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Introduction to structural design of glass according to current European

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DOI: 10.24425/ace.2022.140634

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 WARSAW UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY Index 351733 DOI: 10.24425/ace.2022.140634
FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
COMMITTEE FOR CIVIL AND WATER ENGINEERING
ARCHIVES OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
POLISH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ISSN 1230-2945 Vol. LXVIII ISSUE 2 2022
© 2022. Anna Jóźwik. pp. 147 –170
This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/), which permits use, distribution, and reproduction
in any medium, provided that the Article is properly cited, the use is non-commercial, and no modifications or adaptations are made.

Review paper

Introduction to structural design of glass according to

current European standards

Anna Jóźwik1

Abstract: Glass is a material commonly used in construction. The development of technology related to
it, and the increase in knowledge concerning its mechanical and strength properties offer opportunities
for glass to be applied as a structural material. The advancement in glass structures, methods for their
design, as well as guidelines and standards in this fields are being developed in parallel. This article
describes the main assumptions contained in the German TRxV guidelines, the series of German DIN
18008 standards, and the European EN 16612, and EN 16613 standard. Moreover, the following article
presents the concept of structural glass design included in the draft pre-standard prCEN/TS 19100,
which provides the basis for the formulation of the European standard Eurocode 10. According to this
pre-standard, structural elements of glass will be verified in four limit states, depending on the Limit
State Scenario (LSS). Apart from the classic limit states, i.e., the ultimate limit state (ULS), and the
serviceability limit state (SLS), it is also assumed to introduce a fracture limit state (FLS), and post-
fracture limit state (PFLS). The article also addresses the issue of laminated glass working in structural
elements. Depending on the coupling between the glass panes and the polymer or ionomer interlayers,
laminated glass can be divided into complete coupled or uncoupled, and can work in intermediate
situations. The methods for determining the effective thickness contained in European standards and
guidelines are discussed in this article.
Keywords: glass structures, structural glass, laminated glass, EN 16612, prCEN/TS 19100, Eu-
rocode 10

1 PhD.,Eng., Warsaw University of Technology, Faculty of Architecture, Koszykowa Street 55, 00-659 Warsaw,
Poland, e-mail: anna.jozwik@arch.pw.edu.pl, ORCID: 0000-0003-3252-5357
148 A. JÓŹWIK

1. Introduction
Glass provides a significant construction material in contemporary architecture. The
main advantage it offers stems from its capacity for transmitting daylight into the building.
The transparency of glass inspires the search for new applications for the material. However,
the feature also contributes to the development of new technologies. In this area, the
possibility to use glass as a structural material may be seen as one of the latest achievements.
The first attempts to apply glass in self-supporting elements can be found as early as in
the 1950s, e.g., the Glasbau-Hahn exhibition hall in Frankfurt am Main [1]. However,
significant development in glass structures has been observed over the last twenty-five years,
as evidenced by the increasingly common buildings in which glass is used for structural
elements. One of the significant implementations from this period is the extension of the
Broadfield House Glass Museum in Kingswinford [2]. The most innovative and advanced
solutions in the field of glass structures have been applied in Apple stores worldwide [3–6],
such as the Apple Covent Garden store in London (Fig. 1a).

Fig. 1. Glass structures in architecture: a) glass staircases in the Apple Covent Garden store in London,
b) glass canopy in the 20 Fenchurch Street skyscraper in London (photos taken by the author)

It should, however, be emphasised that the scope of the use of glass as a structural
material comes with certain limitations, and only applies to selected load-bearing structures.
Nonetheless, the aesthetic values presented by objects where structural glass was applied
have prompted further projects and implementations [7]. The undoubted advantage offered
 INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF GLASS ACCORDING TO CURRENT . . . 149

by applying structural glass is to unify the structure consisting of structural and filling
elements. This can be observed in façades, e.g., glass fins at the POLIN Museum of the
History of Polish Jews in Warsaw, or in the roofing, e.g., the Family Home of John Paul
II Museum in Wadowice, and the glass beams in the entrance canopy of the 20 Fenchurch
Street skyscraper, London (Fig. 1b).
The development of glass structures is related to the progress in glass technology, but
also the advancement in knowledge on its mechanical and strength properties. Owing to the
need to broaden knowledge on structural glass, a research project under the name “TU0905
– Structural Glass – Novel design methods and next generation products” was initiated in
2010–2014, as part of COST (European Cooperation in Science & Technology). Its main
objectives were to develop safe design methods for glass structures, and to develop new
generation products for use in these structures. The conducted research was focussed on
four areas [8]: 1) predicting complex loads on glass structures; 2) material characterisation
and material improvement; 3) integrated design approach incorporating risk analysis and
post-fracture performance; 4) novel glass assemblies.
The use of structural glass has also contributed to the development of normative
documents for its design [9]. While observing numerous implementations in which glass
structural elements were applied, it can be stated that issuing guidelines and standards for
the design of glass structures tends to fall behind the development of the material and its
application in architecture [10]. However, the work on normative documents is currently
leading to the emergence of a harmonised European standard, that is, to Eurocode 10. It is
planned that the standard will be issued at the beginning of 2024 [11].
The present article is intended to overview the main assumptions that provide an
introduction to glass structure design based on the currently available normative documents.

