Evolution and Development of String Theory.

A.Alatorre.
CUCEI, University of Guadalajara
Guadalajara, Jalisco, México, e-mail: aliagaroth@hotmail.com

January 01 2015

Abstract
This essay is about to describe historically the evolution and trajectories of String Theory and its
respective derivatives, such as M-Theory and the well known Super-String Theory. I begin talking about the
scientific and historical frame in which string theory was born, and the context existent few years since this
happens. Besides, the subject has been analyzed from a philosophical point of view, and I also analyzed the
context of the scientific community in a sooner epoch since string theory was born. Moreover I described how
string theory changed to give to physics a stronger string theory and some other close theories based upon the
first one. Finally i point out the interesting phenomena of this theory that is about how famous string the-
ory has become and the question: who actually invented it and who truly released it as a divulgation subject.

Keywords: String Theory History, String Theory Derivatives, History of Cosmological Modern Mod-
els.

1 Introduction. tinued by a lot of particle physicists. And I am

talking about the particle physics theory and of
course the quantum field theory. These theo-
String Theory has been a revelation for physics;
ries tried for a long time to stablish a complete
its implications are extremely controversial and
model for whose the natural interaction of forces
the way that this theory give us information
get revealed. The problem with this model was
about the world (and specifically gravity) is
that those physicists had to ”sacrifice” a prop-
amazing. As we will analyze at section three,
erty or maybe two physical particle properties to
cosmological models for the late XX century
understand and define the other ones. So I am
were something almost fantastic; maybe A. Ein-
talking about nothing less than ”QFT” (Quan-
stein and a few amount of physicists more
tum Field Theory) and a clear example of one
were working seriously in this field. We De-
of it; ”Standard model”. As we will see in the
fine Cosmology as the search f or a small set
next sections, String Theory arose from the evo-
of equations f or which the whole f orces of
lution of a branch of QFT and the astonishing
the universe reveals mathematically speaking.
fact of this development was the appearance of
Once we said this, it is accurate to say that the
gravity just as a consequence of the particle the-
attempts which culminated with String Theory
ory. This fact is one of the features whose make
were not from the Cosmological Models devel-
String Theory not only a theory with so much
oped with ”Einstein style” (he finished his days
weight in physics but in general science divulga-
looking at for the Unified Field Theory) but were
tion. Looking to the mathematical point of view,
from the ”other side” of the research line com-
it will be clear how mathematics were affected by
manded at the beginning by Niels Bohr and Con-

1
String Theory; As it is common in physics, there
is a phenomena which occurs so often between
math and physics. This is about the delay of
physics in relation with math. There is so com-
mon how pure math can go straight forward over
itself, and a real application of this new knowl-
edge in physics is not truly real until many years
later. This phenomena was exactly what happen
with string theory; String theory required quite
advanced math (differential geometry and alge-
braic topology) and maybe string theory pro-
vides an application for these kind of math so
many years later than topology was discovered.
Finally there is a fundamental issue to deal with
not only for string theory but for every theoreti-
cal model, and it is the experimental proof. This
is maybe the reason of why string theory has not
take more advantage above other cosmological
models. The other reason for string theory not
advancing as its developers would like, is that
-I mentioned above- string theory relies on well
complicated math such as non orientable topol-
ogy and algebraic topology speaking in general
terms. This is why so many physicists do not like Figure 1: Matter String Composition
to work with this theory. As so many physicist
said: String Theory is a beautiful mathemati- analysis. Though this section is about to show
cal theory but its lack of experimental argument some technical details of string theory. The main
can be a trouble. A remarkable feature of string idea for String theory understanding is to con-
theory for which is distinguished among other ceive space time in a different way as it had seen
cosmological and dimensional models is the fact before. As you can see in figure 1, it is take
that it uses eleven dimensions to represent space- for granted the hypothesis that matter in gen-
time. This essay has the aim into the analysis of eral, is formed by molecules and atoms which at
all these facts just mentioned and also to refer us the same time, contains other sub-atomic parti-
to them in a historical and philosophical point of cles such as protons, electrons en neutrons, and
view. one more time these particles are able to split
giving as a result quarks; finally these quarks,
2 Physical Description under string theory hypothesis, split themselves
into strings which are energy units and mathe-
String theory has a lot of different versions and matically speaking one dimensional objects such
it is an extremely complicated theory from math as circles. These objects represents energy fila-
point of view. It is not the purpose of this job ments which vibration frequency determine what
to expose with great details string theory, but kind of particle and which features will have its
it is quite necessary for our main objective to respective particles; one of these properties could
expose some of the main ideas of string theory be mass.
so it would be possible to gather the elemen- Furthermore, strings are not the only objects
tary essence of the model enough to keep go- which conforms the structure of this theory but
ing further into the historical and philosophical there are also other objects such as brane and

