146 December, 2014 Agric Eng Int: CIGR Journal Open access at http://www.cigrjournal.org Vol. 16, No.

Potential of densification of mango waste and effect of binders on

produced briquettes

Abia Katimbo1, Nicholas Kiggundu1*, Simon Kizito2, Hussein Balimunsi Kivumbi1,

and Peter Tumutegyereize1
(1. Department of Agricultural and Bio-systems Engineering, College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences,
Makerere University, P.O Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda
2. Department of Forestry, Biodiversity and Tourism, Makerere University, P.O Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda)

Abstract: In Uganda, agro-processing of fruits produces large volumes of agricultural wastes, much of which are not utilized
but disposed in the landfill. This study explored the possibility of producing biomass briquettes from mango waste (seed
covers) that could be used for energy supply in small factories and for domestic cooking. Mangoes were selected because of
their abundance throughout the country and its high fiber content which is a good property for a raw material for briquetting.
Dried mango seed covers were crushed to particles of size 2 mm and bonded with three different binders; starch, starch-clay soil,
and starch-red soil. The best mixing ratios for briquettes were; 4:1 (seed-cover: starch), 9:2:1 (seed cover: starch: clay soil),
and 16:4:1 (seed-cover: starch: red soil). The formed briquettes were subjected to several standard methods to verify their
suitability as fuels. The briquette properties tested were moisture content, volatile matter, ash content, fixed carbon content,
calorific value, compressive strength, and gas emissions. Results showed that briquettes bonded with only starch had higher
fuel properties (p≤0.05) with low: moisture content (11.9%), volatile matter (16.0%), ash content (2.8%) and emissions
(0.178% CO, 0.0021% (CH)X , 1.14% CO2 and no NOx); higher fixed carbon (69.3%), breaking strength (maximum force, 34 N
and compressive stress, 273 N/mm2) and calorific values (16,140 kJ/kg) compared to starch-red soil and starch-clay soil
briquettes. But after a linear regression analysis, results further showed that maximum force (R2 = 0.636) and ash content
(R2 = 0.520) were good indicators of energy content of a particular briquette. However, more research is needed on using
other binder types rather than cassava starch which is considered as food.

Keywords: Agricultural wastes, binders, briquettes, briquette properties

Citation: Katimbo,A., N.Kiggundu, S.Kizito, H. B.Kivumbi, and P.Tumutegyereize. 2014. Potential of densification of
mango waste and effect of binders on produced briquettes. Agric Eng Int: CIGR Journal, 16(4): 146－155.

large dams and small hydro projects. About 95% of the

1 Introduction 

Uganda’s population cannot access electricity because of

In Uganda, energy use distribution is skewed to the slow spreading of grid connections country wide
biomass use which supplies more than 90% of the (Kamese, 2004). In Uganda, biomass inform of wood
country’s energy needs, with wood representing 70%, fuels is still a major source of fuel to both rural and urban
charcoal16% and crop residue at nearly4% (Hamish, populations. Because of this, fuel being cheap and often
2012). Other energy sources include fossil fuels which free, it has contributed to its dominant use and easy
account for 5% and hydroelectricity only 5% from two accessibility by many people. The use of wood fuels is
also extended to small scale industries like brick and tile
Received date: 2014-06-11 Accepted date: 2014-10-29 production, agro-processing, and fish processing (Chaney,
* Corresponding author: Nicholas Kiggundu, Department of
2010).
Agricultural and Bio-systems Engineering, College of Agricultural
and Environmental Sciences, Makerere University, P.O Box 7062, Over the years, the over exploitation of forests to
Kampala, Uganda. Email: kiggundu@caes.mak.ac.ug. collect wood fuel have led to forest’s constant exhaustion,
 December, 2014 Agric Eng Int: CIGR Journal Open access at http://www.cigrjournal.org Vol. 16, No.4 147

