UNIT 1 IDGHEREDUCATION: HISTORICAL

PERSPECTIVES

Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Objectives
1.3 Higher Education - The Concept
1.3.1 Education and Higher Education
1.3.2 The Concept of Higher Education
1.4 Historical Perspectives of Higher Education
1.4.1 Global Scenario
1.4.1.1 Women in Higher Education
1.4.2 Indian Scenario
1.4.2.1 Ancient Age .
1.4.2.2 Medieval Age
1.4.2.3 Colonial period
1.4.2.4 After Independence
1.5 Higher Education in the Modem Social Context
1.5.1 .HE for the Development and Perfection of the Individual
1.5.2 HE for the Fulfillment of the Growing Demand of the Society
1.6 Key Players in the Higher Education in India in the 21 sr Century
1.7 Let Us Sum Up
1.8 Unit End Activities
1.9 Suggested Readings

1.1 INTRODUCTION
History of Higher Education (HE) is important for the students of higher learning
systems as well as for learners and scholars who are engaged in research activities
to know about Higher Education (HE) systems. In this sense it occupies a special
position in the history of education system. HE is the super structure of the
education system because the total education system and its quality depends on
it. The nation also depends upon planning of HE for future manpower planning
and economic enhancement. So it is important to understand the past to plan for
the present and future.

In 1993, UNESCO formed a commission to review the education systems of the

world in the 21 st century. A renowned educationist and social thinker, Jacques
Delor was the Chairman of the Commission. The Commission published its
report in 1996. The report was known as The UNESCO report of the International
Commission on Education for the Twenty first Century or popularly known as th
Delor's Report. At one place of the report (p. 130), the commission made its
observation on HE as follows:

"Higher education is at one and the same time one of the driving forces of
economic development and the focal point of learning in a society. It is both
repository and creator of knowledge. Moreover, it is the principal instrument for
7
Managing Higher passing on the accumulated experience, cultural and scientific, of humanity. In
Education Institution: A
Perspective
a world where resources of knowledge will increasingly predominant over
material resources asfactors in development, the importance of higher education
and of higher education institutions can only grow. Moreover, the effect of
innovation and technological progress means that economies will increasingly
demand competencies that require high level studies. "

So the expectations and demands of the society from HE are many and different
for different times, countries and situations. In this unit we have discussed the
development of HE in these different perspectives,

1.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this Unit, you will be able to:
• Explain the concept and purpose of HE;
• Analyse the evolutionary nature of HE in India and abroad; and
• Identify the role of HE in different historical and social perspectives.

1.3 HIGHER EDUCATION - THE CONCEPT

You may, perhaps, know that the history of education is as old as the history of
human civilization. Education existed even in the primitive days, but forms and
systems were completely different. Education system has gone through a lot of
changes and has evolved a lot over the years. Earlier education was imparted to
children in order to pass on the moral values and skills required by them to earn
their livelihood and live in the social set up of that place. At that time, education
was non-formal in nature: There were no levels of education as exists now-a-
days. Education was the natural response of early civilisations for the struggle
for surviving and thriving as a culture. Adults trained the young of their society
in the knowledge and skills they would need to master and pass on to the next
generation. When cultures began to extend their knowledge beyond the basic
skills of communicating, trading, gathering food, religious practices, etc, then
formal education and schooling, eventually followed. Schooling in this sense
was already in place in Egypt and India between 3000 BC and 500BC.

Eric Ashby, an educationist, social thinker and a prolific writer, has written many
books on HE.

Ashby (1967) states four revolutions in education and those revolutions gradually
change the education system and different levels of education develop according
to the age and capacity levels of the learners:

1) The first revolution was adults' role in the society and the task of educating
the young was shifted from parents to teachers and from home to school.
2) The second revolution 'was the use of the written text instead of oral
instruction in the classroom only.
3) The third revolution came with the invention in printing process and the.
wide availability of books.
4) The fourth revolution is the development in electronics e.g. radio, computer,
tape-recorder etc.
8
In the present day we are heading for another revolution in education, especially Higher Education:
Historical Perspectives
in the HE system. It is the revolution of Information and Communication
Technology (ICT). The development of ICT has transformed the old education
system, its delivery mode and management of the total education system.

