Biology Chapter 2

 Since the dawn of civilization, there have been many attempts to classify
living organisms.
Carolus Linnaeus discovered a two Kingdom system of classification with Plantae

and Animalia kingdoms, but this system did not distinguish between the eukaryotes
and prokaryotes, unicellular and multicellular organisms, and photosynthetic (green
algae) and non-photosynthetic (fungi) organisms.
Fig. Carolus Linnaeus
 H. Whittaker (1969) proposed a Five Kingdom Classification, and the

kingdoms defined by him were named Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and
Animalia.
The main criteria for classification used by Whittaker include cell structure, thallus
organisation, mode of nutrition, reproduction and phylogenetic relationships
Kingdom Monera
 Bacteria are the sole members of the Kingdom Monera.
 Bacteria are grouped under four categories based on their shape
 spherical Coccus
 rod-shaped Bacillus
 comma-shaped Vibrium
 spiral Spirillum.
Fig. Categories of bacteria
 Bacteria are divided into two major groups

 Archaebacteria
Archaebacteria
 They live in some of the most harsh habitats such as extreme salty areas
called as halophiles, hot springs and so, named as thermoacidophiles,
marshy areas and hence, named as
 The can survive in extreme habitats due to a different cell wall structure.
 Methanogens are present in the guts of several ruminant animals and they
are responsible for the production of methane (biogas).
Fig. Archaebacteria
Eubacteria
 Eubacteria are known as true bacteria, and are cauterized by the presence of
a rigid cell wall, and if motile, a flagellum.
 The cyanobacteria or blue-green algae have chlorophyll a similar to green
plants and are photosynthetic autotrophs.
 The cyanobacteria are unicellular, colonial or filamentous, marine or terrestrial
algae, and the colonies are generally surrounded by gelatinous sheath.
 Some of the cyanobacteria can fix atmospheric nitrogen in specialized cells
called heterocyst. For example- Nostoc and Anabaena.
Fig. Anabaena
Chemosynthetic autotrophic bacteria oxidize various inorganic substances such as

nitrates, nitrites and ammonia and use the released energy for their ATP production.
 Heterotrophic bacteria are important decomposers.
 They are helpful in making curd from milk, production of antibiotics, fixing
nitrogen in legume roots.
 Some are pathogens causing damage to human beings, crops and cause
cholera, typhoid, tetanus to human being.
 Bacteria reproduce mainly by fission, or producing spores under unfavorable
conditions or by a sort of sexual reproduction transferring DNA from one
bacterium to other.
 The Mycoplasmas are organisms that completely lack a cell wall, and they are
the smallest living cells known, which can survive without oxygen.
Kingdom Protista
 All single-celled eukaryotes are placed under Protista.
 Chrysophytes, Dianoflagellates, Euglenoids, Slime moulds and Protozoans
are under Protista.
 The protistan cell body contains a well-defined nucleus and other membrane-
bound organelles.
 Protists reproduce asexually and sexually by a process involving cell fusion
and zygote formation.
Chrysophytes
 This group includes diatoms and golden algae (desmids), found in fresh water
as well as in marine environments.
 In diatoms the cell walls form two thin overlapping shells embedded with
silica.
 diatoms have left behind large amount of cell wall deposits in their habitat,
which accumulated over billions of years is referred to as ‘diatomaceous
earth’ .
 Most of them are photosynthetic and are the chief ‘producers’ in the oceans.
Fig. Chryosphytes
 Mostly marine and photosynthetic.

 The cell wall has stiff cellulose plates on the outer surface.
 Yellow, green, brown, blue or red pigments are present in their cell.
 Most of them have two flagella; one lies longitudinally and the other
transversely in a furrow between the wall plates.
 Red dianoflagellates undergo such rapid multiplication that they make the sea
appear red (red tides). Example: Gonyaulax.
Fig. Dianoflagellates
 Majority of euglenoids are fresh water organisms.

 They have a protein rich layer called pellicle which makes their body flexible.
 They have two flagella, a short and a long one.
 They are photosynthetic in the presence of sunlight, when deprived of sunlight
they behave like heterotrophs.
Example- Euglena
Fig. Euglena
Slime Moulds
 Slime moulds are saprophytic protists.

 Under suitable conditions, they form an aggregation called plasmodium, and
during unfavourable conditions, the plasmodium differentiates and forms
fruiting bodies bearing spores at their tips.
 The spores possess true walls, and they are extremely resistant and survive
for many years.
Protozoans
 All protozoans are heterotrophs and live as predators or parasites.

Fig. Protozoans
 There are four major groups of protozoans
1. Amoeboid protozoans:
 These organisms live in fresh water, sea water or moist soil.

