Wallace’s Biogeographical Regions

Alfred Russel Wallace (8 January 1823 – 7 November 1913)

 British naturalist, explorer, geographer, anthropologist

and biologist.
 Best known for independently conceiving the theory of
evolution through natural selection, which he jointly
published with Charles Darwin in 1858.
 Also known for his extensive fieldwork, first in the
Amazon River basin and then in the Malay Archipelago,
where he identified the Wallace Line that divides the
Indonesian archipelago into two distinct parts: a western
portion in which the animals are largely of Asian origin
and an eastern portion where the fauna reflect
Australasia.
 One of his classic writings includes the 1876 The
Geographical Distribution of Animals, best known for providing the first map
defining the zoogeographic regions of the world.
 His work on distributional patterns of species, granted him the often quoted title
of father of biogeography.

Biogeography

 Biogeography is the study of the patterns of geographic distribution of organisms

and the factors that determine those patterns.
 The large scale geographic pattern in the distribution of species, and the causes
and history of this distribution.

Wallace’s Biogeographical Regions:

Palearctic Region

 Largest among the six zoogeographical

regions of the world. It covers about
14,000,000 square miles. It stretches across
all of Europe, Asia north of the foothills of the
Himalayas, North Africa, and the northern and
central parts of the Arabian Peninsula.
 Due to a resemblance in the fauna of the Nearctic and the Palearctic regions so
they are sometimes grouped as the Holarctic region.
 Climate: The climate of the Palearctic region is more or less temperate. There is
a great fluctuation in temperature and the amount of rainfall in the region.
 Biomes: It includes wet forest land, dry open steppe land, deserts, and large
coniferous forests.
 Topographical Features: There is great diversity of surface features such as
mountains, water, clay, sand, and limestone of different compositions.
 Sub-regions: The Palearctic region has four sub-regions: (1) European sub-
region (northern and central Europe, Black sea and Caucasus), (2)
Mediterranean sub-region (remaining parts of Europe; Africa and Arabian
 portions), (3) Siberian sub-region (northern Asia and Himalayas), and (4)
Manchurian sub-region (Mongolia, Japan, Korea, and Manchuria / China).
 Boundaries: The boundaries of the Palearctic region are as follows:
o North: It is bordered by the Arctic Ocean.
o West: It is bordered by the North Atlantic Ocean.
o East: It is bordered by the Pacific Ocean.
o South: It is bordered by the Ethiopian and Oriental regions. It is separated
from the Ethiopian region by the Sahara desert and the Oriental region by
the Himalayan Mountains.

Zoological Characteristics of Palearctic Region: The fauna of the Palearctic region is not
very unique, the details are as follows:

 Freshwater Fish: Fish fauna includes catfish, anabantids, cyprinids, paddle

fishes, etc.
 Amphibians: Amphibian fauna includes frogs, toads, salamanders, newts, and
caecilians (legless amphibians that live on the upper loose surface of the soil).
 Reptiles: Reptilian fauna includes turtles, alligators, lizards, skinks, chameleons,
agamids (lizards), and snakes (vipers, cobras, pythons, etc.).
 Birds: Avian fauna includes cuckoos (only the males cry), ducks, finches, grebes,
loons, hawks, thrushes, swifts, woodpeckers, kingfishers, etc.
 Mammals: Insectivore (insect-eating mammals) such as hedgehogs, moles,
shrews. Other mammals include rabbits, deer, oxen, etc.

Nearctic Region

 The Nearctic region includes the whole of North America, some parts of Mexico,
and the whole of Greenland.
 Biomes: Greenland is arctic and is completely buried beneath a mass of ice of
unknown thickness. The eastern part of North America is composed of deciduous
or mixed forest. The middle part has grasslands. The northern portion is
composed of coniferous forests.
 Climate: In the northern parts, the temperature is lower in the winter as compared
to the same latitudes of the Palearctic region.
 Sub-regions: This region includes four sub-regions: (1) Californian, (2) the Rocky
Mountains, (3) Alleghany, and (4) Canadian.
 Boundaries: It is connected to the Neotropical region in the South via the Isthmus
of Panama. All other sides are surrounded by water (the Pacific Ocean in the
West, Atlantic Ocean in the East, and the Arctic Ocean in the North).