irregular rampant soil erosions, and non-uniform and and Sahin, 1998), etc. However, not much is known on
unreliable rainfall distribution (Mani et al., 2006). In briquette production using mango wastes generated from
Africa, the search for fire wood is left to children and either agro-processing industries or homes.
women who walk long distances hence reducing the time Mangoes are among the common fruits that are
they put in agricultural production and other household consumed by many people and also used in juice
activities. It results into low production, low incomes production from their extractions in agro-processing
and household food insecurity (Kagere, 2012). Though industries in Uganda. And during their processing and
some urban population that are above poverty line have raw consumption, seeds and peelings generated as waste
access to fuels like kerosene, LPD gas, electricity, still are not utilized. They are disposed off and left to
these fuels are relatively expensive to be used as the only decompose or dried and burnt in a loose form which
energy sources for cooking. Incidentally, fuels like results into air pollution (Aina et al., 2009). However,
kerosene, LPD gas when burnt, emit greenhouse gases the declining fuel wood and charcoal sources and rising
which have contributed to global warming (Sugumaran prices of electricity, kerosene and LPG cooking gas calls
and Seshadri, 2010). for seeking alternative energy sources for both domestic
Every year, agricultural wastes are collected in large and industrial use (Hamish, 2012). Therefore, this study
volumes from homes, markets and processing industries attempted to find out whether these wastes have potential
to the landfills. This contributes to biochemical as an alternative source of fuel if densified and used as
reactions which take place on landfill sites leading to briquettes and also to assess the effect of binders on the
formation of methane and leachate that pollute the properties of the briquettes produced. The physical and
atmosphere and ground water (Sugumaran and Seshadri, thermal fuel properties of briquettes were evaluated to
2010). Some homes dry the waste in the back yards and determine their suitability for use.
later burnt inefficiently in the loose form causing air
2 Materials and methods
pollution. The habit of people throwing away wastes
into water channels during rainy season has been the 2.1 Source of waste and material preparation
major cause of floods in some areas around Kampala. Mango wastes were collected from Food Technology
Most people have not realized that these agricultural Business Incubation Center (FTBIC), Makerere
wastes are potential huge source of energy giving University, Kampala, Uganda. Wastes were then
materials derived from the animal and plant residues transported to Makerere University Agricultural Research
(Jekayinfa and Omisakin, 2005). Nevertheless, these Institute Kabanyoro (MUARIK) in Wakiso district for
agricultural residues have so many disadvantages, mostly further briquette production processes. The raw material
attributed to low bulk densities but can be converted into was prepared from the wastes through series of steps,
high density fuel by briquetting. Therefore, wastes can involving drying under solar dryer to moisture content of
be recycled into a renewable energy source by converting about 10% to 15% as proposed by (Mishra and Grover,
the biomass into high density fuel which is offered in 1996). The selected waste was mango seed covers
acceptable form and at a reasonable price (Kaur et al., which were separated from the mango pulp by crushing
2012). after drying to obtain the fibrous seed cover. The seed
From the bioenergy literature, research has been covers were milled to smaller particles that passed
conducted using different agricultural wastes and binders through a sieve of 2 mm. This was done to increase the
to produce briquettes having different heating values. surface area of the material which improves on the
Briquettes have been produced from saw dust of different binding and strength of the binder-particle and
wood species, wood ash, cow dung and starch (Emerhi, inter-particle bonds.
2011); coconut husk and waste paper (Olorunnisola, 2.2 Binder preparation and mix combinations
2007); rice husk, saw dust and waste paper (Chin et al., 2.2.1 Starch binder
2008); wheat straw, saw dust and waste paper (Demirbas A paste was made from 153 g of cassava flour and
 148 December, 2014 Potential of densification of mango waste and effect of binders on produced briquettes Vol. 16, No.4