2. Glass as a structural material

2.1. Mechanical and strength properties of glass
For glass to be used as a structural material, its mechanical properties and strength
parameters are crucial. Glass is a brittle material, which is the main reason why it differs
from other common structural materials. Its primary disadvantage lies in the possibility
of its spontaneous fracture. Moreover, as is typical of brittle materials, the destruction of
glass can proceed rapidly, with no prior indication [12].
The theoretical strength of glass is very high levels and amounts to 25–30 GPa, which
results from its molecular structure [12, 13]. In design applications, however, the strength
parameter achieves much lower values. According to the Griffith Theory of Fracture [14],
low strength values for brittle materials are caused by the occurrence of numerous cracks,
which can lead to the local concentration of stresses. This, in turn, results in the glass
breaking.
Glass is characterised by high values of Young’s modulus, which amounts to 70,000 MPa,
and is, therefore, comparable to aluminium. Its key strength is its bending strength, and in
150 A. JÓŹWIK

accordance with EN 572-1 [15], this is 45 MPa for annealed float glass. This value may be
increased using a thermal or chemical modification process. In the case of thermal treat-
ment, thermally toughened safety glass with a strength of 120 MPa or heat-strengthened
glass with a strength of 70 MPa is obtained – as shown in Table 1. In the process of chemical
treatment, a glass strength of 150 MPa may be obtained – as shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Values of characteristic bending strength 𝑓𝑔,𝑘 for prestressed glass [16–18]

Modified glass Heat strengthened Thermally toughened Chemically

Glass product glass safety glass strengthened glass

Float glass, drawn sheet glass 70 MPa 120 MPa 150 MPa

However, the thermal modification of glass influences the type of fracture pattern. In
the event of fracture, annealed float glass is characterised by large, sharp-edged shards
(Fig. 2a). In the case of thermally toughened safety glass, a fine mesh of cracks with small
pieces emerges, which reduces the risk of injury (Fig. 2c). In the case of heat strengthened
glass, an intermediate layout regarding sizes of glass fragments appears in the crack mesh
(Fig. 2b).

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 2. Fracture pattern of different types of glass

For a higher level of safety in glass structures to be achieved, laminated glass is applied.
This consists of two or more glass panes bonded with adhesive layers, such as polyvinyl
butyral (PVB), ethylene-vinyl acetate (EVA), or thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) [19].
PVB, given its thickness of 0.38, 0.76 or 1.52 mm, is the material used most often to bond
glass panes. In the case of structural elements, special-purpose materials such as extra stiff
PVB or SentryGlas®ionomer [20] are coming into increasingly common use.
In particular, the SentryGlas®ionomer is marked with better strength parameters, in-
cluding high tensile strength and five times greater tear strength than typical PVB – as
shown in Table 2. It is also worth noting that the strength parameters of the interlayers
 INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF GLASS ACCORDING TO CURRENT . . . 151

applied for laminated glass bonding, including Young’s relaxation modulus E and shear
relaxation modulus G, depend on the load duration and the ambient temperature [23–25] –
as shown in Table 2.

Table 2. Physical and strength properties of the interlayer used in laminated glass [21, 22]

Interlayer Extra stiff PVB Ionomer

PVB
Properties (Trosifol®) (SentryGlas®)
Density [kg/m3 ] 1065 1081 950
10∼15 · 10−5
Coefficient of linear expansion [◦ C−1 ] 2.2 · 10−4 1.6 · 10−4
(−20◦ C÷32◦ C)
Tensile strength [MPa] 23 32 34.5
Tear strength (tear energy) [MJ/m3 ] 10–15 – 50
Tensile elongation [%] > 280 > 180 400
Poisson’s ratio 0.5 0.5 0.5
Young’s relaxation modulus 𝐸 (𝑡) [MPa]
0.97 2.7 178
30◦ for 1 hour
Young’s relaxation modulus 𝐸 (𝑡) [MPa]
0.20 1.0 12.6
50◦ for 1 hour
Shear relaxation modulus 𝐺 (𝑡) [MPa]
0.33 0.92 60.0
30◦ for 1 hour
Shear relaxation modulus 𝐺 (𝑡) [MPa]
0.068 0.34 4.2
50◦ for 1 hour

2.2. Post-fracture behaviour of glass

In the case of structural glass design, its post-fracture behaviour is of great importance
to ensure the safety of the entire structure [26]. Three stages of the behaviour of such glass
laminates were distinguished by Kott [27]. Stage I (Fig. 3a) concerns the situation in which
no glass pane fracture occurs. Thus, the distribution of compressive and tensile stresses
depends on the value of the interlayer shear modulus 𝐺 in the laminated glass. In stage II

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 3. Three stages in the failure process of laminated glass [26]
152 A. JÓŹWIK

(Fig. 3b), one of the two glass panes is broken. Then, the tensile stresses at bending are
taken over by the undamaged glass sheet. In the third stage (Fig. 3c), the second layer of
glass is damaged. Compressive stresses can be residually borne by glass shards, while the
interlayer can only counterbalance tensile stresses. Hence, properties in terms of the tear
strength of the interlayers are of great importance, as high tensile elongation or tear usually
leads the laminated glass being destroyed.

3. Structural glass in European standards and guidelines

The interest in possible structural glass applications led to the commencement of works
on normative documents concerning methods to design glass structures [28, 29]. These
documents, though often given only national status, may also be applied outside a coun-
try due to the lack of supplementary guidelines. Among the first regulations concerning
the design of structural glass, the following guidelines may be mentioned: TRLV [30],
TRPV [31], TRAV [32], published since 1998 by Deutsches Institut für Bautechnik (DIBt).
The provisions contained in the abovementioned regulations concerned the use of glass in
relatively simple and common cases. The first of the documents, i.e., the TRLV, concerned
linearly supported glazing, whereas the TRAV discussed issues related to the design of
protective barriers. The TRPV, in turn, presented ways to design point fixed glazing. These
documents featured the key concept of glass calculation, based on the allowable stress
method, with a global safety factor. A number of conditions failed to be included in the
adopted method, which resulted in the design of enlarged cross-sections.
Since 2010, the guidelines published by DIBt have been systematically replaced with
a national standard, i.e., DIN 18008 Glass In Building – Design and Construction Rules,
with the following parts [33]:
– Part 1: Terms and general bases [34],
– Part 2: Linearly supported glazing [35],
– Part 3: Point fixed glazing [36],
– Part 4: Additional requirements for safety-barrier glazing [37],
– Part 5: Additional requirements for walk-on glazing [38],
– Part 6: Additional requirements for walk-on glazing in the case of maintenance
procedures and for fall-through glazing [39],
– Part 7: Special structures (in preparation).
The DIN 18008 standard presents a different approach to the concept of safety, which is
based on partial safety factors for material, geometry, loading, load and resistance side. This
concept is consistent with the European construction standards: the Eurocodes. The DIN
18008 standard indicates limit states as the main method to calculate structural glass [33,
40, 41]. The verification of glazed elements consists in the examination of the ultimate
limit state (ULS) and the serviceability limit state (SLS). According to its assumptions,
the DIN 18008 standard was supposed to provide experience and entail the establishment
of a harmonised European standard, that is, the Eurocode 10 for the design of glass
structures [28, 40].
 INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF GLASS ACCORDING TO CURRENT . . . 153