Zoological Characteristics of Nearctic Region: There is a striking resemblance in the

fauna of the Nearctic and Palearctic regions (despite some minor differences), hence
they are sometimes grouped as the Holarctic region.

 Fish fauna includes paddlefish, catfish, cyprinids, bowfins, gars, etc.

 Amphibians: Tailed amphibians such salamanders, the axolotl, frogs and toads,
a unique endemic frog – Aschaphus spp
 Reptilian fauna includes turtles, crocodiles, alligators, coral snakes, typhlops
(blind snakes), and pit vipers.
  Avian fauna includes cranes, hummingbirds, hawks, herons, vultures, thrushes,
woodpeckers, and many other birds.
 Mammals include bison, cougars, opossums, moles, leaf-nosed bats, bears,
deers, jumping mice, flying squirrels, and armadillos.

Ethiopian Region

 The Ethiopian region includes the whole of Africa (south of the Sahara desert),
some southern parts of Arabia, and Madagascar. According to some authors, the
fauna of Oriental and Ethiopian regions is similar; hence they are sometimes
grouped as the Paleotropical region.
 Climate: The climate is tropical because the region is present in the tropics. The
conditions for life are more stable, uniform, and favorable. In winter, the
temperature is 20-30°C but still higher in Central Africa. The distribution of
animals is more influenced by moisture than temperature.
 Biomes & Topography: There are large rivers, grasslands, semi-desert land,
deserts, and mountains.
 Sub-regions: This region has four sub-regions: (1) East Africa, (2) West Africa,
(3) South Africa, and (4) Malagasy (Madagascar).
 Boundaries: It is surrounded by sea (the Atlantic Ocean to the West and the
Indian Ocean to the East) except from the North where it connects with the
Palearctic region through the Sahara desert.

Zoological Characteristics of Ethiopian Region: There are many similarities between the
fauna of Ethiopian and Palearctic regions.

 Fish fauna is primitive and includes lungfish, catfish, cyprinids, and cichlids.
 Amphibians: Amphibian fauna is not rich. Frogs and toads are very common,
tailed amphibians are absent, but caecilians are present.
 Reptiles: Turtles, crocodiles, agamids (lizards), skinks, chameleons, and snakes
(cobras, vipers, typhlops – blind snakes, pythons, black mamba, etc.).
 Bird fauna includes cuckoos, bee-eaters, goatsuckers, owls, ostriches, orioles,
sunbirds, storks, thrushes, woodpeckers, and weaver birds.
 Mammals: Gorillas, chimpanzees, monkeys, hedgehogs, moles (golden mole is a
unique species), shrews (otter shrew and elephant shrew are unique).

Oriental Region

 The Oriental region includes Asia and its tropical countries, Pakistan (excluding
Baluchistan), India, Sri Lanka, Burma, Indonesia, Bhutan, Islands of Borneo,
Philippines, Java, and Sumatra. The fauna of the Oriental region is similar to the
Ethiopian region; hence they are sometimes grouped as the Paleotropical region.
 Biomes & Topography: It shows great diversity in physical features. The northern
part is composed of grassy plains with scattered bushes and trees. The North
and West sides are composed of deserts. The southern part is rich in vegetation.
Sri Lanka, Malaysia, and Indonesia are composed of thick tropical rainforests.
 Climate: The climate is tropical. The temperature in the south is almost constant
(about 30°C) but rises in summer. In the northern regions, in autumn and winter,
the temperature lies between 10-20°C, rising in spring and summer.
  Sub-regions: This region has four sub-regions: (1) Indian, (2) Ceylonese (Sri
Lanka), (3) Indo-Chinese, and (4) Indo-Malayan.
 Boundaries:
o North: It has a land connection with the Palearctic region via the
Himalayan Mountains.
o South-West: It is surrounded by the Indian Ocean.
o South-East: It is surrounded by the Pacific Ocean.
o Boundary with the Australian Region: The Malayan Archipelago (in the
east) spreads out and reaches the Australian region, the distinction
between these two regions is made by the transitional zone Wallacea.

