Ejp LChemistry

Online classes for TSPSC APPSC SSC BANKING INSURANCE, RAILWAYS
Chemistry
www.kautilyacareers.com 040-27665101 9515870609

Chemistry
Chemistry is the branch of science in which we study the properties, composition and structure-
of materials (all, without any exception) ill the world around us.
Inorganic Chemistry : This mainly deals with the study of all the elements and the properties,
preparation and applications of their compounds.
Organic Chemistry : Although carbon ranks seventeenth in the order of abundance in the
earth's crust, it forms the largest number of compounds, next to hydrogen. Organic Chemistry
deals with all aspects of carbon and its compounds.
Physical Chemistry : The theoretical and mechanical aspects of chemical reactions are dealt
within the-study of physical chemistry.
Biochemistry : This branch of chemistry involves the study of chemical changes and reactions
occurring within living systems and in life processes.
Analytical Chemistry : The study elf constituents and their identification in chemical substances
is studied in Analytical Chemistry. These studies can either be qualitative or quantitative in nature.
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY
Chemicals playa major role in agriculture, mainly in the development of fertilizers and
pesticides. Chemicals used for different processes in agriculture are called agrochemicals.
Chemical Control
It is the best method for ensuring that a farmer's work is not wasted. Pesticides are chemicals
which are applied to crops, e.g. DDT and malathion. They are subdivided according to function:
Insecticides kill those insects which attack growing and harvested crops, livestock, buildings
and man himself. These pests cause damage either directly by feeding or indirectly by transmitting
diseases. They also cause physical damage
Herbicides have a lethal action on plant life and are therefore used to discourage weed growth
without damaging the crop.
Fungicides control parasitic and-saprophytic fungi which live at the expense of growing and
stored crops. The close
Nematicides clear the soil of parasitic eelworms which feed on growing crops. These
microscopic pests attack the root system. They can be controlled by fumigation. Nematicides often
act by mode of the vapour spreading through the soil to reach the invading eelworms.
Molluscicides kill slugs and snails and are usually active after ingestion. The chemical is often
mixed with an attractive bait such as bran which the slug or snail eats.

Fertilizers
Plants, besides needing water and sunlight also require nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium and
potassium for growth. The substances added to the soil to make up the deficiency of these essential
elements are known as fertilizers, these are either natural or synthetic (chemical). For a chemical
fertilizer, the following requirements should be met:
(i) It must be sufficiently soluble in water
(ii) It should be stable so that the element in it may be available for a longer time
(iii) It should contain nothing injurious to plants
Phosphatic Fertilizers All naturally occurring phosphates are orthophosphates, the most
abundant of these being rock phosphate which is mostly consumed by the fertilizer industry in'
the manufacture of 'superphosphate of lime triple superphosphate and nitrophos combined
phosphatic and nitrogenous fertilizer.
Nitrogenous Fertilizers Plants need nitrogen for rapid growth and to increase their protein
content. For this reason, nitrogenous fertilizers become more important.
MEDICINAL CHEMISTRY
Chemicals used to treat different diseases-e-their structures, synthesis, toxicity, pharmacological
effects and activities are all studied medicinal chemistry.
Drugs
A drug is a compound that is given 10 a person or an animal to prevent or cure a disease or to
elicit some unusual or specific physiological effect.
Common Drugs
Analgesics These are drugs used for relieving pain, aspirin, paracetamol and some other
antipyretics act as analgesics. Certain narcotics (which produce sleep and unconsciousness) are
also used as analgesics, e.g. morphine, marijuana, codeine and heroin.
Antibiotics These are chemotherapeutic substances which are obtained as metabolic products
from some specific organisms (bacteria, fungi and moulds) and can be used to kill or inhibit the
growth of other microorganisms. Antibiotics discovered was penicillin by Alexander Fleming in
1929. It is a very effective drug for pneumonia, bronchitis, sore throat, etc.
Chloromycetin (or chloroamphenicol) is a broad spectrum antibiotic, isolated from a
Streptomyces species. It is rapidly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract and hence can be given
orally in case of typhoid, dysentery, acute fever, certain forms of urinary infection, meningitis and
pneumonia. Chloramphenicol is obtained synthetically and not by fermentation.
Antidepressants These act on the central nervous system and produce a feeling of well-being
and self-confidence and may improve working efficiency of persons in depressed moods.
Sulpha Drugs like sulphanilamide, sulpha-diazine. sulphaguanidine and sulphacctamide act
against microorganisms like antibiotics and have been used in place of them. Discovered in 1935
by Domagk in Germany,
Antipyretics Antipyretics are substances used to bring down body temperature during high
fever. Their administrator often leads to perspiration. Common examples are aspirin, phenacetin,
paracetamol and novalgin (or analgin)
Chlorine is used for making water fit for drinking at a concentration of 0.2 to 0.4 parts per
million (ppm). Low concentrations of sulphur dioxide are used for sterilizing squashes for

preservation. Commonly used antiseptic- Dettol is a mixture of chloroxylenol and terpeneol in a

suitable solvent. Bithional is added to soap to impart antiseptic properties, it also reduces
undesirable odour.
Antiseptics, Disinfectants and Germicides Germicides are substances that kill or destroy
various germs, fungi and viruses. They are of two types:
Antiseptics are chemicals that prevent growth of microorganisms or kill them, but are safe to
be applied to living human tissues. They can be applied on wounds, ulcers and diseased skin
surfaces.
Disinfectants kill microorganisms but they are not safe for contact with living tissues. They
are applied to inanimate objects like instruments, floors, drains and public bathrooms.
Tranquilizers Tranquilizers are drugs used for the treatment of mental diseases. They act on
the higher centres of central nervous system. They are constituents of sleeping pills. These are
also called psychotherapeutic drugs. Powerful tranquilizer. It is obtained from the well known
Indian medicinal plant, Rauwolfia serpentine and its chemical name is reserpine. Extracts of
Hashish and Charas also fall in this category of drugs.
Food Chemistry
IAS
ETEN

Electrochemistry
It is concerned with the relation between electrical energy and chemical change. It includes
the study of formation and behavior of ions is solution. An ion is an electrically charged.
Electrolysis
The process of decomposition of an electrolyte (a compound formed by electrovalent bonds)
by the passage of an electric current through its molten state or its aqueous solution is called
electrolysis and the experimental arrangement used for this purpose is called an electrolytic cell.
Applications of Electrolysis
(i) Electroplating
(ii) Electrorefining
(iii) Electroprinting
(iv) Electrometallurgy
(v) Industrial Preparations
Matter and its Nature
Matter can be seen, tasted, smel of felt. Matter
can neither be created nor destroyed; it can only
be changed from one form to another. A substance
(another term loosely used for matter) is a
material, all parts of which are chemically
identical and all samples of which have the same
composition.
Symbols of Important Elements

Elements Symbols Lithium Li
Aluminum AI Magnesium Mg
Antimony Sb Manganese Mn
Argon Ar Mercury Hg
Barium Ba Neon Ne
Boron B Nickel Ni
Bromine Br Nitorgen N
Calcium Ca Oxygen O
Carbon C Platinum Pt
Chlorine Cl Phosphorus P
Chromium Cr Potassium K
Cobalt Co Radium Ra
Copper Cu Silicon Si
Fluorine F Silver Ag
Germanium Ge Sodium Na
Gold Au Sulpher S
Helium He Thrium Th
Hydrogen H Tin Sn
Iodine I Tungsten WQ
Iron Fe Uranium U
Lead Pb Zinc Zn

Elementary Particles of Matter

1. Electron : In the year 1897 the British scientist J. J. Thomson had discovered the electron in
the form of cathode Rays. Electron has a negative charge of 1.6x10-19 coulomb. Its mass is
9.1x10-31 kg. it rotates around the nucleus. It is a permanent elementary particle.
2. Proton : In the year 1919 Rutherford had discovered the proton by bombarding the alpha
particles on Nitrogen Nucleus. It has a positive charge of 1.6x10-19 coulomb. It’s mass is
1.6x10-27 kg. It is used in Artificial Transmutation.
3. Neutron : Neutron was discoved by chadiwick in 1932 as when he bombarded alpha –
particle on Berelium This penetrating power is maximum. This particle is used in the
treatment of cancer and in nuclear fission.
4. Positron : Positron was discovered by Anderson in 1932. The value of its mass and charge is
equal to that of electron. It is also known as the anti-article to electron. It is a positively
charged elementary particle.
5. Neutrino : This Particle was discovered by Pauli in the year 1930. It is a massless neutral
Particle. It’s anti Particle. It’s anti particle is known as Anti- Neutrino.
6. K – Meson : The particle was discovered by Yukawa in the year 1935. These Particle are of
three types Neutral. Negative and positive their mass is 274 times that of electron. These are
the Temporary particles their life time is of 10-8 seconds
Bohar’s Atomic Mode :
In atomic physics, the Bohr Model, introduced by Niels Bohr in 1913, depicts the atom as a
small, positively charged nucleus surrounded by electrons that travel in circular orbits around
the nucleus similar in structure to the solar system, but with electrostatic forces providing attraction,
rather that gravity. This was an improvement on the earlier cubic model (1902), the plum-pudding
model (1904), the Saturnian model (1904), and the Retherford model (1911). Since the Bohr model
is a quantum –physics based modification of the Rutherford model, many sources combine the
two, referring to the Rutherford-Bohr model.
Important Concepts:
Radioactivity : The process in which any substance emits invisible rays of high energy,
spontaneously by itself is called Radioactivity. Such a substance is said to be radioactive. The
process was discovered by professor Henry Becquerel in 1896.
Half Life : Due to radioactive dicay the radioactive material disintegrates by itself. So the time
period after which a substance remains half of its original value is known as the half life of that
substance.
e. g. the half life of 84Po214 is 10-4 second
Half life of an isotope of Uranium is 4.5x109 years
Atomic Number : The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom determines an element’s
atomic number. In other words, each element has a unique number that identifies how many
protons are in one atom of that element. It is denoted by Z.
Atomic Mass (Mass Number) : The mass number (A), also called atomic mass number or
nucleon number, is the total number of protons and neutrons (together known as nucleons) in an
atomic nucleus.
Isotopes : Elements having same atomic number but different mass number are known as
isotopes. Following are the characteristics of isotopes.
All isotopes of an element have identical chemical properties.

