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PART I
Overview of
Data Communications
and
Networking
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Overview

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Chapters

Chapter 1 Introduction

Chapter 2 Network Models

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Chapter 1

Introduction

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1.1 Data Communication

Communication:
sharing information. Sharing can be local (face to face) or
remote (over distance)
Tele communication:
(telephone, television, telegraphy) means communication at a
distance remote communication. (tele: far)
Data communication:
exchange of data between two devices via transmission medium
(wire cable)
Communicating devices
made up of : H.W( physical equipments )and S.W

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1.1 Data Communication

Effectiveness of data communication depends on :

•Delivery :
System must deliver data to correct destination. Data must be
received by only intended device or user.

•Accuracy:
The system must deliver data accurately

•Timeliness:
the system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data
delivered later are useless.
•Jitter:
Variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven delay in the
delivery of audio or video packets.

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1.1 Data Communication

•Components

•Data Representation

•Direction of Data Flow

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Components

Five components of data communication

Protocol: is a set of rules that governs data communications. It represents

an agreement between the communicating devices. Without a protocol two
devices may be connected but not communicating.

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Data representation

Text, numbers, images, audio, and video

Text:
• ASCII: 7-bit patteren(128 different symbols)
•Extended ASCII: 8-bit pattern (with an extra 0 at left from
00000000 to 0111111
•Unicode: 32 bits pattern (65,536,216) symbols, which is definitely
enough to represent any symbol in the world.
Numbers: represented by bit pattern (binary number)
Images : represented by matrix of pixels (picture element),
small dot. The size of pixel represent the resolution.
Audio: represent sound by continuous (analog) signal
Video: can be analog or digital signal

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Direction of data flow

Simplex, half duplex and full duplex

1. Simplex:
communication is unidirectional. (one-way-street). Only one of the
two devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive

Ex: As Keyboard (only input) and monitors only

output)

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Direction of data flow

2. Half duplex:
Each station can both transmit and receive , but not at the same time.
When one device is sending the other can receive and vice versa. one-
lane road with two direction).

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Direction of data flow

3. Full-Duplex:
Both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously. ( telephone network)
Like two way street with traffic flowing in both directions at the same time.

Signals going in either direction share the capacity of the link in two
ways:
 Either the link must contain two physically separate transmission paths one
for sending and other for receiving.

 Capacity of the channel is divided between signals traveling in both direction

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1.2 Networks

Network
is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes
nodes)) connected
by communication links.
A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device
capable of sending and/or receiving data generated by
other nodes on the network.

Distributed Processing
Most network uses distributed processing , in which a task is
divided among multiple computers. Instead of a single
machine responsible for all aspects of a process, separate
computers handle a subset.

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1.2 Networks

Network Criteria

Performance,
Reliability and
security

Physical Structures
Type of connection
physical topology

Categories of Networks
(LAN, MAN and WAN)

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Network criteria

1. Performance:
The performance depends on :
1. Number of user
2.Type of transmission media,
3.Capabilities of connected H.W and the efficiency of software.

2. Reliability
Measured by frequency of failure, the time it takes to recover from
failure, and network’s robustness in a catastrophe.

3. Security: Protecting data from unauthorized access.

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Physical Structures: Type of connection

1. Point –to-point
Dedicated link between two devices. Most of them uses an actual length of wire
or cable to connect the two ends but other options ,such as microwave satellite are
possible.

change T.V channel by infrared remote

control is point- to -point connection
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Physical Structures: Type of connection

2. Multipoint (multidrop) connection:
more than two devices share a single line. The capacity is shared either
spatially or temporally.
Spatially: Several devices can use link simultaneously
Temporally: Users take turns , it is a timeshared

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Physical Structures :physical topology

 The way in which a network is laid out physically. .

 It is the geometric representation of the relationship of all the
links and linking devices (nods) to one another.

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Fully connected mesh topology (for five devices)

Every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other devices

Fully connected mesh network has n(n-1)/2 physical connection to

link n devices.