Zoological Characteristics of Oriental Region

 Freshwater Fish: Many species of carps, catfish, and anabantids are

characteristic of the freshwater fauna of the Oriental region.
 Amphibians: It includes caecilians, frogs, and toads. Tree frogs and tailed
amphibians are absent.
 Reptiles: Big-head turtle, Gavials (long-nosed crocodilians), Oriental region is
famous for several venomous snakes like vipers, kraits, cobras, etc.
 Birds: Bulbul, bluebirds, bee-eaters, kingfishers, woodpeckers, thrushes, owls,
weaver birds, broad-bills are unique and endemic birds of this region.
 Mammals: Orangutans and gibbons, Monkeys, tarsiers, Indian Elephants,
Rhinoceroses, tapirs, black bucks, etc.

Australian Region

 The Australian region includes the whole of Australia, New Guinea, and
Tasmania, a few of the smaller islands of the Indonesian Archipelago, New
Zealand, and other Pacific Islands. Australian and Neotropical regions are
present in the Southern hemisphere (Notogaea) while all others are present in
the Northern hemisphere.
 Climate: The climate is partly tropical, partly temperate. Areas in the south are
temperate, New Guinea is tropical and Tasmania is temperate.
 Biomes & Topography: In the interior of Australia, hot arid plains and deserts are
found. Thick forests are also present in the northern, eastern, and southern
regions.
 Sub-regions: This region has four sub-regions: (1) Austro-Malayan, (2)
Australian, (3) Polynesian, and (4) New Zealand
 Boundaries: It is the only region that does not have any land connections
whatsoever with the world. It has the following boundaries:
o Pacific Ocean: Eastern boundary (including Northeast and Southeast).
o Indian Ocean: Western boundary (including Northwest and Southwest).
o Boundary with the Oriental Region: The distinction between the Australian
and Oriental regions is made by the transitional zone Wallacea.

Zoological Characteristics of Australian Region

 Freshwater Fish: Queensland Lungfish and osteoglossids (Arowana) are

characteristic of the Australian region.
  Amphibians: It is the only region where the common toad is absent. Frogs and
tree frogs are present. Tailed amphibians and caecilians are also absent.
 Reptiles: Pitted shelled turtles and legless lizards are found here. Lizards include
monitor lizards and the largest lizard – the Komodo dragon (found in the
Indonesian islands of Komodo. Snakes include typhlops, pythons, and more.
 Birds: Parrots and pigeons, running birds like emus, cassowaries (in New
Guinea), and kiwi. Kingfishers, honey-eaters, bowerbirds, birds of paradise are
also common.
 Mammals: Echidna (spiny anteaters) and Platypus

Wallace’ Line

 Demarcation of boundary between the Oriental and Australian biogeographic

regions.
 Wallace Line, boundary between the Oriental and Australian faunal regions,
proposed by the 19th-century British naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace. The line
extends from the Indian Ocean through the Lombok Strait (between the islands
of Bali and Lombok), northward through the Makassar Strait (between Borneo
and Celebes), and eastward, south of Mindanao, into the Philippine Sea.