1.3.1 Education and Higher Education

There are many approaches to education. They vary from state to state and country
to country. Even a few decades ago we had not heard of so many types and
systems of education which exist today. We were not much familiar with Distance
Education (Dlij.flexi-Iearning and virtual education etc. At that time, we had no
computers, no Internet systems. There were very few telephone users but a vibrant
postal system. Simply stated, and in the words of Thomas Briggs, the new concept
proposes that "education should attempt to guide young people through
experiences that will maximally develop each one to do better than the otherwise
would or could those desirable things that he will do anyway." Whatever may it
be, education responses the following questions:

What prepares one for effective living? What is fundamental to the development
of the whole man? What is essential to personality growth and social growth?

1.3.2 The Concept of Higher Education

Education is a broad term and includes all modes of transformation of knowledge
and skills. In this sense travelling, drawing, singing, painting etc are all included
in education. For clarifying an example may be given. Perhaps, you have heard
the name of Maxim Gorky, a famous writer, dramatist and political activist of the
erstwhile Soviet Union (now Russia). This author had written an autobiographical
book, My Universities (Autobiography Part Ill, 1923), where he had described
his relationship with people, culture, situations, family etc. These are not learnt
from any educational institution, yet these are also considered as education.

Now, let us come to the development of higher education. Higher-learning

institutions date back to ancient times, give learning an institutional framework.
These institutions were not like the educational institutions of the modern days,
yet they are also considered as educational institutions and such types of
institutions can be found in many cultures all over the world, though ancient
centres of learning were typically institutions for teaching philosophy and
theology.

HE is only a part of the total education system. Before going on to discuss the
history of Higher Education, let us try to understand what the higher education
IS.

Higher education is an institutionalised system of education and is an educational

level that follows the completion of a school providing a secondary education,
such as a high school, secondary school etc. Tertiary education and sometimes
vocational education is also considered as HE. Colleges, universities and technical
or vocational institutes are the main institutions that provide tertiary education.

9
Managing Higher
Education Institution: A Check Your Progress 1
Perspective
Write the answers of the following questions in your own words in the
space provided below (in 50 words each)
1) Discuss the different major changes in the education system from the
early stages.

2). State and explain the different sources of education other than schools,
colleges and universities.

1.4 - HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES OF HIGHER

EDUCATION
You have understood the concept of higher education. Now let us see the
development of higher education system in India and abroad. History of higher
education has its roots in religion but has seen many changes through the decades
and centuries. It is called higher education because it is the highest stage of
formal education. People can get higher specialisation degrees at this level.

From prehistoric era, societies have faced different changes and thus have also
witnessed changes in the education system, though it was not formal in nature.
Education at that time was general and informal. But societies grew more complex
due to the growing intellectual abilities of human beings. Thus formal education
came into existence and education was growing as institutionalised system more
and more. Specialised training and new and advanced knowledge was required
for the systematisation of societal demands. All the knowledge and information
was not required for all the people and thus clear cut content was developed
slowly and this was the beginning of the curriculum development. In this way
specialised people were engaged for specialised training and imparting specialised
knowledge and information. Thus formal schools were developed and teachers
were entrusted to deliver methodological and systematic information to the
learners.
10

/
1.4.1 Global Scenario Higher Education:
Historical Perspectives
A modern university of the present day is an institution of higher education and
research that awards academic degrees. The Guinness Book of World Records
recognizes 'The University of Al Karaouine' in Fez, founded in 859 by the princess
Fatima al- Fihri, as the oldest degree-granting university in the world. But there
were evidences that universities were established long before that.

There is debate a about exactly where history of higher education began. However,
according to some scholars the oldest institutions of higher learning was started
on the island of Cos, Greece, in about the sixth century B.C. These schools
taught medicine along with other subjects and covered topics concerning the
nature of humanity and the universe.