2
The physical properties of the isotopes are different. The densities, melting points and boiling
etc., are slightly different.
Some important facts:
1. Out of all the elements Lead (Pb) has highest number of isotopes.
2. Out of all the elements Hydrogen is the only element whose all isotopes have different
names.
Isobar : These are the elements having same atomic number but different mass number.
40 40 40
Examples: (I) 18Ar , 19K , 20C
14 14
(ii) 7N , 6C
1. All isobars of an element have different chemical properties.
2. The physical properties of the isotopes are identical.
Isotones : Two nuclides are isotones if they have the same neutron number N, but different
proton number Z. For example, boron-12 and carbon-13 nuclei both contain 7 neutrons, and so are
isotones. Similarly S-36, Cl-7, Ar-38, K-39, and Ca40 nuclei are all isotones of 20.
Isoelectronic: Two or more molecular entities (atoms, Molecules, or ions) are described as
being isoelectronic with each other if they have the same number of electrons.
Examples : The N atom and the 0+ radical ion are isoelectronic because each has five electrons
in the outer electronic shell. Similarly, the cat ions K+, and Sc3+, the anions Cl_, S2- and P3- are all
isoelectronic with the Ar atom
Valency The valency depends on the number of electrons present in the valence or outermost
orbit of an atom. In some cases, valency is equal to the number of electrons in the valence orbit of
the atom, while in other it is equal to 8 minus valence electrons.
Sodium (2, 8, 1) has valency 1 and chorine (2, 8, 7) also has valency 1, i.e. (8-7)
Oxidation
Oxidation is a process in which a substance adds on oxygen or loses hydrogen. The current
definition of oxidation is the process in which a substance loses electrons.
Reduction
Reduction, on the other hand, is a process in which a substance adds on hydrogen or loses
oxygen. In modern terms, reduction is the process in which a substance gains electrons.
Acids
Acids are substance containing hydrogen. In aqueous solution they form hydrogen ions (H+).
Some important acids are sulphuric acid hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, acetic acid and oxalic acid.
Bases
Bases are substance which contain hydroxyl groups and form hydroxyl ions (OH) in solution.
Some important bases are sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, sodium carbonate and
ammonium hydroxide.
Natural sources of Carbonic Acids
Acid Natural Sources
Farmic Acid Redant, scorpions
Citric acid sour fruits

Benjoic acid grass, leaves

Acetic acid In Fruits, Juices
Tarteric acid Tamarind
Lacic acid In milk
Glutamic acid In wheat
PH Value : This is the number which represents the acidity or basicity of the substances.
Acid : PH value less than 7
Base : PH value more than 7 and less than or upto 14
Substance PH Value
Lemon 2.2-2.4
Beer 4.0-5.0
Human urine 5.5-7.5
Alcohol 2.8-3.8
Vinegar 2.4-3.4
Tomato Juice 4.0-4.4
Coffee 4.5-5.5
Human saliva 6.5-7.5
Human Blood 7.2-7.5
Liquid Fuels These are basically mixtures of several hydrocarbons. During combustion, they
form carbon dioxide and water. Liquid fuels are obtained as different fractions.
Gaseous Fuels These have several advantages over solid and liquid fuels. These can be easily
supplied through pipe lines within cities and over long distances from one city to another. They
do not leave ash on burning and have high content of heat. The main gaseous fuels are liquefied
petroleum gas (LPG, mainly a mixture of propane and butane and used in homes for cooking),
water gas (CO + H2), producer gas (CO + N2), semi-water gas, coal gas (mixture of hydrogen,
methane, ethylene, carbon monoxide, nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide) and natural gas
(mixture of methane (-75%), ethane H 0%), propane (-7%) and butane (-2%) with traces of higher
hydrocarbons obtained from oil wells, above petroleum).
Rocket Fuels
Liquid Propellants Fuels like alcohol, liquid hydrogen, liquid ammonia, kerosene oil, hydrazine
and hydrides of boron are used as liquid propellants. The liquid propellants generally give a
higher thrust than solid propellants and the thrust can be controlled by monitoring the flow of the
propellant. Liquids such as methyl nitrate, nitromethane, hydrogen peroxide, etc. are also used as
liquid propellants.
Solid Propellants Solid fuels, like polybutadiene and acrylic acid are used along with oxidi
ers, such as aluminium perchlorate, nitrate or chlorate. Magnesium or aluminium is used to bum
solid propellants because of their high combustion temperature. Such propellants are called
composite propellants. Another type of solid propellant is a double-base propellant, which mainly
consists of nitroglycerine and nitrocellulose.
Hybrid Propellants Hybrid rocket propellants usually consist of a solid fuel and a liquid
oxidizer and the more common composition is N2O4 and acrylic rubber.

Russian rockets use liquid PROTON propellant which consists of kerosene oil and liquid
oxygen. Saturn Booster (American rocket) derives its thrust from a combination of kerosene oil
and liquid oxygen. SL V - 3 and ASL V rockets of India use composite solid propellants. The PSL
V -rocket uses solid propellant in the first and third stages, and liquid propellants consisting
ofN2H4 and dimethyl hydrazine (DMH) and N2H4 and monornethyl-hydrazine (MMH) in the
second and fourth stages, respectively.
PETROLEUM AND NATURAL GAS
Petroleum or rock oil (petra-rock and oleum- oil) usually floats on a layer of salt water, deep
below the rocks and has a layer of natural gas upon it. Natural gas contains about 80% methane
and 10% ethane, the remaining 10% being a mixture of higher gaseous hydrocarbons. Compressed
Natural Gas (CNG).
Refining of Petroleum The refining of crude oil involves separation into fractions with different
boiling points. The distillation of petroleum is carried in tubular furnace with a tall steel
fractionating column. The fractionating column consists.
Uses of Various Fractions
(a) Gaseous Hydrocarbons This fraction is mainly used as industrial or domestic fuel.
(b) Petroleum Ether It is used as solvent in perfumery and also for drycleaning clothes.
(c) Gasoline This fraction, when obtained directly from refining process is called straight run
gasoline, commonly known as petrol. Crude petroleum contains only a small percentage of
this low-boiling fraction. Its yield is therefore, increased by cracking of high boiling fractions,
e.g. kerosene or diesel oil.
(d) Kerosene Kerosene was the most important petroleum product for almost fifty years since
crude oil was first processed. Although it has now lost its leading place to gasoline, it is still
in considerable demand. It is used in lamps, burners (stoves), and turbojet aircraft. It is also
subjected to the process of cracking to meet the increasing demand for gasoline.
(e) Diesel oil or Gas Oil This fraction is used as fuel for diesel engines, for industrial heating
(hence also called furnace oil) and as a feed stock for cracking processes where it is converted
to high grade gasoline.
(f) Lubricating oils and Greases As the name indicates, they are chiefly used for lubrication.
Lubricating greases are semi-solid substances made by thickening lubricating oils with soaps,
clays, silica gel or other thickening agents.
(g) Paraffin Wax It is used in making candles, shoe-polish, floor polish, waxed paper, etc. White
petroleum jelly (vaseline) is a paraffin wax with little oil content and is a major constituent
of many ointments and cosmetics.
(h) Asphalt and Coke These are dark semisolid or solid residues ofthe distillation process.
They are used for roofing, road building, making underground cables, battery boxes and
electrodes, etc.
Allotrapes of Carbon
Allotropy may be defined as the property by virtue of which and element may exist in two or
more forms having different physical, but similar chemical properties. The various forms are
called allotropes or allotropic modifications of the element.
Diamond I is the purest allotrope of carbon and occurs abundantly in certain mines in South
Africa which provide nearly 95% of the diamonds mined in the world.

Graphite It is found mainly I Ceylon Siberia, Italy and India. It is also known as black lead or
plumbago and is manufactured by heating a mixture of powdered coke (amorphous carbon) with
sand in an electric funnace for 24-30 hrs. The process is known as Acheson Process. Graphite is
soft and greasy to touch and can mark paper black. It is used a s lubricant in industries. It consists
of sheets of carbon atoms in planes joined by covalent linkages.
IRON AND STEEL
Iron is not found free in the natural form. It is extracted from its ores, haematite and iron
pyrites. Commercial iron is known in the following three forms:
(i) Cast iron or Pig iron
(ii) Wrought iron
(iii) Steel
The three forms differ from one another mainly in their carbon content.
(i) Cast iron contains 2-4.4% carbon along with silicon, phosphorus, sulphur and
manganese.
(ii) Wrought iron is the purest form and contains only up to 0.25% carbon along with
traces of other impurities.
(iii) Steel contains 0.25%-2% carbon and varying amounts of other elements.
Cast iron is first extracted from iron ore. It is then used for the manufacture of wrought iron
and steel. Depending upon the carbon content and other metals present in it, different varieties of
steel are classified as chrome steel, tungsten steel, stainless steel, managenese steel and nickel
steel. Stainless steel contains 18% chromium and nickel.
Important Points to Remember

Elements Present in Human body
Element Percentage
Oxygen 65
Hydrogen 10
Calcium 2
Potessium 0.35
Sodium 0.15
Magnesium 0.05
Carbon 18
Nitrogen 3
Phosphorous 1
Sulphur 0.25
Chlorine 0.15
Eron 0.04
Compostion of Earth
Most Abundant Elements (% by weight) in Earth’s Crust (rocks)
Element Weight (%)
O 46.6
Sl 27.7
Al 8.1