0.02 L of cold water maintained at 10°C and thereafter capable of increasing the binding strength and the density
poured into 0.08 L of boiling water at a temperature of of briquettes.
100°C. Continuous mixing was done to produce a good 2.3 Mixing combinations
binder with more water and less sticky. In the final The applied binder mix combinations used were; 1)
mixture making up the required binder, water was starch and clayey soil, 2) starch and red soil, 3) starch.
allowed to disperse without any clumps of flour, which Different ratios were used by weighing the raw material
took 10 min. (crushed mango seed cover) and corresponding binders
2.2.2 Clayey soil respectively using a digital weighing scale. The mixture
A block of dry clayey was obtained and crushed into of raw material and binder proportions used to produce
small clamps which were after soaked into water in a the briquettes with desired qualities were summarized in
basin until all were dissolved to form soft clayey soil. Table 1.
The soft clayey helps to increase the binding strength Table 1 Mixing ratios for the desired produced briquettes
properties within the selected material other than the dry Mixture Proportions
clayey. Seed cover: Starch: Clayey soil 9:2:1

2.2.3 Red soil Seed Cover: Starch: Red soil 16:4:1

Seed cover: Starch 4:1
The red soil was got from the anthill found in one of
the gardens at MUARIK and was also dissolved in water. 2.4 Briquette production process
Such soil is reddish in colour and classified as Each mixture was filled in the mold and placed on to
RhodicFerrolsols according to FAO-UNESCO (1988). the pressing hydraulic machine for compaction. The
Taxonomically the soil is highly weathered and devoid of maximum compaction pressure was 100 MPa read from
weathered mineral. Ants obtain the soil from a depth of the pressure gauge which was inserted at the pressing
about 30-70 cm with following horizontal description: point of the machine. This helped in regulating the
Reddish brown 5 YR 4/4 moist, clay loam; weak coarse constant compaction pressure and prevention of oozing
angular blocky; friable sticky, slightly plastic; few fine out of the binder. Twenty cylindrical briquettes with
roots; many termite channels and fine to medium pores; diameter of 4cm and height 2.5 cm (see Figure 1) were
diffuse boundary. The soil is deficient in soil organic produced from mixing ratios of binders given in Table 1.
matter and has low total N, pH, available P, K, and Ca. They were then dried in solar dryer for three weeks at
The aim of considering these soils is because they are MUARIK.

a. Starch briquettes b. Starch-Clayey soil briquettes c. Starch- Red soil briquettes

Figure 1 Produced briquettes

2.5 Preparation of specimen for fuel properties tests determinations.

Samples of starch, starch-clay soil, and starch-red soil 2.6 Determination of physical properties of briquettes
briquettes made from mixing ratios given in Table 1 were 2.6.1 Density
selected for grating and filing to get specimen with finer Density was calculated from the ratio of the mass to
and smaller particles which were used in fuel properties the volume of the briquette. Mass was obtained by
 December, 2014 Agric Eng Int: CIGR Journal Open access at http://www.cigrjournal.org Vol. 16, No.4 149

weighing the briquette on the digital weighing scale and procedures. Moisture content was determined using the
volume using the formula of cylinder while subtracting gravimetrical oven method as performed in ASTM
off the volume of the hole within the briquette. E1358-97(2013) standard procedures. Gross energy
2.6.2 Compressive strength calorific value was determined as per ASTM
It is the maximum crushing load a briquette can E711-87(2004) procedures using the bomb calorimeter.
withstand before breaking or cracking. Compressive The percentage fixed carbon was calculated using the
resistance was determined using diametrical compression equation in accordance with (Akowuah et al., 2013),
test as performed by (Kaliyan and Morey, 2009), using a where the sum of the percentages of moisture content, ash
Universal Testing Machine-Tinius Olsen H50KT. The content and volatile matter was subtracted from 100%.
load was applied perpendicular to the axis of the To carry emission tests out, briquettes were packed on
briquettes. Maximum force (N) and compressive stress the domestic clay stoves and ignited (Figure 2). The gas
2
(N/mm ) were recorded before breaking and cracking of analyzer was set to the available room gases before
the briquettes. Qwat software plotted out the stress-strain reading off the emitted gases from the screen in
curve on the monitor and then values imported into the accordance with (Yuhazri et al., 2012). After sometime,
Microsoft Excel™. concentrations of emitted gases were recorded during the
2.7 Determination of combustion properties of briquettes burning and without burning of briquettes. A gas
Volatile matter was determined as per ASTM analyzer read concentration of carbon dioxide (CO2),
E897-88 (2004) standard procedures. Ash content was carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx) and
determined using ASTM E830-87(2004) standard unburnt hydrogen carbons ((CH)X).