A group of people, called the Pythagorean School, were the followers of the
Greek philosopher and mathematician Pythagoras (c. 580-500 B.C.). They also
started schools of higher education in Italy. They taught philosophy and
mathematics in Greek. The Greek philosophers Socrates (470-399 B.C.), Plato
(c. 428-348 B.C.) and Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) carried on this tradition in these
institutions. The medieval Islamic world awarded degrees and diplomas in
medicine and various other subjects. The Al-Azhar University founded in Cairo,
Egypt, in 970 A.D. and offered a variety of degrees in graduate and postgraduate
programmes, including theological seminary, law and jurisprudence, Arabic,
astronomy, philosophy and logic. Some other universities of that time (9th century
A.D.) are: University ofSalerno, University of Constantinople, Preslav Literary
School and Ohrid Literary School in Bulgaria. The first formal degree-granting
university in Europe was the University of Bologna (established in 1088). It was
followed by the University of Paris (c. 1150), University of Oxford (1167), and
the University of Cambridge (1209). The Roman Catholic Church was responsible
for the development of a lot of medieval universities in Western Europe. In Europe,
students preceeded to university when they completed their studies of the trivium
(the preparatory arts of grammar, rhetoric, and dialectic or logic) and then the
quadrivium (study of arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy). There were
also many notable institutions that were providing education and conferring
degrees even outside Europe, for example the famous Hanlin Academy
(established in 618-907 AD) in China.

By the 18th century, universities published their own research journals, and by
the 19th century, the German and the French university models had arisen. Their
models of education were renowned across the globe. Universities mostly
concentrated on science in the 19th and 20th centuries, and they started to become
accessible to the masses after 1914. Until the 19th century, religion played a
significant role in university curriculum. However, the role of religion and courses
related to it began to diminish in the 19th century in most of the universities and
colleges, and the German university model was adopted by most higher education
institutes.

1.4.1.1 Women in Higher Education

You will be surprised to know that the history and development of higher
education in the western countries is not very old. The history of higher education
for women began in the middle 18th Century with the establishment of female-
only primary and secondary schools. In course of time some of these schools
11
Managing Higher were transformed into colleges with the focus on training unmarried women to
Education Institution: A
Perspective
become teachers.

The first boarding school for women was established in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania
in 1742 by members ofthe Moravian denomination. This school became known
as the Bethlehem Female Seminary and was granted a charter in 18.63 to award
baccalaureate degrees. Oberlin College (1837) in Ohio was the first college to
allow women to attend classes equally with men. The first state college to accept
women was the University of Iowa (1855), which was quickly followed by several
other colleges in Western states.

The University of Wisconsin went coeducational in 1865, followed by the

University of Kansas (1869). Boston University made every class available to
women except theological programs in 1870. The University of Chicago opened
as a coeducational institution in 1892.

But still then many universities did not allow women until the mid- to late 20th
century. Harvard University allowed women into the classroom on an equal
basis with men in 1943. You will be surprised to know that the first woman
entered Yale University as an undergraduate in 1969 and the University of Virginia
did not become fully coeducational until 1970.

1.4.2 Indian Scenario

In the previous section' we have discussed about the development of HE in the
world. In the following sections we shall discuss the structure and growth of
education in India.

In this section you will get some knowledge about the development of HE in
India. Education in India has always been valued more than mere considering it
as a means towards earning a good living. Education system in India has changed
from different stages and actually it takes its shape according to the political
scenario, social structure, needs and demands of the society. All along the ages,
the influence of education on the society was tremendous but in early days it was
limited for a few. Quality of education was valued most. Naturally, there was
only vertical development in education. Ancient India considered knowledge as
the third eye that gives insight into all affairs. Education was available in
Gurukulas, Agrahars, Viharas and Madarasas, throughout the country.

In Ancient India there were no separate higher education systems, but learners
once got admitted to the Gurus came out as the learners of the highest order in
quality. This is also found in the writings of Max Muller. Max Muller was a
German philologist, ideologist and a Sanskrit scholar. He was one of the founders
of the western academic field of Indian studies and the discipline of comparative
religion. He translated the complete Rig Veda in Sanskrit. Max Muller wrote:

"If I were asked under what sky the human mind has most fully developed some
of its choicest gifts, has most deeply pondered on the greatest problems of life,
and has found solutions to some of them which well deserve the attention of even
those who have studied Plato and Kant, I should point to India" (India, What
can it Teach Us? 1883).

12

/
If we categorise different changes in the Indian society, we will find clearly four Higher Education:
Historical Perspectives
different stages:
1) Ancient India or Pastoral India,
2) Mediaval India,
3) Colonial India, and
4) Independent India.

Categorisation is done here only to understand the changes in the education

systems in different periods. But you may do it in other ways according to your
perception. We will discuss the education system in those periods in the next
sections, but before that you may answer the following questions given below:

Check Your Progress 2

Write the answers of the following questions in your own words in the
space provided below (in 50 words each)
1) Define Higher Education and state its two important properties.