Fe 5.0
Ca 3.6
Na 2.8
K 2.6
Mg 2.1
Ti 0.44
H 0.14
P 0.2
Mn 0.1
Most Abundant Species in Sea Water (percentage of total species)
Solute Percentage
Chloride Cl- 55.05
Sodium Na+ 30.61
2-
Sulphage SO4 7.68
Magnesium Mg2+ 3.69
Calcium Ca2+ 1.16
Potassium K+ 1.10
Bromide Br- 0.19
The earth’s atmosphere is composed of three gases nitrogen, oxygen and argon. Their
abundance, by volume, is 78.09%, 20.9% and 0.93%, respectively. Carbon dioxide forms about
0.03% of the atmosphere, ozone exists mostly at the outer atmospheric level, where it helps in the
absorption of ultraviolet radiation coming from the sun.
Chemicals in Daily Life

Everything around us is composed of chemical elements. Elements are the basic building
blocks of our lives. Elements combine with one another in different proportions to form everything
from the air that we breathe, to the wood that we use to build our homes, to our own bodies. Our
bodies use different chemical elements for different functions. For instance, our bodies use calcium
to build strong bones and fluorine makes our teeth healthier. As our bodies consume these elements
through daily functioning, we have to replace them in order to stay healthy and strong. The
greatest source of these elements is through the food we eat. Because some of us do not always eat
the right foods, we sometimes have to take dietary supplements, such as vitamins, to assure that
we maintain the proper chemical balance in our bodies. Some of the major elements that our
bodies use to function properly are described in the following paragraphs. Some surprising minor
elements are also described.
Aluminum (AI)
Until recently, aluminum was thought to be useless to life processes. It is now thought to be
involved in the action of a small number of enzymes. For a technical explanation: "it may be
involved in the action of enzymes such a succinic dehydrogenase and d-aminolevulinate dehydrase
(involved in porphyrin synthesis)." I have no idea what that means. Even if this element is necessary
for some life function, the amount necessary is greatly exceeded by our incidental intake through
our drinking water, food, deodorants and some antacids. Aluminum is relatively benign, and it is
used in food additives and indigestion pills. It has been linked to Alzheimer's disease and the
body has a hard time ridding itself of excess aluminum. Aluminum is somewhat more toxic to
plants.

Arsenic (As)
Despite Arsenic's reputation as a highly toxic substance, this element may actually be necessary
for good health. Studies of animals such as chickens, rats, goats and pigs show that it is necessary
for proper growth, development and reproduction. In these studies, the main symptom of not
getting enough arsenic was retarded growth and development. It is suspected, but not known,
that arsenic is necessary. It is thought to be necessary for the functioning of the nervous system
and for people to grow properly. Since arsenic is present in our food and water, all humans have
some arsenic in their bodies and a deficiency of this element in humans has apparently never
been observed. An arsenic trioxide has been approved by the Food and Drug Administration to
treat a rare and deadly form of leukemia called acute promyelocytic leukemia, or APL.
Boron (B) - a micronutrient

At first, boron may seem like an unimportant, uncommon and boring element. But boron is
actually required by the body in very small amounts, and is necessary for good health. Though it
is commonly known that calcium builds strong bones, boron is also important. Bones are not just
the dead, white, stone-like things we see on skeletons. In our bodies bones are constantly breaking
down and being rebuilt. They also have a constant blood supply and are very much "alive". Without
small amounts of boron, bones would slowly break down and become brittle. This element is also
necessary to allow the brain to function properly. In fact, boron can increase mental alertness.
According to a series of studies recently conducted by the US Department of Agriculture, low
boron intakes by humans caused decreased brain activity. The studies showed that people on low
boron diets also had lower brain performance on attention and short-term memory tests. Our
bodies also need boron in very small amounts to allow calcium, magnesium and phosphorus to
function properly. So in a sense, boron is also necessary for many other body functions and we
could not survive without it.
Bromine (Br)
This is another element that is probably not necessary for good health and no deficiency of
this element has ever been documented. Bromine is suspected to be an essential trace element in
red algae and possibly humans. No specific role for this element in human health has been
identified. Bromine is found in the mollusk pigment "royal purple", but its purpose in that pigment
is not known.
Cadmium (Cd)
There are mixed opinions on cadmium. While it is definitely believed to not be essential for
plant and animal life processes, some believe cadmium is a trace element with some necessary
role in life processes, although its need and uses are not currently understood. It is thought to be
involved with the metabolism its status as an essential trace element remains unclear.
Calcium (Ca) - a macronutrient

Calcium is an extremely important element in the human body. It is one of the most abundant
elements in our bodies and accounts for 2 to 3 pounds of our total body weight. Most of us know
that calcium is important in building and maintaining strong bones and teeth, but it is also
important for many other things. It helps control things like muscle growth and the electrical
impulses in your brain. This vital element is also necessary to maintain proper blood pressure and
make blood clot when you get cut. Calcium also enables other molecules to digest food and make
energy for the body. Increasing calcium intake in our diet is believed to lower high blood pressure
and prevent heart disease. It is also used to treat arthritis, when we don't get enough calcium,

many things happen in our bodies. It is possible to get leg cramps, muscle spasms, our bones may
become brittle and even we may even have an increased risk of getting colon cancer. Also, when
we don't get enough calcium in our diets, our bodies will actually use the calcium that we have
stored in our bones. This makes the bones thinner and more brittle. In growing children and
teenagers the bones may not develop fully and the person can enter adulthood with brittle bones.
Further calcium deficiency can lead to serious problems. Therefore, it is extremely important to
get enough calcium in your diet. Unfortunately, that is not always easy to do. Most Americans
don't get enough from their diets. But eating a good balanced diet, including drinking milk on a
daily basis, should get you enough calcium.
Carbon (C) - a macronutrient

The element carbon is perhaps the single most important element to life. Virtually every part
of our bodies is made with large amounts of this element. The carbon atom is ideal to build big
biological molecules. The carbon atom can be thought of as a basic building block. These building
blocks can be attached to each other to form long chains, or they can be attached to other elements.
This can be difficult to imagine at first, but it may help to think about building with Legos. You
can think of carbon as a bunch of red legos attached together to form one long chain of legos.
Now, you can imagine sticking yellow, blue and green legos across the tops of the red (carbon)
legos. These other colors represent other elements like oxygen, nitrogen or hydrogen. As you
stick more and more of these yellow, blue and green legos to the red chain, it would start to look
like a skeleton of legos with a "spine" of red legos and "bones" of yellow, blue and green legos.
This is a lot like the way that big molecules are made in the body. Without carbon, these big
molecules could not be built. Now, virtually every part of your body is made up of these big
molecules that are based around chains of carbon atoms. This is the reason we are known as
"carbon based life forms". Without carbon, our bodies would just be a big pile of loose atoms with
no way to be built into a person.
Chlorine (CI) - a micronutrient

Anyone who has ever swallowed a mouthful of water at a swimming pool would probably
tell you that chlorine is one of the most unpleasant things they have ever swallowed and they
wouldn't mind if they never ingest chlorine ever again. This element, however, is actually essential
for humans to live - we would die without it. Chlorine is found throughout the body; in the blood,
in the fluid inside cells and in the fluid between cells. Along with sodium and potassium, chlorine
carries an electrical charge when dissolved in body fluids. This is why these elements are termed
"electrolytes". The electrical charge that these elements carry is what allows nerve cells to work.
Chlorine also works with potassium and sodium to regulate the amount of fluids in the body and
to regulate pH in the body. This vital element also helps muscles flex and relax normally. Stomach
acid is a compound of hydrogen and chlorine (hydrochloric acid, or HCI). Logically, chlorine is
extremely important in allowing us to digest our food properly and to absorb the many other
elements that we need to survive. Excessive vomiting can lead to a serious loss of chlorine in the
body. This can lead to a dangerous imbalance of pH in the body, which can cause muscle weakness,
loss of appetite, dehydration and coma. It is easy to get enough chlorine from natural, unprocessed
foods, and deficiencies of this important element are rare. Most Americans, however, consume
massive amounts of salt in their diet. Table salt is a compound of sodium and chlorine (sodium
chloride, or NaCI). This means most of us get much more chlorine than we really need.
Chromium (Cr)
When we think of chromium, our brains may generate images of everything from the shinny
finish on our first bicycle to the brilliant chrome rally wheels on the '66 Mustang GT. The last

thing that comes to mind is a substance that we actually need to eat in order to stay healthy.
Chromium, in fact, is an element that is essential to good human health. It does many important
things in the body. Most significantly, it is a vital component of a molecule that works with insulin
to stabilize blood sugar levels. In other words, it helps our bodies absorb energy from the food we
eat and stabilizes the level of energy that we feel throughout the day. Our bodies need sufficient
quantities of chromium to make many of the large biological molecules that help us live. This
vital element can also help increase muscle mass while reducing fat mass in our bodies. It helps
cells, such as heart muscle cells absorb the energy they need to work properly. Unfortunately, it is
often difficult to get enough chromium in our diets. People who exercise frequently have especially
high demands for this element. Scientists estimate that 90% of all Americans don't get enough
chromium from their diet. Foods that are high in chromium include whole grain breads, brown
rice, cheese and lean meats. Chromium is also in many (but not all) multi-vitamins and
supplements, but the body absorbs chromium much better from food.
Cobalt (Co)
Cobalt is another element that is necessary for good human health. While cobalt has no specific
function by itself, it forms the core of vitamin 8-12. Without cobalt, Vitamin 8-12 could not exist.
The body uses this vitamin for numerous of purposes. 8-12 is necessary for the normal formation
of all cells, especially red blood cells. Vitamin 8-12 also helps vitamin C perform its functions, and
is necessary for the proper digestion of the food that we eat. Additionally, vitamin 8-12 prevents
nerve damage by contributing to the formation of the protective sheath that insulates nerve cells.
A deficiency of vitamin B-12 can cause our red blood cells to form improperly. This can prevent
our red blood cells from carrying enough oxygen from our lungs to the different parts of our
bodies, thus causing a condition called anemia. Symptoms of anemia include loss of energy, loss
of appetite, and moodiness. 812 deficiency can also cause nerve cells to form incorrectly, resulting
in irreversible nerve damage. This situation is characterized by symptoms such as delusions, eye
disorders, dizziness, confusion and memory loss. Unlike other B complex vitamins, vitamin B-12
can be stored in the body. Because of this, it is very easy to get enough of this important vitamin
in your diet. Deficiencies of 8-12 are rare in young people, but do occasionally occur in adults due
to digestive disorders or poor absorption by the digestive system. Strict vegetarians are also at
risk of B-12 deficiency, because vegetables do not contain this important vitamin. B-12 is only
found in animal sources such as red meat, fish, eggs, cheese and milk. Fortunately for vegetarians,
you can also get plenty of vitamin B-12 from most multi-vitamin pills.
Copper (Cu) - a micronutrient