Currently, work on the Eurocode 10 is underway at the European Committee for

Standardization (CEN). With this purpose in view, a special team was formed. Within the
CEN/TC 250/SC 11 [42] committee named “Structural Glass”, the team developed the draft
pre-standard prCEN/TS 19100 on structural glass [11]. The draft pre-standard is currently
being processed. It has been divided into parts [43]:
– Part 1: Basis of design and materials [44],
– Part 2: Design of out-of-plane loaded glass components [45],
– Part 3: Design of in-plane loaded components and their mechanical joints [46].
As part of this pre-standard, the classification of structural elements was proposed to
facilitate the analysis of various design cases in a comparable manner. However, compared
to the normative documents to date, the most significant change is related to the nature
of glass as a brittle material. Two additional limit states were introduced. In addition to
the traditional ultimate limit state (ULS) and serviceability limit state (SLS), the fracture
limit state (FLS) and post-fracture limit state (PFLS) have been distinguished. Both of
the newly introduced limit states seem of crucial importance regarding the safety of glass
structures. Therefore, based on analogy to the Consequence Classes (CC) classification
system contained in the EN 1990 standard [47], a division into Limit State Scenarios (LSS):
LSS-0, LSS-1, LSS-2, LSS-3 was introduced, depending on the effect of the unreliability
of the glass element (Table 3).

Table 3. Minimum requirements for glass components for Limit State Scenario (LSS) [43, 44]

Limit State
LSS-0a LSS-0b LSS-1 LSS-2 LSS-3
Scenario
Balustrades;
Horizontal Floors;
Examples Infill panel Infill panel point fixed
overhead glazing; columns;
glazing A < 2 m2 larger vertical glazing;
glass façades beams
glass doors
Serviceability Limit State (SLS)
Unfractured
Ultimate Limit State (ULS)
Fracture Fracture Limit State (FLS)
Post Post-fracture Limit State
fracture (PFLS I, PFLS II)
Note: LSS-0 is out of the scope of the CEN/TS

Furthermore, it should be noted that LSS-0 is not part of EN 1990 [47] or prCEN/TS
19100-1 [44]. It is expected that the choice of the Limit State Scenario, and hence the
construction design verification, will be decided at a national level. The draft pre-standard
CEN/TS 19100 [44–46] on structural glass will become Eurocode 10 at the beginning of
2024 [43].
154 A. JÓŹWIK

4. Basics of structural design of glass according

to the 16612 and prCEN/TS 19100 standard
4.1. Assumptions according to the EN 16612 standard
According to the current European standards, the basic method for verification of
structural glass is the limit state method. This design concept is also included in the EN
16612 standard [48] for lateral load resistance of linearly supported glazing used as infill
panels. It is subjected to examination for two main conditions:
– determination of the maximum bending stress 𝜎max calculated for the most un-
favourable load combinations, which cannot exceed the design value of bending
strength 𝑓𝑔,𝑑 :

(4.1) 𝜎max ≤ 𝑓𝑔,𝑑

– determination of the maximum deflection 𝑤 max for the most unfavourable load
combinations, which cannot exceed the design value of deflection 𝑤 𝑑 :

(4.2) 𝑊max ≤ 𝑊𝑑

According to the EN 16612 standard [48], an examination of the maximum bending

stress in the ultimate limit state (ULS) was indicated. The essential value for verifying this
condition lies in the determination of the design value of bending strength 𝑓𝑔,𝑑 The EN
16612 standard [48] indicates the method to determine this strength for annealed glass and
prestressed glass. The design value of bending strength for annealed glass is to be obtained
using the following formula:

𝑘 𝑒 · 𝑘 mod · 𝑘 sp · 𝑓𝑔,𝑘
(4.3) 𝑓𝑔,𝑑 =
𝛾𝑀 , 𝐴

where:
𝑓𝑔,𝑑 – design value of the bending strength,
𝑓𝑔,𝑘 – characteristic value of the bending strength of annealed glass, 𝑓𝑔,𝑘 = 45 [MPa],
𝛾 𝑀 , 𝐴 – material partial factor for annealed glass, 𝛾 𝑀 , 𝐴 = 1.8,
𝑘 𝑒 – factor for edge strength,
𝑘 sp – factor for the glass surface profile, for float glass 𝑘 sp = 1.0,
𝑘 mod – factor for the load duration.
The design value of bending strength for prestressed glass is obtained from the following
formula:


𝑘 mod · 𝑘 sp · 𝑓𝑔,𝑘 𝑘 𝑣 𝑓𝑏,𝑘 − 𝑓𝑔,𝑘
(4.4) 𝑓𝑔,𝑑 = +
𝛾𝑀 , 𝐴 𝛾 𝑀 ,𝑉

where:
𝑓𝑔,𝑑 – design value of the bending strength,
 INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF GLASS ACCORDING TO CURRENT . . . 155

𝑓𝑔,𝑘 , 𝛾 𝑀 , 𝐴, 𝑘 mod ; 𝑘 sp – are described in formula (4.3),

𝑓𝑏,𝑘 – characteristic value of the bending for prestressed glass, accord to Table 1,
𝛾 𝑀 ,𝑉 – material partial factor for prestressed glass 𝛾 𝑀 ,𝑉 = 1.2,
𝑘 𝑉 – factor for strengthening of prestressed glass, for float glass 𝑘 𝑉 = 1.0.
It should also be noted that in formula (4.3), the edge strength 𝑘 𝑒 factor related to the
location of the stresses was distinguished. The value thereof is influenced by the glass type
and by the quality of its edges. In the case that the glass is supported on its four edges, the
factor value equals 1.0. However, the value may amount to less than 1.0, e.g., should the
glass sheet be supported on only two of its edges.
In determining the design value of the bending strength for glass, the important element
is the factor for the load duration 𝑘 mod , which can be obtained from the following formula:
−1
(4.5) 𝑘 mod = 0.663 · 𝑡 16

where: 𝑡 – load duration in hours.