2) Why had Max Muller praised Indian education?

....................................................................... ,
, . .

1.4.2.1 Ancient India

This period is known as Ancient India or Pastoral India. In this period you can
get some information about the education system of that time from the Vedas
and the Upanishads. For example, you may find the following concept in the
Katha Upanishad (iii, 6):

"He who is possessed of supreme knowledge by concentration of mind, must

have his senses under control, like spirited steeds controlled by a charioteer."

Thus it was considered that education can control concentration of mind and
other senses also. In the Vedic age, the central conception of education of the
Indians has been that it is a source of illumination by giving a correct lead in the
various spheres of life. Knowledge was considered as the.third eye of the people.
As per classical Indian tradition "Sa vidya ya vimuktaye" (that which liberates
us is education) was the main aim of education.
13
· Managing Higher The schools, colleges or universities were not structured as we find it in the
Education Institution: A
Perspective
present days. The learned persons or the Rishis, who lived at a distant place
away from the din and bustle of the urban life, took the charge of education. The
student had to search for a guru (teacher). The guru may accept or reject the
student. If accepted, the student or the shishya had to live with the guru. Learning
was mainly rote memory. No definite instructional systems were there but the
guru generally followed his own teaching method and system. The mode of
instruction was 'word of mouth' through 'face to face' (F2F) instructional system.
Individual learner's attention was given top priority. Management of education
totally depended on the teacher and the learner had to follow the Guru (teacher).
s
'Learner motivation' was very important. Once the guru accepted the shishya
in to his own fold, learning could be taken as granted.

1.4.2.2 Medieval India

With the passage of time, Pastoral society changed into a Feudal society. This
period is considered as the medieval period. The economic structure of the period
changed a lot and complexity of the society develops many times. Naturally it
has' its impact on the education system also. This period may be divided into
different stages. But for the present purpose we will confine our attention into
two stages only: i) Before the arrival ofthe Muslims: we consider it as the Feudal
India I and 11)before the arrival of the British: we consider it as Feudal India Il,
because in these two segments education system had different dimensions, aims
and objectives.

i) Feudal India I
During this period land was the main controlling part of economy. This had
also changed the educational system of the country. Expansion of know ledge
had helped to develop the traditional system of education. Slowly seats of
higher learning were established. These were established in the Gupta era.
The Gupta rulers encouraged higher learning and they had established centers
of higher education at N alanda, Takshila, Ujjain, Vikramshila and Vallabhi
in the seventh and eighth centuries A.D. Each university specialised their
students in a particular field of study. For example, Takshila specialised
students in the study of medicine, while Ujjain on astronomy. Nalanda,
being the biggest centre, handled all branches of knowledge. During this
period India became a centre for higher learning and attracted scholars from
all parts of India and abroad. The aspirants of higher education, after
completing preliminary education, had to reach these institutions after a
long walk and had to face the 'Dwarpal' who were also great scholars:
'Dwarpals' conducted the admission test by asking questions. So the
motivation of the learners was a characteristic of the age. The HE system in
those universities had their own management systems and only specialised
teachers gave instructions to the students in particular theory and practical
field of studies.

ii) Feudal India 11

This period stared after the arrival of the Muslims in India and is characterised
by the establishment of Madrasas along with Pathsalas. In education ethics,
philosophy, astrology, astronomy, linguistics, languages were common to
both the education system but methods of instructions were different. The
characteristics of the age were the desire of the students to be in the high
14 social groups. Education was mainly religion based.
1.4.2.3 Colonial India Higher Education:
Historical Perspectives

This period started after the arrival of the British in India. This is also known as
the modem era in education. The British totally transformed the education system
of the country and introduced Western method of education. English being the
language of the ruler, the medium of instruction became English and inputs from
the British culture was heavily included inthe Indian education system. Subjects
like physics, economics, chemistry etc. replaced traditional subjects. In the new
.era the demand for the upward social mobility of the people was growing rapidly.
This trend was so strong that people wanted to get education by paying fees and
thus private institutions, along with institutions of higher learning, began to grow.
The first such college to impart western education was founded in 1818 at
Serampore near Calcutta (modem Kolkata). The first college is known as
'Serampore College'. Over the next forty years, many such colleges were
established in different parts of the country like Agra, Bombay, Madras, N agpur, .
Patna, Calcutta, Nagapattinam etc. These institutions were privately managed
and established, generally, by the Missionaries. At that Period the objective of
education of the British government for India was to produce a class of
intermediaries between the ruler and the ruled and also "the main aim in starting
of the schools for children as well as the institution of higher learning in the 18th
century was to propagate Christianity, to have competent scholars in the Muslim
and Hindu Law, and to train the British civilians in Indian languages, Indian law,
and Indian history" (Altbach: 2006).