Copper is an element that is very important for our good health. Actually, that may be
understating the true importance of this element. Copper is critically important for dozens of
body functions. To begin with, copper is a major component of the oxygen carrying part of blood
cells. Copper also helps protect our cells from being damaged by certain chemicals in our bodies.
Copper, along with vitamin C, is important for keeping blood vessels and skin elastic and flexible.
This important element is also required by the brain to form chemicals that keep us awake and
alert. Copper also helps your body produce chemicals that regulate blood pressure, pulse, and
healing. Current research is looking into other ways copper can affect human health, from
protecting against cancer and heart disease, to boosting the immune system. General symptoms
of not getting enough copper in your diet include anemia (a condition in which your blood can't
supply enough oxygen to your body), arthritis (painful swelling of the joints}, and many other
medical problems. Copper can be found in dried beans, almonds, broccoli, garlic, soybeans, peas,
whole-wheat products, and seafood. Unfortunately, many people do not get enough copper in

their diets. Also, eating food rich in fructose (sugars in fruit, and cornstarch) and taking mega-
doses of vitamin C for long periods of time can keep your body from absorbing the copper in your
food. This lack of copper intake by your body can cause the medical problems mentioned above,
or it can even affect your life span.
Fluorine (F)
Fluorine is an element that the body uses to strengthen bones and teeth. This element differs
from the other elements that the body needs because we get most of it from the water that we
drink, not from the food that we eat. The form of fluorine that normally exists in nature, fluoride,
is actually added to most drinking water supplies. In areas where fluoride is added to the drinking
water, children get up to 70% fewer dental cavities than in areas where the drinking water is low
in fluoride. As you may have noticed, it is also added to most brands of toothpaste for its ability to
fight cavities. But this important element is also valuable because it helps the body strengthen the
bones in your body. Fluoride is the most important trace element affecting bones and teeth. In
fact, fluoride is the only element known to single-handedly stimulate bone growth. Fluoride,
along with large quantities of calcium, is a large part of what makes your bones strong. When the
body does not receive enough fluoride, bones start to loose calcium, and then become weak and
brittle. Fortunately, it is easy for us to get enough fluorine because of the fact that it is added to our
drinking water. Other good sources of this key element include seafood, teas and toothpaste.
Germanium (Ge)
Germanium is a trace element that some believe is highly beneficial to good human health. In
fact, germanium has many important medicinal properties. In the body, germanium attaches itself
to oxygen molecules. This has the unexpected effect of making our bodies more effective at getting
oxygen to the tissues in our body. The increased supply of oxygen in our bodies helps to improve
our immune system. It also helps the body excrete harmful toxins. The increased supply of oxygen
in our bodies caused by germanium has many other exciting effects as well. Taking germanium
supplements is effective in treating arthritis, food allergies, elevated cholesterol levels, high blood
pressure, and even cancer. Germanium can also be used to control pain in the human body. Perhaps
the most exciting thing about germanium is that it can stimulate the human immune system to
fight cancer cells. This is exciting for two reasons. First, and most obvious, it helps fight cancer -
one of the most deadly diseases in the world. But more importantly, it is not toxic to human cells.
In fact, germanium is completely harmless to human cells, even cancer cells. Since it works by
stimulating our immune system, which fights the cancer, it doesn't damage the rest of the body
like many other cancer treatments. Testing of new cancer treatments with germanium are underway
and perhaps we will soon see new, less damaging, cancer treatments using the element germanium.
Hydrogen (H) - a macronutrient

It would be virtually impossible to understate the importance of this element to human life.
First of all, water is a compound of hydrogen and oxygen (H2O). We can survive years, or at least
months without getting most of the other elements that we need to survive. We can survive weeks
without food, but we would die after only a few days without water. Water is incredibly important
in our bodies. In fact, almost of our bodies are made of water. It dissolves other life-supporting
substances and transports them to fluids in and around our cells. It is also a place in which important
reactions take place in our bodies. Chemically, water is a remarkable substance and it's many
unique attributes make life possible. Hydrogen is obviously a critical component of water and
minute chemical bonds called "hydrogen bonds" are what give water many of its unique attributes.
Also, hydrogen is practically always bound to the carbon that our bodies are constructed of. Without
this arrangement, our bodies would be little more than a pile of atoms on the ground. Stomach

acid is a compound of hydrogen and chlorine (hydrochloric acid, or HCl). Logically, hydrogen is
extremely important in allowing us to digest our food properly and to absorb the many other
elements that we need to survive. Finally, many chemical reactions that make life possible involve
the hydrogen ion. Without this unique and important element, we simply couldn't exist.
Iodine (I)
Iodine is an element that is required in very small amounts by the human body. You are
probably l ready aware of some of the uses of this element. Iodine is found in a purple solution
that we often put in scrapes and cuts to help our wounds heal faster by preventing them from
getting infected. Also, backpackers and campers often add iodine to river and lake water to make
it safe to drink. But the most important thing about iodine is that it keeps our thyroid gland
healthy. Most of the iodine in our bodies is stored in this organ, located in the base of your neck.
The thyroid gland uses iodine to make chemicals that affect our growth, the way we development
and how we burn the energy that we get from the food we eat. If we don't get enough iodine in
our diets, we can expect to have a loss of energy and to gain weight. lodine is found in large
amounts in seafood, sea vegetables (for example, kelp), dairy products and iodized salt (table
salt). It is easy to get enough of this element in your normal diet, and you probably get more than
enough if you eat salty foods (with iodized salts, not salt substitutes) like potato chips or French
fires.
Iron (Fe) - a micronutrient

The element iron has many functions in the body. This element is used by the body to make
tendons and ligaments. Certain chemicals in our brain are controlled by the presence or absence
of iron. It is also important for maintaining a healthy immune system and for digesting certain
things in the food that we eat. In fact, plays a vitally important part of how our body obtains
energy from our food. The iron we obtain from our diet is an essential part of hemoglobin - the
part of our blood that carries oxygen. Iron is essential for blood to work efficiently. If we don't get
enough iron in our diets, our blood won't carry enough oxygen to our bodies and we can feel
tired, have decreased alertness and attention span and our muscles may not function properly.
This type of iron deficiency is not uncommon among athletes, especially long distance runners.
This is frequently the cause of fatigue among these athletes. If the lack of iron in our bodies is
severe, we can get "iron deficiency anemia", which essentially means that our blood won't carry
enough oxygen to our bodies so we can function normally. Iron deficiency anemia is probably the
most common nutritional disease in the world, affecting at least five hundred million people.
Fortunately, it is easy to get enough iron in your food, if you eat a balanced diet. Many foods
contain iron, and eating a wide range of foods can help most people meet their needs for this
important element.
Magnesium (Mg) - a macronutrient

Magnesium is an element that is required by our bodies for numerous different functions. We
need it for the proper growth, formation and function of our bones and muscles. In fact, magnesium
and calcium even control how our muscles contract. Magnesium prevents some heart disorders
and high blood pressure. Higher intake of magnesium is also associated with improved lung
function. Our bodies use it to help convert our food into energy and it helps our bodies absorb
calcium and potassium. This important element also helps our brains function normally.
Magnesium even helps to prevent depression. Magnesium is essential in allowing your body to
control insulin levels in your blood. This means that it is very important in the amount of energy
that your body has to operate. It is suspected that taking extra magnesium might be beneficial for
those suffering from fatigue. Taking extra magnesium is helpful for treating some medical

conditions. Magnesium is sometimes injected into patients' veins in emergency situations such as
an acute heart attack or acute asthma attack. In non-emergency situations, magnesium is sometimes
given to asthma sufferers in a pill form. It relaxes the muscles along the airway to the lungs, which
allows asthma patients to breathe easier. Magnesium is effective in treating numerous heart /
lung diseases and has been used for over 50 years. Foods high in magnesium include fish, dairy
products, lean meat, whole grains, seeds, and vegetables.
Manganese (Mn) - a micronutrient

Manganese is actually an extremely important element that the body uses for a variety of
things. For instance, we use it to make chemicals that help us digest the food that we eat. Manganese
also supports the immune system, regulates blood sugar levels, and is involved in the production
of energy and cell reproduction. This important element is also important for bone growth.
Additionally, manganese works with vitamin K to support blood clotting. Working with the B-
complex vitamins, manganese helps to control the effects of stress while contributing to ones
sense of well being. Though it is extremely rare in humans, it is suspected that not getting enough
manganese can cause poor bone formation, affect our fertility and the ability for our blood to clot.
Birth defects can possibly even result when an expecting mother doesn't get enough of this very
important element. Some researchers are also looking into a link between poor manganese intake
and higher skin cancer rates. The fact that manganese is so important to humans, yet deficiencies
in humans are so rare, may indicate that humans have evolved ways to make sure that we don't
ever run out of this element in our bodies. As is the case with most, if not all, elements, we can
easily get enough manganese from a good balanced diet. Foods high in manganese include
avocados, berries, nuts and seeds, egg yolks, whole grains, green leafy vegetables and legumes
(such as peanuts, peas and beans).
Molybdenum (Mo) - a micronutrient