Its value is determined as a function of time (t) measured in hours; hence its value
is between 0.29 and 1.0. Basic values of the 𝑘 mod coefficient are presented in Table 4 in
accordance with the suggested load duration.

Table 4. Value of 𝑘 mod for load duration according to EN 16612 standard [48]

Load Value of
Action
duration 𝑘 mod
Wind gust 5 s (or less) 1.0
Wind storm load 10 min 0.74
Maintenance loads 30 min 0.69
Snow load – external canopies and roofs of unheated buildings 3 weeks 0.45
Snow load – roofs of heated buildings 5 days 0.49
Permanent
Dead loads, self-weight, altitude load on insulating glass units 0.29
(50 years)

By virtue of the 𝑘 mod coefficient values, glass assumes various design values of bending
strength 𝑓𝑔,𝑑 depending on the type of load. In Table 5, these values are presented for several
types of glass: annealed float, thermally strengthened glass, and thermally toughened safety
glass, as well as for selected loads. The lowest design value of bending strength occurs
for permanent loads and annealed glass. In this case, the value only amounts to 18% of
the characteristic value of the bending strength for this type of glass. The value equals
41% for thermally strengthened glass, while for thermally toughened safety glass, the value
is 70%. However, it should be noted that the glass element is generally affected by the
combination of loads. The standard recommends that in the case of combinations of loads,
the 𝑘 mod coefficient at the highest possible value should be taken into account, i.e., for the
shortest duration load. However, all relevant load combinations must be considered. The
𝑘 mod coefficient can also be determined as a weighted average [48].
156 A. JÓŹWIK

Table 5. Design value of bending strength 𝑓𝑔,𝑑 according to EN 16612 standard [48]

Condition of Load Value of

Design value of bending strength 𝑓 𝑔, 𝑑
load duration 𝑘 mod
For annealed glass – float glass, 𝑓𝑔,𝑘 = 45 [MPa] (formula 4.3)
1 · 0.32 · 1 · 45
Permanent 15 years 0.32 𝑓𝑔,𝑑 = = 8.00 [MPa]
1.8
Snow – roofs of 1 · 0.49 · 1 · 45
5 days 0.49 𝑓𝑔,𝑑 = = 12.25 [MPa]
heated building 1.8
1 · 1 · 1 · 45
Wind gust load 3s 1.0 𝑓𝑔,𝑑 = = 25.00 [MPa]
1.8
For prestressed glass – heat strengthened glass, 𝑓𝑔,𝑘 = 70 [MPa] (formula 4.4)
0.32 · 1 · 45 1 · (70 − 45)
Permanent 15 years 0.32 𝑓𝑔,𝑑 = + = 28.83 [MPa]
1.8 1.2
Snow – roofs of 0.49 · 1 · 45 1 · (70 − 45)
5 days 0.49 𝑓𝑔,𝑑 = + = 33.08 [MPa]
heated building 1.8 1.2
1 · 1 · 45 1 · (70 − 45)
Wind gust load 3s 1.0 𝑓𝑔,𝑑 = + = 45.83 [MPa]
1.8 1.2
For prestressed glass – tempered glass, 𝑓𝑔,𝑘 = 120 [MPa] (formula 4.4)
0.32 · 1 · 45 1 · (120 − 45)
Permanent 15 years 0.32 𝑓𝑔,𝑑 = + = 70.50 [MPa]
1.8 1.2
Snow – roofs of 0.49 · 1 · 45 1 · (120 − 45)
5 days 0.49 𝑓𝑔,𝑑 = + = 74.75 [MPa]
heated building 1.8 1.2
1 · 1 · 45 1 · (120 − 45)
Wind gust load 3s 1.0 𝑓𝑔,𝑑 = + = 87.50 [MPa]
1.8 1.2

4.2. Assumptions according to the draft standards prCEN/TS 19100

A design concept of structural glass contained in the draft standards prCEN/TS
19100 [44–46] significantly changes the approach to the safety of glass structures by
extending the application of limit states. However, the basic verification of unfractured
glass components still includes the ultimate limit state (ULS) and serviceability limit states
(SLS).

4.2.1. Ultimate limit state (ULS)

In terms of the application of the ultimate limit state (ULS), it is specified that the
design value of the effect of actions 𝐸 𝑑 shall not exceed the design value for resistance 𝑅 𝑑
for that combination:

(4.6) 𝐸 𝑑 ≤ 𝑅𝑑

The determination of the effect value of action 𝐸 𝑑 can occur through two cases. Firstly,
𝐸 𝑑 is considered as the design principal stress 𝜎prin,𝐸 𝑑 on the surface of the glass in the
 INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF GLASS ACCORDING TO CURRENT . . . 157

main direction. Secondly 𝐸 𝑑 refers to the design sectional forces 𝑁 𝐸 ,𝑑 , 𝑉𝐸 ,𝑑 , 𝑀𝐸 ,𝑑 in the