a. Starch-Red soil briquettes b. Starch-Clayey briquettes c. Starch briquettes

Figure 2 Testing emissions from, A) Starch-Red soil briquettes, B) Starch-Clayey briquettes and C) Starch briquettes

2.8 Experimental design and statistical analysis out which factor highly influence the briquettes’ calorific
The experiment was set up as a completely values by setting up a linear regression model using Excel
randomized experimental design with three treatments (Microsoft Corp., 2007) and an R-squared (R2) factor was
(starch, starch-clay, starch-red soil) replicated three times. used.
Data was then analyzed for differences among treatment
2 Results
means based on fuel properties (moisture content, volatile
matter, ash content, fixed carbon content, calorific value, The physical and combustions properties of the
and compressive strength) using SAS statistical software briquettes produced from mango seed covers were limited
(SAS Institute, Cary, NC, USA). A one-way analysis of to density, compressive strength, percentage moisture
variance (ANOVA) was performed and treatment means content, percentage volatile matter, percentage ash content,
separated using Waller-Duncan K-ratio Test to test for percentage fixed carbon and the calorific value. Table 2
significance differences (p≤0.05) in the properties is showing the mean values of physical and combustion
exhibited by the different briquettes. The obtained properties of the briquettes.
significant fuel properties were further analyzed to find
 150 December, 2014 Agric Eng Int: CIGR Journal Open access at http://www.cigrjournal.org Vol. 16, No.4

Table 2 Mean values of physical and combustion properties of mango seed cover briquettes
Physical parameters Combustion parameters
z
Briquette types
Density, Maximum Compressive stress, Moisture Volatile matter, Ash content, Fixed carbon, Calorific value,
kg/m3×103 Force, N N/mm2 content, % % % % kJ/kg×103

Starch-Clayey soil 1.66b 183.7b 22.9a 11.9a 22.9a 10.2b 66.9b 15.918a
Starch-Red soil 1.559b 160.7b 16.7a 11.0a 20.6b 10.9a 68.5b 15.100a
Starch 1.464a 272.6a 34.0a 11.9a 16.0c 2.8c 81.2a 16.140a
Note: z, Elements with same letter within columns are not significantly different (p≤0.05).