Neotropical Region

 The Neotropical region includes the whole of South and Central America, West
Indies, and most of Mexico. Australian and Neotropical regions are present in the
Southern hemisphere (Notogaea) while all others are present in the Northern
hemisphere. The Neotropical region separated from the rest of the world in the
Eocene epoch.
 Climate: The climate is mostly tropical. The southern region extends into the
temperate zone.
 Biomes & Topography: It has a very rich tropical rainforest. The Amazon River
receives a high rainfall, year-round. It is the only zoogeographical region without
any desert. Andes chain is a very high mountain range in this region. The
southern part of these mountains is covered with grassy plains and no trees, the
temperature becomes very low in the winter.
 Sub-regions: This region has four sub-regions: (1) Chilean, (2) Brazilian, (3)
Mexican, and (4) Antillean.
 Boundaries: It is connected to the Nearctic region in the North through the
Isthmus of Panama. All other sides are surrounded by water (the Pacific Ocean
in the West and the Atlantic Ocean in the East).

Zoological Characteristics of Neotropical Region: This region has a unique, diverse, and
very rich fauna. The Neotropical region has the maximum number of endemic families
because it is separated from the rest of the world in the Eocene epoch.

 Freshwater Fish: South American Lungfish, gymnotids, eels, osteoglossids,

garpikes, etc.
 Amphibians: Caecilians, Common frogs, toads, tailed amphibians, and tree frogs
 Reptiles: Snakes, turtles, crocodiles, caimans, lizards, geckos, agamids, and
tegu (a species of lizard).
  Birds: Avian fauna is also very rich, diverse and so strange that sometimes
Neotropical is called “bird continent”. Rhea spp. and Tinamou spp. are flightless
birds endemic to this region. Other bird species include kingfishers, cuckoos,
hoatzins, macaws, and hummingbirds.
 Mammals: Sloths, anteaters, marsupials (opossum and marsupial rats), cebidae
(New World monkeys, order Primates) and marmosets, Ungulates (deer, pigs,
oxen, goats, sheep, llamas, and tapirs (having long prehensile nose), blood-
sucking bats, Jaguars only pantherine felids (cats)

Topic: Endemism and Its Relevance in Taxonomy

Endemism

 Endemism is a term used in biology to talk about the distribution of a taxon

limited to a small geographic area and which can therefore be found naturally in
this place.
Endemic Species
 Endemic species are those that live in a limited area, such as a mountain range,
lake or island, among others.
 Endemic species are crucial to the health of our planet because of the enormous
variety of living beings they contribute to the environment.
 In mega diverse countries, those that are home to at least 70 % of the planet's
terrestrial biological diversity account for only around 10 % of the surface but are
home to a massive number of endemic species.

Threats to Endemic Species

 Climate Change
 Poaching
 Changing habitats
 The introduction of invasive species

The Main Characteristics of Endemic Species

1. Specific geographical area

 They are species whose location is restricted to certain areas of the
planet, which have the specific conditions to ensure their survival.
2. Lower genetic exchange
 Natural barriers existing in a specific geographical area prevent genetic
exchange and drive the emergence of endemism and its species.
3. Higher vulnerability
 By relying on very specific natural conditions and having a smaller number
of specimens, they are more vulnerable to extinction.
4. Unique Evolution
 Because of their isolation, these species end up acquiring unique traits
derived from, for example, the diet or climate of the geographical area.

Types of Endemism

Endemic species can be classified in two ways, by their geographical distribution or

genetics, giving rise to a series of categories:
I. By Location:

 Microendemic species: are those established in a limited area.

 Quasi-endemic: are species that go beyond the limits of their specific zone.
 Semi-endemic: are species that spend only part of the year in a specific area.

II. By genetics:

 Paleo-endemics: are species that eventually form isolated groups due to their
morphological, chemical or genetic characteristics.
 Schizo-endemics: are species formed by gradual isolation but which have
similar chromosomic and morphological characteristics.
 Patro-endemics: are species that emerge due to changes in the number of
chromosomes and which colonise more extensive areas than their predecessors.
 Apo-endemics: these are species that derive from others and which, unlike
patro-endemic species, occupy smaller areas than their predecessors.