relevant direction. In this case the design strength 𝑅 𝑑 is calculated as the design bending
strength of glass 𝑓𝑔,𝑑 according to the following formula:
𝑓𝑔,𝑘 𝑓𝑏,𝑘 − 𝑓𝑔,𝑘
(4.7) 𝑓𝑔,𝑑 = 𝑘 𝑒 · 𝑘 sp · 𝜆 𝐴 · 𝜆𝑙 · 𝑘 mod · + 𝑘 𝑝 · 𝑘 𝑒, 𝑝 ·
𝛾𝑀 𝛾𝑝
where:
𝑓𝑔,𝑘 – characteristic value of bending strength for annealed glass,
𝑓𝑏,𝑘 – characteristic value of glass strength after a strengthening treatment,
𝛾 𝑀 – material partial factor, depends on the class of consequences, for the CC2𝛾 𝑀 = 1.8,
𝛾 𝑝 – partial factor for prestress on the surface, depends on the class of consequences, for
the CC2𝛾 𝑝 = 1.2,
𝑘 𝑒 – edge or hole finishing factor, for float glass with polished edges 𝑘 𝑒 = 1.0,
𝑘 sp – surface treatment factor, for typical float glass 𝑘 sp = 1.0,
𝑘 mod – modification coefficient depending on load duration, accord to Table 4,
𝜆 𝐴 – size-effect factor area, for area 18 m2 𝜆 𝐴 = 1.0,
𝜆𝑙 – size-effect factor length (edge, hole), for length ≤ 6.0 m 𝜆𝑙 = 1.0,
𝑘 𝑝 – coefficient accounting for the reduction of the process-induced prestressed, for float
glass and polished edges 𝑘 𝑝 = 1.0,
𝑘 𝑒, 𝑝 – edge or hole prestressing factor,
for heat strengthened and thermally toughened (out of plane loading) 𝑘 𝑒, 𝑝 = 1.0,
for heat strengthened and thermally toughened (in-plane loading) 𝑘 𝑒, 𝑝 = 0.8.
The values of the design bending strength 𝑓𝑔,𝑑 determined following the draft standard
prCEN/TS 19100-1 [44] are influenced, among other things, by the 𝑘 mod coefficient values,
similar to the 16612 standard [48]. Notably, the values of this coefficient are the same in
both standards and depend on the type of load duration. The values of the design bending
strength 𝑓𝑔,𝑑 for different types of load duration are summarised in Table 6.
According to the draft standard prCEN/TS 19100-1 [44], design effects of actions
𝐸 𝑑 shall be determined according to EN 1990 [47] and EN 1991 [49] with all parts. In
addition, the thermal load shall be considered in those cases where temperature differences
can generate stress in the glass elements. Thermal stresses in the glass should be analysed
to avoid thermal cracks by using thermal gradients – radial or stripe-pattern [50]. If the
glass element is exposed to solar radiation, it heats up (usually the central part of the glass)
due to absorption. The expanding heat then causes tensile stresses on the colder edges of
the glass, which can cause local cracks, leading to the glass itself breaking (Fig. 4).
The stress caused by an uneven of thermal strains from the temperature differences can
be obtained as follows:

(4.8) 𝜎𝑡 = 𝐸 · 𝛼𝑡 · Δ𝑇

where:
𝐸 – Young’s modulus,
𝛼𝑡 – thermal expansion coefficient,
Δ𝑇 – the maximum temperature difference in the glass.
158 A. JÓŹWIK

Table 6. Design value of the bending strength 𝑓𝑔,𝑑 according to prCEN/TS 19100-1 [44]

Value
Condition Load
of Design value of bending strength 𝑓𝑔,𝑑
of load duration
𝑘 mod
For annealed glass – float glass, 𝑓𝑔,𝑘 = 45 [MPa] (formula 4.7)
45
Permanent 15 years 0.32 𝑓𝑔,𝑑 = 1 · 1 · 1 · 1 · 0.32 · = 8.0 [MPa]
1.8
Snow – roof
45
of heat load 5 days 0.49 𝑓𝑔,𝑑 = 1 · 1 · 1 · 1 · 0.49 · = 12.25 [MPa]
1.8
building
Wind gust 45
3s 1.0 𝑓𝑔,𝑑 = 1 · 1 · 1 · 1 · 1 · = 25.0 [MPa]
load 1.8
For prestressed glass – heat strengthened glass, 𝑓𝑔,𝑘 = 70 [MPa] (formula 4.7)
45 70 − 45
Permanent 15 years 0.32 𝑓𝑔,𝑑 = 1 · 1 · 1 · 1 · 0.32 · + 1.0 · = 28.83 [MPa]
1.8 1.2
Snow – roof
45 70 − 45
of heat load 5 days 0.49 𝑓𝑔,𝑑 = 1 · 1 · 1 · 1 · 0.49 · + 1.0 · = 33.08 [MPa]
1.8 1.2
building
Wind gust 45 70 − 45
3s 1.0 𝑓𝑔,𝑑 = 1 · 1 · 1 · 1 · 1 · + 1.0 · = 45.83 [MPa]
load 1.8 1.2
For prestressed glass – tempered glass, 𝑓𝑔,𝑘 = 120 [MPa] (formula 4.7)
45 120 − 45
Permanent 15 years 0.32 𝑓𝑔,𝑑 = 1 · 1 · 1 · 1 · 0.32 · + 1.0 · = 70.50 [MPa]
1.8 1.2
Snow – roof
45 120 − 45
of heat load 5 days 0.49 𝑓𝑔,𝑑 = 1 · 1 · 1 · 1 · 0.49 · + 1.0 · = 74.75 [MPa]
1.8 1.2
building
Wind gust 45 120 − 45
3s 1.0 𝑓𝑔,𝑑 = 1 · 1 · 1 · 1 · 1 · + 1.0 · = 87.50 [MPa]
load 1.8 1.2

Fig. 4. Thermal fracture in glass pane

 INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF GLASS ACCORDING TO CURRENT . . . 159

The reason for the stress concentration may be thermal stresses, but they can also occur
in the supports or at the point of fixing the glass panes. The holes in the glass are particularly
highlighted here. According to CEN/TS 19100-2 [45], the calculation of the stresses shall
accurately take into account the possible local stress concentrations.
Theoretically, the stress concentration is characterised by the 𝐾𝑡 coefficient (for-
mula 4.9), which is defined as the ratio between the peak stress 𝜎peak at the root of
the notch and the nominal stress 𝜎nominal [51]:
𝜎peak
(4.9) 𝐾𝑡 =
𝜎nominal

The stress distribution near a circular hole under axial loading is presented in Fig. 5.
In this case, the 𝐾𝑡 factor can be obtained with different methods by calculations – an-
alytical methods or finite-elements methods [52] or by measurements as photo-elastic
measurements [53].