Molybdenum (pronounced mo-Iyb-den-um) is necessary for good health, though in extremely
small amounts. Molybdenum is found in all tissues of the human body, but tends to be the most
concentrated in the liver, kidneys, skin and bones. It is required for the proper function of several
chemicals in the human body. Some of these chemicals have the very important job of allowing
the body to process the iron and nitrogen in our diets. Molybdenum is believed to be important in
helping our cells grow. Also, small amounts of dietary molybdenum have been credited with
promoting healthy teeth. Some evidence suggests that molybdenum might reduce the risk of
some types of asthma attacks. A deficiency of molybdenum in our diets can cause mouth and
gum disorders and can contribute to getting cancer. A diet high in refined and processed foods
can lead to a deficiency of molybdenum, resulting in anemia (lack of oxygen in the blood), loss of
appetite and weight, and stunted growth in animals. The amount of molybdenum in plant foods
varies significantly and is dependent upon the mineral content of the soil that the plants were
grown in. Nevertheless, the best sources of this mineral are beans, legumes (peanuts and peas),
dark green leafy vegetables, and grains. Hard tap water can also supply molybdenum to the diet.
Nickel (Ni)
Nickel is known to be an essential trace element for several species of animals. Experimental
research shows that when chickens and rats are fed a diet that lacks nickel, they develop liver
problems. If they are fed a normal diet, the symptoms do not appear. Animals are not the only
ones that need this element to function properly. Bacteria use nickel to make special chemicals
called enzymes. These enzymes are necessary for bacteria to function properly. Though many
scientists suspect that nickel is necessary for good human health, it has not been proven. People

with certain liver and kidney diseases are known to have low levels of nickel in their bodies. Also,
excess nickel in the body is associated with a high incidence of heart disease, thyroid disease and
cancer. In both of these cases, the significance of the amount of nickel in the body is unknown.
Some scientists think that nickel affects hormones, cell membranes and chemicals called enzymes.
Whatever the case, nickel certainly appears to affect human health, even though we do not know
exactly how. Good sources of nickel include chocolate, nuts, fruits and vegetables. Meats are
typically low in this interesting element.
Nitrogen (N) - a macronutrient

Nitrogen is another important element. It plays an important role in digestion of food and
growth. As you may know, almost 80% of the air we breathe is made up of nitrogen. But humans
cannot use the nitrogen in the air we breathe, that nitrogen is in the wrong form. We have to get
nitrogen, in a different form, from the food that we eat. Fortunately, there is plenty of nitrogen in
food to nourish our bodies. Nitrogen is found in large amounts in all kinds of food. Spaghetti,
salads, breakfast cereal, hamburgers and even cookies have lots of nitrogen in the form that our
bodies need. When your body digests this food and makes it into energy, the first step is to remove
nitrogen atoms from the molecules in the food. While your body is busy digesting the rest of this
food and making it into energy, these nitrogen atoms are already being used to help you grow.
One specific time that this is especially important is during pregnancy. When a woman is pregnant,
the nitrogen removed from food during digestion is needed to help the fetus to grow properly. By
term, the mother and infant will have accumulated over a pound of nitrogen. It is also worth
noting that in the plant kingdom, nitrogen is one of the 3 main elements that make plant life
possible. (Potassium and phosphorus are the other two, and you may hear them referred to
collectively as N-P-K whenever talking about key plant nutrients.)
Oxygen (O) - a macronutrient

It may seem obvious that people need to breathe oxygen to survive, but plants need this element
too. Many people think plants "breathe" carbon dioxide and "exhale" oxygen. But in reality, plants
also "breathe" oxygen at certain times. Without oxygen, plants could not survive. Without plants,
we wouldn't have food to eat. It is also worth mentioning that water is a compound of hydrogen
and oxygen (H20) and that water is absolutely necessary for virtually all life as we know it. Water
is incredibly important in our bodies. In fact, more than 50% of our bodies are made of water. It
dissolves other life-supporting substances and transports them to fluids in and around our cells.
It is also a place in which important reactions take place in our bodies. Many people consider
water to be the "blood of life". When you consider the full importance of oxygen, it becomes clear
that this versatile element is the single most important substance to life.
Phosphorus (P) - a macronutrient

Phosphorus is one of the most abundant minerals in the human body, second only to calcium.
This essential mineral is required for the healthy formation of bones and teeth, and is necessary
for our bodies to process many of the foods that we eat. It is also a part of the body's energy
storage system, and helps with maintaining healthy blood sugar levels. Phosphorus is also found
in substantial amounts in the nervous system. The regular contractions of the heart are dependant
upon phosphorus, as are normal cell growth and repair. Since phosphorus is found in almost all
plant and animal food sources, a deficiency of this mineral is rarely seen. However, phosphorus
deficiency can and does occur, particularly in people who take certain types of antacids for many
years. Since phosphorus is important in maintaining the body's energy system and proper blood
sugar levels, it should seem logical that not getting enough of this mineral will affect the energy

level in the entire body. Indeed, feeling easily fatigued, weak and having a decreased attention
span can be symptoms of mild phosphate deficiency. It is also worth noting that in the plant
kingdom, phosphorus is one of the 3 main elements that make plant life possible. (Potassium and
nitrogen are the other two, and you may hear them referred to collectively as N-P-K whenever
talking about key plant nutrients.) The human body must maintain a balance between magnesium
phosphorus, and calcium.
Excess intake of phosphorus can occur in people with diets high in processed foods, soft drinks,
and meats, leading to osteoporosis. The Recommended Dietary Allowances for phosphorus is 300
milligrams for infants and between 800 and 1,200 milligrams for adults. It is estimated that
Americans ingest on average between 1,500 and 1,600 milligrams of phosphorus per day, almost
twice the recommended amount. Foods highest in phosphorus include asparagus, brewers yeast,
dairy products, eggs, fish, dried fruit, meats, garlic, legumes, nuts and seeds, and whole grains.
Many antacids, which are widely used for treatment of peptic ulcer disease, gastritis (heart burn)
and acid reflux, contain magnesium and aluminum, both of which bind to phosphate, preventing
its absorption into the body.
Potassium (K) - a macronutrient

The element Potassium is an extremely important element in the human body. Our bodies are
made up of millions of tiny cells, such as brain cells, skin cells, liver cells etc. These cells make up
the different organs in our bodies, such as the brain, skin, or liver. Potassium is extremely important
to cells, and without it, we could not survive. Cells are the small building blocks of the human
body. In order to work properly, cells need to let things enter and leave them. Cells have many
ways by which they can control what (and how much) enters and leaves. Most of the ways that
cells do this requires potassium. In fact, without potassium, cells loose control of what can enter
and leave them. As you can imagine, this could be very bad. Imagine a nerve cell in your finger
for a moment. Normally, it doesn't really do very much. But when you touch something, it sends
messages down a chain of many nerves to your brain that help you determine what it is that you
just touched. When a nerve cell does this, it actually pumps out chemicals, which give the message
to the next nerve cell and eventually to the brain. Potassium helps control the release of those
chemicals. Without potassium, the nerve cell couldn't send those messages to your brain. But it is
not just nerve cells that depend on potassium. Most, if not all, of our cells depend on it. Just think
of it for a minute. Every time you flex your muscles, blink your eyes, yawn in chemistry class, eat
lunch, or do anything, you are using potassium. This element is indeed a very important element
in our bodies. It is also worth noting that in the plant kingdom, potassium is one of the 3 main
elements that make plant life possible. (Nitrogen and phosphorus are the other two, and you may
hear them referred to collectively as N-P-K whenever talking about key plant nutrients.)
Selenium (Se)
Despite selenium's reputation as a toxic heavy metal, this element is actually very important
to good human health. Selenium is an important part of a molecule in the body that protects blood
cells from certain damaging chemicals. Together with vitamin E, selenium helps our immune
system produce antibodies, which is obviously an immensely important task. Selenium helps
keep the pancreas and heart functioning properly. This remarkable element is also needed to
make our tissues elastic. Imagine, for instance, if our skin wasn't elastic; we'd have loose skin
draping all over our bodies. It may be cool to have loose clothes draping all over our bodies, but
people might make fun of you if you had that much loose skin. A deficiency of this vital trace
element has been linked to the development of leukemia, arthritis, and other diseases. Researchers
have also found that the lower the concentration of selenium in the blood stream, the higher the