A new management system in Universities and other education institutions

developed after Sir Charles Wood's Dispatch of 1854. This had led to (i) the
creation of a separate department for the monitoring of education in each province,
(ii) the founding three universities in Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras In 1857 and
(iii) the introduction of grants-in-aid system in education. At that time, existing
27 colleges were affiliated to these three universities. Later more universities
were established. At the time of Independence in 1947, there were 19 universities
and several hundred affiliated colleges (CABE : 2005).

Check Your Progress 2

Write the answers of the following questions in your own words in the
space provided below (in 50 words each)
1) Why can education of the Medieval India be divided in two parts?

2) What are the special features of the education of the Colonial India?

.15
Managing Higher 1.4.2.4 After Independence
Education Institution: A
Perspective
After independence, there were 370 general colleges, 208 professional colleges
and 27 universities and in 2004 -2005 these numbers went up to 10377, 3201
and 364 respectively. TIlls rise is no doubt massive but inadequate when compared
to the needs ofthe country. After 1980's of the last century, outlook ofthe policy
makers changed. Gradually 'universalisation of education' and 'equality of
educational opportunity' became popular concepts. It was expressed in the Indian
Constitution too.

The demand of education had further increased with the increase in population,
respect for democratic values, development of trade and commerce and expansion
of information systems.

1.5 HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE NEW GLOBAL

CONTEXT
In the previous section you have learnt about the development of higher education
in India. In this section you will know about the development of higher education
in the present changing social context.

During the last quarter of the Twentieth Century higher education has become a
priority area in most of the nations. This is because human resource development
cannot really happen without development of intellectual capital. As per the
observations made by the World Bank, scientific and technological progress and
enhanced productivity in any nation is closely linked with the investments made
for improvement of human capital and quality of economic environment (World
Bank -2006). This has made several problems within the nations. The UNESCO
report (1996) has identified the following tensions:

• The tension between the global and the local,

• The tension between the universal and the individual,
• The tension between tradition and modernity,
• The tension between long term and short term considerations,
• The tension between the need for competition and concern for equality of
opportunity,
• The tension between the extraordinary expansion of knowledge and human
capacity to assimilate it, and
• The tension between the spiritual and material :

(Source :Learning the Treasure Within, Delor-1996)

So Higher Education has to face the above challenges in this area of liberalisation,
privatisation and globalisation and it should be considered in this context.

1.5.1 HE for the Development and Perfection of the Individual

The University Education Commission (1948) chaired by Dr. S. Radhakrishnan
(a renowned philosopher and academic who later became the President of India)
mentioned:
16

/
"If India is to confront the confusion of our times, she must turn for guidance Higher Education:
Historical Perspectives
not to those who are lost to the exigencies of the passing hour but to her men of
letters and men of science, to her poets and artists, to her discoverers and
inventors. These intellectual pioneers of civilisations are to be found and trained
in the universities, which are the sanctuaries of the minor life of the nation. "

Thus university is a place where right kind of leadership, for all walks of life, is
developed, gifted minds and creative people are identified. It helps the
development of people with physical fitness and high moral values. The
universities should also promote right kind of attitudes, eagerness for furthering
knowledge, rational outlook, and nurture scientific temper among the youths of
the society. University is a place where youth develops a dogma free mind. The
university education can develop youth to distinguish between right and wrong,
good and bad.

The report ofthe Education Commission (1964-66), Chaired by Dr. D.S. Kothari,
also m~ntioned that the universities are the dwelling places of ideas and ideals
and hence all the members, including the students,_ should require to develop
high standards so that they can contribute this in their own societies.

1.5.2 HE for the Fulfillment of the Growing Demands of the

Society
In the previous section you have read, how higher education helps in the
development and perfection of the individual. In this section you will know about
the need of higher education for the growing demands of the society.