Fig. 5. Stress distribution near a circular hole under axial loading

4.2.2. Servisibility limit state (SLS)

In the serviceability limit state (SLS) was determined deformation classes for different
levels of criticality:
– 1-SLS as deflections or displacements of pure aesthetical relevance,
– 2-SLS as deflections or displacements affecting integrity, functionality or durability
of the glass component in the unfractured state,
– 3-SLS as deflection or displacements or effect thereof affecting safety.
The first class 1-SLS is not considered under this standard. For the second class 2-SLS,
a typical deflection limit for glass components was defined, which are presented in Table 7.
In the case of the third class 3-SLS, it was recommended the glass chord shortening
due to its deflection and to the tolerances. The recommended values of nominal mechanical
edge cover for glass components are presented in Table 8.
160 A. JÓŹWIK

Table 7. Deflection limits for glass components for deformations class 2-SLS according to prCEN/TS
19100-2 [45]

Deflection limit
Deflection limit Deflection limit
of the support
Support condition at a free edge at centre
of the edge
Monolith or Monolith or Monolith or
laminated IGU laminated IGU laminated IGU
glass glass glass
Continuously According to EN
13830: 2015 +
stair treads, balustrades

supported along 𝐿/50𝑎

Glass components

all edges A1:2020 [54]

without floors,

Continuously According to EN
supported along 13830: 2015 + 𝐿/100𝑐 𝐿/150𝑐
2 or 3 edges A1:2020 [54]
Locally clamped
𝐿/150𝑏 𝐿/100𝑐 𝐿/50𝑎
along 2 or 3 edges
Point-fixed 𝐿/100𝑐,𝑑 𝐿/150𝑐 𝐿/50𝑎, 𝑑
𝑎 – the length of the short edge, 𝑏 – the distance between two point-fixings, 𝑐 – the length of unsupported edge,
.
𝑑 – Either the deflection limit of 𝐿/100 at the edge or 𝐿/50 in the centre should be applied, not together

Table 8. Recommended minimum nominal mechanical edge cover s for components of deformation
class 3-SLS according to prCEN/TS 19100-2 [45]

Minimum nominal mechanical edge cover or edge support depth s [mm]

Further specification
Monolith or laminated glass IGU
Vertical 12 12
Non-vertical 12 12

5. Effective thickness in the calculation of laminated glass

In glass structures, laminated glass is used due to the requirement to ensure safety. As
a result of the use of polymer films or ionomer as the interlayer to hold the glass shards in
the event of breakage, it is possible to obtain a minimum, but still substantial, load-bearing
capacity of the laminated glass [10]. Therefore, it is essential to determine the degree of
bonding of the individual layers, which is directly related to the transfer of shear forces.
Three possible variants operate of laminated glass under bending can be distinguished.
In the first variant (Fig. 6a), it is assumed that the glass layers cooperate in the same way
as in monolithic glass – that is, they transfer full shear. The third variant (Fig. 6c) comprises
the case in which these forces are not transferred, which means that individual glass panes
of the multi-layered panel operate separately. However, in reality, there are intermediate
 INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF GLASS ACCORDING TO CURRENT . . . 161

situations, e.g., partial shear transfer (Fig. 6b) [55]. The operation of laminated glass is
determined by the shear transfer coefficient, defined in various ways in standards and source
literature. The coefficient value provides the basis for determining the effective thickness
of laminated glass.

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 6. Possibility of shear transfer and associated stress distribution under bending [55]

In the most recent European standard, EN 16612 [48], a simplified method for deter-
mining the effective thickness, called “equivalent thickness”, is provided, which takes into
account different calculation methods for the thickness of laminated glass in the event of
deflection and stresses. In the case of deflection calculations, the following correlation is
indicated:
v
t 𝑛
∑︁ 𝑛 
∑︁ 
(5.1) 𝑡 ef,𝑤 = 3 ℎ3𝑖 + 12 · 𝜔 · ℎ𝑖 · 𝑑𝑖3
𝑖=1 𝑖=1

however, the following formula is applied in order to calculate stresses:

√︄

3
ℎef,𝑤
(5.2) 𝑡ef, 𝜎,𝑖 =
ℎ𝑖 + 2 · 𝜔 · 𝑑𝑖
where:
ℎ𝑖 – thickness of the glass panes,
𝑑𝑖 – distance according to Fig. 7,
𝜔 – coefficient for the shear transfer of an interlayer in laminated glass.
In formulas (5.1) and (5.2), the coefficient 𝜔, which assumes a value from 0 to 1,
is crucial. Its value 𝜔 = 0 represents no bonding of laminated glass, whereas for the
value of 𝜔 = 1 complete bonding. For intermediate situations varying between 0 and 1,
this coefficient 𝜔 was determined in a tabular manner and depends on the load types,
load duration and, indirectly, on the interlayer properties (depending on the value of the
𝐺 modulus). In order to determine the properties of the interlayers, so-called interlayer
families, marked as 0, 1, and 2, were introduced [48, 56]. Family 0 comprises, for instance,
a film with acoustic properties. Family 1 consists of the typical PVB film, while family
2 includes films used in structural solutions, such as SentryGlas® [24]. For each of the
interlayer families, the coefficient 𝜔 was determined depending on the type of load and its
duration (Table 9), as it was in the case when determining the kmod coefficient [48, 56, 57].
162 A. JÓŹWIK

Fig. 7. Laminated glass composed of multi-layered glass panes

Table 9. Value of coefficient 𝜔 for different family interlayers and loads according to EN 16612 [48]

Action Family 0 Family 1 Family 2

Wind gust 0 0.3 0.7
Wind storm load 0 0.1 0.5
Maintenance loads 0 0 0.1
Snow load – external canopies and roofs of unheated buildings 0 0.1 0.3
Snow load – roofs of heated buildings 0 0 0.1
Dead loads, self-weight, altitude load on insulating glass units 0 0 0

In accordance with the method specified in the EN 16612 standard [48], when calculat-
ing the effective thickness for laminated glass (Table 10), it can be noticed that for laminated
glass made up of two glass panes of 5 mm thickness, bound with a film of 0.76 mm thick-
ness (with 10.76 mm as the total thickness of the laminated glass), the lowest values of the
effective thickness are obtained for permanent loads and equal 59% of its total thickness
for deflection, and 66% for stress.
However, the simplified method for determining the effective thickness in laminated
glass in the EN 16612 standard [48] raises some reservations [10,58]. Its primary disadvan-
tage lies in the lack of a comprehensive approach, including no reference to the interlayer
thickness or boundary conditions. On the other hand, the advantage of the method lies in
the possibility of determining the laminated glass thickness for a multi-layered panel.
On the other hand, the Wölfel-Bennison approach [25] is more accurate in determin-
ing the effective thickness. It is based on the study on composite beams conducted by
Wölfel [59] and was further developed for laminated glass by Bennison [60, 61]. This
approach was formulated for a two-layered simply supported laminated beam under a uni-
formly distributed load. The key element of this method relies on the determination of the
shear transfer coefficient 𝛤, which assumes values ranging from 0 to 1. Under certain con-
ditions, the approach can be applied for laminated plates composed of two layers [62, 63].
 INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF GLASS ACCORDING TO CURRENT . . . 163