Every device on the network must have n-1 input/output (I/O) ports

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Mesh topology

Advantages:
 Privacy or security (every message travels along a dedicated
line, only the intended recipient sees it. Physical boundaries prevents
other user from gaining access the message
eliminating the traffic problems The use of dedicated links
guarantees that each connection can carry its own data load; that can
occur when links must be shared by multiple devices.
 A mesh is robust. If one link becomes unusable, it does not
incapacitate the entire system.
Fault identification and fault isolation easy. This enables
the network manager to discover the precise location of fault and aids
in finding its cause and solution.

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Mesh topology

Disadvantages
Related to the amount of cabling devices and the amount of I/O ports
required:
 Every device must be connected to every other device, installation
and reconnection are difficult
The sheer bulk of the wiring can be greater than the available space can
accommodate.
The H.W required to connect each link (I/O ports and cable) expensive.
So a mesh topology is usually implemented in a limited fashion( as a
backbone connecting the main computers of a hybrid network that can
include several other topology

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Star topology

Each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central

controller (hub)
Unlike a mesh , a star topology does not allow direct traffic between
devices, if one device want to send data to another , it send it to the hub,
which send it to other device

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Star topology

Advantages
1. Easy to install and reconfigure and less expensive
• each device need only one link and I/O port to connect it
to any other devices.)

2. Robustness:
• if one link fails, only that link affected and other links
remain active.

3. identification and fault isolation

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Star topology

Disadvantages

 The dependency of the whole topology on one single point,

the hub. If the hub goes down, the whole system is
dead.

Although star requires far less cable than a mesh,( n) each

node must linked to hub ; this need more cabling than
other methods ( ring, bus)

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Tree topology : Is a variation of star

Not every device plugs directly into the central hub. The majority of devices connect
to secondary hub that in turn is connected to the central hub

The advantages and disadvantages of tree topology are generally the

same as those of star .The addition of secondary hubs bring more advantage:
Allow more devices to be attached to a single central hub, therefore
increase the distance a signal can travel between devices.
Example of tree : Cable TV technology where the main cable from the main office is
divided into main branches and each branch divided into smaller branches and so on.

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Bus topology

•Multipoint connection. Acts as a backbone to link all the devices

in a network.

There is a limit on the number of taps a bus can support and on the
distance between those taps

As a signal travels along the backbone, some of its energy is transformed

into heat, therefore, it becomes weaker and weaker as it has travel farther
and farther

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Bus topology

Advantages
Easy of insulation, use less cabling than mesh or star
Disadvantages
Include difficult of reconnection and fault isolation
1. Fault
A fault in bus cable (break) stops all transmissions
even between devices on the same side of the problem. The
damaged area reflects signals back the direction of origin, creating
noise in both directions
2. Reconnection
It can difficult to add new devices (adding more require
modification or replacement of the backbone).

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Ring topology
•Each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection only
with the two devices on either side of it
•A signal is passed along the ring in one direction from device
until it reaches its destination.
•Each device in the ring incorporate as repeater

Repeater Repeater

Repeater Repeater

Repeater

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Ring topology

Advantages:
 Easy to install and reconfigure.
Each device is linked only to its immediate neighbors. To add or delete a
device requires hanging only 2 connections

Fault isolation is simplified :

A signal is circulating at all times (token) if one device does not receive a
signal within specified period, it can issue an alarm. The alarm alerts the
network operator to the problem and its location
Disadvantages
Unidirectional traffic.
A break in the ring (such as disabled station) can disable
the entire network. This can be solved by use dual ring
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A hybrid topology: a star backbone with three bus networks

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Networks categories
Network category is determined by its size, ownership,
the distance it cover and its physical architecture.

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Single building LAN

Used in business environments, links a workgroup of

task-related computer.

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Multiple -building -LAN

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LAN

Privately owned and links the devices in a single office, building or campus
LANs designed to allow resources to be shared between PCs or workstations.
The resources may be H.W (e.g. printer) or S.W( applications program) or
data.
In LANs one of the computers has a large capacity drive and becomes a server
to other clients.
S/W stored on server and used as needed by the whole group.