2
D − brane which used to be an analogous to
strings and their function is often the same as
strings. String theory doesn’t was born in the
cosmological model background as it is said in
the introduction, but it was developed taken
from quantum field theories. Although this phe-
nomena actually do happens, we don’t care so
much for the history in this specific section but
we do care about the technical details of it. In
order to to this, it is good to say that nowadays,
string theory is consider a cosmological model
in the sense that it provides information, an- Figure 2: Calabbi-Yau Manifold
swers and solutions for the questions of cosmol-
ogy such as unified field theories demand etc.
So beginning from this new point of view, we
say that string theory follows in some way (and
there is actually a great controversy about it)
the Kaluza-Klein approach, which consists in a
multi-dimensional representation of space time
beginning with a four dimensional ”standard”
space-time X 4 in the sense of Einstein’s con-
ception. And following the Kaluza method we Figure 3: Space-Time String Representation
find out that string theory needs an additional
amount of six small extra dimensions for which a imagine a unique form for the whole universe by
”membrane” (this membrane is count as an ad- an 11 − manif old. Once we set this up, we can
ditional dimension too) contains them all. These say how string theory works; we said that for
membrane and its correspondent six extra di- example one of the oscillation of the string may
mensions are well known as a Kaluza internal represent a massless 2-spin particle. The idea of
space M 7 (see figure 2) and mathematically brane is a generalization of a string into higher
speaking M 7 , is an abstract space (manif old) dimensions.
and its particular name for the case of M n , n = 7 There are two types of geometric model for
with some additional features is Calabbi − Y au strings; A closed string looks like a small loop,
Manifold. To complete the cosmological model, so its space-time representation looks like a pipe.
cosmologists and mathematical physicists used Otherwise An open string is like a segment with
to execute the operation X 4 XM 7 which is the two endpoints, so its space-time representation
product of both topological manifolds and the will look like a strip. In a more mathematical
new piece formed with the topological operation language, these are both Riemann surfaces, the
give us a physical manif old which represents strip having a boundary and the pipe none. In
space-time with the inner Kaluza space. It is string theory we call worldsheet to the space
evident that the geometry of the whole mani- time representation, it is well known that in
fold can give us exactly the geometric form for quantum mechanics we use probability of me-
the universe under this particular model. This chanical states in time. This probability is given
method is used not only in string theory but in by the amplitudes of the wave function. For
every general Kaluza-Klein model. Therefore it string theory case, we say that this probability is
is obvious that gathering all the dimensions that given by the sum of all the amplitudes over the
we counted until now we obtain eleven dimen- integration path which in this case is the world-
sions for string theory. So it is quite difficult to sheet. Despite of we are not taking on history

3
Figure 4: Feynman Diagrams for Hadronic
Strings

in this section of the essay, we are only talk-

ing about the first and simple string model dis-
covered or proposed if you wish. This model is Figure 5: Edward Witten
the hadronic model and conformed the hadronic
string theory when two scientists confirmed that
hadronic particles can be model with strings (J. 3 Mathematical Impact.
Veneziano and Yochiro Nambu in 1968-1970) in-
stead of punctual particles. Feynman diagrams One of the troubles about why string theory has
(Figure 4) aloud us to see how hadronic inter- been a ”terrifying” theory for physicists because
action in terms of strings and a 2-dimensional of the advanced math which is involved in string
surface works. Otherwise strings have topo- theory. Just as it was remarked at Introduction,
logical properties such as elasticity and tension topology is the great structure of strings and its
in a geometric way; if one apply an stress to geometry is a differential one as well. String the-
a string, this stress is directly proportional to ory demands the develop of new math to mathe-
the tension of the string after it take the de- maticians and that is exactly what happen with
formation force. Staying inside the hadronic Dr. Edward Witten (mathematical physicist)
model, string theory provides a solution for other (figure 5); he as physicist won the Fields Medal
unsolved issue in hadronic particle theory; the (1990) becoming as the first physicist in history
Regge T rajectories. This problem treat the to do that.
special case where an special class of hadrons
Topology, which is the main tool for string the-
represents the spin value facing the square of the
ories and the study of mathematical structures
mass. Finally this basic hadronic string gives
that support physical manifolds, and specially
accidentally a mathematical demonstration for
algebraic topology study continuous and bijec-
the J. Veneziano formulae. As in every quantum
tive functions between topological spaces such
field theory model (in general physical theory in
as topological manifolds. Thus the main idea
general actually) it is quite necessary to define
in topology is how to understand and know if
de Action functional which describes and define
given two surfaces, curves or manifolds, one can
the energy of a physical system given a particle
deform a manifold into another without break-
setting it up on an arbitrary point with gener-
ing continuity, so these manifolds we say that are
alized coordinates. Those functionals are often
”homomorphic”. In a lot of cosmological models,
known as Lagrangians for which the next equa-
the physical manifolds which represents space-
tion gives a pretty good example of one of those.
time and its inner small extra dimensions, are
Z geometric ones, but string theory give us the tra-
1 ′
dition of taking topology instead or in company
S= d2 Σ(X 2 − X 2 )
4πα′ with geometry, which is a strong contribution. It
is easy to hold up what I just said about E. Wit-