3.1 Physical properties of briquettes starch. Additionally, the compressive stress was not
3.1.1 Density different (p≤0.05), probably because the constant applied
The average densities for briquettes from different compressive forces were acting upon the same cross
binder combinations are shown in Table 2. The sectional areas of the briquettes. Briquettes (starch
3
densities exceeded the range of 1,100 kg/m for briquettes -clayey soil, starch-red soil) with low breaking strength
made from charcoal saw dust by (Akowuah et al.,2012), were weak which caused them to crumble faster during
produced by use of a screw press briquetting machine at a burning and easily break during their transportation to the
die pressure range of 100 to 200 MPa with no additives potential end users. Also such briquettes burn at a
and starch as binders. This implies that our briquettes shortest time and less heat is generated in the process.
are denser and have a longer burning time when used for High compressive stress and maximum force of starch
drying and heating or cooking. However, there was a briquettes, indicates more volume displacement which is
difference (p≤0.05) between the density of starch good for packaging, storage and transportation and above
briquettes compared to starch-clayey and starch-red all, it is an indication of good quality briquettes because
briquettes because of the addition of the bulky densities of the strong inter-particle bonds (Kaliyan and Morey,
of such soils to the material with starch during the 2009).
mixture compaction, thus have much influence on 3.2 Combustion properties of briquettes
briquette density variations whose bulky densities were 3.2.1 Moisture content
added onto the total density of briquettes (Olorunnisola, There was higher moisture content in briquettes made
2007). using starch and starch-clayey binders compared to those
3.1.2 Compressive strength produced with starch binder (Table 2). But, there was
The maximum force and compressive stress of starch no difference (p≤0.05) between moisture content of all
briquettes were higher than briquettes produced from briquettes because the material was dried to the
other binding materials (starch and clayey soil, starch recommended levels which did not exceed 10% and this
and red soil) in Table 2. There was a difference (p≤0.05) was also pointed out by (Olorunnisola, 2007) and (Mishra
between the maximum force on starch briquettes and Grover, 1996). And also at 18% moisture content
compared to other briquettes because of variations in the level and below, the material does not contain free water
strength of bonds between the material and binder and but water is chemically bonded within the material
within the particles. The use of other binders like red (bound water), thus properties will not be influenced by
and clayey soils has particles which tried to co-exist moisture content so long as it is less than 18% as shown
between the inter-particle bonds as well as in Table 2 (Olorunnisola, 2007). Another factor was
binder-material bonds. Other reasons of weaker bonds that all the briquettes were dried under the same
probably was because the soil particles tried to block the conditions (same solar dryer, drying temperatures and
inflow of binders mainly starch into the material particles. drying times). The mean percentages of moisture
Since the breaking strength increases with increasing content were slightly higher by 0.09% in starch-clay
compacting pressure (Kers et al., 2010), this explains that briquettes compared to starch-red soil briquettes, because
all the voids within the material were all filled by the a binder additive like clayey is less porous than red soil
 December, 2014 Agric Eng Int: CIGR Journal Open access at http://www.cigrjournal.org Vol. 16, No.4 151

and do not easily loose water to the atmosphere at drying volatile matter have an incomplete combustion which
temperatures. Moisture content determines the briquette contributes to release of significant amount of smoke and
quality and burning characteristics of briquettes. When toxic gases (Akowuah et al., 2012) which is supported by
the moisture content is low, the briquettes will easily be the emission results in Figure3.
ignited, no slaggness during burning will occur and 3.2.3 Ash content
higher calorific values are expected from the fuel. Briquettes from starch had very low ash content,
Moisture content levels help in planning of proper followed by starch-clayey briquettes and lastly starch-red
handling of the briquettes when stored and during soil as shown in Table 2. The cause of difference
transportation to the access points by the consumers. (p≤0.05) between ash content of all briquettes was a
This prevents the deviation from the required moisture result of the added proportions of clayey and red soil
range of about 10% to 15% according to (Mishra and which have particles within their bonded structures which
Grover, 1996) due to hygroscopic properties of the easily turn into ash after combustion. This was also
material being handled. This range identified by Mishra observed by Olorunnisola (2007). Briquettes bonded
and Grover (1996), results into a denser, more stable and with only starch without clayey and red soils released less
more durable briquettes. With high moisture content in ash content thus improving their quality. In terms of
the briquette, much of the heat will be used to vaporize saving on handling and disposal costs after the briquettes
the surplus water and sometimes briquettes tear into have been used for various economic purposes, which is
pieces with low burning rate and less heat is generated an added advantage (Olorunnisola, 2007). Ash is the
with too much smoke emitted (Akowuah et al., 2012). non-combustible component of biomass and it influences
3.2.2 Volatile matter (p≤0.05) on the heat transfer to the surface of the fuel as
There was variation in volatile matter of briquettes well as the diffusion of oxygen to the fuel surface during
produced as observed in Table 2. There was a char combustion. High ash content results into dust
difference (p≤0.05) between volatile matter of the starch, emissions which lead to air pollution and affects the
starch-clayey and starch-red soil briquettes which was combustion volume and efficiency. The higher the
expected, because clayey and red soils are known to have fuel’s ash content, the lower its calorific value since it
insignificant quantity of organic matter but with influences the burning rate due to minimization of the
predominant inorganic particles. Therefore, high heat transfer to fuel’s interior parts and diffusion of
proportion of volatile matter was a result of high oxygen to the briquette surface during char combustion
proportion of organic matter in the material (Olorunnisola, (Chaney, 2010). Hence, briquettes made from starch are
2007). However, the values of volatile matter were most suitable for cooking and showed higher calorific
higher than those obtained by other researchers like; values (p≤0.05), which believed that ash in this case was
(Akowuah et al., 2012); (Emerhi, 2011); (Olorunnisola, the dependent factor.
2007), which explains that the material and binders which 3.2.4 Fixed carbon
were selected are better for briquetting. Briquettes had The percentage fixed carbon of briquettes from starch
relatively high volatile matter which is an indication of was higher than starch-red soil and starch-clayey soil as
easy ignition, fast burning and proportionate increase in presented in Table 2. However, there was a difference
flame length. Some biomass generally contains high (p≤0.05) between starch briquettes compared to others
volatile matter of around 70% and 80% with low char because clayey and red soils in their compaction state,
content (Akowuah et al., 2012). This makes mango seed they are believed scientifically for having low fixed
covers bonded with starch having lowest volatile matter carbon thus prolonging the cooking time of briquettes due
to be highly reactive giving a faster combustion rate to their low heat release (bake-oven effect) (Olorunnisola,
during the devolatisation phase than other briquettes. 2007). The fixed carbon of the briquette is a percentage
Briquettes(starch and starch-red soil)with much lower of carbon (solid fuel) available for char combustion after
 152 December, 2014 Potential of densification of mango waste and effect of binders on produced briquettes Vol. 16, No.4

