Biology
Biology
Biology
unicellular organisms (such as protozoa) all multi-cellular organisms: animals, plant, fungi.
Multi-cellular organisms typically have many specialised cell types such as: root hair cell, white
blood cell, muscular cell, nerve cell.
cell membrane role - The plasma membrane is the boundary that separates the living cell from
its non-living environment.
Cell-cell recognition
Signal transduction
Enzymatic reactions
Transport across the membrane
Intercellular joining
Attachment to the cytoskeleton and to extracellular matrix
• Water Diffusion
Water diffusion in living Cells: Animal cells shrivel(buzulmek) in hypertonic solutions - as a
result of osmosis (water leaving the cell). break in hypotonic solution - as a result of water
filling up the cell.
Plant hypotonic solution. As water passes through the cell membrane by osmosis, it creates a
turgor pressure that pushes the cell membrane against the wall of the cell which becomes
turgid. This occurs in plant cells, bacteria, fungi and protists that have a cell wall.
Animal cell have to live in isotonic solutions where there is no osmotic pressure or must
continually adjust the intracellular(huceyredaxilli) concentration of solute to maintain
isotonicity
• Osmolarity
Osmotic concentration, known as osmolarity, is the measure of solute concentration, defined as the
number of osmoles of solute per litre of solution.
• Protein Denaturation
Vmax S
V
S K M
Lineweaver Burke plot (1/V versus 1/S)
Vmax S
V
S K M
1 S K M [S ] KM
V Vmax S Vmax S Vmax S
1 KM 1 1
V Vmax [ S ] Vmax
Hanes Woolf plot ([S]/V versus [S])
Vmax S
V
S K M
1 S K M
V Vmax S
[ S ] S K M
V Vmax
[S ] [S ] K M
V Vmax Vmax
• Dna Replication
Any mistakes made during replication will lead to offspring with mutations The mutant will have
different properties (protein expression) than the parent
• Dictionary Of The Genetic Code
• Pathway Types
1) Carbon fixation
-3 CO2 (1c) molecules join 3 molecules of RuBP (5c) and form 6 molecules of 3PG (3c)
2) Reduction of 3 PG
- 6 ATPs enter the cycle give their 6Pi’s and 6 ADPs exit the cycle
-6 NADPHs enter the cycle give their 6H+ (for reduction process) and 6 NADP+ exit the cycle
-Using Pi’s from ATP and H+’s from NADPH 6 molecules of 3PG become 6 molecules of G3P (3c)
3) Regeneration of RuBP
- One molecule of G3P (3c) exits the cycle to form glucose, other 5 continue the cycle and take part
in regeneration of 3 molecules of RuBP
- Energy for regeneration comes from 3 molecules of ATP entering the cycle, after this 3 ADPs exit
the cycle
• Bacterial Growth
Give four differences which might be found between prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms.
- No nucleus in prokaryotes
- Eukaryotic could be multicellular
- Presence of cell wall in prokaryotes and not animal cells
- No organelles in prokaryotes
The yeasts. unicellular ...live in liquid or moist habitats ..reproduce, by simple cell division (fission) or
by the pinching of small “bud cells” off a parent cell (budding).
What is the basic unit of classification in taxonomy? Who invented the bionomial naming system and
how would a species name be written?
Species; Linne; genus and species name; capital letter only for genus and italics
What alternative method could you have used to construct the phylogenetic tree and what is different
from the cladistic approach?
Phenetic; just based on overall similarities
The primary cell wall is a thin and extensible layer that is formed when the cell is growing. It is
composed of carbohydrates and of soluble proteins.
The secondary cell wall is a thick layer that is formed inside the primary cell wall, after the cell is
fully grown. Conducting cells in xylem possess a secondary wall that contains lignin, a complex
polymer of aromatic alcohols, which strengthens and waterproofs the wall. The secondary cell
wall is the primary constituent of wood
Parsimony - the preferred tree showing evolutionary relationships between species, molecules, or other
entities is the one that requires the least amount of evolutionary change, that is, maximum parsimony.
Active site is the portion of an enzyme that specifically binds to the substrate.
Binary fission is the type of cell division by which prokaryotes reproduce; each dividing daughter cell
receives a copy of the single parental chromosome
Active transport occurs with the help of a specific transport protein and necessitates energy input.
Active transport is the movement of a substance across a biological membrane against its concentration
or electrochemical gradient.
Anabolism is the set of metabolic pathways that request energy to construct macromolecules from
smaller units.
Golgi complex - Organelle for manufacturing, warehousing, and shipping certain cellular products
Polypeptide - long, continuous, and unbranched peptide chain
Carbohydrate is a sugar, which is either a monomer (monosaccharide), a dimer (disaccharide) or a
polymer (polysaccharide).
Carbon fixation is the incorporation of carbon from CO2 into an organic compound by an autotropic
organism (plant or any other photosynthetic organism, or a chemoautotropic bacterium).
Catabolic pathway is a metabolic pathways that releases energy by breaking down complex molecules
into simpler compounds.