Today's youth are the future leaders of the nation. So they should be trained to
know the demands of the society, because the future emerging world is opening
up very fast. Due to the ICT revolution, the world is becoming a 'Global Village',
the world communities are becoming our neighbours. Ithas enhanced different
demands of the society and the individuals in different ways. This has paved the
way to respond to structural changes that can determine the future of the society
and to meet the growing demands of the society.

For higher education, structural change is the result of the confluence of two
forces: one force is the information revolution, which is driving the shift from an
energy-based to a knowledge-based economy. The other is the management
revolution, which itself is being driven partly by changes in our capacity to use
information. But education is a very complex system and at the same time it can
influence the individual and the society in many ways. It also depends on many
other factors of the changing world. So, planners should make future plan of
education in general and of higher education, in particular, considering the future
emerging needs, factors and variables so that it can fulfill the needs and demands
of the new emerging society. It will help to develop a critical faculty among
students, i.e., the ability to question all propositions.

1.6 KEY PLAYERS IN THE·HIGHER EDUCATION

IN INDIA IN THE 21ST CENTURY
In the previous section you have learnt about the higher education in the changing.
global scenario. In this section you will know about the different controlling
17
Managing Higher authorities of higher education in India in the 21st century, because this is important
Education Institution: A
Perspective
to know the development of higher education in India. This has been discussed
in detail in the other block of this course. So we will give you only a synoptic
idea about it here.

The University Grants Commission (UGC) of India is not only the lone grant
giving agency in the country, but also responsible for coordinating, determining
and maintaining the standards in institutions of higher education. Apart from the
UGC, other key players of professional organisations for recognising courses
and promoting professional institutes are: All India Council for Technical
Education, Distance Education Bureau, Indian Council for Agriculture Research,
Bar Council of India, National Council for Teacher Education, Rehabilitation
Council of India, Medical Council of India, Pharmacy Council of India, Indian
Nursing Council, Dentist Council of India, Central Council of
Homeopathy, Central Council of Indian Medicine and so on.

1.7 LET US SUM UP

In this unit you have got a detailed knowledg~ and information about the
development of HE system in India and abroad. In the first part we have tried to
explain the concept of HE. In early days education was non-formal in nature. It
was the natural response, of early civilizations, for the struggle of surviving and
thriving as a culture. The history of HE has its roots in religion but has seen
many changes throughout the ages. It is a long and old history which dates back
from 580 to 500 B.C.

In India, there was no separate system of HE but learners achieve knowledge up

to the highest level. The Gupta rulers encouraged higher learning and they
established centers of higher education at Nalanda, Takshila, Ujjain, Vikramshila
and Vallabhiin the seventh and eighth centuries A.D.

Systematic HE developed during Colonial Period for the benefit of the rulers,
but it helped the Indian population in subtle ways. The growth of higher education,
after Independence, is quite high but not according to the needs and demands of
the growing population. There is miss-match between the increase of population
and expansion of education. But HE is important for the promotion of the society
and the nation as a whole. To improve the quality and quantity of higher education
different measures have been taken for different sections of HE.

1.8 UNIT END ACTIVITIES'

1) Discuss the growth and importance of higher education in the first half of
the Medieval period.
2) Discuss the importance of education in the Colonial India, keeping the
historical perspectives in mind.
3) Explain the status of higher education in modem India.
4) Mention the key players in Indian Higher Education and briefly mention the
functions of anyone of them.

18
 Higher Education: .
1.9 SUGGESTED READINGS Historical Perspectives

1) Ashby, Eric and Mary Anderson (1966): Universities - African. British,

Indian, Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press.

2) Altbach, Philip G. (2006): 'The Private Higher Education Revolution: An

Introduction'in University News. January 2-8, 2006. Vol. 44, No.Ol.

3) Delors, J. (1996): Learning the Treasure Within. Report to UNESCO of the

International Commission on Education for the Twenty-first Century.
UNSECO Publishing, Paris.

4) IGNOU (1994): "ES-313: Student Support Services," Post Graduate Diploma

in Distance Education, STRIDE, New Delhi.

5) Keer, C. (1966): The Uses of the University. New York: Harper and Row.

6) Naik, J. P. & Nurullah, Sayed (1974): A Students History of Education in

India: 1800 -1976, New Delhi: Macrnillian.

19