 They show Amoeba like movements and move and capture their pray with the
help of pseudopodia.
Example- Entamoeba, a parasite.
Fig. Entamoeba
1. Flagellated protozoans:
 The members of this group are either free-living or parasitic, and have
flagella.
 The parasitic forms cause diseases such as sleeping sickness.
 Example: Trypanosoma.
Fig. Trypanosome
1. Ciliated protozoans:
 These are aquatic, actively moving organisms because of the presence of

thousands of cilia.
 They have a cavity (gullet) that opens to the outside of the cell surface.
Example: Paramoecium
Fig. Paramecium
1. Sporozoans:
 Sporozoans includes diverse organisms that have an infectious spore-like

stage in their life cycle.
 The most notorious is Plasmodium (malarial parasite) which causes malaria.
Fig. Plasmodium
Kingdom Fungi
 Fungi are heterotrophic organisms.
 Fungi are filamentous, with the exception of unicellular yeasts.
 Fungi consist of long, slender thread-like structures called
 The network of hyphae is known as mycelium.
 Some hyphae are continuous tubes filled with multinucleated cytoplasm,
these are called coenocytic hyphae and others have septae or cross walls in
their hyphae.
 The cell walls of fungi are composed of chitin and polysaccharides.
 Most fungi are heterotrophic and absorb soluble organic matter from dead
substrates and hence are called
 The fungi that depend on living plants and animals are called
 Fungi can also live as symbionts –. Example- in association with algae
as lichens and with roots of higher plants as
Fig. Mycorrhiza
 Reproduction in fungi can take place

 By vegetative means - fragmentation, fission and budding.
 Asexual reproduction is by spores called conidia or sporangiospores or
 Sexual reproduction is by oospores, ascospores and
 The sexual cycle involves the following three steps
 Fusion of protoplasms between two motile or non-motile gametes called
 Fusion of two nuclei called
 Meiosis in zygote resulting in haploid spores.
 The fusion of two haploid cells immediately results in diploid cells (2n), but in
some fungi such as ascomycetes and basidiomycetes, an
intervening dikaryotic stage (n + n i.e. two nuclei per cell) occurs; such a
condition is called a dikaryon and the phase is called dikaryophase of fungus.
 Later, the parental nuclei fuse and the cells become diploid.
 The fungi form fruiting bodies in which reduction division occurs, leading to
formation of haploid spores.
 Kingdom fungi is divided into various classes based on the morphology of the
mycelium, mode of spore formation and fruiting bodies such as
 Phycomycetes
 Ascomycetes
 Basidiomycetes
 Deuteromycetes
Phycomycetes
 Members of phycomycetes are found in aquatic habitats and on decaying

wood in moist and damp places or as obligate parasites on plant.
 The mycelium is aseptate and coenocytic.
 Asexual reproduction takes place by zoospores or by aplanospores and
asexual reproduction takes place by
 If the gametes are similar in morphology, these are called as isogamous or if
dissimilar, they are known as anisogamous or
Example- Mucor, Rhizopus.

Fig. Rhizopus
Ascomycetes
 The ascomycetes are unicellular or multicellular.

 Commonly known as sac-fungi.
 They are saprophytic, decomposers, parasitic or coprophilous.
 Mycelium is branched and septate.
 The asexual spores are conidia produced on conidiophores.
 Sexual spores are called ascospores which are produced endogenously in
sac like asci arranged in different types of fruiting bodies called ascocarps .
Example- Aspergillus , Claviceps and Neurospora.
Fig. Neurospora
Basidiomycetes
 Commonly known forms of basidiomycetes are mushrooms, bracket fungi.

 They grow in soil, on logs and tree stumps or as parasite.
 The mycelium is branched and septate.
 Vegetative reproduction takes place by fragmentation.
 The sex organs are absent, but plasmogamy is brought about by fusion of two
vegetative or somatic cells of different strains which gives rise
to basidium arranged in fruiting bodies called
 Karyogamy and meiosis take place in the basidium producing four
basidiospores.
Example- Agaricus (mushroom), Puccinia (rust fungus).
Fig. Mushroom
Deuteromycetes
 Commonly known as imperfect fungi because only the asexual or vegetative

phases of these fungi are known.
 The deuteromycetes reproduce only by asexual spores known as conidia.
 The mycelium is septate and branched.
 Some are saprophytes or parasites while a large number of them are
decomposers of litter and help in mineral cycling.
Examples- Alternaria, Colletotrichum and Trichoderma.
Fig. Trichoderma
Kingdom Animalia
 This kingdom is characterised by heterotrophic eukaryotic organisms that are
multicellular and their cells lack cell walls.
 The mode of nutrition is holozoic.
 The sexual reproduction is by copulation of male and female followed by
embryological development
Fig. Various animals of the kingdom Animalia

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 Since the dawn of civilization, there have been many attempts to classify

Carolus Linnaeus discovered a two Kingdom system of classification with Plantae

Fig. Carolus Linnaeus

 H. Whittaker (1969) proposed a Five Kingdom Classification, and the

Fig. Categories of bacteria

 Bacteria are divided into two major groups

Chemosynthetic autotrophic bacteria oxidize various inorganic substances such as

 Mostly marine and photosynthetic.

 Majority of euglenoids are fresh water organisms.

 Slime moulds are saprophytic protists.

 All protozoans are heterotrophs and live as predators or parasites.

 There are four major groups of protozoans

 These organisms live in fresh water, sea water or moist soil.

Example- Entamoeba, a parasite.

 These are aquatic, actively moving organisms because of the presence of

 Sporozoans includes diverse organisms that have an infectious spore-like

 Reproduction in fungi can take place

 Members of phycomycetes are found in aquatic habitats and on decaying

Example- Mucor, Rhizopus.

 The ascomycetes are unicellular or multicellular.

Example- Aspergillus , Claviceps and Neurospora.

 Commonly known forms of basidiomycetes are mushrooms, bracket fungi.

Example- Agaricus (mushroom), Puccinia (rust fungus).

 Commonly known as imperfect fungi because only the asexual or vegetative

Examples- Alternaria, Colletotrichum and Trichoderma.

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