SYSTEM ADMNISTRATION 1

MR. ISAIAH BREW

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IP ADDRESSING
IP addressing is a fundamental concept in computer networking that
involves assigning unique numerical identifiers to devices connected to
a network. These identifiers, known as IP addresses, enable devices to
communicate with each other within the network and across different
networks on the internet. Here are some key aspects of IP addressing:

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IP ADDRESSING
There are two primary versions of the Internet Protocol (IP): IPv4 and
IPv6.
IPv4: This is the older version of IP addressing and uses a 32-bit address
format, allowing for approximately 4.3 billion unique addresses.
IPv6: This is the newer version designed to address the limitations of
IPv4. It uses a 128-bit address format, providing an exponentially larger
address space to accommodate the growing number of internet-
connected devices.

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CLASSES OF IP ADDRESS
IP addresses are divided into classes based on the range of addresses
and the size of the network they represent. In the traditional IPv4
addressing scheme, there are five classes of IP addresses: A, B, C, D,
and E. Each class has a different range of address space and is used for
different purposes.

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CLASSES OF IP ADDRESS

Class A
Range: 0.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255
Network portion: 8 bits
Host portion: 24 bits
Purpose: Class A addresses are used for large networks with a large number
of hosts. The first bit of a Class A address is always 0, so the range goes from
0.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255. The address range from 0.0.0.0 to
127.255.255.255 is reserved for Class A networks, and the address range
from 127.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255 is reserved for loopback addresses.

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CLASSES OF IP ADDRESS

Class B
Range: 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255
Network portion: 16 bits
Host portion: 16 bits
Purpose: Class B addresses are used for medium-sized networks. The
first two bits of a Class B address are always 10. The range of Class B
addresses is from 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255.

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CLASSES OF IP ADDRESS

Class C
Range: 192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.255
Network portion: 24 bits
Host portion: 8 bits
Purpose: Class C addresses are used for small networks. The
first three bits of a Class C address are always 110. The range
of Class C addresses is from 192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.255.

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CLASSES OF IP ADDRESS

Class D
Range: 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255
Purpose: Class D addresses are reserved for
multicast addresses, which are used to send
data to multiple recipients simultaneously.

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CLASSES OF IP ADDRESS

Class E
Range: 240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255
Purpose: Class E addresses are reserved for
experimental use and are not commonly
used in practice.

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PUBLIC AND PRIVATE IP ADDRESSING
Public and private IP addressing are two different types of IP addresses used in
computer networking, each serving different purposes:
PUBLIC IP ADDRESSING:
• Public IP addresses are globally unique addresses assigned to devices connected
to the internet. They are used for communication between devices across
different networks on the internet.
• Public IP addresses are routable on the internet and can be accessed from
anywhere in the world.
• Organizations obtain public IP addresses from Internet Service Providers (ISPs) or
Regional Internet Registries (RIRs).
• Public IP addresses are used for servers, websites, email servers, and any device
or service that needs to be accessible from the internet.

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PUBLIC AND PRIVATE IP ADDRESSING
PRIVATE IP ADDRESSING:
Private IP addresses are used within private networks, such as local area networks
(LANs) or corporate intranets. They are not routable on the internet and are used
for communication within the confines of a private network.
Private IP addresses are defined in RFC 1918, which reserves certain address ranges
for private use:
Class A: 10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255
Class B: 172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255
Class C: 192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255
Devices within a private network can communicate with each other using private IP
addresses, but they require a router or gateway device to communicate with
devices outside the private network, such as the internet. Network Address
Translation (NAT) is commonly used to translate private IP addresses to public IP
addresses when accessing the internet, allowing multiple devices within a private
network to share a single public IP address.
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TYPES OF IPV4 ADDRESSES

UNICAST ADDRESS
Unicast addresses identify a single network interface.
They are used for one-to-one communication between a sender and a
single recipient. Most IPv4 addresses are unicast addresses.

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TYPES OF IPV4 ADDRESSES

BROADCAST ADDRESS
Broadcast addresses are used to send data to all devices on a specific
network segment. In IPv4, the broadcast address is typically the highest
address in the network range, where all host bits are set to 1.
Broadcast addresses are used for tasks like DHCP (Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol) and ARP (Address Resolution Protocol).

