gold crystals do not exceed a few
Biotite (lepidomelane, black mica) is of- centimeters. But we can courageously admit
ten found in the Ilmeny and Vishnevye Mo- the biggest accumulation of this mineral,
untains as a large mass. The first mention of called prills. So, for Russia the largest prill is
the discovery of a giant crystal black mica considered to be the "Big Triangle" (in the li-
was made by M.P. Melnikov (1883): in the pit terature of the 19 th century – the "World
No. 8 in the Ilmeny Mountains "...during a Monster"), weighing 36 kg. It was found in
visit of Duke Maximilian of Leuchtenberg 1842 by Nikifor Syutkin, worker at Tsarevo-
(1842) was extracted crystal 3 poods 33 po- Alexander mine on a inflow of the rivers
unds weight”. In the pit No. 82 M.P. Mel- Miass – Tashkutarganka. The second largest
nikov noted "black mica in the form of six- nugget of South Urals can be considered
sided prisms up to 1.5 arshin [3.5 feet] wide". "Midhadsky" weighing 1 poods 20 pounds
Plates of lepidomelane with diameter of more (about 24 kg), which was found in the root of
than 0.5 m are found in the work sites of the the ore vein near the Balkany village during
Vishnevogorsk deposit of pyrochlore. the second half of the 19 th century (Zava-
Helvine. For the first time in the Urals this ritsky, 1926).
mineral was discovered in amazonite peg- Limonite geode of gigantic size was found
matite vein of pit No. 63 in the Ilmeny Mo- in the Bakal mines in the 1937 by famous
untains. P.V. Eremeev in 1868 wrote that "solid miner G.G. Kitaev (Pronin, 1985). Its size is
pieces reach the size of a human head and also 2.5×1.5 m, weight is 9.5 tons! It is now on dis-
it ingrowths into graphic (pismenny) granite. play in front of the Geological Museum in
From other known deposits of helvine, Ilmeny Ekaterinburg.
Mountains mineral differentiate by its non- Multimineral secretion. Secretions com-
crystalline form, by being in large quantities posed by polymineral aggregate are known
and dark red-brown tint” (Eremeev, 1868). around village Kizilskoye. In one of the out-
crops of volcanic rocks on the left bank of the Ilmeny mineralogist V.O. Polyakov. Mi-
River Ural the author has discovered secre- ass. 2006. 187 p. (in Russian).
tion up to 70×50 cm, composed of quartz, Melnikov M.P. Geognostical tour along the
chalcedon, zeolite and calcite. rivers and Uvelka and Uy in cottages of
Thus, the South Ural with its wealth of dif- Orenburg Cossack army in Troitsk Uezd.
ferent mineral species is characterized by the 1883 (See also: Melnikov M.P. Geognostical
presence of large and giant mineral agre- tour along the rivers Uvelka and Uy in cot-
gates, including the well-faceted crystals, tages of Orenburg Cossack army in Troitsk
which certainly attract the professional min- Uezd // Materials for geology of Russia.
eralogists and amateur collectors. 1898. T. 13. P. 248–375) (in Russian).
Minerals of the world (The most beautiful and
References famous). M.: Avanta. 2001. 184 p. (in Rus-
sian).
Balandin R.K. A.E. Fersman. M.: Prosvesche- Popov V.A., Popova V.I. Ilmeny Mountains:
nie. 1982. 111 p. (in Russian). the Mineralogy of Pegmatites / Mine-
Belkovskiy A.I. To Mineralogy pegmatites ralogical Almanac. 2006. No. 9. 156 p.
Ufaley metamorphic unit (Central Urals Pronin L.A. Ural Geological Museum. Sverd-
uplift Middle Urals) // Ural mineralogical lovsk: Middle Ural book publishing hou-
digest. Miass-Ekaterinburg. 2010. No. 17. se. 1985. 285 p. (in Russian).
P. 118–124 (in Russian). Soshina V.G. Geological report Irtyashskoy
Eremeev P.V. Notes of the Imperial St.-Pe- GRP. 1944. Chelyabinsk branch of the FBU
tersburg Mineralogical Society. 1868. "TFGI on UFD" (manuscript) (in Russian).
No. 4. 332 p. (in Russian). Zavaritsky A.N. Materials for the study of gold-
Kolisnichenko S.V. To the history of the pit bearing regions of the Urals. Leningrad:
No. 299 in Ilmeny // Seventh Scientific Geological Committee. 1926. 144 p. (in
National Russian Read for the memory of Russian).