risk of developing many types of cancer. In fact, some researchers tout selenium as being a powerful
cancer-preventing substance. High selenium intake has also been correlated with a dramatically
lower incidence of heart disease. The amount of selenium in food is dependent on the amount of
the element in the environment where the food is from. Fish, grains and brazil nuts are considered
to be good dietary sources of selenium. However, in the current global marketplace it is difficult
to know whether the food you eat comes from selenium-rich or selenium-poor growing areas. As
with virtually all elements, it is easy to get enough selenium from a well balanced diet.
Silicon (Si)
If we reflect upon what we all know about silicon for a moment, some of us may recognize
silicon as being the key component of sand. Others may think of computer chips; and there is no
doubt a few that think of breast implants. Few of us would consider that silicon is something our
bodies actually need to be healthy. Silicon is indeed a very common mineral that is required by
our bodies. We use it, along with calcium, to grow and maintain strong bones. It is also important
to the formation of connective tissues, like ligaments and tendons. Silicon is also important for the
growth of hair, skin and fingernails. Unfortunately, despite the fact that silicon is important to the
human body, there is comparatively little being done to learn more about why and exactly how it
is important for good health. It is possible that silicon is influential in preventing veins and arteries
from getting hard and stiff, though there is no clear understanding of how this element affects
artery hardening. Also, it is known that silicon reduces the effectiveness of aluminum in the body.
It has been suggested that silicon may be able to delay or prevent Alzheimer's disease. But once
again, it is unclear how silicon may affect this degenerative disease of the brain. A form of silicon
is actually a home remedy for problems with weakening bones, painful joints and aging skin,
though there is no clear evidence that it actually helps such conditions. Generally it is quite easy
to get plenty of silicon in a normal diet and deficiencies are extremely rare. Foods rich in silicon
include whole grain breads and cereals, alfalfa, beets, bell peppers, beans and peas.
Sodium (Na)
Sodium is an element that is vital to human life. Together with potassium and chlorine, it
forms a very important part of blood plasma. Without sodium, our cells could not get the nutrients
they need to survive. Sodium also allows our bodies to maintain the right blood chemistry and
the correct amount of water in our blood. This element also allows our muscles to contract normally.
Furthermore, our bodies need sodium to digest the food that we eat. Normal functioning of our
nervous system also depends on this important element. Having the proper amount of sodium in
our blood is so important that our bodies have special ways to maintain the right levels of this
important element. For instance, if you eat a bag of salty potato chips (salt is actually a compound
of sodium and chlorine), your body will soon sense that there is too much sodium in your body.
Your body's first response will be to become thirsty. When you drink water, the sodium in your
blood becomes diluted and then your kidneys can remove the excess sodium that you consumed
when you ate the salty potato chips. The foods that most Americans eat are very high in salt
content (i.e. potato chips, French fries and popcorn). Salt is really a compound of sodium and
chlorine. Therefore, most Americans consume far more sodium than our bodies actually need
and it is uncommon that someone would not get enough of this element. One situation that a
sodium deficiency can occur, however, is when you sweat a large amount from playing sports or
exercising extensively. Your sweat contains a lot of sodium and if you sweat enough, you will
loose too much sodium. This can lead to dehydration, weakness and mental confusion. Many
athletes drink sports drinks that contain a lot of sodium, like Gatorade, to prevent this from
happening.

Sulfur (S) - a macronutrient

S is an important element that is used in small amounts to help construct virtually all parts of
the human body. Sulfur helps protect the cells in our bodies from environmental hazards such as
air pollution and radiation. Consequently, sulfur slows down the aging process and extends our
life span. Also, sulfur helps our liver function properly, helps us digest the food that we eat and
then turn that food into energy. Sulfur is also important for helping our blood clot when we cut or
bruise ourselves. Additionally, sulfur is an important part of vitamin B1 and insulin. Interestingly,
sulfur is also an important part of a substance that keeps your skin supple and elastic. If you don't
think that is important, just imagine trying to get a date to the homecoming dance with stiff, loose
skin hanging all over your body. Fortunately, there is plenty of sulfur in the food that we eat and
it is easy to get enough of this important element in our daily diets. There is no need to worry
about getting too much sulfur in your diet. If you get more than your body needs, you just excrete
it in your urine. Foods that have a lot of sulfur include meats, fish, dairy products, eggs and garlic.
Tin (Sn)
Tin is possibly an essential element for animals, but no specific role for tin in human health
has been identified. Some scientists suspect that extremely small quantities of tin are necessary
for some species of animals, such as rats, to grow and develop correctly. Some nutritional
supplement retailers suggest that a deficiency in tin can cause baldness in humans, but that has
not been proven. Actually, no specific function of any kind for tin has been identified in humans.
Titanium (Ti)
Very little has been written on the biological role of titanium. Titanium has no known biological
use in humans, although it is known to act as a stimulant. In some plants, titanium is used in
chemical energy production. Titanium is used in prosthetics because it won't react with the
blologtcai tlssues in the body.
Tungsten (W)
Opinions are mixed about the need for tungsten in plant and animal life processes, although it
has been proved to be necessary for certain bacteria. This element has a small function in biological
processes. Tungsten is used by certain non-oxygen consuming bacteria in extremely hot ocean
environments, such as in hot ocean sediments and deep-sea ocean vents. The bacteria in these
environments use tungsten to produce special chemicals called enzymes, which are necessary for
certain life processes. Exactly how tungsten is used by these unique and interesting bacteria is
quite complex and beyond the scope of this discussion. It is not known if humans need tungsten
for good health. Tungsten is thought to be used by a small number of enzymes in a fashion similar
to molybdenum. Here's how it might be important. The enzymes described above are in a class of
enzymes that perform important tasks for human health. However, the enzymes in this class that
humans use incorporate molybdenum, not tungsten, into their structures. Some sources indicate
that tungsten is important to humans. But their reasoning is faulty: (a) tungsten is in some of the
enzymes of enzyme class "x" (b) some enzymes of class "x" are important to human health (c)
therefore, tungsten is important to human health.
Vanadium (V)
Vanadium has recently been declared by some scientists to be essential for good human health.
It is believed that vanadium is involved in helping the body convert some foods into energy. It
has also been suggested that diabetics may benefit from vanadium when trying to stabilize blood
sugar levels. This element is also thought to help bones and teeth form properly. There is not a
great deal of scientific knowledge as to the exact importance of vanadium. Actually, no specific

symptoms of vanadium deficiency have been identified in human beings. It is possible that not
getting enough of this element may affect the body's ability to control blood sugar levels and
contribute to developing diabetes or hypoglycemia (abnormally low blood sugar levels). Some
scientists suspect that a deficiency of this mineral may increase the chance of getting kidney and
heart disease. Some research has also shown that vanadium may slow the growth of tumors and
provide protection against the development of breast cancer. But more research is clearly needed
to determine its exact role in human health. As is the case with most, if not all, of the biologically
important elements, it is easy to get enough of this element from a healthy, balanced diet. Good
sources of vanadium include seafood, mushrooms, olives, whole grain breads, carrots and vegetable
oils.
Zinc (Zn) - a micronutrient

Zinc has been recognized as an essential trace element for plants, animals and humans for
more than 70 years. Though the average adult body only contains between 2-3 grams of zinc (a
paperclip weighs about one gram), this element has some very important functions. Zinc is involved
in well over one hundred different reactions in the body. Some of these reactions help our bodies
construct and maintain DNA, the molecule that controls how every single part of our bodies is
made and works. Zinc is also needed for the growth and repair of tissues throughout our bodies.
This extremely important element is used to form connective tissue like ligaments and tendons.
Teeth, bones, nails, skin and hair could not grow without zinc. Zinc is widely considered by
doctors to be one of the most important elements to a healthy immune system. This unique element
is essential for the creation, release and use of hormones in the body. It helps developing fetuses
grow correctly and our brains to work right. Additionally, our senses of sight, taste and smell
depend on this element. Not getting enough zinc can have serious effects on our health. Some of
the symptoms of zinc deficiency include hair loss, mental apathy and damage to reproductive
organs. Decreased growth rate and impaired mental capacity are other symptoms. Additionally,
you can loose most of your senses of taste and smell, develop mental disorders and men can even
become impotent without enough zinc. Many factors affect how well our bodies absorb zinc in
the food we eat, and at times it can be difficult to get enough zinc - even from a well balanced diet.
Good sources of zinc include whole wheat bread, seafood and other animal meats.
Aluminum
Aluminum is the most abundant metallic element in the Earth's crust. Bauxite ore is the main
source of aluminum. Aluminum is used in automobiles and airplanes (36%), bottling and canning
industries (25%), building and electrical (14%) and in other applications (25%).
Antimony
Antimony is a silvery-gray, brittle semi-metal. It rarely occurs in nature as a native element,
but is found in a number of different minerals. Antimony is used principally for flame retardants
as well as in ammunition and automotive batteries and as a decolorizing agent in glassmaking.
Asbestos
Asbestos is a class of minerals that can be readily separated into thin, strong fibers that are
flexible, heat resistant, and chemically inert. Asbestos minerals are used in fireproof fabrics, yarn,
cloth, and paper and paint filler. Asbestos is used to make friction products, asbestos cement
pipes and sheets, coatings and compounds, packing and gaskets, roofing and flooring products,
paints and caulking, and chemical filters. Fibers are dangerous when breathed, so users must
protect against fibers becoming airborne.

Basalt
Basalt is an extrusive igneous rock. Crushed basalt is used for railroad ballast, aggregate in
highway construction, and is a major component of asphalt.
Barium
Barium is an element, derived primarily from the mineral barite, and used as a heavy additive
in oil-well- drilling mud, paints, rubber, plastic and paper; production of barium chemicals; and
glass manufacturing.
Beryllium
Beryllium, an element commonly associated with igneous rocks, has industrial and nuclear
defense applications and is used in light, very strong alloys for the aircraft industry. Beryllium
salts are used in x-ray tubes and as a deoxidizer in bronze metallurgy. The gemstones of beryl, a
beryllium mineral, are emerald and aquamarine.
Bismuth
Bismuth is used in a number of very different applications. The majority is consumed in bismuth
alloys, and in pharmaceuticals and chemicals. The remainder is used in ceramics, paints, catalysts,
and a variety of minor applications. Bismuth metal is relatively inert and non-toxic. It has replaced
toxic lead in many applications such as plumbing, bullets, birdshot, metal alloys, and soldering.
Bismuth compounds are used in stomach-upset medicines (hence the trademarked name Pepto-
Bismol), treatment of stomach ulcers, soothing creams, and cosmetics.
Boron
Boron compounds are used for many different purposes in industry and the home. Boron is
used to make glass, ceramics, enamels, fiberglass, make water softeners, soaps and detergents.
Other uses are in agricultural chemicals, pest controls, fire retardants, fireworks, medicine, and
various minor applications. Boron nitride is one of the hardest known substances and is used for
abrasives and cutting tools.
Bromine
Bromine, recovered commercially through the treatment of seawater brines, is used in leaded
gasoline, fire extinguishers and retardants, well-completion fluids, and sanitary preparations.
Bromine is the only liquid nonmetallic element.
Cadmium
Cadmium is used in plating and alloying, pigments, plastics, and batteries. Cadmium is
obtained from the ore minerals Sphalerite (Zn,Cd)S and Greenockite (CdS)
Calcium
The primary use of calcium is not in its silvery-white metal form, but as calcium carbonate. It
used in adhesives and sealants, cosmetics, foods, paint, paper, pharmaceuticals, plastics, rubber,
for the production of lime, and as crushed stone in construction. Immense quantities of calcium
are found in sedimentary rock deposits of gypsum, limestone, and shale. Some common calcium-
bearing minerals include apatite (calcium phosphate), calcite (calcium carbonate), dolomite (calcium
magnesium carbonate), fluorite (calcium fluoride), and gypsum (calcium sulfate). Calcium metal
is produced in Canada, China, France, Russia, and the United States. Total world output is thought
to be less than 6,000 metric tons per year. United States consumption of calcium metal is small. On
a worldwide basis, more than 100 million metric tons per year of apatite and gypsum are mined,
and calcite and dolomite are produced in billions of metric tons per year.