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TYPES OF IPV4 ADDRESSES

MULTICAST ADDRESS
Multicast addresses are used to send data to a group of devices on a
network. Devices interested in receiving multicast traffic join specific
multicast groups identified by multicast addresses. Multicast addresses
start with specific reserved ranges in IPv4 (e.g., 224.0.0.0 to
239.255.255.255).

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DOMAIN NAME SYSTEM
(DNS)

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The Domain Name System (DNS) is a hierarchical decentralized naming
system for computers, services, or other resources connected to the
internet or a private network. It translates easily memorizable domain
names, such as www.example.com, into numerical IP addresses, which
are required for locating and identifying computer services and devices
worldwide.

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Domain Name Hierarchy

• DNS organizes domain names in a hierarchical structure, with the root

domain at the top, followed by top-level domains (TLDs), second-level
domains (SLDs), and subdomains.
• Each level of the hierarchy is separated by a dot (.), with the root
domain represented by a single dot (.).

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DNS Servers
DNS operates using a distributed system of DNS servers, which store and
manage DNS records for domain names. DNS servers can be categorized into
several types, including:
• Root DNS Servers: These servers store the authoritative directory of all IP
addresses for top-level domain names and provide referrals to TLD servers.
• Top-Level Domain (TLD) DNS Servers: These servers store the authoritative
directory of domain names within specific top-level domains (e.g., .com,
.org, .net).
• Authoritative DNS Servers: These servers store and manage DNS records
for specific domain names and provide responses to DNS queries for those
domains.
• Recursive DNS Servers (Resolver): These servers receive DNS queries from
clients and recursively search the DNS hierarchy to resolve domain names
into IP addresses.

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DNS Resolution Process

When a user or application wants to access a website or service using its

domain name (e.g., www.example.com), the DNS resolution process begins.
The client's DNS resolver sends a DNS query to the recursive DNS server,
requesting the IP address corresponding to the domain name.
If the recursive DNS server does not have the IP address cached, it begins the
resolution process by querying root DNS servers, followed by TLD servers
and authoritative DNS servers, until it receives the IP address for the domain
name.
Once the IP address is obtained, the recursive DNS server caches the result
and returns it to the client, which can then establish a connection with the
desired server using the IP address.

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DNS Records
DNS servers store various types of DNS records, including:
1. A (Address) Record: Maps a domain name to an IPv4 address.
2. AAAA (IPv6 Address) Record: Maps a domain name to an IPv6
address.
3. CNAME (Canonical Name) Record: Maps an alias domain name to
another canonical domain name.
4. MX (Mail Exchange) Record: Specifies the mail server responsible
for receiving email for a domain.
5. NS (Name Server) Record: Specifies the authoritative DNS servers
for a domain.

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DNS ZONES
In the Domain Name System (DNS), a DNS zone is a portion of the DNS
namespace that is managed by a specific authoritative DNS server.
Zones are used to divide the DNS namespace into manageable
sections, allowing different organizations or administrators to have
control over different parts of the DNS hierarchy.
DNS zone is managed by one or more authoritative DNS servers, which
are responsible for storing and providing DNS information (such as DNS
records) for the domain names within that zone.
A DNS zone represents a contiguous portion of the DNS namespace. It
typically corresponds to a specific domain name and its subdomains,
but it can also include multiple domains or parts of domains.

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DNS ZONES
DNS zone information is stored in zone files, which are text files that
contain DNS records for the domain names within the zone. These
records include resource records such as A (Address) records, AAAA
(IPv6 Address) records, MX (Mail Exchange) records, NS (Name Server)
records, and others.

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TYPES OF ZONES
PRIMARY ZONE
A primary DNS zone is the original source of DNS information for a
domain. It is hosted on one or more authoritative DNS servers, and
changes to the zone's DNS records are made directly on these servers.
Primary zones are often used for domains that are directly managed by
an organization.

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TYPES OF ZONES
SECONDARY ZONE
A secondary DNS zone is a read-only copy of a primary zone that is
hosted on another authoritative DNS server. Secondary zones are used
to provide redundancy and load balancing for DNS queries and to
distribute the workload of DNS servers.