LAN size determined by licensing restrictions( No of users per copy of S/W)

LAN use only one type of transmission medium.

The most common LAN topologies are bus, ring and star.

Traditionally LAN have data rates in the 4 to 16 Mbps. Today Speed can reach
to 100Mbps or 1000MBps(1G).

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MAN (metropolitan)

Owned by private company or it may be a service provided by

public company ( such as local tel.-company)
Extended over an entire city.

May be single network such as a cable television network, or it

may be connected number of LANs into a large network so
that resources may be shared LAN-TO- LAN.

Examples:
• Company can use MAN to connect the LANs in all its
offices throughout the city.
•A part of the telephone line network that can provide
DSL line to the customer

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MAN

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WAN

Provides long distance transmission of data, voice , image

and video information over large areas ( country or whole
world)
In contrast to LAN, WAN may utilize public or private
communication equipments or combination

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WANs: a switched WAN and a point-to-point WAN

Ex: a dial-up line that connects a home computer or a small LAN to ISP to
Internet access

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Interconnections of networks :internetwork

An internet (small i) is two or more networks that can communicate with each other.

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The Internet
Internet is a collaboration of more than 100 of 1000
interconnected network.

Brief History
In mid of 1960.:
The Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) in the
department of defense was interested in finding a way to
connect computers so that the researchers they funded could
share their findings, to reduce costs and eliminating
duplication of effort.

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Brief history
1n1967
ARPA presented its ideas for ARPANET, small network of connected
computers (mainframe).

1n 1969,
ARPANET was reality. Four nodes at the UNV. Of California,(at los
angles and Santa Barba), univ. of utah and SRI (Stand ford Research
Institute connected via IMPs computers to form a network.
Software called Network Control Protocol (NCP) provided
communication between the hosts.

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Brief history
1n 1972,
Protocol to achieve end -to-end delivery of packets, Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP).
 Authorities made decision to split TCP into two protocols:
IP: Internetworking protocol to handle datagram routing and
TCP: responsible for higher-level-functions such as error
detection, segmentation and reassembly.

Internet today
Made up of many wide and local area networks joined by connecting
devices and switching stations. Today most end users use the services
of internet service providers (ISPs).

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Protocols and Standards

Protocols

Standards

Standards Organization

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Protocols
Set of rules that governs data communications.
Protocol defines :
•What is communicated?
•How it communicated?
•When it is communicated?
•Key elements of a protocol: Syntax, semantics and timing

•Syntax:
•Structure or format of the data, meaning the order in which they
are presented.
Example:
A simple protocol might expect the first byte of data to be the
address of the sender, the second byte to be the address of the
receiver and the reset of the stream to be the message itself.
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Protocols

Semantics:
•Refers to the meaning of each section of bits.
• Example:
does an address identify the route to be taken or the final
destination of the message.

•Timing:
•When data to should be sent?
•How fast they can be sent?
Example:
If a sender produces data at 100Mpbs but the receiver can
process data at only 1Mpbs, transmission will overload the
receiver and data will be largely lost.
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Standers

Provide guidelines to manufactures, vendors, government agencies

and other service provides to ensure the kind of interconnectivity
necessary in today's marketplace and international
communication.
Two categories:
1. De fact:
Have been adopted as standers through widespread
use .Established by manufacturers that define the
functionality of a new product or technology

2. De jure:
officially recognized body.

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Standers Organization

1. International Organization for Standardization (ISO)

• Multinational body
• OSI
2. International Telecommunication Union Telecommunication
standard sector ( ITU-T)

 devoted to the research of standards for telecommunication

in general and for phone and data system in particular
 Data transmission over telephone line Modems
standards :V- series( V32, V34,V90)
 X-series: data transmission over public digital network (e-
mail)

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Standers Organization
3. American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
 completely private, nonprofit corporation

4. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

(IEEE)
 International in scoop
 In the fields of electrical engineering, electronics and all related
branches of engineering
 International standards for computing and communications
LAN (project 802): IEEE Ethernet 802.3

5. Electronic Industries Association (EIA)

 Field of Information Technology (SONET)

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