Cement
Cement is used for building materials, stucco, and mortar. Cement is a mixture of powdered
lime, clay, and other minerals that crystallize to form a hard solid when water is added (hydraulic
cement) or as a binding material in concrete".
Chromium
Chromium is used in the production of stainless and heat-resistant steel, full-alloy steel, super
alloys and other alloys. Chromium is obtained from the ore mineral Chromite (Mg,Fe)(Cr,AI,FeSO4
Clays
There are many different clay minerals that are used for industrial applications. Clays are
used in the manufacturing of paper, refractories, rubber, ball clay, dinnerware and pottery, floor
and wall tile, sanitary wear, fire clay, firebricks, foundry sands, drilling mud, iron-ore pelletizing,
absorbent and filtering materials, construction materials, and cosmetics.
Cobalt
Half of the consumption of cobalt is used in corrosion- and abrasion-resistant alloys with
steel, nickel, and other metals for the production of industrial engines. Other uses of cobalt metal
include magnets and cutting tools. Cobalt salts are used to produce a blue color in paint pigments,
porcelain, glass, and pottery. Cobalt is obtained from the ore minerals Linneaite (CO3S4), Cobaltite
CoAsS, and (Fe,Ni,Co)l-xSx.
Copper
Copper is used in electric cables and wires, switches, plumbing; heating, electrical, and roofing
materials; electronic components; industrial machinery and equipment; transportation; consumer
and general products; coins; and jewelry.
Diamond
Industrial diamonds are those that can not be used as gems. Large diamonds are used in tools
and drilling bits to cut rock and small stone. Small diamonds, also known as dust or grit, are used
for cutting and polishing stone and ceramic products.
Diatomite
Diatomite is a rock composed of the skeletons of diatoms, single-celled organisms with skeletons
made of silica, which are found in fresh and salt water. Diatomite is primarily used for filtration of
drinks, such as juices and wines, but it is also being used as filler in paints and pharmaceuticals
and environmental cleanup technologies.
Dolomite
Dolomite is the near twin-sister rock to limestone. Like limestone, it typically forms in a marine
environment but also as has a primary magnesium component. Dolomite is used in agriculture,
chemical and industrial applications, cement construction, refractory, and environmental
industries.
Feldspar
Feldspar is a rock-forming mineral. It is used in glass and ceramic industries; pottery, porcelain
and enamelware; soaps; bond for abrasive wheels; cement; glues; fertilizer; and tarred roofing
materials and as a sizing, or filler, in textiles and paper applications.

Fluorite
Fluorite is used in production of hydrofluoric acid, which is used in the pottery, ceramics,
optical, electroplating, and plastics industries. It is also used in the metallurgical treatment of
bauxite, as a flux in open-hearth steel furnaces, and in metal smelting, as well as in carbon electrodes,
emery wheels, electric arc welders, and toothpaste as a source of fluorine.
Garnet
Garnet is used in water filtration, electronic components, ceramics, glass, jewelry, and abrasives
used in wood furniture and transport manufacturing. "Garnet is a common metamorphic mineral
that becomes abundant enough to mine in a few rocks".
Germanium
"Most germanium is recovered as a byproduct of zinc smelting. It is also found in some copper
ores". Applications include use in fiber-optic components, which are replacing copper in long-
distance telecommunication lines, as well as in camera lenses and other glasses and infrared lenses.
Gold
Gold is used in dentistry and medicine, jewelry and arts, medallions and coins, and in ingots.
It is also used for scientific and electronic instruments, computer circuitry, as an electrolyte in the
electroplating industry, and in many applications for the aerospace industry.
Granite
Granite can be cut into large blocks and used as a building stone. When polished, it is used for
monuments, headstones, countertops, statues, and facing on buildings. It is also suitable for railroad
ballast and for road aggregate in highway construction.
Graphite
Graphite is the crystal form of carbon. Graphite is used as a dry lubricant and steel hardener
and for brake linings and the production of "lead" in pencils. Most graphite production comes
from Korea, India, and Mexico.
Gypsum
Processed gypsum is used in industrial or building plaster, prefabricated wallboard, cement
manufacture, and for agriculture.
Halite
Halite (salt) is used in the human and animal diet, primarily as food seasoning and as food
preservation. It is also used to prepare sodium hydroxide, soda ash, caustic soda, hydrochloric
acid, chlorine, and metallic sodium, and it is used in ceramic glazes, metallurgy, curing of hides,
mineral waters, soap manufacture, home water softeners, highway deicing, photography, and
scientific equipment for optical parts.
Iodine
Iodine is used as an antibacterial agent in soaps and cleaning products in restrooms, in iodized
salt to prevent goiter, and in first aid boxes as an antiseptic.
Iron Ore
Iron ore is used to manufacture steels of various types and other metallurgical products, such
as magnets, auto parts, and catalysts. Most U.S. production is from Minnesota and Michigan. The
Earth's crust contains about 5% iron, the fourth most abundant element in the crust.

Lead
Lead is used in batteries, construction, ammunition, television tubes, nuclear shielding,
ceramics, weights, and tubes or containers. The United States is largest producer (mainly from
Missouri), consumer, and recycler of lead metal.
Limestone
A sedimentary rock consisting largely of the minerals calcite and aragonite, which have the
same composition CaCO3. Limestone, along with dolomite, is one of the basic building blocks of
the construction industry. Limestone is used as aggregate, building stone, cement, and lime and
in fluxes, glass, refractory, fillers, abrasives, soil conditioners, and a host of chemical processes.
Lithium
Batteries made from lithium metal or lithium carbonate are used in smoke alarms, pacemakers,
defibrillator machines, many other types of portable medical equipment, and in emergency
communications equipment, including computers and cell phones.
Magnesium
Magnesium (see dolomite) is used in cement, rubber, paper, insulation, chemicals and fertilizers,
animal feed, and pharmaceuticals. Magnesium is obtained from the ore minerals Olivine {Fe, Mg}
2SiO4, Magnesite MgCO3, and Dolomite CaMg (CO3)2.
Manganese
Manganese is essential to iron and steel production. Manganese is obtained from the ore
minerals Braunite (Mn, Sih03, Pyrolusite Mn02, and Psilomelane BaMn9O S*2H2O.
Mercury
Mercury is extracted from the mineral cinnabar and is used in electrical products, electrolytic
production of chlorine and caustic soda, paint, and industrial and control instruments
{thermometers and thermostats}.
Mica
Mica minerals commonly occur as flakes, scales, or shreds. Sheet muscovite (white) mica is
used in electronic insulators, paints, as joint cement, as a dusting agent, in well drilling mud and
lubricants, and in plastics, roofing, rubber, and welding rods.
Molybdenum
Molybdenum is used in stainless steels (21%), tool steels {9%}, cast irons {7%}, and chemical
lubricants (8%), and in other applications (55%). It is commonly used to make automotive parts,
construction equipment, gas transmission pipes, and as pure metal molybdenum is used as filament
supports in light bulbs, metalworking dies, and furnace parts because of its high melting
temperature (2,623°C).
Nickel
Nickel is vital as an alloy to stainless steel, and it plays a key roll in the chemical and aerospace
industries. Leading producers are Canada, Norway, and Russia.
Phosphate rock
Primarily a sedimentary rock used to produce phosphoric acid and ammoniated phosphate
fertilizers, feed additives for livestock, elemental phosphorus, and a variety of phosphate chemicals

for industrial and home consumers. The majority of U.S. production comes from Florida, North
Carolina, Idaho, and Utah.
Platinum Group Metals (PGMs)

PGM's include platinum, palladium, rhodium, iridium, osmium, and ruthenium. These
elements commonly occur together in nature and are among the scarcest of the metallic elements.
Platinum is used principally in catalytic converters for the control of automobile and industrial
plant emissions; in jewelry; in catalysts to produce acids, organic chemicals, and pharmaceuticals;
and in dental alloys used for making crowns and bridges.
Potash
Potash is an industry term that refers to a group of water-soluble salts containing the element
potassium, as well as to ores containing these salts. Potash is used in fertilizer, medicine, the
chemical industry, and to produce decorative color effects on brass, bronze, and nickel.
Pyrite
Pyrite (fools gold) is used in the manufacture of sulfur, sulfuric acid, and sulfur dioxide; pellets
of pressed pyrite dust are used to recover iron, gold, copper, cobalt, and nickel.
Quartz
Quartz crystals are popular as a semiprecious gemstone; crystalline varieties include amethyst,
citrine, rose quartz, and smoky quartz. Because of its piezoelectric properties (the ability to generate
electricity under mechanical stress), quartz is used for pressure gauges, oscillators, resonators,
and wave stabilizers. Quartz is also used in the manufacture of glass, paints, abrasives, refractory,
and precision instruments.
Sandstone
Sandstone is used as a building stone, road bases and coverings, construction fill, concrete,
railroad ballast, and snow and ice control.
Silica / Silicon
Silica is used in the manufacture of computer chips, glass and refractory materials, ceramics,
abrasives, and water filtration; and is a component of hydraulic cements, a filler in cosmetics,
pharmaceuticals, paper, and insecticides; as an anti-caking agent in foods; a flatting agent in paint,
and as a thermal insulator.
Silver
Silver is used in photography, chemistry, electrical and electronic products (because of its
very high conductivity), fine silverware, electroplated wire, jewelry, coins, and brazing alloys
and solders.
Strontium
Photo luminescent exit signs use a class of newly developed phosphorescent pigments that
are based on strontium oxide aluminates chemistry.
Sulfur
Sulfur is of importance to every sector of the world's manufacturing processes, drugs, and
fertilizer complexes. Sulfur is used as an industrial raw material through its major derivative,
sulfuric acid. Sulfuric acid production is the major end use for sulfur. Most sulfur goes into fertilizer;
oil refining is another major use as well as a source of sulfur.