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TYPES OF ZONES
SECONDARY ZONE
A secondary DNS zone is a read-only copy of a primary zone that is
hosted on another authoritative DNS server. Secondary zones are used
to provide redundancy and load balancing for DNS queries and to
distribute the workload of DNS servers.
STUB ZONE
Stub Zone: A stub DNS zone contains only a subset of the DNS records
for a domain, typically the NS (Name Server) records. It is used to
provide information about the authoritative DNS servers for a domain.
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DNS FORWARDING
DNS forwarding is a mechanism used in the Domain Name System
(DNS) to handle DNS queries by forwarding them to another DNS
server for resolution. It allows a DNS server to act as an intermediary or
forwarder between DNS clients and other DNS servers, typically
upstream DNS servers such as those provided by the Internet Service
Provider (ISP) or public DNS resolver services like Google DNS or
OpenDNS.

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FORWARD LOOKUP AND REVERSE LOOKUP
Forward lookup and reverse lookup are two fundamental operations
performed in the Domain Name System (DNS) to resolve domain
names to IP addresses (forward lookup) and IP addresses to domain
names (reverse lookup).
FORWARD LOOKUP
In a forward lookup, a DNS resolver queries the DNS system to resolve
a domain name (e.g., www.example.com) to its corresponding IP
address (e.g., 192.0.2.1). Forward lookup is the most common type of
DNS query and is used when a user or application wants to access a
website or service using its domain name.

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FORWARD LOOKUP AND REVERSE LOOKUP
REVERSE LOOKUP
In a reverse lookup, a DNS resolver queries the DNS system to resolve
an IP address to its corresponding domain name. Reverse lookup is less
common than forward lookup but is used for troubleshooting, security,
and logging purposes. For example, it can be used to determine the
domain name associated with a specific IP address that is accessing a
server's logs.

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 DYNAMIC HOST
CONFIGURATION PROTOCOL
(DHCP)

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Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is a network protocol used to
automatically assign IP addresses and other network configuration
parameters to devices within a network. It helps streamline the process of
network configuration by dynamically assigning IP addresses to devices as
they connect to the network, eliminating the need for manual configuration.
DHCP Server: A DHCP server is configured within the network. This server
is responsible for managing and distributing IP addresses and other network
configuration parameters.
DHCP Client: A DHCP client is a device that automatically obtains network
configuration information from a DHCP server. When a device needs to
connect to a network and does not have a manually configured IP address, it
acts as a DHCP client to obtain necessary network settings dynamically.

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HOW DHCP WORKS
DHCP Discover: The device sends a broadcast DHCP Discover message onto the
local network. This message requests network configuration information and seeks
a DHCP server to provide it.
DHCP Offer: DHCP servers on the network receive the DHCP Discover message and
respond with a DHCP Offer message. Each DHCP server offers an IP address, along
with other network configuration parameters such as subnet mask, default
gateway, DNS server addresses, and lease duration.
Client Request: The device selects one of the DHCP offers it received and sends a
DHCP Request message to the chosen DHCP server, indicating its acceptance of the
offered configuration.
DHCP Acknowledgment: The DHCP server that receives the DHCP Request message
sends a DHCP Acknowledgment (DHCPACK) message to the client, confirming the
lease of the IP address and providing the network configuration parameters.

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DHCP SCOPE
A DHCP scope refers to a range of IP addresses that a DHCP server is configured to provide
to DHCP clients on a specific network segment or subnet. It defines the pool of available IP
addresses that the DHCP server can allocate dynamically to devices that request network
configuration information.
IP Address Range: The primary component of a DHCP scope is the range of IP addresses
that the DHCP server is authorized to assign to DHCP clients. This range represents the
pool of available IP addresses within a subnet.
For example, a DHCP scope might include a range of IP addresses from 192.168.1.100 to
192.168.1.200.
Subnet Mask: Along with the IP address range, the DHCP scope specifies the subnet mask
that defines the network portion of the IP addresses within the scope. This helps
determine the network boundaries and ensures that IP addresses are allocated correctly
within the subnet.
Lease Duration: DHCP scopes also define the lease duration for the IP addresses assigned
to DHCP clients. The lease duration determines how long a client can use the assigned IP
address before it must renew the lease. Lease durations can vary based on network
policies and requirements, ranging from a few hours to several days or more.