Table 10. Equivalent thickness value of laminated glass according to EN 16612 [48]
and EN 16613 standard [56]

Load Value of 𝜔 Equivalent thickness for laminated glass

Type of load
duration for family 2 glass 5 [mm] + PVB 0.76 [mm] + glass 5 [mm]
√︁3
𝑡ef,𝑤 = 2 · 53 + 12 · 0 · 2 · 5 · 2.882 = 6.30 [mm]
Permanent 15 years 0 √︄
6.303
𝑡 ef, 𝜎,𝑖 = = 7.07 [mm]
5 + 2 · 0 · 2.88
√︁3
𝑡 ef,𝑤 = 2 · 53 + 12 · 0, 1 · 2 · 5 · 2.882 = 7.04 [mm]
Snow – roofs of
5 days 0.1
heated buildings
√︂
7.043
𝑡 ef, 𝜎,𝑖 = = 7.91 [mm]
5 + 2 · 0.1 · 2.88
√︁3
𝑡 ef,𝑤 = 2 · 53 + 12 · 0.7 · 2 · 5 · 2.882 = 9.82 [mm]
Wind gust load 3s 0.7 √︂
9.823
𝑡 ef, 𝜎,𝑖 = = 10.24 [mm]
5 + 2 · 0.7 · 2.88

This method was specified in the draft standard prEN 13474 [64] and was also implemented
in the Italian standardisation document CNR-DT-210 [65].
Furthermore, the Wölfel-Bennison method was derived for one case only, i.e. for
a simply supported two-layered beam or plates under a uniformly distributed load. An
alternative approach for determining the effective thickness in laminated glass has recently
been proposed, which is the Enhanced Effective Thickness (EET) method, by Galuppi
and Carfagni [62, 66, 67]. This approach was also recommended together with the Wölfel-
Bennison method in an Italian standardisation document [65, 68]. Currently, this method
of determining the effective thickness in laminated glass has been included in the draft
standard prCEN/TS 19100-2 [45] as the planned Eurocode 10.
In the Enhanced Effective Thickness (EET) method, the main parameter to determine
the degree of layer bonding in laminated glass is the shear transfer coefficient marked as 𝜂
and determined in the case of the two-layered laminated beams from the formula [45]:

1
(5.3) 𝜂 𝑝,2 =
∫1+ℎ
𝐷 | | · ℎ1 · ℎ2
𝐸·
∫𝐺
(1 − 𝜐 2 ) · 𝐷 full (ℎ1 + ℎ2 ) Ψ 𝑝

where:
𝑛
ℎ3𝑖
Í
𝐸
𝑛
Í 𝑖=1
𝐷 abs – flexural stiffness at the layered limit, which is defined as: 𝐷 | | = 𝐷𝑖 =
,
𝑖=1 12 1 − 𝜈 2
164 A. JÓŹWIK

𝑛
ℎ𝑖 · 𝑑𝑖2
Í

𝐸
𝑖=1
𝐷 full – flexural stiffness at the monolith limit, which is defined as: 𝐷 full = 𝐷 | | +
,
1 − 𝜈2
ℎ1 , ℎ2 , ℎ𝑖 – glass thickness,
𝑑𝑖 – is distance accord to Fig. 7,
ℎint – interlayer thickness,
𝐸 – Young’s modulus of the glass,
𝐺 int – shear modulus of the interlayer,
𝜈 – Poisson coefficient,
𝜓 𝑝 – boundary coefficient for plates.
The shear transfer coefficient 𝜂 in formula (5.3) depends on the glass and the polymer
interlayer properties, geometric conditions, but also the boundary conditions and the type
of load expressed with the Ψ coefficient [45, 67]. The values of the Ψ, as well as the scope
of its application, have been discussed in greater detail for plates in [62] and beams in [66].
In the case of plates and beams, it depends on the loading and support conditions. For
plates, the Ψ coefficient values have been tabulated for the loading and support conditions
shown in Fig. 8.

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g)

Fig. 8. Different loading and support conditions of laminated glass plates for determination of the Ψ
coefficient according to prCEN/TS 19100-2 standard [45]

In the Enhanced Effective Thickness (EET) method, the effective thickness of the lami-
nated glass for the two-layered plates is, therefore, determined when calculating deflection,
according to the formula [45]:
v
u
u
u 1
(5.4) ℎef,𝑤 =u
u
1−𝜂
u
u 𝜂
 + ∑︁
u
u
3
t 𝑛 𝑛  𝑛
∑︁ ∑︁
ℎ3𝑖 + 12 ℎ𝑖 · 𝑑𝑖2 ℎ3𝑖
𝑖=1 𝑖=1 𝑖=1

whereas for the calculations of stress, according to the correlation [45]:

v
u
u
u 1
(5.5) ℎef, 𝜎,𝑖 =u
u
2 · 𝜂 · |𝑑𝑖 |
u
u ℎ𝑖
 + ℎ3
u
u
t 𝑛 𝑛 
∑︁ ∑︁
ℎ3𝑖 + 12 ℎ𝑖 · 𝑑𝑖2 ef,𝑤

𝑖=1 𝑖=1
 INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF GLASS ACCORDING TO CURRENT . . . 165

When calculating the effective thickness for a laminated glass plate in accordance
with prCEN/TS 19100-2 [45], its geometry, loading and support conditions are taken into
account. For a panel with dimensions of 1.5 × 2.0 m and supported on four edges (Fig. 6a),
the Ψ coefficient is 6.969 × 10−6 mm2 [45]. This glass is composed of two 5 mm thick glass
layers glued with 0.76 mm PVB film. For such assumptions and for the wind load gust
load (3 s), the shear transfer coefficient 𝜂 𝑝,2 = 0.8042 (𝐺 inst = 0.8 MPa for time duration
3 s and temperature 50◦ C). The effective thickness for deflection is then ℎef,𝑤 = 9.31 mm,
while for stresses, it takes the value ℎef, 𝜎 = 10.04 mm.
The Enhanced Effective Thickness (EET) method is now being developed not only
for two-layered plates or beams [45], but also for other specifications such as multi-
layered laminated glass [58], curved laminated glass [69], and cantilevered laminated glass
balustrades [70].
Table 11 shows a collation of the main assumptions when determining the effec-
tive thickness in laminated glass, using the following methods: EN 16612 standard [48],
prCEN/TS 19100-2 standard [45].