Examples of Endemic species

Endemic animals:

 Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus): This carnivorous mammal is endemic to the

Iberian Peninsula and is also the world's most seriously threatened feline
species.
 Polar bear (Ursus maritimus): this carnivorous mammal lives in the polar
region and in the frozen areas of the Northern Hemisphere. It is the only
surviving super-predator in the Arctic.
 Lemur (Lemuroidea): This Strepsirrhini primate is native to the island of
Madagascar in the Indian Ocean. It has shiny eyes and makes strange noises.
 Panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca): This mammal is typical of Asia, although it
has become a symbol of China the country that has done most to save it from
extinction.

Endemic plants:

 Red sequoia (Sequoia sempervirens): This tree, also known as the California
sequoia, is found in this part of the USA and lives for a very long time.
 Dragon tree (Dracaena draco): This tree has rough bark and is one of many
endemic plants to be found in the Canary Islands (Spain).
 Palma barrigona (Colpothrinax wrightii): this species of palm originates in
Cuba and has an unusually shaped trunk, whose diameter balloons out around
two-three metres from the ground.
 Jalisco pine (Pinus jaliscana): this tree is a member of the pine family and is
unusually tall, more than 20 metres. It is found in the Jalisco region of Mexico.

Relevance of Endemism in Taxonomy:

Endemism plays a crucial role in taxonomy, offering valuable insights into biodiversity,
evolutionary history, and conservation priorities.

 Biodiversity Assessment:
 o Endemic species serve as indicators of ecosystem diversity, providing
valuable information about the richness and uniqueness of specific
regions.
o By identifying endemic species, taxonomists can assess the overall
biodiversity of ecosystems and prioritize conservation efforts accordingly.
 Evolutionary Studies:
o Endemic species often represent ancient lineages that have evolved in
isolation over long periods.
o Studying endemic species can offer insights into evolutionary processes,
including speciation, adaptation, and biogeographic patterns.
 Conservation Prioritization:
o Endemic species are frequently at high risk of extinction due to their
restricted ranges and vulnerability to habitat loss, fragmentation, and
climate change.
o Taxonomy helps prioritize conservation efforts by identifying and focusing
on species with limited distributions, ensuring the preservation of unique
genetic diversity and ecological functions.

Topic: Molecular Biogeography and Its Insights into Evolutionary History

Molecular Biogeography

 Molecular biogeography is the study of how geography and environmental

factors influence the genetic diversity and distribution of organisms.
 Provides insights into evolutionary history, speciation patterns, and biodiversity.

Tools in Molecular Biogeography

1. DNA sequencing
 Utilizes advanced sequencing technologies (e.g., Sanger sequencing, next-
generation sequencing) to decipher the nucleotide sequence of DNA molecules.
 Applications:
o Identifying genetic markers: Enables the discovery of molecular markers
(e.g., DNA barcodes) for species identification and taxonomy.
o Detecting population structure: Helps in characterizing population genetic
structure and assessing gene flow between populations.
o Analyzing gene flow: Allows estimation of migration rates and patterns of
gene flow among populations or across landscapes.
2. Phylogenetic analysis
 Involves the construction of phylogenetic trees or networks to represent the
evolutionary relationships among organisms based on genetic data.
 Applications:
o Understanding speciation events: Helps in identifying patterns of species
divergence and understanding the processes driving speciation.
o Inferring ancestral relationships: Allows reconstruction of the evolutionary
history of taxa and the estimation of ancestral character states.
o Exploring evolutionary patterns: Provides insights into evolutionary
processes such as adaptive radiation, convergent evolution, and
molecular evolution.
  Techniques:
o Cladistics: Analyzes shared derived characteristics (homologies) to infer
evolutionary relationships and construct phylogenetic trees.
o Maximum likelihood: Statistical method that estimates the most likely tree
topology and branch lengths given a specific model of sequence evolution.
o Bayesian inference: Probabilistic approach that uses Bayesian statistics to
infer phylogenetic trees based on prior knowledge and observed data.
3. GIS mapping
 Geographic Information Systems (GIS): Software tools for capturing, storing,
analyzing, and visualizing spatial data.
 Applications:
o Mapping species distributions: Enables the spatial representation of
species occurrence records and the identification of geographic patterns in
species distributions.
o Identifying biodiversity hotspots: Facilitates the identification of regions
with high species richness and endemism for conservation prioritization.
o Assessing habitat connectivity: Allows the analysis of landscape
connectivity and the identification of corridors for species movement and
dispersal.