volatile matter is distilled off or lost to the atmosphere. exhibited better flame length and ignition qualities with
Therefore, fixed carbon gives a rough estimate of the desired energy values which are good to produce the
heating value of fuel and acts as the main heat generator required heat to be used in processing industries and
during burning (Akowuah et al., 2012). When only households. The structure of the briquettes with the hole
starch was used as the binder, gave a high percentage of in the center also contributes to the combustion properties
fixed carbon suggesting the reasons as to why high of the briquettes since it helps in the circulation of air for
calorific values were exhibited by these briquettes. continuous burning.
Fixed carbon positively correlated with carbon monoxide, 3.2.6 Emission concentrations
with less fixed carbon contained in the briquettes gave High carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide
less carbon monoxide. And this is strongly supported by concentrations were emitted from starch-red soil
the emission results presented in Figure 3 from all briquettes, followed by starch briquettes and
briquettes. The low fixed carbon in starch-clayey starch-clayey briquettes (Figure 3). Since fixed carbon
briquettes indicates prolonged cooking time but with low is the main component of the formation of carbon
heat released, because of the effect of added clayey which monoxide, with less fixed carbon contained in the
tends to reduce the calories of the briquettes by causing briquettes, low carbon monoxide is expected. Volatile
the fuel-saving effect (Olorunnisola, 2007). matter is also important for conditioning the reaction of
3.2.5 Calorific values conversion of carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide
According to Table 2, heating values for starch, because the combustion of volatile matter results into
starch-clayey and starch-red soil briquettes reduced in higher heat than solid phases which involve only
that sequence as listed respectively. They also compare conduction of heat transfer by briquettes volume (Abqari
well with most biomass energies, for examples; et al., 2009). The increase in temperature supports the
groundnut shell briquette- 12,600 kJ/kg (Kaliyan and formation of carbon dioxide which then reduces the
Morey, 2009); cowpea- 14,372.93 kJ/kg and soybeans- carbon monoxide emission during the subsequent burning
12,953 kJ/kg (Enweremadu et al. 2004); rice husk- of briquettes. The high increase for carbon monoxide in
13,389 kJ/kg and Corncob briquettes- 20,890 kJ/kg starch-red soil and starch briquettes reflects the
(Kaliyan and Morey, 2009). However, there was no dominance of char burning compared to flaming
difference (p≤0.05) between the calorific values of combustion (Edwards et al., 2004). A good quality
briquettes. Because all the binders used (starch, clayey briquette is one that contains small amount of CO, CO2,
and red soils) are known to have the ability to release as NOx gases released during combustion. Because such
much heat as possible as also observed by different gases cause air pollution and have effects to human health
scientists like (Emerhi, 2011) and (Olorunnisola, 2007). and thus hazardous to people involved in cooking.
The type of binders used is one of the important factors
which should be considered during briquetting with aim
of enough heat released. Different researchers have
observed that clayey and red soils have bake oven effect
and fuel-saving effect with contribution to heat released
from the briquettes. And since the aim of briquetting
the agricultural residues, is to produce a good and
efficient high giving energy fuel source that can support
combustion, use of the material-starch ratio is one of the
best mixture to be considered when briquetting mango Figure 3 Variations of emissions from combustion of produced
seed covers. During combustion, starch briquettes briquettes
 December, 2014 Agric Eng Int: CIGR Journal Open access at http://www.cigrjournal.org Vol. 16, No.4 153