Talc
The primary use for talc is in the production of paper. Ground talc is used as filler in ceramics,
paint, paper, roofing, plastics, cosmetics, and in agriculture. Talc is found in many common
household products, such as baby (talcum) powder, deodorant, and makeup. Very pure talc is
used in fine arts and is called soapstone. It is often used to carve figurines.
Tin
Tin is used in the manufacture of cans and containers, electrical equipment, and chemicals.
Titanium
Titanium is a metal used mostly in jet engines, airframes, and space and missile applications.
In powdered form, titanium is used as a white pigment for paints, paper, plastics, rubber, and
other materials.
Trona
Trona is used in glass container manufacture, fiberglass, specialty glass, flat glass, liquid
detergents, medicine, food additives, photography, cleaning and boiler compounds, and control
of water pH. Trona is mined mainly in Wyoming.
Tungsten
Tungsten is used in steel production, metalworking, cutting applications, construction electrical
machinery and equipment, transportation equipment, light bulbs, carbide drilling equipment,
heat and radiation shielding, textile dyes, enamels, paints, and for coloring glass.
Uranium
Uranium is a radioactive material used in nuclear defense systems and for nuclear generation
of electricity. It also used in nuclear-medicine x-ray machines, atomic dating, and electronic
instruments.
Zeolites
Some of the uses of zeolite minerals include aquaculture (for removing ammonia from the
water in fish hatcheries), water softener, catalysts, cat litter, odor control, and removing radioactive
ions from nuclear plant effluent.
Zinc
Zinc is used as protective coating on steel, as die casting, as an alloying metal with copper to
make brass, and as chemical compounds in rubber and paint. Additional uses include galvanizing
iron, electroplating, metal spraying, automotive parts, electrical fuses, anodes, dry-cell batteries,
nutrition, chemicals, roof gutters, cable wrapping, and pennies. Zinc oxide is used in medicine,
paints, vulcanizing rubber, and sun- block lotions.
Zirconium
Zirconium is a metal recovered from zircon. "Zircon is used in mineral form in refractory
products, where it is valued for its high melting temperature of 2,550°C. Some zircon is processed
by chemical leaching to yield elemental zirconium. The best known use for zirconium metal is in
nuclear reactors, where zirconium contains the fuel".

Practice Questions
1. The element not present in fertilisers is
(a) nitrogen (b) hydrogen
(c) chlorine (d) phosphorus
2. Cooking gas is a mixture of
(a) carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide
(b) butane and propane
(c) methane and ethylene
(d) carbon dioxide and oxygen
3. The Central Drug Research Institute (CDRI, India) is located in
(a) Allahabad (b) Lucknow
(b) Delhi (d) Bangalore
4. The first metal to be used by man was
(a) aluminium (b) copper
(c) Silver (d) Iron
5. The gas used in fire extinguishers is
(a) Nitrogen (b) sulphur dioxide
(c) carbon dioxide (d) hydrogen
6. An antipyretic is a drug that
(a) Lowers body temperature
(b) raises body temperature
(c) kills microbes
(d) is used in viral attacks
7. The metal generally mixed with’ gold’while making ornaments is
(a) zinc (b) iron
(c) silver (d) copper
8. The number of isotopes in which hydrogen exists are
(a) 1 (b) 4
(c) 3 (d) 2
9. Washing soda is
(a) sodium cholride (b) hydrated sodium carbonate
(c) sodium bicarbonate (d) calcium carbonate
10. The main chemical substance present in, the bones and teeth of animals is
(a) sodium chloride (b) sugar
(c) calcium phosphate (d) calcium sulphate
11. DDT is the name of a chemical that can be used as a/an
(a) Antiseptic (b) Insecticide
(c) Antibiotic (d) fertiliser

12. The greatest number of compounds are formed by the element

(a) hydrogen (b) carbon
(c) oxygen (d) nitrogen
13. Gasoline is the name given to the same substance as
(a) diesel oil (b) petrol
(c) natural gas (d) crude oil
14. Diamond is chemically
(a) a mixture of metal carbonates
(b) pure carbon
(c) a pure form of sand
(d) a mixture of calcium and magnesium phosphates
15. Cooking gas supplied in cylinders by gas agencies is in the form of
(a) liquid (b) gas
(c) solid (d) a solution
16. The gas used for inflating balloons is
(a) Nitorgen (b) Hydrogen
(c) helium (d) Air
17. The most abundant gas in the atmosphere is
(a) carbon dioxide (b) helium
(c) nitrogen (d) oxygen
18. Half life of radioactive substance is 60 rnin: during 3 hrs, the fraction of total no. of atoms
that would ‘have decayed would be
(a) 12.5% (b) 25%
(b) 8.5% (d) 87.5%
19. The elements present inthe largest amounts in rocks and minerals is
(a) silicon (b) cabon
(c) hydrogen (d) gold
20. The nature of saliva is
(a) neutral (b) acidic
(c) basic (d) amphoteric
21. Haemoglobin is
(a) the colouring matter of leaves of plants
(b) the colouring matter of blood
(c) a compound present in milk
(d) a compound that transmists signals to the brain
22. Chemically, dry ice is
(a) ice formed from pure distilled water
(b) solid carbon dioxide

2
(c) solid sulphur dioxide

(d) ice kept at sub-zero temperatures
23.A gas which is not present in normal samples of air is
(a) neon (b) cholrine
(c) carbon dioxide (d) helium
24.The purity of primary gold is
(a) 32 carat (b) 24 quartz
(c) 24 carat (d) 22 carat
25.Pencil 'lead' is made up of
(a) graphite (b) charcoal
(c) lead oxide (d) lampblack
26.The acid present is lemons and oranges is
(a) acetic acid (b) hydrochloric acid
(c) citric acid (d) oxalic acid
27. A mixture of two or more metals is called by the general name
(a) amalgam (b) alkali metal
(c) noble metal (d) alloy
28.A drug that prevents infe ction and decay is called a/an
(a) antiseptic (b) antimalarial drug
(c) gemicide (d) analgesic
29. Product gas chemically consists of
(a) CO +2 H (b) CO+N
2
(c) CO2+N2 (d) CO2+H2
30. Water for civil supplies is commonly purified by
(a) chlorination (b) distillation
(c) filtration (d) decantation

Ejp LChemistry

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Ejp LChemistry

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Ejp LChemistry

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Online classes for TSPSC APPSC SSC BANKING INSURANCE, RAILWAYS

www.kautilyacareers.com 040-27665101 9515870609

www.kautilyacareers.com 040-27665101 9515870609

www.kautilyacareers.com 040-27665101 9515870609

preservation. Commonly used antiseptic- Dettol is a mixture of chloroxylenol and terpeneol in a

www.kautilyacareers.com 040-27665101 9515870609

Symbols of Important Elements

www.kautilyacareers.com 040-27665101 9515870609

Elementary Particles of Matter

www.kautilyacareers.com 040-27665101 9515870609

www.kautilyacareers.com 040-27665101 9515870609

Benjoic acid grass, leaves

www.kautilyacareers.com 040-27665101 9515870609

www.kautilyacareers.com 040-27665101 9515870609

Important Points to Remember

www.kautilyacareers.com 040-27665101 9515870609

Chemicals in Daily Life

www.kautilyacareers.com 040-27665101 9515870609

Boron (B) - a micronutrient

Calcium (Ca) - a macronutrient

www.kautilyacareers.com 040-27665101 9515870609

Carbon (C) - a macronutrient

Chlorine (CI) - a micronutrient

www.kautilyacareers.com 040-27665101 9515870609

Copper (Cu) - a micronutrient

www.kautilyacareers.com 040-27665101 9515870609

Hydrogen (H) - a macronutrient

www.kautilyacareers.com 040-27665101 9515870609

Iron (Fe) - a micronutrient

Magnesium (Mg) - a macronutrient

www.kautilyacareers.com 040-27665101 9515870609

Manganese (Mn) - a micronutrient

Molybdenum (Mo) - a micronutrient

www.kautilyacareers.com 040-27665101 9515870609

Nitrogen (N) - a macronutrient

Oxygen (O) - a macronutrient

Phosphorus (P) - a macronutrient

www.kautilyacareers.com 040-27665101 9515870609

Potassium (K) - a macronutrient

www.kautilyacareers.com 040-27665101 9515870609

www.kautilyacareers.com 040-27665101 9515870609

Sulfur (S) - a macronutrient

www.kautilyacareers.com 040-27665101 9515870609

Zinc (Zn) - a micronutrient

www.kautilyacareers.com 040-27665101 9515870609

www.kautilyacareers.com 040-27665101 9515870609

www.kautilyacareers.com 040-27665101 9515870609

www.kautilyacareers.com 040-27665101 9515870609

www.kautilyacareers.com 040-27665101 9515870609

Platinum Group Metals (PGMs)

www.kautilyacareers.com 040-27665101 9515870609

www.kautilyacareers.com 040-27665101 9515870609

www.kautilyacareers.com 040-27665101 9515870609

12. The greatest number of compounds are formed by the element

www.kautilyacareers.com 040-27665101 9515870609

(c) solid sulphur dioxide

www.kautilyacareers.com 040-27665101 9515870609

You might also like