4
ten with his textual phrase: ”It has been told 4 Evolution of String Theory in
(Danielle Amati) that string theory its a physics XX.
area from XXI century that fell down by azar
in XX century”. He told this at Princeton Ad- 4.1 Older Cosmological Models.
vanced Physics Studies. Which say a lot of the
quality of this theory, and mathematical com- There was a principal cosmological model at the
plexity (which is a main feature of string theory last century second half; this was the one with
that characterized it) is related to the lack of involved Einstein field equation:
experimental evidence, because the implications 8πG
of string theory demands higher energy experi- Gµν + Λgµν = Tµν
c4
ments which in this epoch are only available in
science fiction films. So it has become my the- The logic of how cosmological models at the
sis in this essay to express my point of view in epoch were born is the following; they used to
the sense that mathematical complexity of string solve this last Einstein field equation and then
theory makes string theory impossible to proof they studied the meaning of the Minkowski space
right now due to nature observation and exper- generated by the solutions given by the initial
imental laboratory measures. And there is an conditions. This interpretation lead physicists to
evident reason for this to happen; mathematics understand what kind of curvature the universe
and physics discoveries not always coincide in has and they began to think in a possible geo-
time, furthermore, math is always one step for- metric or topological form for it. Besides, Parti-
ward then mathematics. This happen because cle physicist began to set models classifying par-
of many historical reasons that we don’t want to ticles in the measure of their known or unknown
take on at this essay, but we can use this argu- properties. One of this models was QFT theory
ment as an explanation of why string theory is and we cant’t forget what does Steven Weinberg
so advanced. In this case string theory math- with Saalam did to particle physics; its unifi-
ematically speaking have gone deeply beyond, cation become a great step in physics research.
but physically and conceptual speaking (for con- From there, particle physics was about to set
ceptual i mean non experimental), string the- up the right theory which integrates strong and
ory still has internal consistence. Thus we face weak nuclear force and electromagnetism with
a case where experimental evidence has to be gravity and that was exactly what string theory
known and it certainly hasn’t although theoret- pretended to do.
ical physical structure and mathematical struc-
ture are available. Witten should develop new 4.2 String Theory Creators.
math to contribute string theory needs, and he String theory was born when a lot of physicists
did it so. He also made great contributions ”ac- tried to solve the problem of resonance (which
cidentally on purpose” so we not won just Fields is a phenomena related to short live of parti-
Medal but Poincaré Price too. With all these du- cles), there were different methods followed by
ality on his work, Witten placed himself among this particle physicists, but the special case of
other mathematical physicists of the history such hadronic problem in this same area lead John
as Isaac Newton and Paul Dirac. Veneziano (1968) and Yochiro Nambu (1970) to
discover or propose (as you wish) string theory
main idea and frame. This problem is strongly
related with Regge trajectories and although a
rational and decent explanation was offered with
this work, it was actually the beginning of some-
thing even bigger than the resonance problem.
When Leonard Susskind give string theory the

5
 in whose case they got a very good advantage;
they are not just researchers but they are also
divulgators and they knew how to transmit the
ideas that they had created or co-funder.