Historical Context

 Early Biogeography:
o Darwin's Observations on the Galápagos Islands:
 During his voyage on the HMS Beagle (1831-1836), Charles
Darwin observed diverse species on the Galápagos Islands.
o Noted Unique Species Distributions and Adaptations:
 Observed distinct variations among species on different islands,
such as finches with varying beak shapes.
 Recognized how environmental factors influenced the evolution of
species.
o First Insights into Geographical Influences on Biodiversity:
 Darwin's observations provided early evidence of how geography
shapes biodiversity, setting the stage for modern biogeographical
studies.
 Traditional Biogeography:
o Focus on Physical Barriers and Dispersal Mechanisms:
 Biogeographers studied the role of geographical barriers like
mountains, rivers, and oceans in species distribution.
o Emphasis on Continental Drift, Island Isolation, and Climate:
 Theories like continental drift and island biogeography explained
the distribution patterns of plants and animals.
 Climate was recognized as a significant factor influencing biome
distribution and species ranges.
o Limited by Observational and Analytical Tools:
 Traditional biogeographers relied on observational data, maps, and
rudimentary analytical tools to study species distributions.
 Lack of genetic data limited understanding of evolutionary
processes.
  Molecular Revolution:
o Advent of DNA Sequencing Techniques Revolutionized Biogeography:
 Introduction of DNA sequencing in the late 20th century allowed
precise analysis of genetic data.
o Enabled Precise Genetic Analysis of Species Distributions:
 DNA sequencing facilitated the study of genetic diversity within and
between populations, shedding light on evolutionary relationships.
o Expanded Understanding of Evolutionary Processes and Patterns:
 Molecular data complemented traditional biogeography, providing
insights into evolutionary processes such as speciation, migration,
and adaptation.
 Enhanced resolution in phylogenetic analyses improved
understanding of evolutionary relationships among taxa.

Genetic Signatures in Biogeography

 DNA Barcoding: Using specific gene sequences, typically from mitochondrial

DNA, to identify and classify species.
o Importance:
 Facilitates rapid and accurate species identification, especially for
taxa with morphological similarities.
 Provides a standardized approach for biodiversity assessment and
conservation.
 Example: The COI gene in animals is commonly used for DNA
barcoding due to its high variability and conserved regions.

 Phylogeography: Study of the geographic distribution of genetic lineages within

species to understand historical biogeographic processes.
o Importance:
 Reveals patterns of population structure, genetic diversity, and
historical demography.
 Provides insights into past climate changes, habitat fragmentation,
and dispersal patterns.
o Techniques: Molecular markers (e.g., mtDNA, microsatellites) combined
with spatial analyses (e.g., GIS, phylogenetic trees).

 Comparative Genomics: Analysis of genomes across different species to

understand evolutionary relationships, genome evolution, and adaptive traits.
o Importance:
 Reveals genetic basis of adaptation, speciation, and diversification.
 Identifies conserved regions and genes under positive selection.
o Techniques: Whole-genome sequencing, genome-wide association
studies, and functional genomics approaches.

Molecular Biogeography in Conservation

 Biodiversity Hotspots: Using genetic data to prioritize conservation efforts.

 Endangered Species: Identifying genetically distinct populations for targeted
conservation.
 Conservation Genetics: Preserving genetic diversity to ensure species
resilience.