Cell cycle is an ordered sequence of events in the life of a dividing eukaryotic cell, composed of the M,
G1, S, and G2 phases.
Chlorophyll a is a green pigment located within the chloroplasts of plants; chlorophyll a can participate
directly in the light reactions, which convert solar energy to chemical energy.
Chloroplast is an organelle found only in plants and photosynthetic protists that absorbs sunlight and
uses it to drive the synthesis of organic compounds from carbon dioxide and water.
Cholesterol is steroid that forms an essential component of an animal cell membranes and acts as a
precursor molecule for the synthesis of other biologically important steroids.
Cell wall is a protective layer external to the plasma membrane in plant cells, bacteria, fungi, and some
protists.
Calvin cycle is the second of two major stages in photosynthesis (following the light reactions), involving
atmospheric CO2 fixation and reduction of the fixed carbon into carbohydrate.
Chromosome - is gene-carrying structure found in the nucleus. Each chromosome consists of one very
long DNA molecule.
Cofactor is any non-protein molecule or ion that is required for the proper functioning of an enzyme.
Competitive inhibitor is a substance that reduces the activity of an enzyme by entering the active site in
place of the substrate.
Cytoplasm is the entire contents of the cell, and bounded by the plasma membrane.
Denaturation (of protein) is a process in which proteins (or nucleic acids) lose their tertiary structure
and secondary structure by application of some external stress (including heat, solvents, acids or base,
ionic).
Diffusion is the spontaneous tendency of substance to move down its concentration gradient from more
concentrated to a less concentrated area.
Digestion is the process of breaking down food into molecules small enough for the body to absorb.
Domain is a taxonomic category above the kingdom level; the three domains are Archaea, Bacteria, and
Eukarya.
Gene is a discrete unit of hereditary information consisting of a specific nucleotide sequence in DNA (or
in RNA in some viruses)
Koch's postulates are a set of four criteria for determining whether a specific pathogen is the cause of a
disease. Krebs cycle is a chemical cycle involving eight steps that completes the metabolic breakdown of
glucose molecules to carbon dioxide. Krebs cycle occurs in the mitochondrion and is the second mafor
stage in cellular respiration.
Lipid is a family of compounds including fatty acids, glycerides, phospholipids, and steroids that are
insoluble in water.
Metabolism is the totality of an organism's chemical processes, consisting of catabolic and anabolic
pathways.
M phase is the mitotic phase of the cell cycle, which includes mitosis and cytokinesis.
Mitosis is a process of nuclear division in eukaryotic cells conventionally divided into five stages:
prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. Mitosis conserves chromosome
number by equally allocating replicated chromosomes to each of the daughter nuclei.
Nitrogen fixation is the assimilation of atmospheric nitrogen by certain prokaryotes into nitrogenous
compounds that can be directly used by plants.
Noncompetitive inhibitor is a substance that reduces the activity of an enzymes by binding to a location
remote from the active site, changing its conformation so that it no longer binds to the substrate.
Nucleic acid The nucleic acids acts as carriers of genetic information. Nucleic acids are made from long
chain of subunits called nucleotides. Nucleic acids are of two types DNA and RNA.
Nucleotide is the subunit of the chain that makes nucleic acid.
Okazaki fragment is a short DNA fragment synthetised to form the lagging strand of DNA.
Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane, which provides a free
passage to water molecules only.
Osmotic pressure is a measure of the tendency of a slotion to take up water when separated from pure
water by a selectively permeable membrane.
Phospholipids are molecules that constitute the bilayer of biological membrane, having a polar
hydrophylic head and a non polar hydrophobic tail.
Plasma membrane is the membrane at the boundary of every cell that acts as selective barrier.
Secondary structure is the localised repetitive coiling or folding of the polypeptide backbone of a
protein due to hydrogen bond formation between peptide linkages.
Tertiary structure is the three-dimensional shape of a proteins molecules due to interactions of side
chains involving hydrophobic interactions, ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds.
Quaternary structure is the particular shape of a complex, aggregate protein, defined by the
characteristic three-dimensional arrangement of its constituent subunits, each polypeptide.
Ribosome is a cell organelle functioning as the site of proteinsynthesis in the cytoplasm. Consists of
rRNA and proteins molecules.
RNA polymerase is an enzyme that links together the growing chain of ribonucleotides during
transcription.
Selective permeability is a property of biological membranes that allows some substances to cross more
easily than others.
Taxonomy is the branch of biology concerned with naming and classifying the diverse forms of life.
Transcription is the synthesis of RNA from a DNA template . Information stored in DNA is transcribed
into RNA.
Transfer RNA (tRNA) is a RNA molecule that functions as an interpreter between nucleic acid code and
protein's amino acid sequence.
Translation is the synthesis of a polypeptide using the genetic information encoded in mRNA molecule.
The information in the RNA is used to synthesise proteins.
Turgid or firm. The walled cells become turgid as a result of the entry of water from a hypotonic
environment.
Turgor pressure is the force directed against a cell wall after the influx of water.
Yeast is a unicellular fungi that lives in liquid or moist habitats, reproducing asby simple cell division or
by budding of a parent cell.