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EXCLUSIONS AND RESERVATIONS
Exclusions:
Exclusions refer to specific IP addresses within a DHCP scope that are excluded
from being dynamically assigned to DHCP clients. These IP addresses are typically
reserved for static assignment or other purposes and are not made available for
dynamic allocation by the DHCP server.
Exclusions can be used to prevent the DHCP server from assigning certain IP
addresses within the DHCP scope to avoid conflicts with existing network devices or
services.
For example, if a network router or server has a statically assigned IP address of
192.168.1.1, this address might be excluded from the DHCP scope to ensure it is
not inadvertently assigned to another device.
Reservations:

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EXCLUSIONS AND RESERVATIONS
RESERVATIONS
Reservations involve assigning specific IP addresses within a DHCP scope to specific
network devices based on their MAC (Media Access Control) address. These IP
addresses are reserved for exclusive use by the specified devices.
Unlike dynamic IP addresses assigned by the DHCP server, reserved IP addresses
are statically assigned to specific devices, ensuring that they always receive the
same IP address whenever they connect to the network.
Reservations are commonly used for devices that require static IP addresses for
consistent network connectivity, such as printers, servers, or network appliances.
To create a reservation, the network administrator must configure the DHCP server
to associate the MAC address of the device with the desired IP address within the
DHCP scope.

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DHCP RELAY AGENT
A DHCP relay agent is a network device or software component that
forwards DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) messages
between DHCP clients and DHCP servers across different network
segments or subnets. Its primary purpose is to extend the reach of
DHCP services beyond the local subnet and facilitate the allocation of IP
addresses and other network configuration parameters to DHCP clients
in remote networks.

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ACTIVE DIRECTORY

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WHAT IS ACTIVE DIRECTORY
Active Directory (AD) is a directory service developed by Microsoft for
Windows domain networks. It is used to store information about
network resources such as users, groups, computers, printers, and
other devices on a network and to enable network administrators to
centrally manage and administer these resources. AD functions as a
centralized and hierarchical directory service, organizing and storing
information about network objects in a logical and hierarchical manner.

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FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPT OF ACTIVE
DIRECTORY
WORKGROUP:A workgroup is a basic peer-to-peer network configuration
used primarily in small environments where there is no dedicated server for
centralized authentication and resource management, unlike Active
Directory domains.
DOMAIN: An Active Directory (AD) domain is a logical grouping of
computers, users, and other network resources that share a centralized
database, security policies, and directory services. In Active Directory,
domains serve as administrative boundaries within a network environment.
DOMAIN CONTROLLER: A domain controller (DC) is a crucial component in a
Windows-based network infrastructure, particularly within Microsoft's
Active Directory (AD) environment. It's a server that authenticates users,
enforces security policies, and manages access to network resources within a
domain.

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FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPT OF ACTIVE
DIRECTORY
DOMAIN TREE: A domain tree is a hierarchical structure within Active
Directory that consists of multiple domains arranged in a parent-child
relationship. In a domain tree, each domain has a unique name within
the forest and is connected to other domains through trust
relationships.
FOREST: A forest is a collection of one or more domain trees that share
a common schema, configuration, and global catalog. It represents the
top-level container in Active Directory's logical structure, providing a
boundary for the replication of directory data and a security boundary
for authentication and resource access.

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FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPT OF ACTIVE
DIRECTORY
GLOBAL CATLOG: The Global Catalog (GC) is a critical component of
Microsoft's Active Directory (AD) infrastructure. It serves as a distributed
data repository that contains a partial replica of all objects in the entire
forest. In a single domain, you should configure all domain controllers to
hold a copy of the global catalog When you have multiple sites, you should
also make at least on domain controller at each site global catalog server

SCHEMA: the schema refers to the structure and definition of objects stored
within the directory database. It essentially defines the types of objects that
can be stored in the directory, along with the attributes and properties that
those objects can have.
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FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPT OF ACTIVE
DIRECTORY
TRUST RELATIONSHIPS: Trust relationships are foundational in
computer networking, particularly within Microsoft's Active Directory
(AD) environment. These relationships establish mutual authentication
and authorization between different domains or forests, enabling users
in one domain to access resources in another domain. Trust
relationships define the level of confidence one domain has in another
domain or forest when it comes to allowing access to resources. They
facilitate communication and resource sharing across domains while
maintaining security boundaries.