Table 11. Collation of the main assumptions of the method for calculating the effective thickness

Method of
prCEN/TS 19100-2
calculation of the EN 16612
Enhanced Efficient Thickness (EET)
effective thickness
Full shear
𝜔=1 𝜂=1
transfer
shear transfer
Degree of

Partial
shear 𝜔 between 0 and 1 𝜂 between 0 and 1
transfer
No shear
𝜔=0 𝜂=0
transfer

Concept of the for multi-layered laminated for two-layered glass plates

shear transfer glass 𝜂 𝑝,2 =
coefficient 𝜔 – values are tabulated 1
=
1+ℎ
𝐷 | | · ℎ1 · ℎ2
∫
𝐸·
∫𝐺  
1 − 𝜐 2 · 𝐷 full (ℎ1 + ℎ2 ) Ψ 𝑝

Main difference – interlayer stiffness family,

in determining – type of loading, in partic- – coefficient Ψ depends on the loading and
the value of ular, its characteristic du- boundary conditions (for plates and beams)
the shear transfer ration and the environ-
coefficient mental temperature
166 A. JÓŹWIK

6. Conclusions
Glass structures present a significant engineering challenge. Glass, as a brittle material,
and works differently than typical structural materials that may work in the elastic or plastic
stage. Therefore, it is essential to understand its strength properties and the nature of the
static works of glass structural elements.
According to the European normative documents currently in force, great attention is
paid to ensuring the safety of structures. If glass structures are to be implemented, it is
crucial to use laminated glass technology as it maintains a residual load capacity in post-
fracture conditions. Hence, it is assumed that the additional limit states will be introduced
in the planned Eurocode 10 devoted to the design of glass structures. In addition to the
ultimate limit state (ULS), and serviceability limit state (SLS), the fracture limit state
(FLS), and the post-fracture limit state (PFLS) will be introduced.
Due to the operation of laminated glass within the structural element, the interlayer
and its strength properties have a significant influence. The new generation polymer and
ionomer interlayers are characterised by better strength properties [71]. However, it should
be emphasised at this point that the properties of such materials depend on the load duration
and ambient temperature. Thus, further research is required due to the operation time of
glass structures.
The European standards currently in force indicate methods for calculating laminated
glass working as coupled or uncoupled or in an intermediate situation of glass sheets;
therefore, the so-called effective thickness is calculated. However, it should be emphasised
that the method for calculating effective thickness that is presented in the standards are
most useful in the design of glass plates. In the case of other elements, the situation is more
complicated. One of the reasons is the direction of load, i.e., out-of-plane or in-plane. On
the other hand, the direction of the glass layers is also important, which can be horizontal
or vertical. Also, in this respect, further research is required.

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Wprowadzenie do projektowania szkła konstrukcyjnego

według aktualnych norm europejskich

Słowa kluczowe: konstrukcje szklane, szkło konstrukcyjne, szkło laminowane, EN 16612, CEN/TS-
19100, Eurkokod 10

Streszczenie:
Szkło jest materiałem powszechnie stosowanym w budownictwie. Rozwój jego technologii oraz
wzrost wiedzy dotyczącej właściwości mechanicznych i wytrzymałościowych sprzyja również moż-
liwościom stosowania szkła jako materiału konstrukcyjnego. Konstrukcyjne zastosowanie szkła jest
szczególnie istotne dla kształtowania rozwiązań architektonicznych, w których transparentność sta-
nowi szczególną cechę estetyczną.
 170 A. JÓŹWIK

Wraz z rozwojem konstrukcji szklanych są opracowywane metody ich projektowania oraz wy-
tyczne i normy w tym zakresie. W artykule scharakteryzowano podstawowe właściwości szkła jako
materiału konstrukcyjnego. Ponadto omówiono główne założenia wytycznych niemieckich TRxV,
serii niemieckich norm DIN 18008 oraz norm europejskich (mających również status polskich norm)
PN-EN 16612 wraz z EN 16613. Artykułprzedstawia także koncepcję projektowania szkła kon-
strukcyjnego zawartą w projekcie normy CEN/TS 19100, która stanowi podstawę opracowania
zharmonizowanej normy Europejskiej – Eurokodu 10 dotyczącego projektowania konstrukcji szkla-
nych. Zgodnie z tą prenormą szklane elementy konstrukcyjne będą weryfikowane ze względu na
ich bezpieczeństwo w oparciu o cztery stany graniczne w zależności od tzw. klasy konsekwencji
pęknięć. Oprócz klasycznych stanów granicznych, tj. stanu granicznego nośności i stanu granicznego
użytkowalności, zakłada się również wprowadzenie stanu granicznego pęknięcia i stanu granicznego
po pęknięciu.
W artykule poruszono także kwestię pracy szkła laminowanego w elementach konstrukcyjnych.
W zależności od stopnia zespolenia tafli szklanych i międzywarst polimerowych lub jonomerowych,
można wyróżnić szkło laminowane całkowicie zespolone, lub niezespolone, a także pracujące w sytu-
acjach pośrednich. Biorąc pod uwagę charakter pracy szkła laminowanego, przy jego projektowaniu
oblicza się tzw. grubość efektywną. W artykule omówiono metody wyznaczania grubości efektywnej
zawarte w europejskich normach i wytycznych.

Received: 02.08.2021, Revised: 20.09.2021

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