3.3 Determining the degree of influence of significant force-R2=0.64 (positive correlation), volatile matter-
fuel properties on the calorific values of briquettes R2=0.15 (negative correlation), ash content- R2=0.52
In order to come up with a comparison and (negative correlation) and fixed carbon-R2=0.34 (positive
relationship between the calorific value with the rest of correlation). Maximum force and ash content had
2
fuel properties that could be explained statistically, a higher R values which explain that these properties have
linear regression analysis model (Figure 4) was selected much effect on the calorific values of briquettes. Also
and used for analysis. The R-squared coefficient was looking at the correlations of each factor, further explains
used to determine a better estimate for the degree of that when maximum force is increased, the more heat
influence of the properties on calorific values of values given out and the more ash content increases, the
briquettes, where calorific value was the dependent factor heat values reduces. Therefore, these two factors are the
and properties such as maximum force, volatile matter, most important variables which should be considered
ash content and fixed carbon as the independent factors. during the aim of efficient energy supply from mango
2
The obtained R values for each factor where; maximum seed cover briquettes.

Figure 4 Linear regression analyses for the significant fuel properties and calorific value

• The particle size of the material plays an important

4 Conclusions
role during material preparation for briquetting. and 2 mm
The following conclusions can be drawn from this particle size forms a fibrous(powder-like) product
research: essentially suitable for material densification
• Mango wastes such as seed covers are potential raw • Ash content and maximum breaking force are the
material for briquette production best indicators and determinants for the heat values
• The quality of briquettes produced from the seed produced by these briquettes
covers are highly influenced by the binder types used • With this alternative of clean energy use of briquettes,
• To have high heat released which is enough for there will be reduction on the number of trees cut per year
drying, heating and cooking, the material should be for firewood thus mitigating the occurrences of climate
bonded with starch. Starch briquettes also have more changes. The amount of starch flour required to produce
benefits linked to less release of carbon, ash and emissions one hundred (100) briquettes is approximately 0.5 kg of
which have effects to the atmosphere flour. This can be obtained from ¾ of the whole piece of
 154 December, 2014 Potential of densification of mango waste and effect of binders on produced briquettes Vol. 16, No.4

cassava finger. Although some starch can be obtained Forestry and Geographical sciences, Makerere University
from cassava wastes, there is a need to quantify the impact who allowed us to access the equipment for the
on household food security if cassava flour is to be used a compressive strength tests. We thank School of Food
binder in briquette production. Thus, more research is Science, Nutrition and Bio-engineering, Makerere
needed to explore other binders than cassava starch. University for their acceptance to use all equipment
Furthermore, survey on cost analysis and adoption of available during the experimental set ups. We also take
this technology has to be carried out to show the the opportunity to thank Food Technology Business
acceptability and future market potential for mango waste Incubation Center (FTBIC), Makerere University,
briquettes among households and processing industries. Kampala, Uganda, for their support in funding this
project and provision of mango wastes which we used as
Acknowledgements our raw material for the research.
Sincere thanks go out to the authority of School of

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