4.3 Experimental Evidence

Strings are about of a size extremely small so it is
impossible to see them with human eye and even
with an electronic microscope, but there have
been some designs with the intention to proof
Figure 6: Leonard Susskind the existence of strings or at least some of their
effects. This experiments could be effectuated
at LHC and consists to detect extremely small
character of a cosmological theory, string the- amount of energy due to vibrations for which
ory of the universe was born. Despite of Yochiro he would be detecting the string theory micro-
Nambu and John Veneziano had the string idea scopical effects; these idea can’t be effectuated
maybe at first, L. Susskind (fig 6) and Holger yet because of the fact that LHC can generate
Nielsen are considered fathers of string theory. enough energy to observe these because of the
Just as we saw at the mathematical descrip- limited technology that we have respect to the
tion, Ed Witten took part at an strategic mo- one need it for perceive string theory.
ment in string theory physics; he began working
this subject since the very early beginning of it
but it was in the last decade of XX when he sug- 5 Historical and Philosophical
gest the existence of super − strings in 1995 at Conclusions
the University of South California when he also
proposed the union of the whole kind of string We finally are able to judge in base of the
theories existing as well. There is an important analysis that we just made about string theory
fact to be mentioned here about string theory and its behave while time passes over, and there
and it is that there were a lot of string theo- is a list of these main aspects of string theory
ries (each one different of course) and the most and its story that are important to remark:
relevant of them were five; Ed. Witten under- 1.-String theory was born from quantum field
stood the symmetries behind these five theories theory but it is a cosmological model.
and explained that Maldacena holographic the- 2.-The lack of experimental evidence to proof
ory aloud us to see those five string theories as string theory veracity make it be inferior as a
the same and single string theory from different physical theory.
mathematical point of view. Finally the work of 3.-String Theory is an elegant and ”beautiful”
Juan Maldacena was something from other world mathematical theory.
for speak; he saw what many others didn’t, he 4.-One of the best physicists pioneer on string
relate a theory or model about the universe or theory (E. Whitten) was the only physicist in
particles one each other and the results worked history who had win Fields Medal.
and they were great. The holographic correspon- 5.-String Theory is the Cosmological model with
dence model of string theories were a big deal be- more extra dimensions of all of them.
cause this discovering aloud Witten to relate the 6.-String Theory use sophisticated mathematical
five models of string theories between each other. knowledge such as algebraic topology.
There were more militants of string theory devel- 7.-This model is a renormalizable quantum field
opment such as Brian Greene and Michio Kaku, theory.

6
8.-It becomes a quantum gravity theory ”acci- representation of the laws of nature, or at least,
dentally”. the best approach with the great accuracy. One
9.-It is the cosmological model with a greater of these scientist ought to be Stephen Hawking
lack of experimental evidence. who has never been a string theorist but he is
10.-String Theory popularized the idea of a cosmologist and also a very good divulgator.
supersymmetry with the D − brane structure This fever initialized by Einstein about unified
because it predicted it. 11.-It is the stronger field theories change the direction of research
quantum field theory and it is the one to create in physics and obviously this fact took conse-
greater controversy among cosmological models quences. One of these consequences (a positive
at the last century. one) is that theoretical achievements helped
experimental and applied physics development.
Those are some of the non technical features In other aspect, a consequence of this hurry was
which distinguish string theory and its respec- creation of string theory model.
tive variants, these are exactly what I consider
are the facts that matters while we study string
theory from an historical and philosophical point
of view. Just as it is mentioned in point 10, for BIBLIOGRAPHY:
many years string theory and M-Theory have
been the possible and best candidates for being [1] El Camino a la Realidad, Roger Penrose,
a true unified field theory (Einstein’s dream), Ed. Debate.
and also so many physicist consider it ”the one”,
but as we discussed at the mathematical section [2] The Elegant Universe, Brian Greene, Ed.
of this work, the lack of experimental evidence Drakontos.
of string theory made many string physicists
abandon any hope for this theory and they [3] El tejido del Cosmos, Brian Greeene, Ed.
changed their minds about it. Still string theory Crı́tica.
has been a big phenomena in physics history
and it took a lot of philosophical meaning while [4] La partı́cula Divina, Leo Lederman, Ed.
time pass. These features conform a body of booket.
meaning and transcendence about string theory,
but if we see a global point o view, we can [5] Hyperspace, Michio Kaku, Ed. booket.
appreciate two facts; first of all, we can see
what and how far Einstein’s influence was; his
attempt to discover the mathematical model
which describes the behave of the universe
and nature as well put him into a loss battle
from the beginning, not because of any lack of
intelligence but because of the complexity of the
problem and the limited mathematical tools of
the epoch. Even a genius as Einstein failed in
this purpose, and maybe because of this fact,
so many physicists abandon their research in
some practical or useful fields (wrong or right
it doesn’t matter) to put themselves into a
journey seeking for the solution of this trouble.
There have been a lot of cosmologists who
thought that string theory is indeed the real