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RUSSIAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

FERSMAN MINERALOGICAL MUSEUM

Editor in Chief Victor K. Garanin, Doctor in Science, Professor

Editorial Board Margarita I. Novgorodova, Doctor in Science, Professor,

Photo Michael B. Leybov

Crystal Chemistry, Minerals as Prototypes

On the 150th anniversary of the birth of V.I. Vernadsky

Mineralogical Museums and Collections

Table 2. X-ray powder diffraction data for laptevite-(Ce)

observed calculated observed calculated

Table 3. Comparative characteristic of minerals: laptevite-(Ce), vicanite-(Ce), okanoganite-(Y), hundholmenite-

The baratovite KLi3Ca7Ti2[Si6O18]2F2 – katayamalite KLi3Ca7Ti2[Si6O18]2(ОH)2 mineral series is found in

Introduction feldspar rocks, in pyroxene-quartz-feldspar

Symbols in the geological map:

Baratovite mineral group locations:

Mode of occurence distributed throughout the area (up to 75%).

Fig. 4. Baratovite from the Hodzha-Achkan massif:

are also differences between Hodzha-Achkan leucocratic fine-grained quartz-albite-mic­

Fig. 5. The baratovite grain in microcline

Calculated on the basis of:

О = 6 apfu О=3 apfu О = 12 apfu

Si+4 1.98 2.01 1.99 2.02 2.00 1.00 3.00 2.93

Note: * – Fe+2/Fe+3 calculated.

Fig. 6. Chart of clinopyroxene compositions (mol.%) from

Darai-Pioz (miserite – bearing quartz-albite-microcline rocks):

Ivagi (aegirine syenite):

Ternary tops correspond to:

Fig. 7. Accessory minerals from baratovite-containing rocks of Hodzha-Achkan:

it is a rock-forming mineral. It forms white to The other widespread accessory minerals

F 0.00 2.22 4.18 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.24 0.00 0.00

ekanite, is widespread at Darai-Pioz, where it is 1993), it also occurs pseudomorphing mi­

Table 5. Cell dimensions of baratovite minerals group

Name a, Å b, Å c, Å β, ○ V, A3 Location Reference

Hodzha-Achkan, Our data

Note. * – α = 89.98(10); γ = 89.94(10) (Baur, Kassner, 1992)

Fig. 8. Baratovite grain

–O=F2 –0.63 –0.73 –0.39 –0.61 –0.44 – –0.43 –0.11 –0.14 –

Total 99.18 98.91 98.87 99.24 100.31 – 98.58 98.67 99.83 –

Calculated on the basis of Si + Al = 12 apfu

Li+ 2.96 3.00 3.00 2.96 1.96 – 3.00 3.00 3.00 –

Sn+4 0.04 0.09 0.08 0.08 – – 0.20 0.02 – –

Nb+5 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.02 0.08 – 0.00 0 – –

O-2 35.92 35.64 35.72 35.79 37.23 – 36.02 35.78 35.78 –

Compo- Baratovite Katayamalite

Calculated on the basis of Si + Al = 12 apfu

Fig. 9. Baratovite IR spectra:

number analyses in classes

Fig. 10. A histogram of fluorine

distribution in the baratovite-

classes fluorine contents, apfu

Fig. 11. Compositions (mol.%) of the baratovite mineral group

Photo- Diffrac­ Photo- Diffrac­

1 9.70 3 9.663 0 0 2 20 2.106 2 2.108 10 2.107 4 2 5

Photo- Diffrac­ Photo- Diffrac­

The stratified and intrusive formations of ridge) // Mineralogiya i geokhimiya.

COGENETIC ZIRCON, MONAZITE, XENOTIME, AND FLUORAPATITE

Review of gumbeites formation gradually changes downward to gumbeites.

Fig. 1. Fragments of zoned column

Notes. A Jeol SM-6480 LV electron microprobe, N.N. Korotaeva analyst.

are also differences between Hodzha-Achkan leucocratic fine-grained quartz-albite-mic

ekanite, is widespread at Darai-Pioz, where it is 1993), it also occurs pseudomorphing mi

Photo- Diffrac Photo- Diffrac

Photo- Diffrac Photo- Diffrac

Notes. A Camebax-microbeam electron microprobe, I.M. Ku

Fig. 3. Cathode lu

Fig. 4. IR spectra of polycrystalline