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FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPT OF ACTIVE
DIRECTORY
Types of trust relationship:
One-Way Trust: Domain A trusts Domain B, allowing users in Domain B to access resources in
Domain A. However, users in Domain A cannot access resources in Domain B without explicit
permission.
Two-Way Trust: Both domains trust each other, enabling users in both domains to access resources
in either domain.
Transitive Trust: Trust relationships can be transitive, meaning if Domain A trusts Domain B and
Domain B trusts Domain C, then Domain A implicitly trusts Domain C. This simplifies trust
management within multi-domain environments.
Forest Trust: Establishes trust between entire AD forests, enabling users in one forest to access
resources in another forest. Forest trusts are essential for large-scale organizations, mergers, or
collaborations.
External Trust: Connects AD domains that are not part of the same forest. It's typically used for
scenarios like partnerships or collaborations between organizations with separate AD
infrastructures.

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FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPT OF ACTIVE
DIRECTORY
DOMAIN FUNCTIONAL LEVEL: The Domain Functional Level in Active
Directory represents the set of features and capabilities available to a
domain controller and the domain's Active Directory infrastructure. By
raising the functional level, administrators can enable additional
features and functionality within the domain.
FOREST FUNCTIONAL LEVEL: The Forest Functional Level in Active
Directory represents the set of features and capabilities available to the
entire forest, which consists of one or more domains. Raising the forest
functional level enables additional functionality and features across all
domains within the forest.

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Understand workgroups and domains

WORKGROUP DOMAIN
• No centralised Authentication • Centralized Authentication
• No centralized Administration • Centralized Administration
• Maximum of 20 computers • Unlimited number of computers
supported for accessing a shared
file or folder at the same time

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WORKGROUP NETWORK DOMAIN BASED NETWORKING

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Advantages of Domain based networking
Domain-based networking, specifically using Active Directory (AD) domains
in Windows Server environments, is preferred for large networks due to
several key benefits:
• Centralized Management: AD domains provide a centralized management
framework, allowing administrators to manage network resources, user
accounts, and security settings from a single location. This significantly
simplifies the administration and maintenance of a large network, as
changes can be made globally and propagated across the domain.
• Scalability: AD domains are designed to handle large networks with
thousands of users and computers. The hierarchical structure of domains,
sites, and organizational units (OUs) allows for efficient organization and
management of network objects. Administrators can delegate specific
administrative tasks to lower-level administrators based on the domain's
organizational structure.
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Advantages of Domain based networking
• Security and Access Control: AD domains offer robust security
features, including user authentication, authorization, and access
control. Domain controllers authenticate user credentials and control
access to network resources based on user/group memberships and
Group Policy settings. This ensures that only authorized users can
access specific resources and helps enforce security policies
consistently across the network.
• Single Sign-On (SSO): With an AD domain, users can use a single set of
credentials to access various network resources, including file shares,
printers, applications, and email. This eliminates the need for users to
remember multiple usernames and passwords, improving user
experience and reducing the risk of weak or compromised passwords.
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Advantages of Domain based networking
• Group Policy: Group Policy allows administrators to enforce
standardized configurations, security settings, and software
deployments across the domain. This helps maintain consistency and
ensures that all computers and users adhere to the organization's IT
policies. Group Policy also simplifies software installation and update
management, reducing administrative overhead.
• Redundancy and Fault Tolerance: AD domains support multiple
domain controllers that replicate directory information, providing
redundancy and fault tolerance. If one domain controller fails, others
can continue to authenticate users and provide access to network
resources. This enhances network availability and reduces the impact
of single points of failure.
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Active Directory components

Logical components Physical compnonents

• Domains • Domain Controllers
• Domain trees • Read-only Domain controllers
• Forest
• Organisational Units
• Containers

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Active Directory Domains and Forest

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Installing Active Directory
Prerequites
• Static IP address
• Computer name
• DNS server address defined
• Location of database defined

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Practical Exercise
Configuring Active Directory Domain Services and Promoting to
become a Domain Controller

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Understanding Active Directory Objects

• User Objects
• Authentication of the user at user at logon
• Access control

• Group Objects
• Assigning of permissions

• Computer Objects
• Authentication of the computer at startup

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Organisational Units (Ous) and Containers
• Use containers to group objects within a domain:
• You cannot apply GPOs to containers
• Containers are used for system objects and as the default location for new
objects

OUs are containers within an AD domain used to organize and manage

objects such as users, computers, and other AD resources.
• Create OUs to:
• Configure objects by assigning GPOs to them
• Delegate administrative permissions

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